Guides and Hunters. Delawares and Shawnees. Khebirs. Black Beaver.
Anecdotes. Domestic Troubles. Lodges. Similarity of Prairie Tribes to
the Arabs. Method of making War. Tracking and pursuing Indians. Method
of attacking them. Telegraphing by Smokes.
DELAWARES AND SHAWNEES.
It is highly important that parties making expeditions through an
unexplored country should secure the services of the best guides and
hunters, and I know of none who are superior to the Delawares and
Shawnee Indians. They have been with me upon several different
occasions, and I have invariably found them intelligent, brave,
reliable, and in every respect well qualified to fill their positions.
They are endowed with those keen and wonderful powers in woodcraft
which can only be acquired by instinct, practice, and necessity, and
which are possessed by no other people that I have heard of, unless it
be the khebirs or guides who escort the caravans across the great
desert of Sahara.
General E. Dumas, in his treatise upon the "Great Desert," published in
Paris, 1856, in speaking of these guides, says:
"The khebir is always a man of intelligence, of tried probity, bravery,
and skill. He knows how to determine his position from the appearance
of the stars; by the experience of other journeys he has learned all
about the roads, wells, and pastures; the dangers of certain passes,
and the means of avoiding them; all the chiefs whose territories it is
necessary to pass through; the salubrity of the different localities;
the remedies against diseases; the treatment of fractures, and the
antidotes to the venom of snakes and scorpions.
"In these vast solitudes, where nothing seems to indicate the route,
where the wind covers up all traces of the track with sand, the khebir
has a thousand ways of directing himself in the right course. In the
night, when there are no stars in sight, by the simple inspection of a
handful of grass, which he examines with his fingers, which he smells
and tastes, he informs himself of his locale without ever being lost or
wandering.
"I saw with astonishment that our conductor, although he had but one
eye, and that defective, recognized perfectly the route; and Leon, the
African, states that the conductor of his caravan became blind upon the
journey from ophthalmia, yet by feeling the grass and sand he could
tell when we were approaching an inhabited place.
"Our guide had all the qualities which make a good khebir. He was
young, large, and strong; he was a master of arms; his eye commanded
respect, and his speech won the heart. But if in the tent he was
affable and winning, once _en route_ he spoke only when it was
necessary, and never smiled."
The Delawares are but a minute remnant of the great Algonquin family,
whose early traditions declare them to be the parent stock from which
the other numerous branches of the Algonquin tribes originated. And
they are the same people whom the first white settlers found so
numerous upon the banks of the Delaware.
When William Penn held his council with the Delawares upon the ground
where the city of Philadelphia now stands, they were as peaceful and
unwarlike in their habits as the Quakers themselves. They had been
subjugated by the Five Nations, forced to take the appellation of
squaws, and forego the use of arms; but after they moved west, beyond
the influence of their former masters, their naturally independent
spirit revived, they soon regained their lofty position as braves and
warriors, and the male squaws of the Iroquois soon became formidable
men and heroes, and so have continued to the present day. Their
war-path has reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean on the west,
Hudson's Bay on the north, and into the very heart of Mexico on the
south.
They are not clannish in their dispositions like most other Indians,
nor by their habits confined to any given locality, but are found as
traders, trappers, or hunters among most of the Indian tribes
inhabiting our continent. I even saw them living with the Mormons in
Utah. They are among the Indians as the Jews among the whites,
essentially wanderers.
The Shawnees have been associated with the Delawares 185 years. They
intermarry and live as one people. Their present places of abode are
upon the Missouri River, near Fort Leavenworth, and in the Choctaw
Territory, upon the Canadian River, near Fort Arbuckle. They are
familiar with many of the habits and customs of their pale-faced
neighbors, and some of them speak the English language, yet many of
their native characteristics tenaciously cling to them.
Upon one occasion I endeavored to teach a Delaware the use of the
compass. He seemed much interested in its mechanism, and very
attentively observed the oscillations of the needle. He would move away
a short distance, then return, keeping his eyes continually fixed upon
the needle and the uniform position into which it settled. He did not,
however, seem to comprehend it in the least, but regarded the entire
proceeding as a species of necromantic performance got up for his
especial benefit, and I was about putting away the instrument when he
motioned me to stop, and came walking toward it with a very serious but
incredulous countenance, remarking, as he pointed his finger toward it,
"Maybe so he tell lie sometime."
The ignorance evinced by this Indian regarding the uses of the compass
is less remarkable than that of some white men who are occasionally met
upon the frontier.
While surveying Indian lands in the wilds of Western Texas during the
summer of 1854, I encountered a deputy surveyor traveling on foot, with
his compass and chain upon his back. I saluted him very politely,
remarking that I presumed he was a surveyor, to which he replied, "I
reckon, _stranger_, I ar that thar individoal."
I had taken the magnetic variation several times, always with nearly
the same results (about 10 deg. 20'); but, in order to verify my
observations, I was curious to learn how they accorded with his own
working, and accordingly inquired of him what he made the variation of
the compass in that particular locality. He seemed struck with
astonishment, took his compass from his back and laid it upon a log
near by, then facing me, and pointing with his hand toward it, said,
"Straanger, do yer see that thar instru-_ment_?" to which I replied in
the affirmative. He continued,
"I've owned her well-nigh goin on twenty year. I've put her through the
perarries and through the timber, and now look yeer, straanger, you can
just bet your life on't she never _var_-ried arry time, and if you'll
just follow her sign you'll knock the centre outer the north star. She
never lies, she don't."
He seemed to consider my interrogatory as a direct insinuation that his
compass was an imperfect one, and hence his indignation. Thinking that
I should not get any very important intelligence concerning the
variation of the needle from this surveyor, I begged his pardon for
questioning the accuracy of his instru-_ment_, bid him good-morning,
and continued on my journey.
BLACK BEAVER.
In 1849 I met with a very interesting specimen of the Delaware tribe
whose name was Black Beaver. He had for ten years been in the employ of
the American Fur Company, and during this time had visited nearly every
point of interest within the limits of our unsettled territory. He had
set his traps and spread his blanket upon the head waters of the
Missouri and Columbia; and his wanderings had led him south to the
Colorado and Gila, and thence to the shores of the Pacific in Southern
California. His life had been that of a veritable cosmopolite, filled
with scenes of intense and startling interest, bold and reckless
adventure. He was with me two seasons in the capacity of guide, and I
always found him perfectly reliable, brave, and competent. His
reputation as a resolute, determined, and fearless warrior did not
admit of question, yet I have never seen a man who wore his laurels
with less vanity.
When I first made his acquaintance I was puzzled to know what to think
of him. He would often, in speaking of the Prairie Indians, say to me,
"Captain, if you have a fight, you mustn't count much on me, for I'ze a
big coward. When the fight begins I 'spect you'll see me run under the
cannon; Injun mighty 'fraid of big gun."
I expressed my surprise that he should, if what he told me was true,
have gained such a reputation as a warrior; whereupon he informed me
that many years previous, when he was a young man, and before he had
ever been in battle, he, with about twenty white men and four
Delawares, were at one of the Fur Company's trading-posts upon the
Upper Missouri, engaged in trapping beaver. While there, the stockade
fort was attacked by a numerous band of Blackfeet Indians, who fought
bravely, and seemed determined to annihilate the little band that
defended it.
After the investment had been completed, and there appeared no
probability of the attacking party's abandoning their purpose, "One
d----d fool Delaware" (as Black Beaver expressed it) proposed to his
countrymen to make a sortie, and thereby endeavor to effect an
impression upon the Blackfeet. This, Beaver said, was the last thing he
would ever have thought of suggesting, and it startled him
prodigiously, causing him to tremble so much that it was with
difficulty he could stand.
He had, however, started from home with the fixed purpose of becoming a
distinguished brave, and made a great effort to stifle his emotion. He
assumed an air of determination, saying that was the very idea he was
just about to propose; and, slapping his comrades upon the back,
started toward the gate, telling them to follow. As soon as the gate
was passed, he says, he took particular care to keep in the rear of the
others, so that, in the event of a retreat, he would be able to reach
the stockade first.
They had not proceeded far before a perfect shower of arrows came
falling around them on all sides, but, fortunately, without doing them
harm. Not fancying this hot reception, those in front proposed an
immediate retreat, to which he most gladly acceded, and at once set off
at his utmost speed, expecting to reach the fort first. But he soon
discovered that his comrades were more fleet, and were rapidly passing
and leaving him behind. Suddenly he stopped and called out to them,
"Come back here, you cowards, you squaws; what for you run away and
leave brave man to fight alone?" This taunting appeal to their courage
turned them back, and, with their united efforts, they succeeded in
beating off the enemy immediately around them, securing their entrance
into the fort.
Beaver says when the gate was closed the captain in charge of the
establishment grasped him warmly by the hand, saying, "Black Beaver,
you are a brave man; you have done this day what no other man in the
fort would have the courage to do, and I thank you from the bottom of
my heart."
In relating the circumstance to me he laughed most heartily, thinking
it a very good joke, and said after that he was regarded as a brave
warrior.
The truth is, my friend Beaver was one of those few heroes who never
sounded his own trumpet; yet no one that knows him ever presumed to
question his courage.
At another time, while Black Beaver remained upon the head waters of
the Missouri, he was left in charge of a "_cache_" consisting of a
quantity of goods buried to prevent their being stolen by the Indians.
During the time he was engaged upon this duty he amused himself by
hunting in the vicinity, only visiting his charge once a day. As he was
making one of these periodical visits, and had arrived upon the summit
of a hill overlooking the locality, he suddenly discovered a large
number of hostile Blackfeet occupying it, and he supposed they had
appropriated all the goods. As soon as they espied him, they beckoned
for him to come down and have a friendly chat with them.
Knowing that their purpose was to beguile him into their power, he
replied that he did not feel in a talking humor just at that time, and
started off in another direction, whereupon they hallooed after him,
making use of the most insulting language and gestures, and asking him
if he considered himself a man thus to run away from his friends, and
intimating that, in their opinion, he was an old woman, who had better
go home and take care of the children.
Beaver says this roused his indignation to such a pitch that he
stopped, turned around, and replied, "Maybe so; s'pose three or four of
you Injuns come up here alone, I'll show you if I'ze old womans." They
did not, however, accept the challenge, and Beaver rode off.
Although the Delawares generally seem quite happy in their social
relations, yet they are not altogether exempt from some of those minor
discords which occasionally creep in and mar the domestic harmony of
their more civilized pale-faced brethren.
I remember, upon one occasion, I had bivouacked for the night with
Black Beaver, and he had been endeavoring to while away the long hours
of the evening by relating to me some of the most thrilling incidents
of his highly-adventurous and erratic life, when at length a hiatus in
the conversation gave me an opportunity of asking him if he was a
married man. He hesitated for some time; then looking up and giving his
forefinger a twirl, to imitate the throwing of a lasso, replied, "One
time me catch 'um wife. I pay that woman, _his modder_, one hoss--one
saddle--one bridle--two plug tobacco, and plenty goods. I take him home
to my house--got plenty meat--plenty corn--plenty every thing. One time
me go take walk, maybe so three, maybe so two hours. When I come home,
that woman he say, 'Black Beaver, what for you go way long time?' I
say, 'I not go nowhere; I just take one littel walk.' Then that woman
he get heap mad, and say, 'No, Black Beaver, you not take no littel
walk. I know what for you go way; _you go see nodder one woman_.' I
say, 'Maybe not.' Then that woman she cry long time, and all e'time now
she mad. You never seen 'Merican woman that a-way?"
I sympathized most deeply with my friend in his distress, and told him
for his consolation that, in my opinion, the women of his nation were
not peculiar in this respect; that they were pretty much alike all
over the world, and I was under the impression that there were
well-authenticated instances even among white women where they had
subjected themselves to the same causes of complaint so feelingly
depicted by him. Whereupon he very earnestly asked, "What you do for
cure him? Whip him?" I replied, "No; that, so far as my observation
extended, I was under the impression that this was generally regarded
by those who had suffered from its effects as one of those chronic and
vexatious complaints which would not be benefited by the treatment he
suggested, even when administered in homoeopathic doses, and I believed
it was now admitted by all sensible men that it was better in all such
cases to let nature take its course, trusting to a merciful
Providence."
At this reply his countenance assumed a dejected expression, but at
length he brightened up again and triumphantly remarked, "I tell you,
my friend, what I do; I ketch 'um nodder one wife when I go home."
Black Beaver had visited St. Louis and the small towns upon the
Missouri frontier, and he prided himself not a little upon his
acquaintance with the customs of the whites, and never seemed more
happy than when an opportunity offered to display this knowledge in
presence of his Indian companions. It so happened, upon one occasion,
that I had a Comanche guide who bivouacked at the same fire with
Beaver. On visiting them one evening according to my usual practice, I
found them engaged in a very earnest and apparently not very amicable
conversation. On inquiring the cause of this, Beaver answered,
"I've been telling this Comanche what I seen 'mong the white folks."
I said, "Well, Beaver, what did you tell him?"
"I tell him 'bout the steam-boats, and the railroads, and the heap o'
houses I seen in St. Louis."
"Well, sir, what does he think of that?"
"He say I'ze d----d fool."
"What else did you tell him about?"
"I tell him the world is round, but he keep all e'time say, Hush, you
fool! do you spose I'ze child? Haven't I got eyes? Can't I see the
prairie? You call him round? He say, too, maybe so I tell you something
you not know before. One time my grandfather he make long journey that
way (pointing to the west). When he get on big mountain, he seen heap
water on t'other side, jest so flat he can be, and he seen the sun go
right straight down on t'other side. I then tell him all these rivers
he seen, all e'time the water he run; s'pose the world flat the water
he stand still. Maybe so he not b'lieve me?"
I told him it certainly looked very much like it. I then asked him to
explain to the Comanche the magnetic telegraph. He looked at me
earnestly, and said,
"What you call that magnetic telegraph?"
I said, "you have heard of New York and New Orleans?"
"Oh yes," he replied.
"Very well; we have a wire connecting these two cities, which are about
a thousand miles apart, and it would take a man thirty days to ride it
upon a good horse. Now a man stands at one end of this wire in New
York, and by touching it a few times he inquires of his friend in New
Orleans what he had for breakfast. His friend in New Orleans touches
the other end of the wire, and in ten minutes the answer comes
back--ham and eggs. Tell him that, Beaver."
His countenance assumed a most comical expression, but he made no
remark until I again requested him to repeat what I had said to the
Comanche, when he observed,
"No, captain, I not tell him that, for I don't b'lieve that myself."
Upon my assuring him that such was the fact, and that I had seen it
myself, he said,
"Injun not very smart; sometimes he's big fool, but he holler pretty
loud; you hear him maybe half a mile; you say 'Merican man he talk
thousand miles. I 'spect you try to fool me now, captain; _maybe so
you lie_."
The Indians living between the outer white settlements and the nomadic
tribes of the Plains form intermediate social links in the chain of
civilization.
The first of these occupy permanent habitations, but the others,
although they cultivate the soil, are only resident while their crops
are growing, going out into the prairies after harvest to spend the
winter in hunting. Among the former may be mentioned the Cherokees,
Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, and of the latter are the Delawares,
Shawnees, Kickapoos, etc., who are perfectly familiar with the use of
the rifle, and, in my judgment, would make as formidable partisan
warriors as can be found in the universe.
THE WILD TRIBES OF THE WEST.
These are very different in their habits from the natives that formerly
occupied the country bordering upon the Atlantic coast. The latter
lived permanently in villages, where they cultivated the soil, and
never wandered very far from them. They did not use horses, but always
made their war expeditions on foot, and never came into action unless
they could screen themselves behind the cover of trees. They inflicted
the most inhuman tortures upon their prisoners, but did not, that I am
aware, violate the chastity of women.
The prairie tribes have no permanent abiding places; they never plant a
seed, but roam for hundreds of miles in every direction over the
Plains. They are perfect horsemen, and seldom go to war on foot. Their
attacks are made in the open prairies, and when unhorsed they are
powerless. They do not, like the eastern Indians, inflict upon their
prisoners prolonged tortures, but invariably subject all females that
have the misfortune to fall into their merciless clutches to an ordeal
worse than death.
It is highly important to every man passing through a country
frequented by Indians to know some of their habits, customs, and
propensities, as this will facilitate his intercourse with friendly
tribes, and enable him, when he wishes to avoid a conflict, to take
precautions against coming in collision with those who are hostile.
Almost every tribe has its own way of constructing its lodges,
encamping, making fires, its own style of dress, by some of which
peculiarities the experienced frontiersman can generally distinguish
them.
The Osages, for example, make their lodges in the shape of a wagon-top,
of bent rods or willows covered with skins, blankets, or the bark of
trees.
The Kickapoo lodges are made in an oval form, something like a rounded
hay-stack, of poles set in the ground, bent over, and united at top;
this is covered with cloths or bark.
The Witchetaws, Wacos, Towackanies, and Tonkowas erect their hunting
lodges of sticks put up in the form of the frustum of a cone and
covered with brush.
All these tribes leave the frame-work of their lodges standing when
they move from camp to camp, and this, of course, indicates the
particular tribe that erected them.
The Delawares and Shawnees plant two upright forked poles, place a
stick across them, and stretch a canvas covering over it, in the same
manner as with the "_tente d'abri_."
The Sioux, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Utes, Snakes, Blackfeet, and Kioways
make use of the Comanche lodge, covered with dressed buffalo hides.
All the Prairie Indians I have met with are the most inveterate
beggars. They will flock around strangers, and, in the most importunate
manner, ask for every thing they see, especially tobacco and sugar;
and, if allowed, they will handle, examine, and occasionally pilfer
such things as happen to take their fancy. The proper way to treat them
is to give them at once such articles as are to be disposed of, and
then, in a firm and decided manner, let them understand that they are
to receive nothing else.
A party of Keechis once visited my camp with their principal chief, who
said he had some important business to discuss, and demanded a council
with the _capitan_. After consent had been given, he assembled his
principal men, and, going through the usual preliminary of taking a
_big smoke_, he arose, and with a great deal of ceremony commenced
his pompous and flowery speech, which, like all others of a similar
character, amounted to nothing, until he touched upon the real object
of his visit. He said he had traveled a long distance over the prairies
to see and have a talk with his white brothers; that his people were
very hungry and naked. He then approached me with six small sticks,
and, after shaking hands, laid one of the sticks in my hand, which he
said represented sugar, another signified tobacco, and the other four,
pork, flour, whisky, and blankets, all of which he assured me his
people were in great need of, and must have. His talk was then
concluded, and he sat down, apparently much gratified with the graceful
and impressive manner with which he had executed his part of the
performance.
It then devolved upon me to respond to the brilliant effort of the
prairie orator, which I did in something like the following manner.
After imitating his style for a short time, I closed my remarks by
telling him that we were poor infantry soldiers, who were always
obliged to go on foot; that we had become very tired of walking, and
would like very much to ride. Furthermore, I had observed that they had
among them many fine horses and mules. I then took two small sticks,
and imitating as nearly as possible the manner of the chief, placed one
in his hand, which I told him was nothing more or less than a
first-rate horse, and then the other, which signified a good large
mule. I closed by saying that I was ready to exchange presents whenever
it suited his convenience.
They looked at each other for some time without speaking, but finally
got up and walked away, and I was not troubled with them again.
INDIAN FIGHTING.
The military system, as taught and practiced in our army up to the time
of the Mexican war, was, without doubt, efficient and well adapted to
the art of war among civilized nations. This system was designed for
the operations of armies acting in populated districts, furnishing
ample resources, and against an enemy who was tangible, and made use of
a similar system.
The vast expanse of desert territory that has been annexed to our
domain within the last few years is peopled by numerous tribes of
marauding and erratic savages, who are mounted upon fleet and hardy
horses, making war the business and pastime of their lives, and
acknowledging none of the ameliorating conventionalities of civilized
warfare. Their tactics are such as to render the old system almost
wholly impotent.
To act against an enemy who is here to-day and there to-morrow; who at
one time stampedes a herd of mules upon the head waters of the
Arkansas, and when next heard from is in the very heart of the
populated districts of Mexico, laying waste haciendas, and carrying
devastation, rapine, and murder in his steps; who is every where
without being any where; who assembles at the moment of combat, and
vanishes whenever fortune turns against him; who leaves his women and
children far distant from the theatre of hostilities, and has neither
towns or magazines to defend, nor lines of retreat to cover; who
derives his commissariat from the country he operates in, and is not
encumbered with baggage-wagons or pack-trains; who comes into action
only when it suits his purposes, and never without the advantage of
numbers or position--with such an enemy the strategic science of
civilized nations loses much of its importance, and finds but rarely,
and only in peculiar localities, an opportunity to be put in practice.
Our little army, scattered as it has been over the vast area of our
possessions, in small garrisons of one or two companies each, has
seldom been in a situation to act successfully on the offensive against
large numbers of these marauders, and has often been condemned to hold
itself almost exclusively upon the defensive. The morale of the troops
must thereby necessarily be seriously impaired, and the confidence of
the savages correspondingly augmented. The system of small garrisons
has a tendency to disorganize the troops in proportion as they are
scattered, and renders them correspondingly inefficient. The same
results have been observed by the French army in Algeria, where, in
1845, their troops were, like ours, disseminated over a vast space, and
broken up into small detachments stationed in numerous intrenched
posts. Upon the sudden appearance of Abd el Kader in the plain of
Mitidja, they were defeated with serious losses, and were from day to
day obliged to abandon these useless stations, with all the supplies
they contained. A French writer, in discussing this subject, says:
"We have now abandoned the fatal idea of defending Algeria by small
intrenched posts. In studying the character of the war, the nature of
the men who are to oppose us, and of the country in which we are to
operate, we must be convinced of the danger of admitting any other
system of fortification than that which is to receive our grand depots,
our magazines, and to serve as places to recruit and rest our troops
when exhausted by long expeditionary movements.
"These fortifications should be established in the midst of the centres
of action, so as to command the principal routes, and serve as pivots
to expeditionary columns.
"We owe our success to a system of war which has its proofs in twice
changing our relations with the Arabs. This system consists altogether
in the great mobility we have given to our troops. Instead of
disseminating our soldiers with the vain hope of protecting our
frontiers with a line of small posts, we have concentrated them, to
have them at all times ready for emergencies, and since then the
fortune of the Arabs has waned, and we have marched from victory to
victory.
"This system, which has thus far succeeded, ought to succeed always,
and to conduct us, God willing, to the peaceful possession of the
country."
* * * * *
In reading a treatise upon war as it is practiced by the French in
Algeria, by Colonel A. Laure, of the 2d Algerine Tirailleurs, published
in Paris in 1858, I was struck with the remarkable similarity between
the habits of the Arabs and those of the wandering tribes that inhabit
our Western prairies. Their manner of making war is almost precisely
the same, and a successful system of strategic operations for one will,
in my opinion, apply to the other.
As the Turks have been more successful than the French in their
military operations against the Arab tribes, it may not be altogether
uninteresting to inquire by what means these inferior soldiers have
accomplished the best results.
The author above mentioned, in speaking upon this subject, says:
"In these latter days the world is occupied with the organization of
mounted infantry, according to the example of the Turks, where, in the
most successful experiments that have been made, the mule carries the
foot-soldier.
"The Turkish soldier mounts his mule, puts his provisions upon one side
and his accoutrements upon the other, and, thus equipped, sets out upon
long marches, traveling day and night, and only reposing occasionally
in bivouac. Arrived near the place of operations (as near the break of
day as possible), the Turks dismount in the most profound silence, and
pass in succession the bridle of one mule through that of another in
such a manner that a single man is sufficient to hold forty or fifty of
them by retaining the last bridle, which secures all the others; they
then examine their arms, and are ready to commence their work. The
chief gives his last orders, posts his guides, and they make the
attack, surprise the enemy, generally asleep, and carry the position
without resistance. The operation terminated, they hasten to beat a
retreat, to prevent the neighboring tribes from assembling, and thus
avoid a combat.
"The Turks had only three thousand mounted men and ten thousand
infantry in Algeria, yet these thirteen thousand men sufficed to
conquer the same obstacles which have arrested us for twenty-six years,
notwithstanding the advantage we had of an army which was successively
re-enforced until it amounted to a hundred thousand.
"Why not imitate the Turks, then, mount our infantry upon mules, and
reduce the strength of our army?
"The response is very simple:
"The Turks are Turks--that is to say, Mussulmans--and indigenous to the
country; the Turks speak the Arabic language; the Deys of Algiers had
less country to guard than we, and they care very little about
retaining possession of it. They are satisfied to receive a part of its
revenues. They were not permanent; their dominion was held by a thread.
The Arab dwells in tents; his magazines are in caves. When he starts
upon a war expedition, he folds his tent, drives far away his beasts of
burden, which transport his effects, and only carries with him his
horse and arms. Thus equipped, he goes every where; nothing arrests
him; and often, when we believe him twenty leagues distant, he is in
ambush at precisely rifle range from the flanks of his enemy.
"It may be thought the union of contingents might retard their
movements, but this is not so. The Arabs, whether they number ten or a
hundred thousand, move with equal facility. They go where they wish and
as they wish upon a campaign; the place of rendezvous merely is
indicated, and they arrive there.
"What calculations can be made against such an organization as this?
"Strategy evidently loses its advantages against such enemies; a
general can only make conjectures; he marches to find the Arabs, and
finds them not; then, again, when he least expects it, he suddenly
encounters them.
"When the Arab despairs of success in battle, he places his sole
reliance upon the speed of his horse to escape destruction; and as he
is always in a country where he can make his camp beside a little
water, he travels until he has placed a safe distance between himself
and his enemy."
* * * * *
No people probably on the face of the earth are more ambitious of
martial fame, or entertain a higher appreciation for the deeds of a
daring and successful warrior, than the North American savages. The
attainment of such reputation is the paramount and absorbing object of
their lives; all their aspirations for distinction invariably take this
channel of expression. A young man is never considered worthy to occupy
a seat in council until he has encountered an enemy in battle; and he
who can count the greatest number of scalps is the most highly honored
by his tribe. This idea is inculcated from their earliest infancy. It
is not surprising, therefore, that, with such weighty inducements
before him, the young man who, as yet, has gained no renown as a brave
or warrior, should be less discriminate in his attacks than older men
who have already acquired a name. The young braves should, therefore,
be closely watched when encountered on the Plains.
The prairie tribes are seldom at peace with all their neighbors, and
some of the young braves of a tribe are almost always absent upon a war
excursion. These forays sometimes extend into the heart of the northern
states of Mexico, where the Indians have carried on successful
invasions for many years. They have devastated and depopulated a great
portion of Sonora and Chihuahua. The objects of these forays are to
steal horses and mules, and to take prisoners; and if it so happens
that a war-party has been unsuccessful in the accomplishment of these
ends, or has had the misfortune to lose some of its number in battle,
they become reckless, and will often attack a small party with whom
they are not at war, provided they hope to escape detection. The
disgrace attendant upon a return to their friends without some trophies
as an offset to the loss of their comrades is a powerful incentive to
action, and they extend but little mercy to defenseless travelers who
have the misfortune to encounter them at such a conjuncture.
While en route from New Mexico to Arkansas in 1849 I was encamped near
the head of the Colorado River, and wishing to know the character of
the country for a few miles in advance of our position, I desired an
officer to go out and make the reconnoissance. I was lying sick in my
bed at the time, or I should have performed the duty myself. I expected
the officer would have taken an escort with him, but he omitted to do
so, and started off alone. After proceeding a short distance he
discovered four mounted Indians coming at full speed directly toward
him, when, instead of turning his own horse toward camp, and
endeavoring to make his escape (he was well mounted), or of halting and
assuming a defensive attitude, he deliberately rode up to them; after
which the tracks indicated that they proceeded about three miles
together, when the Indians most brutally killed and scalped my most
unfortunate but too credulous friend, who might probably have saved his
life had he not, in the kindness of his excellent heart, imagined that
the savages would reciprocate his friendly advances. He was most
woefully mistaken, and his life paid the forfeit of his generous and
noble disposition.
I have never been able to get any positive information as to the
persons who committed this murder, yet circumstances render it highly
probable that they were a party of young Indians who were returning
from an unsuccessful foray, and they were unable to resist the
temptation of taking the scalp and horse of the lieutenant.
A small number of white men, in traveling upon the Plains, should not
allow a party of strange Indians to approach them unless able to resist
an attack under the most unfavorable circumstances.
It is a safe rule, when a man finds himself alone in the prairies, and
sees a party of Indians approaching, not to allow them to come near
him, and if they persist in so doing, to signal them to keep away. If
they do not obey, and he be mounted upon a fleet horse, he should make
for the nearest timber. If the Indians follow and press him too
closely, he should halt, turn around, and point his gun at the
foremost, which will often have the effect of turning them back, but he
should never draw trigger unless he finds that his life depends upon
the shot; for, as soon as his shot is delivered, his sole dependence,
unless he have time to reload, must be upon the speed of his horse.
The Indians of the Plains, notwithstanding the encomiums that have been
heaped upon their brethren who formerly occupied the Eastern States for
their gratitude, have not, so far as I have observed, the most distant
conception of that sentiment. You may confer numberless benefits upon
them for years, and the more that is done for them the more they will
expect. They do not seem to comprehend the motive which dictates an act
of benevolence or charity, and they invariably attribute it to fear or
the expectation of reward. When they make a present, it is with a view
of getting more than its equivalent in return.
I have never yet been able to discover that the Western wild tribes
possessed any of those attributes which among civilized nations are
regarded as virtues adorning the human character. They have yet to be
taught the first rudiments of civilization, and they are at this time
as far from any knowledge of Christianity, and as worthy subjects for
missionary enterprise, as the most untutored natives of the South Sea
Islands.
[Illustration: KEEP AWAY!]
The only way to make these merciless freebooters fear or respect the
authority of our government is, when they misbehave, first of all to
chastise them well by striking such a blow as will be felt for a long
time, and thus show them that we are superior to them in war. They will
then respect us much more than when their good-will is purchased with
presents.
The opinion of a friend of mine, who has passed the last twenty-five
years of his life among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains,
corroborates the opinions I have advanced upon this head, and although
I do not endorse all of his sentiments, yet many of them are deduced
from long and matured experience and critical observation. He says:
"They are the most onsartainest varmints in all creation, and I reckon
tha'r not mor'n half human; for you never seed a human, arter you'd fed
and treated him to the best fixins in your lodge, jist turn round and
steal all your horses, or ary other thing he could lay his hands on.
No, not adzackly. He would feel kinder grateful, and ask you to spread
a blanket in his lodge ef you ever passed that a-way. But the Injun he
don't care shucks for you, and is ready to do you a heap of mischief as
soon as he quits your feed. No, Cap.," he continued, "it's not the
right way to give um presents to buy peace; but ef I war governor of
these yeer United States, I'll tell you what I'd do. I'd invite um all
to a big feast, and make b'lieve I wanted to have a big talk; and as
soon as I got um all together, I'd pitch in and sculp about half of um,
and then t'other half would be mighty glad to make a peace that would
stick. That's the way I'd make a treaty with the dog'ond, red-bellied
varmints; and as sure as you're born, Cap., that's the only way."
I suggested to him the idea that there would be a lack of good faith
and honor in such a proceeding, and that it would be much more in
accordance with my notions of fair dealing to meet them openly in the
field, and there endeavor to punish them if they deserve it. To this he
replied,
"Tain't no use to talk about honor with them, Cap.; they hain't got no
such thing in um; and they won't show fair fight, any way you can fix
it. Don't they kill and sculp a white man when-ar they get the better
on him? The mean varmints, they'll never behave themselves until you
give um a clean out and out licking. They can't onderstand white folks'
ways, and they won't learn um; and ef you treat um decently, they think
you ar afeard. You may depend on't, Cap., the only way to treat Injuns
is to thrash them well at first, then the balance will sorter take to
you and behave themselves."
The wealth of the Prairie Indians consists almost exclusively in their
horses, of which they possess large numbers; and they are in the saddle
from infancy to old age. Horsemanship is with them, as with the Arab of
the Sahara, a necessary part of their education. The country they
occupy is unsuited to cultivation, and their only avocations are war,
rapine, and the chase. They have no fixed habitations, but move from
place to place with the seasons and the game. All their worldly effects
are transported in their migrations, and wherever their lodges are
pitched there is their home. They are strangers to all cares, creating
for themselves no artificial wants, and are perfectly happy and
contented so long as the buffalo is found within the limits of their
wanderings. Every man is a soldier, and they generally exhibit great
confidence in their own military prowess.
MEETING INDIANS.
On approaching strangers these people put their horses at full speed,
and persons not familiar with their peculiarities and habits might
interpret this as an act of hostility; but it is their custom with
friends as well as enemies, and should not occasion groundless alarm.
When a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near enough to
distinguish signals, all that is necessary in order to ascertain their
disposition is to raise the right hand with the palm in front, and
gradually push it forward and back several times. They all understand
this to be a command to halt, and if they are not hostile it will at
once be obeyed.
After they have stopped the right hand is raised again as before, and
slowly moved to the right and left, which signifies "I do not know you.
Who are you?" As all the wild tribes have their peculiar pantomimic
signals by which they are known, they will then answer the inquiry by
giving their signal. If this should not be understood, they may be
asked if they are friends by raising both hands grasped in the manner
of shaking hands, or by locking the two fore-fingers firmly while the
hands are held up. If friendly, they will respond with the same signal;
but if enemies, they will probably disregard the command to halt, or
give the signal of anger by closing the hand, placing it against the
forehead, and turning it back and forth while in that position.
The pantomimic vocabulary is understood by all the Prairie Indians, and
when oral communication is impracticable it constitutes the court or
general council language of the Plains. The signs are exceedingly
graceful and significant; and, what was a fact of much astonishment to
me, I discovered they were very nearly the same as those practiced by
the mutes in our deaf and dumb schools, and were comprehended by them
with perfect facility.
The Comanche is represented by making with the hand a waving motion in
imitation of the crawling of a snake.
The Cheyenne, or "Cut-arm," by drawing the hand across the arm, to
imitate cutting it with a knife.
The Arapahoes, or "Smellers," by seizing the nose with the thumb and
fore-finger.
The Sioux, or "Cut-throats," by drawing the hand across the throat.
The Pawnees, or "Wolves," by placing a hand on each side of the
forehead, with two fingers pointing to the front, to represent the
narrow, sharp ears of the wolf.
The Crows, by imitating the flapping of the bird's wings with the palms
of the hands.
When Indians meet a party of strangers, and are disposed to be
friendly, the chiefs, after the usual salutations have been exchanged,
generally ride out and accompany the commander of the party some
distance, holding a friendly talk, and, at the same time, indulging
their curiosity by learning the news, etc. Phlegmatic and indifferent
as they appear to be, they are very inquisitive and observing, and, at
the same time, exceedingly circumspect and cautious about disclosing
their own purposes.
They are always desirous of procuring, from whomsoever they meet,
testimonials of their good behavior, which they preserve with great
care, and exhibit upon all occasions to strangers as a guarantee of
future good conduct.
On meeting with a chief of the Southern Comanches in 1849, after going
through the usual ceremony of embracing, and assuring me that he was
the best friend the Americans ever had among the Indians, he exhibited
numerous certificates from the different white men he had met with,
testifying to his friendly disposition. Among these was one that he
desired me to read with special attention, as he said he was of the
opinion that perhaps it might not be so complimentary in its character
as some of the others. It was in these words:
"The bearer of this says he is a Comanche chief, named Senaco;
that he is the biggest Indian and best friend the whites ever
had; in fact, that he is a first-rate fellow; but I believe he
is a d----d rascal, _so look out for him_."
I smiled on reading the paper, and, looking up, found the chief's eyes
intently fixed upon mine with an expression of the most earnest
inquiry. I told him the paper was not as good as it might be, whereupon
he destroyed it.
Five years after this interview I met Senaco again near the same place.
He recognized me at once, and, much to my surprise, pronounced my name
quite distinctly.
A circumstance which happened in my interview with this Indian shows
their character for diplomatic policy.
I was about locating and surveying a reservation of land upon which the
government designed to establish the Comanches, and was desirous of
ascertaining whether they were disposed voluntarily to come into the
measure. In this connection, I stated to him that their Great Father,
the President, being anxious to improve their condition, was willing to
give them a permanent location, where they could cultivate the soil,
and, if they wished it, he would send white men to teach them the
rudiments of agriculture, supply them with farming utensils, and all
other requisites for living comfortably in their new homes. I then
desired him to consult with his people, and let me know what their
views were upon the subject.
After talking a considerable time with his head men, he rose to reply,
and said, "He was very happy to learn that the President remembered his
poor red children in the Plains, and he was glad to see me again, and
hear from me that their Great Father was their friend; that he was also
very much gratified to meet his agent who was present, and that he
should remember with much satisfaction the agreeable interview we had
had upon that occasion." After delivering himself of numerous other
non-committal expressions of similar import, he closed his speech and
took his seat without making the slightest allusion to the subject in
question.
On reminding him of this omission, and again demanding from him a
distinct and categorical answer, he, after a brief consultation with
his people, replied that his talk was made and concluded, and he did
not comprehend why it was that I wanted to open the subject anew. But,
as I continued to press him for an answer, he at length said, "You come
into our country and select a small patch of ground, around which you
run a line, and tell us the President will make us a present of this to
live upon, when every body knows that the whole of this entire country,
from the Red River to the Colorado, is now, and always has been, ours
from time immemorial. I suppose, however, if the President tells us to
confine ourselves to these narrow limits, we shall be forced to do so,
whether we desire it or not."
He was evidently averse to the proposed change in their mode of life,
and has been at war ever since the establishment of the settlement.
The mode of life of the nomadic tribes, owing to their unsettled and
warlike habits, is such as to render their condition one of constant
danger and apprehension. The security of their numerous animals from
the encroachments of their enemies and habitual liability to attacks
compels them to be at all times upon the alert. Even during profound
peace they guard their herds both night and day, while scouts are often
patrolling upon the surrounding heights to give notice of the approach
of strangers, and enable them to secure their animals and take a
defensive attitude.
When one of these people conceives himself injured his thirst for
revenge is insatiable. Grave and dignified in his outward bearing, and
priding himself upon never exhibiting curiosity, joy, or anger, yet
when once roused he evinces the implacable dispositions of his race;
the affront is laid up and cherished in his breast, and nothing can
efface it from his mind until ample reparation is made. The insult must
be atoned for by presents, or be washed out with blood.
WAR EXPEDITIONS.
When a chief desires to organize a war-party, he provides himself with
a long pole, attaches a red flag to the end of it, and trims the top
with eagle feathers. He then mounts his horse in his war-costume, and
rides around through the camp singing the war-song. Those who are
disposed to join the expedition mount their horses and fall into the
procession; after parading about for a time, all dismount, and the
war-dance is performed. This ceremony is continued from day to day
until a sufficient number of volunteers are found to accomplish the
objects desired, when they set out for the theatre of their intended
exploits.
As they proceed upon their expedition, it sometimes happens that the
chief with whom it originated, and who invariably assumes the command,
becomes discouraged at not finding an opportunity of displaying his
warlike abilities, and abandons the enterprise; in which event, if
others of the party desire to proceed farther, they select another
leader and push on, and thus so long as any one of the party holds out.
A war-party is sometimes absent for a great length of time, and for
days, weeks, and months their friends at home anxiously await their
return, until, suddenly, from afar, the shrill war-cry of an _avant
courier_ is heard proclaiming the approach of the victorious warriors.
The camp is in an instant alive with excitement and commotion. Men,
women, and children swarm out to meet the advancing party. Their white
horses are painted and decked out in the most fantastic style, and led
in advance of the triumphal procession; and, as they pass around
through the village, the old women set up a most unearthly howl of
exultation, after which the scalp-dance is performed with all the pomp
and display their limited resources admit of, the warriors having their
faces painted black.
When, on the other hand, the expedition terminates disastrously by the
loss of some of the party in battle, the relatives of the deceased cut
off their own hair, and the tails and manes of their horses, as symbols
of mourning, and howl and cry for a long time.
In 1854 I saw the widow of a former chief of the Southern Comanches,
whose husband had been dead about three years, yet she continued her
mourning tribute to his memory by crying daily for him and refusing all
offers to marry again.
The prairie warrior is occasionally seen with the rifle in his hand,
but his favorite arm is the bow, the use of which is taught him at an
early age. By constant practice he acquires a skill in archery that
renders him no less formidable in war than successful in the chase.
Their bows are usually made of the tough and elastic wood of the
"_bois d'are_," strengthened and re-enforced with sinews of the deer
wrapped firmly around, and strung with a cord of the same material.
They are from three to four feet long. The arrows, which are carried in
a quiver upon the back, are about twenty inches long, of flexible wood,
with a triangular iron point at one end, and at the other two feathers
intersecting at right angles.
At short distances (about fifty yards), the bow, in the hands of the
Indian, is effective, and in close proximity with the buffalo throws
the arrow entirely through his huge carcass. In using this weapon the
warrior protects himself from the missiles of his enemy with a shield
made of two thicknesses of undressed buffalo hide filled in with hair.
The Comanches, Sioux, and other prairie tribes make their attacks upon
the open prairies. Trusting to their wonderful skill in equitation and
horsemanship, they ride around their enemies with their bodies thrown
upon the opposite side of the horse, and discharge their arrows in
rapid succession while at full speed; they will not, however, often
venture near an enemy who occupies a defensive position. If, therefore,
a small party be in danger of an attack from a large force of Indians,
they should seek the cover of timber or a park of wagons, or, in the
absence of these, rocks or holes in the prairie which afford good
cover.
Attempts to stampede animals are often made when parties first arrive
in camp, and when every one's attention is preoccupied in the
arrangements therewith connected. In a country infested by hostile
Indians, the ground in the vicinity of which it is proposed to encamp
should be cautiously examined for tracks and other Indian _signs_
by making a circuit around the locality previous to unharnessing the
animals.
After Indians have succeeded in stampeding a herd of horses or mules,
and desire to drive them away, they are in the habit of pushing them
forward as rapidly as possible for the first few days, in order to
place a wide interval between themselves and any party that may be in
pursuit.
In running off stolen animals, the Indians are generally divided into
two parties, one for driving and the other to act as a rear guard.
Before they reach a place where they propose making a halt, they leave
a vidette upon some prominent point to watch for pursuers and give the
main party timely warning, enabling them to rally their animals and
push forward again.
TRACKING INDIANS.
When an Indian sentinel intends to watch for an enemy approaching from
the rear, he selects the highest position available, and places himself
near the summit in such an attitude that his entire body shall be
concealed from the observation of any one in the rear, his head only
being exposed above the top of the eminence. Here he awaits with great
patience so long as he thinks there is any possibility of danger, and
it will be difficult for an enemy to surprise him or to elude his keen
and scrutinizing vigilance. Meanwhile his horse is secured under the
screen of the hill, all ready when required. Hence it will be evident
that, in following Indian depredators, the utmost vigilance and caution
must be exercised to conceal from them the movements of their pursuers.
They are the best scouts in the world, proficient in all the artifices
and stratagems available in border warfare, and when hotly pursued by a
superior force, after exhausting all other means of evasion, they
scatter in different directions; and if, in a broken or mountainous
country, they can do no better, abandon their horses and baggage, and
take refuge in the rocks, gorges, or other hiding-places. This plan has
several times been resorted to by Indians in Texas when surprised, and,
notwithstanding their pursuers were directly upon them, the majority
made their escape, leaving behind all their animals and other property.
For overtaking a marauding party of Indians who have advanced eight or
ten hours before the pursuing party are in readiness to take the trail,
it is not best to push forward rapidly at first, as this will weary and
break down horses. The Indians must be supposed to have at least fifty
or sixty miles the start; it will, therefore, be useless to think of
overtaking them without providing for a long chase. Scouts should
continually be kept out in front upon the trail to reconnoitre and give
preconcerted signals to the main party when the Indians are espied.
In approaching all eminences or undulations in the prairies, the
commander should be careful not to allow any considerable number of his
men to pass upon the summits until the country around has been
carefully reconnoitred by the scouts, who will cautiously raise their
eyes above the crests of the most elevated points, making a
scrutinizing examination in all directions; and, while doing this,
should an Indian be encountered who has been left behind as a sentinel,
he must, if possible, be secured or shot, to prevent his giving the
alarm to his comrades. These precautions can not be too rigidly
enforced when the trail becomes "warm;" and if there be a moon, it will
be better to lie by in the daytime and follow the trail at night, as
the great object is to come upon the Indians when they are not
anticipating an attack. Such surprises, if discreetly conducted;
generally prove successful.
As soon as the Indians are discovered in their bivouac, the pursuing
party should dismount, leave their horses under charge of a guard in
some sequestered place, and, before advancing to the attack, the men
should be instructed in signals for their different movements, such as
all will easily comprehend and remember. As, for example, a pull upon
the right arm may signify to face to the right, and a pull upon the
left arm to face to the left; a pull upon the skirt of the coat, to
halt; a gentle push on the back, to advance in ordinary time; a slap on
the back, to advance in double quick time, etc., etc.
These signals, having been previously well understood and practiced,
may be given by the commander to the man next to him, and from him
communicated in rapid succession throughout the command.
I will suppose the party formed in one rank, with the commander on the
right. He gives the signal, and the men move off cautiously in the
direction indicated. The importance of not losing sight of his comrades
on his right and left, and of not allowing them to get out of his
reach, so as to break the chain of communication, will be apparent to
all, and great care should be taken that the men do not mistake their
brothers in arms for the enemy. This may be prevented by having two
_pass-words_, and when there be any doubt as to the identity of two
men who meet during the night operations, one of these words may be
repeated by each. Above all, the men must be fully impressed with the
importance of not firing a shot until the order is given by the
commanding officer, and also that a rigorous personal accountability
will be enforced in all cases of a violation of this rule.
If the commander gives the signal for commencing the attack by firing a
pistol or gun, there will probably be no mistake, unless it happens
through carelessness by the accidental discharge of firearms.
I can conceive of nothing more appalling, or that tends more to throw
men off their guard and produce confusion, than a sudden and unexpected
night-attack. Even the Indians, who pride themselves upon their
coolness and self-possession, are far from being exempt from its
effects; and it is not surprising that men who go to sleep with a sense
of perfect security around them, and are suddenly aroused from a sound
slumber by the terrific sounds of an onslaught from an enemy, should
lose their presence of mind.
TELEGRAPHING BY SMOKES.
The transparency of the atmosphere upon the Plains is such that objects
can be seen at great distances; a mountain, for example, presents a
distinct and bold outline at fifty or sixty miles, and may occasionally
be seen as far as a hundred miles.
The Indians, availing themselves of this fact, have been in the habit
of practicing a system of telegraphing by means of smokes during the
day and fires by night, and, I dare say, there are but few travelers
who have crossed the mountains to California that have not seen these
signals made and responded to from peak to peak in rapid succession.
The Indians thus make known to their friends many items of information
highly important to them. If enemies or strangers make their appearance
in the country, the fact is telegraphed at once, giving them time to
secure their animals and to prepare for attack, defense, or flight.
War or hunting parties, after having been absent a long time from their
erratic friends at home, and not knowing where to find them, make use
of the same preconcerted signals to indicate their presence.
Very dense smokes may be raised by kindling a large fire with dry wood,
and piling upon it the green boughs of pine, balsam, or hemlock. This
throws off a heavy cloud of black smoke which can be seen very far.
This simple method of telegraphing, so useful to the savages both in
war and in peace, may, in my judgment, be used to advantage in the
movements of troops co-operating in separate columns in the Indian
country.
I shall not attempt at this time to present a matured system of
signals, but will merely give a few suggestions tending to illustrate
the advantages to be derived from the use of them.
For example, when two columns are marching through a country at such
distances apart that smokes may be seen from one to the other, their
respective positions may be made known to each other at any time by two
smokes raised simultaneously or at certain preconcerted intervals.
Should the commander of one column desire to communicate with the
other, he raises three smokes simultaneously, which, if seen by the
other party, should be responded to in the same manner. They would then
hold themselves in readiness for any other communications.
If an enemy is discovered in small numbers, a smoke raised twice at
fifteen minutes' interval would indicate it; and if in large force,
three times with the same intervals might be the signal.
Should the commander of one party desire the other to join him, this
might be telegraphed by four smokes at ten minutes' interval.
Should it become necessary to change the direction of the line of
march, the commander may transmit the order by means of two
simultaneous smokes raised a certain number of times to indicate the
particular direction; for instance, twice for north, three times for
south, four times for east, and five times for west; three smokes
raised twice for northeast, three times for northwest, etc., etc.
By multiplying the combinations of signals a great variety of messages
might be transmitted in this manner; but, to avoid mistakes, the
signals should be written down and copies furnished the commander of
each separate party, and they need not necessarily be made known to
other persons.
During the day an intelligent man should be detailed to keep a vigilant
look-out in all directions for smokes, and he should be furnished with
a watch, pencil, and paper, to make a record of the signals, with their
number, and the time of the intervals between them.