easily constructed. It is made from an oblong piece of wood like Fig. 1.
Through the center of this bore a hole, _a_, for the pivot upon which it
will finally turn, and mark the two lines at _b_. Now, commencing at the
point _b_, cut off the corner, _b c_, and make the surface flat as in
Fig. 2; then cut off the opposite side of the other end, indicated in
Fig. 1 by the dotted lines _d e_, in a like manner. Your figure will now
resemble Fig. 2, and both ends will form a prism like _b c d e f_; but
_b c d e_ should be a thin flat blade, so the corner or edge, commencing
at _f_, should be cut down in the same manner that _e d_ was treated in
Fig. 1. Make the other blade to correspond and chamfer out the middle,
or square piece, as seen in Fig. 3. This middle piece is not a square,
although I have spoken of it as such, but is oblong, to allow room for
another two-bladed piece made precisely like this to interlock with it.
When these two pieces are fitted together, fasten them with one or more
nails, and then insert the small round stick upon which the windmill is
to turn. Fig. 4 shows an arrangement by which two windmills are operated
on the same stick. These should turn in opposite directions to make them
effective, and this is easily accomplished by simply cutting the vanes
of the one so that the wind shall strike it at an angle opposite to that
with which it strikes the other. Should you care to decorate them in
colors, it had best be done by painting bands or stripes across each
vane, all to correspond with each other in width and shade. For
instance, take the windmill in Fig. 4; let the outside bands be of
chrome yellow and one inch wide; the next red and two inches wide; while
the third yellow, and the fourth blue, should each be an inch in width.
The axis should have a greater diameter where the larger revolves upon
it, but should be cut smaller where it meets the back of the little
windmill. Nails in front and back of the larger, and front of the
smaller, are necessary to keep them in place.
[Illustration]
Perhaps the most satisfactory way of arranging such a windmill is to
place it on the end of a weather-vane, as shown in Fig. 5. It is then
always presented to the wind. The vane and the windmill may be painted
the same color, or the latter may be decorated in stripes, as before
described, and the vane given a color which will harmonize with it. Care
must be exercised to fasten each part strongly in place, as the strain
is very great during a strong wind or in a storm.
THE SCREW-PROPELLER; OR, WEATHER-VANE AND WINDMILL COMBINED.
[Illustration]
Take a piece of board, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and large enough
to make a vessel of the size you desire. Cut out a hull like that in the
illustration. Make a small windmill like that just described, but with
rounded ends to the vanes, like that represented in Fig. 2. Pass a
strong wire through the hole in the center, and drive it into the stern
of Fig. 1; fasten the other end into the rudder, which should be
stationary. Be careful when planning your vessel to allow sufficient
room for the windmill to revolve below the over hang. Bore a hole at a
for the pivot to rest in, upon which the weather-vane is to turn, and
insert the two masts in their proper places. Cut a small mizzen-sail
from thin board and nail it to the mast.
[Illustration]
The flags are of red and blue flannel, the stays of copper or galvanized
wire, and the bowsprit a small stick, cut from a tough bit of wood. This
propeller may be painted to suit the fancy, but usually is black, with a
narrow yellow or white stripe near the top. The lower third is
frequently painted green, however, which adds considerably to its
nautical appearance. The windmill should be a bright red, and the entire
vessel should have plenty of time to dry before being placed in its
final position.
THE SIDE-WHEELER.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
Another, and very pretty windmill, which can be easily constructed by a
boy, is in the form of a steam-boat, the paddles of which are always
presented to the wind by the position of the boat itself. Cut out of a
seven-eighths of an inch board a hull like that seen in the
illustration, and make the hole for the pivot at the middle point
between bow and stern; bore another hole just aft of this for the axle
of the paddle-wheels. Out of thin wood cut two circular disks for these
wheels, and dovetail the paddles into their edges as seen in Fig. 2.
Next cut out two half circles of your thin wood for paddle-boxes, and
bore a hole in each for the axle of the wheels. These are to shield the
upper half of the wheels from the wind. Now take a piece of tin, in
shape like Fig. 3, and wide enough to accommodate the wheels on either
side, and nail it to the edges of the paddle-boxes, as seen in the
figure; the ends, _a_, are to be nailed upon the deck of the steamer,
and answer the purpose of keeping these boxes in position. Paint this
boat black and green, the latter occupying the lower third of the hull,
while a narrow line of yellow or white around the top relieves the
somberness of the upper part. The paddle-boxes should be black, with
narrow lines of light red radiating from a small semicircular figure of
the same color near the bottom. This boat should also be fitted with a
small mizzen-sail, made of tin or thin board, and painted white. The top
of the paddle-boxes is buff or light yellow, and the wheels or windmills
are a bright red.
[Illustration: Fig. 2]
[Illustration: Fig. 3]
In this steam-boat, a “dummy” walking-beam, cut out of a single piece of
thin wood, can be added if desired, and should be painted in solid
black, or, if liked, it can be striped like that in the “Toy
Steam-boat,” elsewhere described in this book. The smoke-stack in this,
as well as the screw-propeller, should be nailed in place before the
first painting.
If you should care to take the trouble, the walking-beam can be made to
move by simply cutting away the hull between the paddle-boxes, to allow
the crank to turn in, and bending the axle of the wheels in the form of
the crank described in the “Toy Steam-boat.” A long slit must also be
cut in the tin cover of the paddle-boxes, to allow of the play of the
connecting-rod. Small flags of bright-colored strong cloth can be placed
in the proper places if desired, and really add considerable to the
bright, pretty effect when first made; but as they are soon ruined by
the combined influences of sun, rain, and wind, they are hardly
desirable, unless the boat is in some position where it can be easily
reached, and the little flags changed for new ones, as they become faded
or torn.
THE REGATTA WINDMILL.
[Illustration]
Take two sticks of wood, about three feet long, and one inch in
diameter; fasten them together at their central points, so that their
arms shall be at right angles with each other (see Fig. 1); and bore a
large hole through the point of intersection. From shingles cut out four
boats, each eight inches long, and fit them with masts; next cut from
strong new cloth four small triangular pieces for sails, and sew them to
the masts; fasten the lower corner by a strong bit of cord to the stern,
as seen in Fig. 2; then cut a small flag from red flannel and nail it to
the top of the mast. You can paint these boats if you like, and also the
cross-pieces upon which they are finally nailed. Care must be taken that
they all head the same way. Observe their positions in Fig. 1.
[Illustration]
Fig. 1 shows the affair finished and mounted on its pole. Place them in
as high a position as possible, so that they may catch the breeze from
all directions.
―――――◀▶―――――
A BOY’S SOLAR MICROSCOPE.
The microscope is, as every boy knows, an optical instrument, which
enables us to see and examine objects which are too small to be seen by
the naked eye. The arrangement of the solar microscope is similar to
that of the magic lantern, the sun taking the place of the limelight
usually employed. In this form of the magic lantern, two difficulties
are to be overcome; one, the necessarily fixed position of the
instrument; and the other, the very inconvenient habit the sun has of
constantly changing his position; so that it would be impossible to
adjust the lens without the aid of a mirror, to throw sufficient light
in upon the object to be examined. Both of these obstacles are
surmounted in the simple arrangement of the solar microscope here
described.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
First make a strong frame of wood, seven-eighths of an inch in
thickness, that will exactly fit in the lower half of the window when
the sash is thrown up; and in the middle of this fit an upright board a
foot wide, which has a hole cut in its center ten inches in diameter.
Fasten it strongly in place by four nails driven through the frame, and
well into the ends of the boards, or, if more convenient, by long screws
inserted in the same places. Fig. 1 shows the position of the board _a_,
also that of the nails _b_. The open spaces, _c_, are to be closed by
several thicknesses of brown paper pasted or tacked across on the inside
of the frame. The upper part of the window must also be closed, so that
no ray of light shall enter the room, except through the hole _d_.
[Illustration: Fig. 2]
Before proceeding further, it may be well to remark, that, as perhaps
the largest part of the work is the cutting of no less than seven
circular holes of various sizes, through as many pieces of board, a
scroll-saw will be found an almost indispensable aid to the construction
of this apparatus. Also, that the window in which this microscope is
used must necessarily have a southern exposure.
[Illustration: Fig. 3]
In Fig. 2 we have a disk of half-inch wood, twelve inches in diameter,
with an opening in the center four inches across, to hold the condensing
lens, _a_; _b_ is a mirror five inches wide and ten inches long, turning
on an axis which passes through the supports, _c c_, the latter being
attached to the disk. These supports should be long enough to admit of
the mirror turning entirely around without touching the disk, and are
fastened in place by screws passing through the disk and into their
ends. When the mirror is in place, cut the slit _d_ parallel with the
edge of the mirror, for the wire _e_ to pass through. The manner of
attaching the wire to the back of the mirror is seen in Fig. 3. The back
is first covered with paper to prevent its scratching; then the wire is
bent and laid in place, and lastly, a piece of very strong paper is
pasted over the wire and entire back, and caught down over the edge of
the front, forming a narrow frame to the glass; the ends of this wire
should pass through rather small holes in _c c_, so that it will not
turn easily out of position. A handle (see _f_, Fig. 4) should be placed
on the other side of the disk, and just across the lens from the slit
_d_.
[Illustration: Fig. 4]
Next take two pieces of wood, fifteen inches square and half an inch
thick; in the center of one cut a hole twelve inches in diameter, while
in that of the other cut another round hole only ten inches across. In
Fig. 4, which represents a section of this microscope, _g_ is the
central board of the screen, marked _a_ in Fig. 1; _h_ is the piece you
have just made, with the central opening twelve inches in diameter; and
_i_ is the second piece, which measures fifteen inches square, but has a
hole of only ten inches diameter in its center; _d_, which has a dotted
surface, to distinguish it from the frame-work, is the large disk (Fig.
2), which, you remember, is just twelve inches in diameter, and,
consequently, will exactly fit the opening in _h_; if these edges are
rough, sand-paper both with a coarse quality first, finishing them off
with a finer kind. When _d_ is in position, and moves easily but not
loosely in _h_, place _i_ over it and fasten it in place with screws,
passing through _i_ into _h_; but _h_, of course, must first be strongly
nailed or screwed upon _g_.
You will now see that by turning the handle, _f_, the position of the
mirror, which is fastened to this disk, can be easily changed so that it
shall face in any direction, while by drawing the wire, _e_, it can be
turned so as to reflect the sun’s rays through the lens, _a_, from
whatever quarter of the heavens it may be shining. This double
adjustment of the mirror and lens enables you to throw the rays of the
sun through the opening in upon the object, _o_, at any hour of the day.
As the mirror is adjusted in Fig. 4, the sun must be very low, as its
rays, to strike the mirror, would necessarily be nearly horizontal.
[Illustration: Fig. 5]
The lens, _a_, should be held in place by two pieces of whalebone, bent
around on either side of it, at the edge of the opening in _d_; this
lens is four inches in diameter, and has a focal length of nine or ten
inches; its adjustment had better be left till everything else in the
microscope has been finished. Fig. 5 shows the appearance of this when
completed.
[Illustration: Fig. 6]
As the outer part of the work is fitted, we will now turn our attention
to the other, or inner, side of the screen. In Fig. 4, the board _j_ is
eighteen inches long by ten inches wide, and half-an-inch thick. In the
middle is a small circular hole, one and one-half inches in diameter.
This is fastened to the middle board, _g_, by the four horizontal posts,
_p_, each six inches long.
Now take a square piece of half-inch board, five inches across, cut a
circular hole two inches in diameter in the middle, and fit into this
hole a pasteboard tube four inches long, which is painted black on the
inside. The edge of the circular hole in _j_ should also be black. In
Fig. 6, which represents this board, you will notice two cleats, _l l_,
fastened to the back of _k_; these are also made of half-inch wood, and
are five inches long by one wide. In Fig. 4, the position of _k_ and _l_
is seen in connection with the longer piece, _j_; the center of the
openings in _j_ and _k_ should form one and the same horizontal line.
The opening between _l_ and _l_ is for the glass slides upon which the
objects to be examined are placed.
After these parts are fastened in their proper places, make a pasteboard
tube, with a black inner surface, as represented at _n_, about four
inches in length, and inclose in one end two lenses, each one and
one-half inches in diameter, and each having a focal length of four
inches. Fit this tube in the one marked _m_. Now, having everything in
place, fit in the lens, _a_, so that it will send the rays of light
directly through the hole in _j_ upon the object in _l_, and fasten it
securely in place with your bent whalebones.
The screen upon which the image is thrown can be the opposite
whitewashed surface of the room, if by a proper adjustment of the tubes
the image can be made distinct, or it can be a sheet stretched over a
frame-work of light wood; the latter is preferable, as it can be more
easily brought in focus. Of course, in this form, as in any other “magic
lantern,” the nearer the screen to the lantern, the longer the tubes _m
n_; but the image, which is smaller, gains in brilliancy of
illumination, while with these conditions reversed, the results are the
opposite; a larger image, but less bright in appearance. The same light
being spread over a larger surface is necessarily less strong.
SOME OBJECTS FOR THIS MICROSCOPE.
The objects which can be examined by aid of this instrument are many in
number, and can be readily prepared by simply inserting them between two
pieces of glass, sufficiently small to slide in the opening _l l_, and
pasting bits of brown paper over the edges to hold them in place.
In this manner the legs of flies and mosquitoes, the heads of the latter
with their venomous sting; hairs of the dog and cat, also from the human
head; tiny sections of human skin; down from the butterfly’s wing,
obtained by dusting off a few of the tiny particles upon a glass plate;
the pollen from different flowers; spores of the puff-ball and tiny
grains of dust, all make very interesting subjects for study, when
magnified and thrown upon the screen in the darkened room.
One of the most interesting experiments with this form of the magic
lantern is made by throwing the image of a drop of some solution, like
sulphate of copper, upon the screen, and watching the process of its
crystallization; sulphate of copper and of iron; hyposulphite of soda,
which latter may be colored by adding a very little permanganate of
potash to the solution.
The eels in a drop of vinegar, drops of stagnant water, and the larvæ of
the mosquito are also interesting objects, when viewed by the aid of
this powerful magnifier.
―――――◀▶―――――
SEA-MOSSES.
[Illustration]
No boy who has lived on our coast, or, indeed, who has spent much time
near the sea, could have failed to notice and admire the beautiful
feathery mosses which sway about so gracefully under the surface of the
water. The most delicate mosses are not found upon the open sea-beach,
but in the more sheltered bays and inlets near the coast, and one who
has never given them especial attention cannot fail to be impressed by
the great variety of form and color to be found within a small space of
water. Ranging in color from the palest pink or straw to the deepest
purple or brown, and from the lightest sea-green to the darkest shade of
olive, they are capable of being arranged in most beautiful bits of
coloring, while the delicate, fine specimens, united with the coarser
varieties, add to the effectiveness of the whole. To gather and arrange
these mosses is not as difficult a task as most people imagine. Any boy
can, with a little care, make a fine collection, which would be valued
very highly by some inland friend who cannot reach the sea-shore every
year, or perhaps not more than once or twice in a lifetime. If any of
you, my boy readers, have any such friend, do not fail to collect a
quantity of the mosses common to the waters near you, and arrange them
on cards for their preservation. In gathering your mosses have an old
tin can filled with water in the bottom of the boat, and after detaching
from the stones, throw them immediately into the can. When you get home
they can be left in the can of salt water over night, if you have not
the time to attend to them at once; or they may be put into a basin of
fresh water, and left for awhile to wash away the salt and sand that
remains on them. When they seem perfectly clean, take two or three
carefully up on a bit of paper and throw them into a basin of clean
water.
Now the delicate part of the process is reached. Have a number of square
pieces of unglazed paper at hand—ribbon paper is very good for the
purpose—and thrust them carefully into the water under the bit of moss
you desire to take out. With a long, slender darning-needle carefully
arrange the tiny filaments, so that they shall form a graceful
composition, and raise the card carefully from the water. It is not
necessary to exercise as much care with the coarser “silver mosses,” as
their more wiry branchlets naturally assume graceful positions, and the
water flowing from the surface of the card does not so easily disarrange
their positions. When all the mosses have been taken up on cards, fasten
each to a table or shelf to dry. This is done by driving a pin through
one corner of the card into the edge of the shelf or table, and allowing
it to remain undisturbed until both the moss and paper are perfectly
dry. They may now be mounted upon cards prepared for the purpose, and
their names, with the locality where they were found, neatly written
beneath; or they may be preserved in a case or frame.
[Illustration]
The illustrations show two different arrangements of sea-mosses for the
frame. In the first, that seen in Fig. 1, they are glued upon a
background of fine white cardboard, one layer superimposed above
another, until they extend forward from the card for an inch or more.
Their stems are finally covered by a small, well-striped scallop-shell
which has been washed clean and varnished. It is perhaps needless to add
that the effect is very pretty. The “silver mosses” are best adapted for
this arrangement.
The design given in Fig. 2 is quite grotesque in its appearance, and
appeals rather more to the average boy’s taste than the former
arrangement. Red and brown mosses are used entirely, unless the effect
seems too somber, in which case a little “silver moss” may be introduced
on the back to lighten it a trifle.
Tiny baskets, made of pretty scallop-shells nicely fitted together and
varnished, are often filled with the coarser varieties of moss, and are
very pretty; but if they are unprotected from the dust they are soon
destroyed, and unless covered with a glass case or inverted thin plain
glass tumbler, they hardly pay for the trouble of making.
―――――◀▶―――――
ANTIQUES AND HORRIBLES.
[Illustration]
This is another of the mechanical toys which was common during my
childhood. The whole affair is so simple that a small boy could make it,
in a less finished form at least, and the most sullen little fellow in
all the land could not fail to be amused by the grotesque procession of
clowns and hobgoblins, kings and countrymen, birds and fishes and
animals, whose names no naturalist could tell, and whose like was never
seen on this earth before. This procession travels on and on, as long as
the crank is turned. The above illustration gives some idea of a few of
the many members of the band, but any boy at all ingenious, will see
that he has a variety—the more grotesque and outlandish the better the
effect. Fig. 2 shows a section of the machinery; the box-like covering
is removed, and the frame-work exposed to view. First procure a board,
_a_, about twenty by eight inches; next two rollers upon which the band
is to turn, for you must have seen that these little images are made of
thin cardboard, attached to an endless band of strong cloth. These
rollers should be rather larger than broomsticks, and held in place by
four uprights, _c_. Only two of these can be seen in the cut. A table,
_d e_, extends between the rollers and is supported by four legs, _f_,
which should be of sufficient length to make the top, _d e_, come just
below the upper section of the band, _g g_ are boards, the same width as
the bottom, _a_, and of sufficient height to make a good foundation for
the top, and to allow free passage of the procession. None of the
figures should be much over three inches in height, and none should be
attached to the cloth in more than one place; that is, by only one foot,
as they would be unavoidably torn in passing over the rollers if more
firmly fixed. The top and front are of pasteboard, and the whole exposed
surface is covered with pretty wall-paper. On the right roller at the
back end, fix a small crank, or handle, and the machine is started by
turning this. When about to give a grand exhibition, be careful to turn
in the right direction, and not set the whole procession running
backward, as you might easily do if unobserving or forgetful. The images
are much more amusing if painted in bright colors. Use plenty of blue,
red, yellow, black, and white paint, with a touch here and there of rich
green and purple; and you may perhaps almost make your audience believe
that Fourth of July is here again, and they are viewing the “Antiques
and Horribles” through the large end of a spy-glass.
[Illustration]
―――――◀▶―――――
THE MUSICAL CHICKENS.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]