It must not be supposed that the divergence of each race from the other

races, and of all the races from a common stock, can be traced back to

any one pair of progenitors. On the contrary, at every stage in the

process of modification, all the individuals which were in any way best

fitted for their conditions of life, though in different degrees, would

have survived in greater numbers than the less well fitted. The process

would have been like that followed by man, when he does not

intentionally select particular individuals, but breeds from all the

superior and neglects all the inferior individuals. He thus slowly but

surely modifies his stock, and unconsciously forms a new strain. So with

respect to modifications, acquired independently of selection, and due

to variations arising from the nature of the organism and the action of

the surrounding conditions, or from changed habits of life, no single

pair will have been modified in a much greater degree than the other

pairs which inhabit the same country, for all will have been continually

blended through free intercrossing.

By considering the embryological structure of man,--the homologies which

he presents with the lower animals,--the rudiments which he

retains,--and the reversions to which he is liable, we can partly recall

in imagination the former condition of our early progenitors; and can

approximately place them in their proper position in the zoological

series. We thus learn that man is descended from a hairy quadruped,

furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits,

and an inhabitant of the Old World. This creature, if its whole

structure had been examined by a naturalist, would have been classed

amongst the Quadrumana, as surely as would the common and still more

ancient progenitor of the Old and New World monkeys. The Quadrumana and

all the higher mammals are probably derived from an ancient marsupial

animal, and this through a long line of diversified forms, either from

some reptile-like or some amphibian-like creature, and this again from

some fish-like animal. In the dim obscurity of the past we can see that

the early progenitor of all the Vertebrata must have been an aquatic

animal, provided with branchiae, with the two sexes united in the same

individual, and with the most important organs of the body (such as the

brain and heart) imperfectly developed. This animal seems to have been

more like the larvae of our existing marine Ascidians than any other

known form.

The greatest difficulty which presents itself, when we are driven to the

above conclusion on the origin of man, is the high standard of

intellectual power and of moral disposition which he has attained. But

every one who admits the general principle of evolution, must see that

the mental powers of the higher animals, which are the same in kind with

those of mankind, though so different in degree, are capable of

advancement. Thus the interval between the mental powers of one of the

higher apes and of a fish, or between those of an ant and scale-insect,

is immense. The development of these powers in animals does not offer

any special difficulty; for with our domesticated animals, the mental

faculties are certainly variable, and the variations are inherited. No

one doubts that these faculties are of the utmost importance to animals

in a state of nature. Therefore the conditions are favourable for their

development through natural selection. The same conclusion may be

extended to man; the intellect must have been all-important to him, even

at a very remote period, enabling him to use language, to invent and

make weapons, tools, traps, &c.; by which means, in combination with his

social habits, he long ago became the most dominant of all living

creatures.

A great stride in the development of the intellect will have followed,

as soon as, through a previous considerable advance, the half-art and

half-instinct of language came into use; for the continued use of

language will have reacted on the brain, and produced an inherited

effect; and this again will have reacted on the improvement of

language. The large size of the brain in man, in comparison with that of

the lower animals, relatively to the size of their bodies, may be

attributed in chief part, as Mr. Chauncey Wright has well remarked,[472]

to the early use of some simple form of language,--that wonderful engine

which affixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites

trains of thought which would never arise from the mere impression of

the senses, and if they did arise could not be followed out. The higher

intellectual powers of man, such as those of ratiocination, abstraction,

self-consciousness, &c., will have followed from the continued

improvement of other mental faculties; but without considerable culture

of the mind, both in the race and in the individual, it is doubtful

whether these high powers would be exercised, and thus fully attained.

The development of the moral qualities is a more interesting and

difficult problem. Their foundation lies in the social instincts,

including in this term the family ties. These instincts are of a highly

complex nature, and in the case of the lower animals give special

tendencies towards certain definite actions; but the more important

elements for us are love, and the distinct emotion of sympathy. Animals

endowed with the social instincts take pleasure in each other's company,

warn each other of danger, defend and aid each other in many ways. These

instincts are not extended to all the individuals of the species, but

only to those of the same community. As they are highly beneficial to

the species, they have in all probability been acquired through natural

selection.

A moral being is one who is capable of comparing his past and future

actions and motives,--of approving of some and disapproving of others;

and the fact that man is the one being who with certainty can be thus

designated makes the greatest of all distinctions between him and the

lower animals. But in our third chapter I have endeavoured to shew that

the moral sense follows, firstly, from the enduring and always present

nature of the social instincts, in which respect man agrees with the

lower animals; and secondly, from his mental faculties being highly

active and his impressions of past events extremely vivid, in which

respects he differs from the lower animals. Owing to this condition of

mind, man cannot avoid looking backwards and comparing the impressions

of past events and actions. He also continually looks forward. Hence

after some temporary desire or passion has mastered his social

instincts, he will reflect and compare the now weakened impression of

such past impulses, with the ever present social instinct; and he will

then feel that sense of dissatisfaction which all unsatisfied instincts

leave behind them. Consequently he resolves to act differently for the

future--and this is conscience. Any instinct which is permanently

stronger or more enduring than another, gives rise to a feeling which we

express by saying that it ought to be obeyed. A pointer dog, if able to

reflect on his past conduct, would say to himself, I ought (as indeed we

say of him) to have pointed at that hare and not have yielded to the

passing temptation of hunting it.

Social animals are partly impelled by a wish to aid the members of the

same community in a general manner, but more commonly to perform certain

definite actions. Man is impelled by the same general wish to aid his

fellows, but has few or no special instincts. He differs also from the

lower animals in being able to express his desires by words, which thus

become the guide to the aid required and bestowed. The motive to give

aid is likewise somewhat modified in man: it no longer consists solely

of a blind instinctive impulse, but is largely influenced by the praise

or blame of his fellow men. Both the appreciation and the bestowal of

praise and blame rest on sympathy; and this emotion, as we have seen, is

one of the most important elements of the social instincts. Sympathy,

though gained as an instinct, is also much strengthened by exercise or

habit. As all men desire their own happiness, praise or blame is

bestowed on actions and motives, according as they lead to this end; and

as happiness is an essential part of the general good, the

greatest-happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly safe standard

of right and wrong. As the reasoning powers advance and experience is

gained, the more remote effects of certain lines of conduct on the

character of the individual, and on the general good, are perceived; and

then the self-regarding virtues, from coming within the scope of public

opinion, receive praise, and their opposites receive blame. But with the

less civilised nations reason often errs, and many bad customs and base

superstitions come within the same scope, and consequently are esteemed

as high virtues, and their breach as heavy crimes.

The moral faculties are generally esteemed, and with justice, as of

higher value than the intellectual powers. But we should always bear in

mind that the activity of the mind in vividly recalling past impressions

is one of the fundamental though secondary bases of conscience. This

fact affords the strongest argument for educating and stimulating in all

possible ways the intellectual faculties of every human being. No doubt

a man with a torpid mind, if his social affections and sympathies are

well developed, will be led to good actions, and may have a fairly

sensitive conscience. But whatever renders the imagination of men more

vivid and strengthens the habit of recalling and comparing past

impressions, will make the conscience more sensitive, and may even

compensate to a certain extent for weak social affections and

sympathies.

The moral nature of man has reached the highest standard as yet

attained, partly through the advancement of the reasoning powers and

consequently of a just public opinion, but especially through the

sympathies being rendered more tender and widely diffused through the

effects of habit, example, instruction, and reflection. It is not

improbable that virtuous tendencies may through long practice be

inherited. With the more civilised races, the conviction of the

existence of an all-seeing Deity has had a potent influence on the

advancement of morality. Ultimately man no longer accepts the praise or

blame of his fellows as his chief guide, though few escape this

influence, but his habitual convictions controlled by reason afford him

the safest rule. His conscience then becomes his supreme judge and

monitor. Nevertheless the first foundation or origin of the moral sense

lies in the social instincts, including sympathy; and these instincts no

doubt were primarily gained, as in the case of the lower animals,

through natural selection.

The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, but

the most complete of all the distinctions between man and the lower

animals. It is however impossible, as we have seen, to maintain that

this belief is innate or instinctive in man. On the other hand a belief

in all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal; and

apparently follows from a considerable advance in the reasoning powers

of man, and from a still greater advance in his faculties of

imagination, curiosity and wonder. I am aware that the assumed

instinctive belief in God has been used by many persons as an argument

for His existence. But this is a rash argument, as we should thus be

compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant

spirits, possessing only a little more power than man; for the belief in

them is far more general than of a beneficent Deity. The idea of a

universal and beneficent Creator of the universe does not seem to arise

in the mind of man, until he has been elevated by long-continued

culture.

He who believes in the advancement of man from some lowly-organised

form, will naturally ask how does this bear on the belief in the

immortality of the soul. The barbarous races of man, as Sir J. Lubbock

has shewn, possess no clear belief of this kind; but arguments derived

from the primeval beliefs of savages are, as we have just seen, of

little or no avail. Few persons feel any anxiety from the impossibility

of determining at what precise period in the development of the

individual, from the first trace of the minute germinal vesicle to the

child either before or after birth, man becomes an immortal being; and

there is no greater cause for anxiety because the period in the

gradually ascending organic scale cannot possibly be determined.[473]

I am aware that the conclusions arrived at in this work will be

denounced by some as highly irreligious; but he who thus denounces them

is bound to shew why it is more irreligious to explain the origin of man

as a distinct species by descent from some lower form, through the laws

of variation and natural selection, than to explain the birth of the

individual through the laws of ordinary reproduction. The birth both of

the species and of the individual are equally parts of that grand

sequence of events, which our minds refuse to accept as the result of

blind chance. The understanding revolts at such a conclusion, whether or

not we are able to believe that every slight variation of

structure,--the union of each pair in marriage,--the dissemination of

each seed,--and other such events, have all been ordained for some

special purpose.

Sexual selection has been treated at great length in these volumes; for,

as I have attempted to shew, it has played an important part in the

history of the organic world. As summaries have been given to each

chapter, it would be superfluous here to add a detailed summary. I am

aware that much remains doubtful, but I have endeavoured to give a fair

view of the whole case. In the lower divisions of the animal kingdom,

sexual selection seems to have done nothing: such animals are often

affixed for life to the same spot, or have the two sexes combined in the

same individual, or what is still more important, their perceptive and

intellectual faculties are not sufficiently advanced to allow of the

feelings of love and jealousy, or of the exertion of choice. When,

however, we come to the Arthropoda and Vertebrata, even to the lowest

classes in these two great Sub-Kingdoms, sexual selection has effected

much; and it deserves notice that we here find the intellectual

faculties developed, but in two very distinct lines, to the highest

standard, namely in the Hymenoptera (ants, bees, &c.) amongst the

Arthropoda, and in the Mammalia, including man, amongst the Vertebrata.

In the most distinct classes of the animal kingdom, with mammals,

birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, and even crustaceans, the differences

between the sexes follow almost exactly the same rules. The males are

almost always the wooers; and they alone are armed with special weapons

for fighting with their rivals. They are generally stronger and larger

than the females, and are endowed with the requisite qualities of

courage and pugnacity. They are provided, either exclusively or in a

much higher degree than the females, with organs for producing vocal or

instrumental music, and with odoriferous glands. They are ornamented

with infinitely diversified appendages, and with the most brilliant or

conspicuous colours, often arranged in elegant patterns, whilst the

females are left unadorned. When the sexes differ in more important

structures, it is the male which is provided with special sense-organs

for discovering the female, with locomotive organs for reaching her, and

often with prehensile organs for holding her. These various structures

for securing or charming the female are often developed in the male

during only part of the year, namely the breeding season. They have in

many cases been transferred in a greater or less degree to the females;

and in the latter case they appear in her as mere rudiments. They are

lost by the males after emasculation. Generally they are not developed

in the male during early youth, but appear a short time before the age

for reproduction. Hence in most cases the young of both sexes resemble

each other; and the female resembles her young offspring throughout

life. In almost every great class a few anomalous cases occur in which

there has been an almost complete transposition of the characters proper

to the two sexes; the females assuming characters which properly belong

to the males. This surprising uniformity in the laws regulating the

differences between the sexes in so many and such widely separated

classes, is intelligible if we admit the action throughout all the

higher divisions of the animal kingdom of one common cause, namely

sexual selection.

Sexual selection depends on the success of certain individuals over

others of the same sex in relation to the propagation of the species;

whilst natural selection depends on the success of both sexes, at all

ages, in relation to the general conditions of life. The sexual struggle

is of two kinds; in the one it is between the individuals of the same

sex, generally the male sex, in order to drive away or kill their

rivals, the females remaining passive; whilst in the other, the struggle

is likewise between the individuals of the same sex, in order to excite

or charm those of the opposite sex, generally the females, which no

longer remain passive, but select the more agreeable partners. This

latter kind of selection is closely analogous to that which man

unintentionally, yet effectually, brings to bear on his domesticated

productions, when he continues for a long time choosing the most

pleasing or useful individuals, without any wish to modify the breed.

The laws of inheritance determine whether characters gained through

sexual selection by either sex shall be transmitted to the same sex, or

to both sexes; as well as the age at which they shall be developed. It

appears that variations which arise late in life are commonly

transmitted to one and the same sex. Variability is the necessary basis

for the action of selection, and is wholly independent of it. It follows

from this, that variations of the same general nature have often been

taken advantage of and accumulated through sexual selection in relation

to the propagation of the species, and through natural selection in

relation to the general purposes of life. Hence secondary sexual

characters, when equally transmitted to both sexes can be distinguished

from ordinary specific characters only by the light of analogy. The

modifications acquired through sexual selection are often so strongly

pronounced that the two sexes have frequently been ranked as distinct

species, or even as distinct genera. Such strongly-marked differences

must be in some manner highly important; and we know that they have been

acquired in some instances at the cost not only of inconvenience, but of

exposure to actual danger.

The belief in the power of sexual selection rests chiefly on the

following considerations. The characters which we have the best reason

for supposing to have been thus acquired are confined to one sex; and

this alone renders it probable that they are in some way connected with

the act of reproduction. These characters in innumerable instances are

fully developed only at maturity; and often during only a part of the

year, which is always the breeding-season. The males (passing over a few

exceptional cases) are the most active in courtship; they are the best

armed, and are rendered the most attractive in various ways. It is to be

especially observed that the males display their attractions with

elaborate care in the presence of the females; and that they rarely or

never display them excepting during the season of love. It is incredible

that all this display should be purposeless. Lastly we have distinct

evidence with some quadrupeds and birds that the individuals of the one

sex are capable of feeling a strong antipathy or preference for certain

individuals of the opposite sex.

Bearing these facts in mind, and not forgetting the marked results of

man's unconscious selection, it seems to me almost certain that if the

individuals of one sex were during a long series of generations to

prefer pairing with certain individuals of the other sex, characterised

in some peculiar manner, the offspring would slowly but surely become

modified in this same manner. I have not attempted to conceal that,

excepting when the males are more numerous than the females, or when

polygamy prevails, it is doubtful how the more attractive males succeed

in leaving a larger number of offspring to inherit their superiority in

ornaments or other charms than the less attractive males; but I have

shewn that this would probably follow from the females,--especially the

more vigorous females which would be the first to breed, preferring not

only the more attractive but at the same time the more vigorous and

victorious males.

Although we have some positive evidence that birds appreciate bright and

beautiful objects, as with the Bower-birds of Australia, and although

they certainly appreciate the power of song, yet I fully admit that it

is an astonishing fact that the females of many birds and some mammals

should be endowed with sufficient taste for what has apparently been

effected through sexual selection; and this is even more astonishing in

the case of reptiles, fish, and insects. But we really know very little

about the minds of the lower animals. It cannot be supposed that male

Birds of Paradise or Peacocks, for instance, should take so much pains

in erecting, spreading, and vibrating their beautiful plumes before the

females for no purpose. We should remember the fact given on excellent

authority in a former chapter, namely that several peahens, when

debarred from an admired male, remained widows during a whole season

rather than pair with another bird.

Nevertheless I know of no fact in natural history more wonderful than

that the female Argus pheasant should be able to appreciate the

exquisite shading of the ball-and-socket ornaments and the elegant

patterns on the wing-feathers of the male. He who thinks that the male

was created as he now exists must admit that the great plumes, which

prevent the wings from being used for flight, and which, as well as the

primary feathers, are displayed in a manner quite peculiar to this one

species during the act of courtship, and at no other time, were given to

him as an ornament. If so, he must likewise admit that the female was

created and endowed with the capacity of appreciating such ornaments. I

differ only in the conviction that the male Argus pheasant acquired his

beauty gradually, through the females having preferred during many

generations the more highly ornamented males; the aesthetic capacity of

the females having been advanced through exercise or habit in the same

manner as our own taste is gradually improved. In the male, through the

fortunate chance of a few feathers not having been modified, we can

distinctly see how simple spots with a little fulvous shading on one

side might have been developed by small and graduated steps into the

wonderful ball-and-socket ornaments; and it is probable that they were

actually thus developed.

Everyone who admits the principle of evolution, and yet feels great

difficulty in admitting that female mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish,

could have acquired the high standard of taste which is implied by the

beauty of the males, and which generally coincides with our own

standard, should reflect that in each member of the vertebrate series

the nerve-cells of the brain are the direct offshoots of those possessed

by the common progenitor of the whole group. It thus becomes

intelligible that the brain and mental faculties should be capable under

similar conditions of nearly the same course of development, and

consequently of performing nearly the same functions.

The reader who has taken the trouble to go through the several chapters

devoted to sexual selection, will be able to judge how far the

conclusions at which I have arrived are supported by sufficient

evidence. If he accepts these conclusions, he may, I think, safely

extend them to mankind; but it would be superfluous here to repeat what

I have so lately said on the manner in which sexual selection has

apparently acted on both the male and female side, causing the two sexes

of man to differ in body and mind, and the several races to differ from

each other in various characters, as well as from their ancient and

lowly-organised progenitors.

He who admits the principle of sexual selection will be led to the

remarkable conclusion that the cerebral system not only regulates most

of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly influenced the

progressive development of various bodily structures and of certain

mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, strength and size of

body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and instrumental,

bright colours, stripes and marks, and ornamental appendages, have all

been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the

influence of love and jealousy, through the appreciation of the

beautiful in sound, colour or form, and through the exertion of a

choice; and these powers of the mind manifestly depend on the

development of the cerebral system.

Man scans with scrupulous care the character and pedigree of his horses,

cattle, and dogs before he matches them; but when he comes to his own

marriage he rarely, or never, takes any such care. He is impelled by

nearly the same motives as are the lower animals when left to their own

free choice, though he is in so far superior to them that he highly

values mental charms and virtues. On the other hand he is strongly

attracted by mere wealth or rank. Yet he might by selection do something

not only for the bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for

their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from

marriage if in any marked degree inferior in body or mind; but such

hopes are Utopian and will never be even partially realised until the

laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. All do good service who aid

towards this end. When the principles of breeding and of inheritance are

better understood, we shall not hear ignorant members of our legislature

rejecting with scorn a plan for ascertaining by an easy method whether

or not consanguineous marriages are injurious to man.

The advancement of the welfare of mankind is a most intricate problem:

all ought to refrain from marriage who cannot avoid abject poverty for

their children; for poverty is not only a great evil, but tends to its

own increase by leading to recklessness in marriage. On the other hand,

as Mr. Galton has remarked, if the prudent avoid marriage, whilst the

reckless marry, the inferior members will tend to supplant the better

members of society. Man, like every other animal, has no doubt advanced

to his present high condition through a struggle for existence

consequent on his rapid multiplication; and if he is to advance still

higher he must remain subject to a severe struggle. Otherwise he would

soon sink into indolence, and the more highly-gifted men would not be

more successful in the battle of life than the less gifted. Hence our

natural rate of increase, though leading to many and obvious evils, must

not be greatly diminished by any means. There should be open competition

for all men; and the most able should not be prevented by laws or

customs from succeeding best and rearing the largest number of

offspring. Important as the struggle for existence has been and even

still is, yet as far as the highest part of man's nature is concerned

there are other agencies more important. For the moral qualities are

advanced, either directly or indirectly, much more through the effects

of habit, the reasoning powers, instruction, religion, &c., than through

natural selection; though to this latter agency the social instincts,

which afforded the basis for the development of the moral sense, may be

safely attributed.

The main conclusion arrived at in this work, namely that man is

descended from some lowly-organised form, will, I regret to think, be

highly distasteful to many persons. But there can hardly be a doubt that

we are descended from barbarians. The astonishment which I felt on first

seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and broken shore will never be

forgotten by me, for the reflection at once rushed into my mind--such

were our ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with

paint, their long hair was tangled, their mouths frothed with

excitement, and their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful.

They possessed hardly any arts, and like wild animals lived on what they

could catch; they had no government, and were merciless to every one not

of their own small tribe. He who has seen a savage in his native land

will not feel much shame, if forced to acknowledge that the blood of

some more humble creature flows in his veins. For my own part I would as

soon be descended from that heroic little monkey, who braved his dreaded

enemy in order to save the life of his keeper; or from that old baboon,

who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph his young

comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs--as from a savage who delights

to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practises

infanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows no

decency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions.

Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not

through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and

the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally

placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the

distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only

with the truth as far as our reason allows us to discover it. I have

given the evidence to the best of my ability; and we must acknowledge,

as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy

which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not

only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like

intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of

the solar system--with all these exalted powers--Man still bears in his

bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.

[1] Yarrell's 'Hist. of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 417,

425, 436. Dr. Guenther informs me that the spines in _R.

clavata_ are peculiar to the female.

[2] See Mr. R. Warington's interesting articles in 'Annals and

Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Oct. 1852 and Nov. 1855.

[3] Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857.

[4] Loudon's 'Mag. of Natural History,' vol. iii. 1830, p. 331.

[5] 'The Field,' June 29th, 1867. For Mr. Shaw's statement, see

'Edinburgh Review,' 1843. Another experienced observer

(Scrope's 'Days of Salmon Fishing,' p. 60) remarks that the

male would, if he could, keep, like the stag, all other males

away.

[6] Yarrell, 'History of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 10.

[7] 'The Naturalist in Vancouver's Island,' vol. i. 1866, p.

54.

[8] 'Scandinavian Adventures,' vol. i. 1854, p. 100, 104.

[9] See Yarrell's account of the Rays in his 'Hist. of British

Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 416, with an excellent figure, and

p. 422, 432.

[10] As quoted in 'The Farmer,' 1868, p. 369.

[11] I have drawn up this description from Yarrell's 'British

Fishes,' vol. i. 1836, p. 261 and 266.

[12] 'Catalogue of Acanth. Fishes in the British Museum,' by

Dr. Guenther, 1861, p. 138-151.

[13] 'Game Birds of Sweden,' &c., 1867, p. 466.

[14] With respect to this and the following species I am

indebted to Dr. Guenther for information: see also his paper on

the Fishes of Central America, in 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol.

vi. 1868, p. 485.

[15] Dr. Guenther makes this remark; 'Catalogue of Fishes in the

British Museum,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 141.

[16] See Dr. Guenther on this genus, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.'

1868, p. 232.

[17] F. Buckland, in 'Land and Water,' July, 1868, p. 377, with

a figure.

[18] Dr. Guenther, 'Catalogue of Fishes,' vol. iii. p. 221 and

240.

[19] See also 'A Journey in Brazil,' by Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz,

1868, p. 220.

[20] Yarrell, 'British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 10, 12, 35.

[21] W. Thompson, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol.

vi. 1841, p. 440.

[22] 'The American Agriculturist,' 1868, p. 100.

[23] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Oct. 1852.

[24] Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1832, p. 681.

[25] Bory de Saint Vincent, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom.

ix. 1826, p. 151.

[26] Owing to some remarks on this subject, made in my work 'On

the Variation of Animals under Domestication,' Mr. W. F. Mayers

('Chinese Notes and Queries,' Aug. 1868, p. 123) has searched

the ancient Chinese encyclopedias. He finds that goldfish were

first reared in confinement during the Sung Dynasty, which

commenced A.D. 960. In the year 1129 these fishes abounded. In

another place it is said that since the year 1548 there has

been "produced at Hang-chow a variety called the fire-fish,

from its intensely red colour. It is universally admired, and

there is not a household where it is not cultivated, _in

rivalry as to its colour_, and as a source of profit."

[27] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 7.

[28] "Indian Cyprinidae," by Mr. J. M'Clelland, 'Asiatic

Researches,' vol. xix. part ii. 1839, p. 230.

[29] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 327, pl. xiv. and xv.

[30] Yarrell, 'British Fishes,' vol. ii. p. 11.

[31] According to the observations of M. Gerbe; see Guenther's

'Record of Zoolog. Literature,' 1865, p. 194.

[32] Cuvier, 'Regne Animal,' vol. ii. 1829, p. 242.

[33] See Mr. Warington's most interesting description of the

habits of the _Gasterosteus leiurus_, in 'Annals and Mag. of

Nat. Hist.' November, 1855.

[34] Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' Sept.

15, 1857. Also W. Turner, in 'Journal of Anatomy and Phys.'

Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Guenther has likewise described other

cases.

[35] Yarrell, 'Hist. of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 329,

338.

[36] Dr. Guenther, since publishing an account of this species

in 'The Fishes of Zanzibar,' by Col. Playfair, 1866, p. 137,

has re-examined the specimens, and has given me the above

information.

[37] The Rev. C. Kingsley, in 'Nature,' May, 1870, p. 40.

[38] Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd edit. 1849, p.

156-159.

[39] Bell, ibid. p. 146, 151.

[40] 'Zoology of the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1843. "Reptiles,"

by Mr. Bell, p. 49.

[41] 'The Reptiles of India,' by Dr. A. Guenther, Ray Soc. 1864,

p. 413.

[42] Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 1849, p. 93.

[43] J. Bishop, in 'Todd's Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.' vol. iv.

p. 1503.

[44] Bell, ibid. p. 112-114.

[45] Mr. C. J. Maynard, 'The American Naturalist,' Dec. 1869,

p. 555.

[46] See my 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the

"Beagle,"' 1845, p. 384.

[47] 'Travels through Carolina,' &c., 1791, p. 128.

[48] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. 1866, p. 615.

[49] Sir Andrew Smith, 'Zoolog. of S. Africa: Reptilia,' 1849,

pl. x.

[50] Dr. A. Guenther, 'Reptiles of British India,' Ray Soc.

1864, p. 304, 308.

[51] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. 1866, p. 615.

[52] The celebrated botanist Schleiden incidently remarks

('Ueber den Darwinismus: Unsere Zeit,' 1869, s. 269), that

Rattle-snakes use their rattles as a sexual call, by which the

two sexes find each other. I do not know whether this

suggestion rests on any direct observations. These snakes pair

in the Zoological Gardens, but the keepers have never observed

that they use their rattles at this season more than at any

other.

[53] "Rambles in Ceylon," 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' 2nd

series, vol. ix. 1852, p. 333.

[54] 'Westminster Review,' July 1st, 1867, p. 32.

[55] Mr. N. L. Austen kept these animals alive for a

considerable time, see 'Land and Water,' July, 1867, p. 9.

[56] All these statements and quotations, in regard to

Cophotis, Sitana and Draco, as well as the following facts in

regard to Ceratophora, are Footnote: taken from Dr. Guenther's

magnificent work on the 'Reptiles of British India,' Ray Soc.

1864, p. 122, 130, 135.

[57] Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd edit. 1849, p.

40.

[58] For Proctotretus see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the

"Beagle:" Reptiles,' by Mr. Bell, p. 8. For the Lizards of S.

Africa, see 'Zoology of S. Africa: Reptiles,' by Sir Andrew

Smith, pl. 25 and 39. For the Indian Calotes, see 'Reptiles of

British India,' by Dr. Guenther, p. 143.

[59] 'Ibis,' vol. iii. (new series) 1867, p. 414.

[60] Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol.

ii. p. 383.

[61] Quoted by Mr. Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,'

1861, p. 29.

[62] Gould, ibid. p. 52.

[63] W. Thompson, 'Nat. Hist. of Ireland: Birds,' vol. ii.

1850, p. 327.

[64] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' 1863, vol. ii. p. 96.

[65] Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iv. 1852, p.

177-181.

[66] Sir R. Schomburgk, in 'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.' vol.

xiii. 1843, p. 31.

[67] 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 191. For pelicans

and snipes, see vol. iii. p. 381, 477.

[68] Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 395;

vol. ii. p. 383.

[69] Mr. Hewitt in the 'Poultry Book by Tegetmeier,' 1866, p.

137.

[70] Layard, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xiv. 1854, p.

63.

[71] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 574.

[72] Brehm, 'Illust. Thierleben,' 1867, B. iv. s. 351. Some of

the foregoing statements are taken from L. Lloyd, 'The Game

Birds of Sweden,' &c., 1867, p. 79.

[73] Jerdon, 'Birds of India:' on Ithaginis, vol. iii. p. 523;

on Galloperdix, p. 541.

[74] For the Egyptian goose, see Macgillivray, 'British Birds,'

vol. iv. p. 639. For Plectropterus, 'Livingstone's Travels,' p.

254. For Palamedea, Brehm's 'Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 740. See

also on this bird Azara, 'Voyages dans l'Amerique merid.' tom.

iv. 1809, p. 179, 253.

[75] See, on our peewit, Mr. R. Carr in 'Land and Water,' Aug.

8th, 1868, p. 46. In regard to Lobivanellus, see Jerdon's

'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 647, and Gould's 'Handbook of

Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 220. For the Hoplopterus, see

Mr. Allen in the 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 156.

[76] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 492; vol. i. p.

4-13.

[77] Mr. Blyth, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 212.

[78] Richardson, on Tetrao umbellus, 'Fauna Bor. Amer.: Birds,'

1831, p. 343. L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 22,

79, on the capercailzie and black-cock. Brehm, however, asserts

('Thierleben,' &c., B. iv. s. 352) that in Germany the

grey-hens do not generally attend the Balzen of the

black-cocks, but this is an exception to the common rule;

possibly the hens may lie hidden in the surrounding bushes, as

is known to be the case with the grey-hens in Scandinavia, and

with other species in N. America.

[79] 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 275.

[80] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' &c., B. iv. 1867, p. 990. Audubon,

'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 492.

[81] 'Land and Water,' July 25th, 1868, p. 14.

[82] Audubon's 'Ornitholog. Biography;' on Tetrao cupido, vol.

ii. p. 492; on the Sturnus, vol. ii. p. 219.

[83] 'Ornithological Biograph.' vol. v. p. 601.

[84] The Hon. Daines Barrington, 'Philosoph. Transact.' 1773,

p. 252.

[85] 'Ornithological Dictionary,' 1833, p. 475.

[86] 'Naturgeschichte der Stubenvoegel,' 1840, s. 4. Mr.

Harrison Weir likewise writes to me:--"I am informed that the

best singing males generally get a mate first when they are

bred in the same room."

[87] 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 263. White's

'Natural History of Selborne,' vol. i. 1825, p. 246.

[88] 'Naturges. der Stubenvoegel,' 1840, s. 252.

[89] Mr. Bold, 'Zoologist,' 1843-44, p. 659.

[90] D. Barrington, 'Phil. Transact.' 1773, p. 262. Bechstein,

'Stubenvoegel,' 1840, s. 4.

[91] This is likewise the case with the water-ouzel, see Mr.

Hepburn in the 'Zoologist,' 1845-1846, p. 1068.

[92] L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 25.

[93] Barrington, ibid. p. 264. Bechstein, ibid. s. 5.

[94] Dureau de la Malle gives a curious instance ('Annales des

Sc. Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 118) of some wild

blackbirds in his garden in Paris which naturally learnt from a

caged bird a republican air.

[95] Bishop, in 'Todd's Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.' vol. iv. p.

1496.

[96] As stated by Barrington in 'Philosoph. Transact.' 1773, p.

262.

[97] Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865,

p. 308-310. See also Mr. T. W. Wood in the 'Student,' April,

1870, p. 125.

[98] See remarks to this effect in Gould's 'Introduction to the

Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 22.

[99] 'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' by Major W. Ross

King, 1866, p. 144-146. Mr. T. W. Wood gives in the 'Student'

(April, 1870, p. 116) an excellent account of the attitude and

habits of this bird during its courtship. He states that the

ear-tufts or neck-plumes are erected, so that they meet over

the crown of the head.

[100] Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana: Birds,' 1831, p. 359.

Audubon, ibid. vol. iv. p. 507.

[101] The following papers have been lately written on this

subject:--Prof. A. Newton, in the 'Ibis,' 1862, p. 107; Dr.

Cullen, ibid. 1865, p. 145; Mr. Flower, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.'

1865, p. 747; and Dr. Murie, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p.

471. In this latter paper an excellent figure is given of the

male Australian Bustard in full display with the sack

distended.

[102] Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii. p.

284; Wallace, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1850, p. 206. A new

species, with a still larger neck-appendage (_C. penduliger_),

has lately been discovered, see 'Ibis,' vol. i. p. 457.

[103] Bishop, in Todd's 'Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.' vol. iv.

p. 1499.

[104] The spoonbill (Platalea) has its trachea convoluted into

a figure of eight, and yet this bird (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,'

vol. iii. p. 763) is mute; but Mr. Blyth informs me that the

convolutions are not constantly present, so that perhaps they

are now tending towards abortion.

[105] 'Elements of Comp. Anat.' by R. Wagner, Eng. translat.

1845, p. 111. With respect to the swan, as given above,

Yarrell's 'Hist. of British Birds,' 2nd edit. 1845, vol. iii.

p. 193.

[106] C. L. Bonaparte, quoted in the 'Naturalist Library:

Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 126.

[107] L. Lloyd, 'The Game Birds of Sweden,' &c., 1867, p. 22,

81.

[108] Jenner, 'Philosoph. Transactions,' 1824, p. 20.

[109] For the foregoing several facts see, on Birds of

Paradise, Brehm, 'Thierleben,' Band iii. s. 325. On Grouse,

Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americ.: Birds,' p. 343 and 359; Major

W. Ross King, 'The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, p. 156; Audubon,

'American Ornitholog. Biograph.' vol. i. p. 216. On the

Kalij pheasant, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 533. On

the Weavers, 'Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865,

p. 425. On Woodpeckers, Macgillivray, 'Hist. of British Birds,'

vol. iii. 1840, p. 84, 88, 89, and 95. On the Hoopoe, Mr.

Swinhoe, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' June 23, 1863. On the

Night-Jar, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 255. The English

Night-Jar likewise makes in the spring a curious noise during

its rapid flight.

[110] See M. Meves' interesting paper in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.'

1858, p. 199. For the habits of the snipe, Macgillivray, 'Hist.

British Birds,' vol. iv. p. 371. For the American snipe, Capt.

Blakiston, 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 131.

[111] Mr. Salvin, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1867, p. 160. I am much

indebted to this distinguished ornithologist for sketches of

the feathers of the Chamaepetes, and for other information.

[112] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 618, 621.

[113] Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 49.

Salvin, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1867, p. 160.

[114] Sclater, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1860, p. 90, and in

'Ibis,' vol. iv. 1862, p. 175. Also Salvin, in 'Ibis,' 1860, p.

37.

[115] 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 203.

[116] For Tetrao phasianellus, see Richardson, 'Fauna Bor.

America,' p. 361, and for further particulars Capt. Blakiston,

'Ibis,' 1863, p. 125. For the Cathartes and Ardea, Audubon,

'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 51, and vol. iii. p. 89. On

the White-throat, Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. ii.

p. 354. On the Indian Bustard, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol.

iii. p. 618.

[117] Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p.

444, 449, 455. The bower of the Satin Bower-bird may always be

seen in the Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park.

[118] See remarks to this effect, on the "Feeling of Beauty

among Animals," by Mr. J. Shaw, in the 'Athenaeum,' Nov. 24th,

1866, p. 681.

[119] Mr. Monteiro, 'Ibis,' vol. iv. 1862, p. 339.

[120] 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 217.

[121] Jardine's 'Naturalist Library: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 166.

[122] Sclater, in the 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 114.

Livingstone, 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 66.

[123] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 620.

[124] Wallace, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xx.

1857, p. 416; and in his 'Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p.

390.

[125] See my work on 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. i. p. 289, 293.

[126] Quoted from M. de Lafresnaye, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat.

Hist.' vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157: see also Mr. Wallace's much

fuller account in vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and in his Malay

Archipelago.

[127] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 405.

[128] Mr. Sclater, 'Intellectual Observer,' Jan. 1867.

'Waterton's Wanderings,' p. 118. See also Mr. Salvin's

interesting paper, with a plate, in the 'Ibis,' 1865, p. 90.

[129] 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 394.

[130] Mr. D. G. Elliot, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 589.

[131] 'Nitzsch's Pterylography,' edited by P. L. Sclater. Ray

Soc. 1867, p. 14.

[132] The brown mottled summer plumage of the ptarmigan is of

as much importance to it, as a protection, as the white winter

plumage; for in Scandinavia, during the spring, when the snow

has disappeared, this bird is known to suffer greatly from

birds of prey, before it has acquired its summer dress: see

Wilhelm von Wright, in Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p.

125.

[133] In regard to the previous statements on moulting, see, on

snipes, &c., Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iv. p.

371; on Glareolae, curlews, and bustards, Jerdon, 'Birds of

India,' vol. iii. p. 615, 630, 683; on Totanus, ibid, p. 700;

on the plumes of herons, ibid, p. 738, and Macgillivray, vol.

iv. p. 435 and 444, and Mr. Stafford Allen, in the 'Ibis,' vol.

v. 1863, p. 33.

[134] On the moulting of the ptarmigan, see Gould's 'Birds of

Great Britain.' On the honey-suckers, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,'

vol. i. p. 359, 365, 369. On the moulting of Anthus, see Blyth,

in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 32.

[135] For the foregoing statements in regard to partial moults,

and on old males retaining their nuptial plumage, see Jerdon,

on bustards and plovers, in 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 617,

637, 709, 711. Also Blyth in 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 84. On

the Vidua, 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. On the Drongo

shrikes, Jerdon, ibid. vol. i. p. 435. On the vernal moult of

the _Herodias bubulcus_, Mr. S. S. Allen, in 'Ibis,' 1863, p.

33. On _Gallus bankiva_, Blyth, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat.

Hist.' vol. i. 1848, p. 455; see, also, on this subject, my

'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 236.

[136] See Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds' (vol. v. p. 34,

70, and 223), on the moulting of the Anatidae, with quotations

from Waterton and Montagu. Also Yarrell, 'Hist. of British

Birds,' vol. iii. p. 243.

[137] On the pelican, see Sclater, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868,

p. 265. On the American finches, see Audubon, 'Ornith.

Biography,' vol. i. p. 174, 221, and Jerdon, 'Birds of India,'

vol. ii. p. 383. On the _Fringilla cannabina_ of Madeira, Mr.

E. Vernon Harcourt, 'Ibis,' vol. v., 1863, p. 230.

[138] See also 'Ornamental Poultry,' by Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848,

p. 8.

[139] 'Birds of India,' introduct. vol. i. p. xxiv.; on the

peacock, vol. iii. p. 507. See Gould's 'Introduction to the

Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 15 and 111.

[140] 'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.' vol. x. 1840, p. 236.

[141] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157;

also Wallace, ibid. vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and 'The Malay

Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 252. Also Dr. Bennett, as

quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iii. s. 326.

[142] Mr. T. W. Wood has given ('The Student,' April, 1870, p.

115) a full account of this manner of display, which he calls

the lateral or one-sided, by the gold pheasant and by the

Japanese pheasant, _Ph. versicolor_.

[143] The Reign of Law,' 1867, p. 263.

[144] For the description of these birds, see Gould's 'Handbook

to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, p. 417.

[145] 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 96.

[146] On the Cosmetornis, see Livingstone's 'Expedition to the

Zambesi,' 1865, p. 66. On the Argus pheasant, Jardine's 'Nat.

Hist. Lib.: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 167. On Birds of Paradise,

Lesson, quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iii. s. 325. On the

widow-bird, Barrow's 'Travels in Africa,' vol. i. p. 243, and

'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. Mr. Gould, on the shyness of

male birds, 'Handbook to Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, p.

210, 457.

[147] Tegetmeier, 'The Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 139.

[148] Nordmann describes ('Bull. Soc. Imp. des Nat. Moscow,'

1861, tom. xxxiv. p. 264) the balzen of _Tetrao urogalloides_

in Amur Land. He estimated the number of assembled males at

above a hundred, the females, which lie hid in the surrounding

bushes, not being counted. The noises uttered differ from those

of the _T. urogallus_ or the capercailzie.

[149] With respect to the assemblages of the above named grouse

see Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 350; also L. Lloyd, 'Game

Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 19, 78. Richardson, 'Fauna Bor.

Americana,' Birds, p. 362. References in regard to the

assemblages of other birds have previously been given. On

Paradisea see Wallace, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol.

xx. 1857, p. 412. On the snipe, Lloyd, ibid. p. 221.

[150] Quoted by Mr. T. W. Wood in the 'Student,' April, 1870,

p. 125.

[151] Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 300,

308, 448, 451. On the ptarmigan, above alluded to, see Lloyd,

ibid. p. 129.

[152] On magpies, Jenner, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1824, p. 21.

Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. i. p. 570. Thompson,

in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. viii. 1842, p. 494.

[153] On the peregrine falcon see Thompson, 'Nat. Hist. of

Ireland: Birds,' vol. i. 1849, p. 39. On owls, sparrows, and

partridges, see White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' edit. of 1825,

vol. i. p. 139. On the Phoenicura, see Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat.

Hist.' vol. vii. 1834, p. 245. Brehm, ('Thierleben,' B. iv. s.

991) also alludes to cases of birds thrice mated during same

day.

[154] See White ('Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' 1825, vol. i. p.

140) on the existence, early in the season, of small coveys of

male partridges, of which fact I have heard other instances.

See Jenner, on the retarded state of the generative organs in

certain birds, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1824. In regard to birds

living in triplets, I owe to Mr. Jenner Weir the cases of the

starling and parrots, and to Mr. Fox, of partridges; on

carrion-crows, see the 'Field,' 1868, p. 415. On various male

birds singing after the proper period, see Rev. L. Jenyns,

'Observations in Natural History,' 1846, p. 87.

[155] The following case has been given ('The Times,' Aug. 6th,

1868) by the Rev. F. O. Morris, on the authority of the Hon.

and Rev. O. W. Forester. "The gamekeeper here found a hawk's

nest this year, with five young ones in it. He took four and

killed them, but left one with its wings clipped as a decoy to

destroy the old ones by. They were both shot next day, in the

act of feeding the young one, and the keeper thought it was

done with. The next day he came again and found two other

charitable hawks, who had come with an adopted feeling to

succour the orphan. These two he killed, and then left the

nest. On returning afterwards he found two more charitable

individuals on the same errand of mercy. One of these he

killed; the other he also shot, but could not find. No more

came on the like fruitless errand."

[156] For instance, Mr. Yarrell states ('Hist. British Birds,'

vol. iii. 1845, p. 585) that a gull was not able to swallow a

small bird which had been given to it. The gull "paused for a

moment, and then, as if suddenly recollecting himself, ran off

at full speed to a pan of water, shook the bird about in it

until well soaked, and immediately gulped it down. Since that

time he invariably has had recourse to the same expedient in

similar cases."

[157] 'A Tour in Sutherlandshire,' vol. i. 1849, p. 185.

[158] 'Acclimatization of Parrots,' by C. Buxton, M.P. 'Annals

and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Nov. 1868, p. 381.

[159] 'The Zoologist,' 1847-1848, p. 1602.

[160] Hewitt on wild ducks, 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 13,

1863, p. 39. Audubon on the wild turkey, 'Ornith. Biography,'

vol. i. p. 14. On the mocking thrush, ibid. vol. i. p. 110.

[161] The 'Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 344.

[162] On the ornamented nests of humming-birds, Gould,

'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 19. On the

bower-birds, Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' 1865,

vol. i. p. 444-461. Mr. Ramsay in the 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 456.

[163] 'Hist. of British Birds,' vol. ii. p. 92.

[164] 'Zoologist,' 1853-1854, p. 3946.

[165] Waterton, 'Essays on Nat. Hist.' 2nd series, p. 42, 117.

For the following statements, see on the wigeon, Loudon's 'Mag.

of Nat. Hist.' vol. ix. p. 616; L. Lloyd, 'Scandinavian

Adventures,' vol. i. 1854, p. 452; Dixon, 'Ornamental and

Domestic Poultry,' p. 137; Hewitt, in 'Journal of

Horticulture,' Jan. 13, 1863, p. 40; Bechstein. 'Stubenvoegel,'

1840, s. 230.

[166] Audubon, 'Ornitholog. Biography,' vol. i. p. 191, 349;

vol. ii. p. 42, 275; vol. iii. p. 2.

[167] 'Rare and Prize Poultry,' 1854, p. 27.

[168] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 103.

[169] Boitard and Corbie, 'Les Pigeons,' 1824, p. 12. Prosper

Lucas ('Traite de l'Hered. Nat.' tom. ii. 1850, p. 296) has

himself observed nearly similar facts with pigeons.

[170] 'Die Taubenzucht,' 1824, s. 86.

[171] 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 13.

[172] 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1835, p. 54. The japanned peacock is

considered by Mr. Sclater as a distinct species, and has been

named _Pavo nigripennis_.

[173] Rudolphi, 'Beytraege zur Anthropologie,' 1812, s. 184.

[174] 'Die Darwin'sche Theorie, und ihre Stellung zu Moral und

Religion,' 1869, s. 59.

[175] In regard to peafowl, see Sir R. Heron, 'Proc. Zoolog.

Soc.' 1835, p. 54, and the Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental

Poultry,' 1848, p. 8. For the turkey, Audubon, ibid. p. 4. For

the capercailzie, Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 23.

[176] Mr. Hewitt, quoted in 'Tegetmeier's Poultry Book,' 1866,

p. 165.

[177] Quoted in Lloyd's 'Game Birds of Sweden,' p. 345.

[178] According to Dr. Blasius ('Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 297),

there are 425 indubitable species of birds which breed in

Europe, besides 60 forms, which are frequently regarded as

distinct species. Of the latter, Blasius thinks that only ten

are really doubtful, and that the other fifty ought to be

united with their nearest allies; but this shews that there

must be a considerable amount of variation with some of our

European birds. It is also an unsettled point with naturalists,

whether several North American birds ought to be ranked as

specifically distinct from the corresponding European species.

[179] 'Origin of Species,' fifth edit. 1869, p. 104. I had

always perceived, that rare and strongly-marked deviations of

structure, deserving to be called monstrosities, could seldom

be preserved through natural selection, and that the

preservation of even highly-beneficial variations would depend

to a certain extent on chance. I had also fully appreciated the

importance of mere individual differences, and this led me to

insist so strongly on the importance of that unconscious form

of selection by man, which follows from the preservation of the

most valued individuals of each breed, without any intention on

his part to modify the characters of the breed. But until I

read an able article in the 'North British Review' (March,

1867, p. 289, _et seq._), which has been of more use to me than

any other Review, I did not see how great the chances were

against the preservation of variations, whether slight or

strongly pronounced, occurring only in single individuals.

[180] 'Introduct. to the Trochilidae,' p. 102.

[181] Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 32

and 68.

[182] Audubon, 'Ornitholog. Biography,' 1838, vol. iv. p. 389.

[183] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 108; and Mr. Blyth,

in 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 381.

[184] Graba, 'Tagebuch, Reise nach Faero,' 1830, s. 51-54.

Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. iii. p. 745. 'Ibis,'

vol. v. 1863, p. 469.

[185] Graba, ibid. s. 54. Macgillivray, ibid. vol. v. p. 327.

[186] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.'

vol. ii. p. 92.

[187] On these points see also 'Variation of Animals and Plants

under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 253; vol. ii. p. 73, 75.

[188] See, for instance, on the irides of a Podica and

Gallicrex in 'Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 206; and vol. v. 1863,

p. 426.

[189] See also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 243-245.

[190] 'Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle,' 1841, p. 6.

[191] Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' B. iv. 1795,

s. 31, on a sub-variety of the Monck pigeon.

[192] This woodcut has been engraved from a beautiful drawing,

most kindly made for me by Mr. Trimen; see also his description

of the wonderful amount of variation in the coloration and

shape of the wings of this butterfly, in his, 'Rhopalocera

Africae Australis,' p. 186. See also an interesting paper by the

Rev. H. H. Higgins, on the origin of the ocelli in the

Lepidoptera in the 'Quarterly Journal of Science,' July, 1868,

p. 325.

[193] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 517.

[194] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'

vol. i. p. 254.

[195] When the Argus pheasant displays his wing-feathers like a

great fan, those nearest to the body stand more upright than

the outer ones, so that the shading of the ball-and-socket

ocelli ought to be slightly different on the different

feathers, in order to bring out their full effect, relatively

to the incidence of the light. Mr. T. W. Wood, who has the

experienced eye of an artist, asserts ('Field,' Newspaper, May

28, 1870, p. 457) that this is the case; but after carefully

examining two mounted specimens (the proper feathers from one

having been given to me by Mr. Gould for more accurate

comparison) I cannot perceive that this acme of perfection in

the shading has been attained; nor can others to whom I have

shewn these feathers recognise the fact.

[196] 'The Reign of Law,' 1867, p. 247.

[197] 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 110.

[198] Fourth edition, 1866, p. 241.

[199] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867. 'Journal of Travel,'

vol. i. 1868, p. 73.

[200] Temminck says that the tail of the female _Phasianus

Soemmerringii_ is only six inches long, 'Planches

coloriees,' vol. v. 1838, p. 487 and 488: the measurements

above given were made for me by Mr. Sclater. For the common

pheasant, see Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. i. p.

118-121.

[201] Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.

[202] Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1793, B. iii. s.

339.

[203] Daines Barrington, however, thought it probable ('Phil.

Transact.' 1773, p. 164) that few female birds sing, because

the talent would have been dangerous to them during incubation.

He adds, that a similar view may possibly account for the

inferiority of the female to the male in plumage.

[204] Mr. Ramsay, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 50.

[205] 'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868,

p. 78.

[206] 'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868,

p. 281.

[207] Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 233.

[208] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 108. Gould's

'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 463.

[209] For instance, the female _Eupetomena macroura_ has the

head and tail dark blue with reddish loins; the female

_Lampornis porphyrurus_ is blackish-green on the upper surface,

with the lores and sides of the throat crimson; the female

_Eulampis jugularis_ has the top of the head and back green,

but the loins and the tail are crimson. Many other instances of

highly conspicuous females could be given. See Mr. Gould's

magnificent work on this family.

[210] Mr. Salvin noticed in Guatemala ('Ibis,' 1864, p. 375)

that humming-birds were much more unwilling to leave their

nests during very hot weather, when the sun was shining

brightly, than during cool, cloudy, or rainy weather.

[211] I may specify, as instances of obscurely-coloured birds

building concealed nests, the species belonging to eight

Australian genera, described in Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds

of Australia,' vol. i. p. 340, 362, 365, 383, 387, 389, 391,

414.

[212] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 244.

[213] On the nidification and colours of these latter species,

see Gould's 'Handbook,' &c., vol. i. p. 504, 527.

[214] I have consulted, on this subject, Macgillivray's

'British Birds,' and though doubts may be entertained in some

cases in regard to the degree of concealment of the nest, and

of the degree of conspicuousness of the female, yet the

following birds, which all lay their eggs in holes or in domed

nests, can hardly be considered, according to the above

standard, as conspicuous: Passer, 2 species; Sturnus, of which

the female is considerably less brilliant than the male;

Cinclus; Motacilla boarula (?); Erithacus (?); Fruticola, 2

sp.; Saxicola; Ruticilla, 2 sp.; Sylvia, 3 sp.; Parus, 3 sp.;

Mecistura; Anorthura; Certhia; Sitta; Yunx; Muscicapa, 2 sp.;

Hirundo, 3 sp.; and Cypselus. The females of the following 12

birds may be considered as conspicuous according to the same

standard, viz., Pastor, Motacilla alba, Parus major and P.

caeruleus, Upupa, Picus, 4 sp., Coracias, Alcedo, and Merops.

[215] 'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. p. 78.

[216] See many statements in the 'Ornithological Biography.'

See, also, some curious observations on the nests of Italian

birds by Eugenio Bettoni, in the 'Atti della Societa Italiana,'

vol. xi. 1869, p. 487.

[217] See his 'Monograph of the Trogonidae,' first edition.

[218] Namely Cyanalcyon. Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of

Australia,' vol. i. p. 133; see, also, p. 130, 136.

[219] Every gradation of difference between the sexes may be

followed in the parrots of Australia. See Gould's 'Handbook,'

&c., vol. ii. p. 14-102.

[220] Macgillivray's 'British Birds,' vol. ii. p. 433. Jerdon,

'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 282.

[221] All the following facts are taken from M. Malherbe's

magnificent 'Monographie des Picidees,' 1861.

[222] Audubon's 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 75; see

also the 'Ibis,' vol. i. p. 268.

[223] Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p.

109-149.

[224] See remarks to this effect in my work on 'Variation under

Domestication,' vol. ii. chap, xii.

[225] The 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 122.

[226] On Ardetta, Translation of Cuvier's 'Regne Animal,' by

Mr. Blyth, footnote, p. 159. On the Peregrine Falcon, Mr.

Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p.

304. On Dicrurus, 'Ibis,' 1863, p. 44. On the Platalea, 'Ibis,'

vol. vi. 1864, p. 366. On the Bombycilla, Audubon's

'Ornitholog. Biography,' vol. i. p. 229. On the Palaeornis, see,

also, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 263. On the wild

turkey, Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 15: I hear from Judge Caton

that in Illinois the female very rarely acquires a tuft.

[227] Mr. Blyth has recorded (Translation of Cuvier's 'Regne

Animal,' p. 158) various instances with Lanius, Ruticilla,

Linaria, and Anas. Audubon has also recorded a similar case

('Ornith. Biog.' vol. v. p. 519) with _Tyranga aestiva_.

[228] See Gould's 'Birds of Great Britain.'

[229] In regard to thrushes, shrikes, and woodpeckers, see Mr.

Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p.

304; also footnote to his translation of Cuvier's 'Regne

Animal,' p. 159. I give the case of Loxia from Mr. Blyth's

information. On thrushes, see also Audubon, 'Ornith.

Biography,' vol. ii. p. 195. On Chrysococcyx and Chalcophaps,

Blyth, as quoted in Jerdon's 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p.

485. On Sarkidiornis, Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 175.

[230] See, for instance, Mr. Gould's account ('Handbook of the

Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 133) of Cyanalcyon (one of the

Kingfishers) in which, however, the young male, though

resembling the adult female, is less brilliantly coloured. In

some species of Dacelo the males have blue tails, and the

females brown ones; and Mr. R. B. Sharpe informs me that the

tail of the young male of _D. Gaudichaudi_ is at first brown.

Mr. Gould has described (ibid. vol. ii. p. 14, 20, 37) the

sexes and the young of certain Black Cockatoos and of the King

Lory, with which the same rule prevails. Also Jerdon ('Birds of

India,' vol. i. p. 260) on the _Palaeornis rosa_, in which the

young are more like the female than the male. See Audubon

('Ornith. Biograph.' vol. ii. p. 475) on the two sexes and the

young of _Columba passerina_.

[231] I owe this information to Mr. Gould who shewed me the

specimens; see also his 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861,

p. 120.

[232] Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. v. p. 207-214.

[233] See his admirable paper in the 'Journal of the Asiatic

Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xix. 1850, p. 223; see also Jerdon,

'Birds of India,' vol. i. introduction, p. xxix. In regard to

Tanysiptera, Prof. Schlegel told Mr. Blyth that he could

distinguish several distinct races, solely by comparing the

adult males.

[234] See also Mr. Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' July, 1863, p. 131; and

a previous paper, with an extract from a note by Mr. Blyth, in

'Ibis,' Jan. 1861, p. 52.

[235] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 394.

[236] These species are described, with coloured figures, by M.

F. Pollen, in 'Ibis,' 1866, p. 275.

[237] 'Variation of Animals, &c., under Domestication,' vol. i.

p. 251.

[238] Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. i. p. 172-174.

[239] See, on this subject, chap. xxiii. in the 'Variation of

Animals and Plants under Domestication.'

[240] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 193.

Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iii. p. 85. See also

the case before given of _Indopicus carlotta_.

[241] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, and A. Murray, 'Journal

of Travel,' 1868, p. 83.

[242] For the Australian species, see Gould's 'Handbook,' &c.,

vol. ii. p. 178, 180, 186, and 188. In the British Museum

specimens of the Australian Plain-wanderer (_Pedionomus

torquatus_) may be seen, shewing similar sexual differences.

[243] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 596. Mr. Swinhoe,

in 'Ibis,' 1865, p. 542; 1866, p. 131, 405.

[244] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 677.

[245] Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p.

275.

[246] 'The Indian Field,' Sept. 1858, p. 3.

[247] 'Ibis,' 1866, p. 298.

[248] For these several statements, see Mr. Gould's 'Birds of

Great Britain.' Prof. Newton informs me that he has long been

convinced, from his own observations and from those of others,

that the males of the above-named species take either the whole

or a large share of the duties of incubation, and that they

"shew much greater devotion towards their young, when in

danger, than do the females." So it is, as he informs me, with

_Limosa lapponica_ and some few other Waders, in which the

females are larger and have more strongly contrasted colours

than the males.

[249] The natives of Ceram (Wallace, 'Malay Archipelago,' vol.

ii. p. 150) assert that the male and female sit alternately on

the eggs; but this assertion, as Mr. Bartlett thinks, may be

accounted for by the female visiting the nest to lay her eggs.

[250] 'The Student,' April, 1870, p. 124.

[251] See the excellent account of the habits of this bird

under confinement, by Mr. A. W. Bennett, in 'Land and Water,'

May, 1868, p. 233.

[252] Mr. Sclater, on the incubation of the Struthiones, 'Proc.

Zoo. Soc.,' June 9, 1863.

[253] For the Milvago, see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the

"Beagle,"' Birds, 1841, p. 16. For the Climacteris and

nightjar (Eurostopodus), see Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of

Australia,' vol. i. p. 602 and 97. The New Zealand shieldrake

(_Tadorna variegata_) offers a quite anomalous case: the head

of the female is pure white, and her back is redder than that

of the male; the head of the male is of a rich dark bronzed

colour, and his back is clothed with finely pencilled

slate-coloured feathers, so that he may altogether be

considered as the more beautiful of the two. He is larger and

more pugnacious than the female, and does not sit on the eggs.

So that in all these respects this species comes under our

first class of cases; but Mr. Sclater ('Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1866,

p. 150) was much surprised to observe that the young of both

sexes, when about three months old, resembled in their dark

heads and necks the adult males, instead of the adult females;

so that it would appear in this case that the females have been

modified, whilst the males and the young have retained a former

state of plumage.

[254] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 598.

[255] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 222, 228. Gould's

'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 124, 130.

[256] Gould, Ibid. vol. ii. p. 37, 46, 56.

[257] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 55.

[258] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'

vol. ii. p. 79.

[259] Charlesworth, 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p. 305,

306.

[260] 'Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.' vol. x. 1869,

p. 132. The young of the Polish swan, _Cygnus immutabilis_ of

Yarrell, are always white; but this species, as Mr. Sclater

informs me, is believed to be nothing more than a variety of

the Domestic Swan (_Cygnus olor_).

[261] I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to

this genus. The sparrow of Palestine belongs to the sub-genus

Petronia.

[262] For instance, the males of _Tanagra aestiva_ and

_Fringilla cyanea_ require three years, the male of _Fringilla

ciris_ four years, to complete their beautiful plumage. (See

Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 233, 280, 378.) The

Harlequin duck takes three years (ibid. vol. iii. p. 614). The

male of the Gold pheasant, as I hear from Mr. J. Jenner Weir,

can be distinguished from the female when about three months

old, but he does not acquire his full splendour until the end

of the September in the following year.

[263] Thus the _Ibis tantalus_ and _Grus Americanus_ take four

years, the Flamingo several years, and the _Ardea Ludovicana_

two years, before they acquire their perfect plumage. See

Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 221; vol. iii. p. 133, 139, 211.

[264] Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i.

1837, p. 300. Mr. Bartlett has informed me in regard to

gold-pheasants.

[265] I have noticed the following cases in Audubon's 'Ornith.

Biography. The Redstart of America' (_Muscicapa ruticilla_,

vol. i. p. 203). The _Ibis tantalus_ takes four years to come

to full maturity, but sometimes breeds in the second year (vol.

iii. p. 133). The _Grus Americanus_ takes the same time, but

breeds before acquiring its full plumage (vol. iii. p. 211).

The adults of _Ardea caerulea_ are blue and the young white; and

white, mottled, and mature blue birds may all be seen breeding

together (vol. iv. p. 58): but Mr. Blyth informs me that

certain herons apparently are dimorphic, for white and coloured

individuals of the same age may be observed. The Harlequin duck

(_Anas histrionica_, Linn.) takes three years to acquire its

full plumage, though many birds breed in the second year (vol.

iii. p. 614). The White-headed Eagle (_Falco leucocephalus_,

vol. iii. p. 210) is likewise known to breed in its immature

state. Some species of Oriolus (according to Mr. Blyth and Mr.

Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' July, 1863, p. 68) likewise breed before

they attain their full plumage.

[266] See the last footnote.

[267] Other animals, belonging to quite distinct classes, are

either habitually or occasionally capable of breeding before

they have fully acquired their adult characters. This is the

case with the young males of the salmon. Several amphibians

have been known to breed whilst retaining their larval

structure. Fritz Mueller has shewn ('Facts and Arguments for

Darwin,' Eng. trans. 1869, p. 79) that the males of several

amphipod crustaceans become sexually mature whilst young; and I

infer that this is a case of premature breeding, because they

have not as yet acquired their fully-developed claspers. All

such facts are highly interesting, as bearing on one means by

which species may undergo great modifications of character, in

accordance with Mr. Cope's views, expressed under the terms of

the "retardation and acceleration of generic characters;" but I

cannot follow the views of this eminent naturalist to their

full extent. See Mr. Cope, "On the Origin of Genera," from the

'Proc. of Acad. Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia,' Oct. 1868.

[268] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 507, on the

peacock. Audubon, ibid. vol. iii. p. 139, on the Ardea.

[269] For illustrative cases see vol. iv. of Macgillivray's

'Hist. Brit. Birds;' on Tringa, &c., p. 229, 271; on the

Machetes, p. 172; on the _Charadrius hiaticula_, p. 118; on the

_Charadrius pluvialis_, p. 94.

[270] For the goldfinch of N. America, _Fringilla tristis_,

Linn., see Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 172. For

the Maluri, Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol.

i. p. 318.

[271] I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to

the Buphus; see also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p.

749. On the Anastomus, see Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 173.

[272] On the Alca, see Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol.

v. p. 347. On the _Fringilla leucophrys_, Audubon, ibid. vol.

ii. p. 89. I shall have hereafter to refer to the young of

certain herons and egrets being white.

[273] 'History of British Birds,' vol. i. 1839, p. 159.

[274] Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i.

1837, p. 362; and from information given to me by him.

[275] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 113.

[276] Mr. C. A. Wright, in 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 65.

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 515.

[277] The following additional cases may be mentioned: the

young males of _Tanagra rubra_ can be distinguished from the

young females (Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. iv. p. 392),

and so it is with the nestlings of a blue nuthatch,

_Dendrophila frontalis_ of India (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,'

vol. i. p. 389). Mr. Blyth also informs me that the sexes of

the stonechat, _Saxicola rubicola_, are distinguishable at a

very early age.

[278] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 5.

[279] 'Ibis,' 1859, vol. i. p. 429, _et seq._

[280] No satisfactory explanation has ever been offered of the

immense size, and still less of the bright colours, of the

toucan's beak. Mr. Bates ('The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol.

ii. 1863, p. 341) states that they use their beak for reaching

fruit at the extreme tips of the branches; and likewise, as

stated by other authors, for extracting eggs and young birds

from the nests of other birds. But as Mr. Bates admits, the

beak "can scarcely be considered a very perfectly-formed

instrument for the end to which it is applied." The great bulk

of the beak, as shewn by its breadth, depth, as well as length,

is not intelligible on the view, that it serves merely as an

organ of prehension.

[281] Ramphastos carinatus, Gould's 'Monograph of Ramphastidae.'

[282] On Larus, Gavia, and Sterna, see Macgillivray, 'Hist.

Brit. Birds,' vol. v. p. 515, 584, 626. On the Anser

hyperboreus, Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. iv. p. 562. On

the Anastomus, Mr. Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 173.

[283] It may be noticed that with vultures, which roam far and

wide through the higher regions of the atmosphere, like marine

birds over the ocean, three or four species are almost wholly

or largely white, and many other species are black. This fact

supports the conjecture that these conspicuous colours may aid

the sexes in finding each other during the breeding-season.

[284] 'The Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i.

1868, p. 286.

[285] See Jerdon on the genus Palaeornis, 'Birds of India,' vol.

i. p. 258-260.

[286] The young of _Ardea rufescens_ and _A. caerulea_ of the

U. States are likewise white, the adults being coloured in

accordance with their specific names. Audubon ('Ornith.

Biography,' vol. iii. p. 416; vol. iv. p. 58) seems rather

pleased at the thought that this remarkable change of plumage

will greatly "disconcert the systematists."

[287] I am greatly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Sclater for

having looked over these four chapters on birds, and the two

following ones on mammals. By this means I have been saved from

making mistakes about the names of the species, and from giving

any facts which are actually known to this distinguished

naturalist to be erroneous. But of course he is not at all

answerable for the accuracy of the statements quoted by me from

various authorities.

[288] See Waterton's account of two hares fighting,

'Zoologist,' vol. i. 1843, p. 211. On moles, Bell, 'Hist. of

British Quadrupeds,' 1st edit. p. 100. On squirrels, Audubon

and Bachman, 'Viviparous Quadrupeds of N. America,' 1846, p.

269. On beavers, Mr. A. H. Green, in 'Journal of Lin. Soc.

Zoolog.' vol. x. 1869, p. 362.

[289] On the battles of seals, see Capt. C. Abbott in 'Proc.

Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 191; also Mr. R. Brown, ibid. 1869, p.

436; also L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 412; also

Pennant. On the sperm-whale, see Mr. J. H. Thompson, in 'Proc.

Zool. Soc.' 1867, p. 246.

[290] See Scrope ('Art of Deer-stalking,' p. 17) on the locking

of the horns with the Cervus elephas. Richardson, in 'Fauna

Bor. Americana,' 1829, p. 252, says that the wapiti, moose, and

reindeer have been found thus locked together. Sir A. Smith

found at the Cape of Good Hope the skeletons of two gnus in the

same condition.

[291] Mr. Lamont ('Seasons with the Sea-Horses,' 1861, p. 143)

says that a good tusk of the male walrus weighs 4 pounds, and

is longer than that of the female, which weighs about 3 pounds.

The males are described as fighting ferociously. On the

occasional absence of the tusks in the female, see Mr. R.

Brown, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 429.

[292] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 283.

[293] Mr. R. Brown, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 553.

[294] Owen on the Cachalot and Ornithorhynchus, ibid. vol. iii.

p. 638, 641.

[295] On the structure and shedding of the horns of the

reindeer, Hoffberg, 'Amoenitates Acad.' vol. iv. 1788, p.

149. See Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' p. 241, in regard

to the American variety or species; also Major W. Ross King,

'The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, p. 80.

[296] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 'Essais de Zoolog.

Generale,' 1841 p. 513. Other masculine characters, besides the

horns, are sometimes similarly transferred to the female; thus

Mr. Boner, in speaking of an old female chamois ('Chamois

Hunting in the Mountains of Bavaria,' 1860, 2nd edit. p. 363),

says, "not only was the head very male-looking, but along the

back there was a ridge of long hair, usually to be found only

in bucks."

[297] On the Cervulus, Dr. Gray, 'Catalogue of the Mammalia in

British Museum,' part iii. p. 220. On the _Cervus Canadensis_

or Wapiti see Hon. J. D. Caton, 'Ottawa Acad. of Nat.

Sciences,' May, 1868, p. 9.

[298] For instance the horns of the female _Ant. Euchore_

resemble those of a distinct species, viz. the _Ant. Dorcas_

var. _Corine_, see Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 455.

[299] Gray, 'Catalogue Mamm. Brit. Mus.' part iii. 1852, p.

160.

[300] Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' p. 278.

[301] 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 346.

[302] Sir Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' pl. xix. Owen,

'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 624.

[303] Sir J. Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 274.

For Malacca, 'Journal of Indian Archipelago,' vol. iv. p. 357.

[304] 'Calcutta Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. 1843, p. 526.

[305] Mr. Blyth, in 'Land and Water,' March, 1867, p. 134, on

the authority of Capt. Hutton and others. For the wild

Pembrokeshire goats see the 'Field,' 1869, p. 150.

[306] M. E. M. Bailly, "sur l'usage des Cornes," &c., 'Annal.

des Sc. Nat.' tom. ii. 1824, p. 369.

[307] Owen, on the Horns of Red-deer, 'British Fossil Mammals,'

1846, p. 478; 'Forest Creatures,' by Charles Boner, 1861, p.

76, 62. Richardson on the Horns of the Reindeer, 'Fauna Bor.

Americana,' 1829, p. 210.

[308] Hon. J. D. Caton ('Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Science,' May,

1868, p. 9), says that the American deer fight with their

fore-feet, after "the question of superiority has been once

settled and acknowledged in the herd." Bailly, "Sur l'usage des

Cornes," 'Annales des Sc. Nat.' tom. ii. 1824, p. 371.

[309] See a most interesting account in the Appendix to Hon. J.

D. Caton's paper, as above quoted.

[310] 'The American Naturalist,' Dec. 1869, p. 552.

[311] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoologica,' fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18.

[312] Lamont, 'Seasons with the Sea-Horses,' 1861, p. 141.

[313] See also Corse ('Philosoph. Transact.' 1799, p. 212) on

the manner in which the short-tusked Mooknah variety of the

elephant attacks other elephants.

[314] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 349.

[315] See Rueppell (in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' Jan. 12, 1836, p. 3)

on the canines in deer and antelopes, with a note by Mr. Martin

on a female American deer. See also Falconer ('Palaeont. Memoirs

and Notes,' vol. i. 1868, p. 576) on canines in an adult female

deer. In old males of the musk-deer the canines (Pallas, 'Spic.

Zoolog.' fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18) sometimes grow to the length

of three inches, whilst in old females a rudiment projects

scarcely half an inch above the gums.

[316] Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 275; Owen,

'British Fossil Mammals,' 1846, p. 245.

[317] Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' on the moose, _Alces

palmata_, p. 236, 237; also on the expanse of the horns 'Land

and Water,' 1869, p. 143. See also Owen, 'British Fossil

Mammals,' on the Irish elk, p. 447, 455.

[318] 'Forest Creatures,' by C. Boner, 1861, p. 60.

[319] See the very interesting paper by Mr. J. A. Allen in

'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge; United States,' vol.

ii. No. 1, p. 82. The weights were ascertained by a careful

observer, Capt. Bryant.

[320] 'Animal Economy,' p. 45.

[321] See also Richardson's 'Manual on the Dog,' p. 59. Much

valuable information on the Scottish deerhound is given by Mr.

McNeill, who first called attention to the inequality in size

between the sexes, in Scrope's 'Art of Deer Stalking.' I hope

that Mr. Cupples will keep to his intention of publishing a

full account and history of this famous breed.

[322] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. ii. s. 729-732.

[323] See Mr. Wallace's interesting account of this animal,

'The Malay Archipelago,' 1869, vol. i. p. 435.

[324] 'The Times,' Nov. 10th, 1857. In regard to the Canada

lynx, see Audubon and Bachman, 'Quadrupeds of N. America,'

1846, p. 139.

[325] Dr. Murie, on Otaria, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 109.

Mr. J. A. Allen, in the paper above quoted (p. 75), doubts

whether the hair, which is longer on the neck in the male than

in the female, deserves to be called a mane.

[326] Mr. Boner in his excellent description of the habits of

the red-deer in Germany ('Forest Creatures,' 1861, p. 81) says,

"while the stag is defending his rights against one intruder,

another invades the sanctuary of his harem, and carries off

trophy after trophy." Exactly the same thing occurs with seals,

see Mr. J. A. Allen, ibid. p. 100.

[327] Mr. J. A. Allen in 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of

Cambridge, United States,' vol. ii. No. 1, p. 99.

[328] 'Dogs: their Management,' by E. Mayhew, M.R.C.V.S., 2nd

edit. 1864, p. 187-192.

[329] Quoted by Alex. Walker 'On Intermarriage,' 1838, p. 276;

see also p. 244.

[330] 'Traite de l'Hered. Nat.' tom. ii. 1850, p. 296.

[331] 'Amoenitates Acad.' vol. iv. 1788, p. 160.

[332] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 585.

[333] Ibid. p. 595.

[334] See, for instance, Major W. Ross King ('The Sportsman in

Canada,' 1866, p. 53, 131) on the habits of the moose and wild

reindeer.

[335] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 600.

[336] Mr. Green, in 'Journal of Linn. Soc.' vol. x. Zoology,

1869, p. 362.

[337] C. L. Martin, 'General Introduction to the Nat. Hist. of

Mamm. Animals,' 1841, p. 431.

[338] 'Naturgeschichte der Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.

15, 21.

[339] On the sea-elephant, see an article by Lesson, in 'Dict.

Class. Hist. Nat.' tom. xiii. p. 418. For the Cystophora or

Stemmatopus, see Dr. Dekay, 'Annals of Lyceum of Nat. Hist. New

York,' vol. i. 1824, p. 94. Pennant has also collected

information from the sealers on this animal. The fullest

account is given by Mr. Brown, who doubts about the rudimentary

condition of the bladder in the female, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.'

1868, p. 435.

[340] As with the castoreum of the beaver, see Mr. L. H.

Morgan's most interesting work, 'The American Beaver,' 1868, p.

300. Pallas ('Spic. Zoolog.' fasc. viii. 1779, p. 23) has well

discussed the odoriferous glands of mammals. Owen ('Anat. of

Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 634) also gives an account of these

glands, including those of the elephant, and (p. 763) those of

shrew-mice.

[341] Rengger, 'Naturgeschichte der Saeugethiere von Paraguay,'

1830, s. 355. This observer also gives some curious particulars

in regard to the odour emitted.

[342] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 632. See,

also, Dr. Murie's observations on their glands in 'Proc.

Zoolog. Soc.' 1870, p. 340. Desmarest, On the _Antilope

subgutturosa_, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 455.

[343] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog.' fasc. xiii. 1799, p. 24;

Desmoulins, 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom. iii. p. 586.

[344] Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley,' pl.

28.

[345] Judge Caton on the wapiti, 'Transact. Ottawa Acad. Nat.

Sciences,' 1868, p. 36, 40; Blyth, 'Land and Water,' on _Capra

aegagrus_, 1867, p. 37.

[346] 'Hunter's Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, 1861,

vol. i. p. 236.

[347] See Dr. Gray's 'Cat. of Mammalia in British Museum,' part

iii. 1852, p. 144.

[348] Rengger, 'Saeugethiere,' &c., s. 14; Desmarest,

'Mammalogie,' p. 66.

[349] See the chapters on these several animals in vol. i. of

my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication;' also vol. ii. p.

73; also chap. xx. on the practice of selection by

semi-civilised people. For the Berbura goat, see Dr. Gray,

'Catalogue,' ibid. p. 157.

[350] _Osphranter rufus_, Gould, 'Mammals of Australia,' vol.

ii. 1863. On the Didelphis, Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 256.

[351] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Nov. 1867, p. 325. On the

_Mus minutus_, Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 304.

[352] J. A. Allen, in 'Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of

Cambridge, United States,' 1869, p. 207.

[353] Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 223. On _Felis mitis_,

Rengger, ibid. s. 194.

[354] Dr. Murie on the Otaria, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 108.

Mr. R. Brown, on the _P. groenlandica_, ibid. 1868, p. 417. See

also on the colours of seals, Desmarest, ibid. p. 243, 249.

[355] Judge Caton, in 'Trans. Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences,'

1868, p. 4.

[356] Dr. Gray, 'Cat. of Mamm. in Brit. Mus.' part iii. 1852,

p. 134-142; also Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of

Knowsley,' in which there is a splendid drawing of the Oreas

derbyanus: see the text on Tragelaphus. For the Cape Eland

(_Oreas canna_), see Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' pl.

41 and 42. There are also many of these antelopes in the

Zoological Society's Gardens.

[357] On the _Ant. niger_, see 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1850, p. 133.

With respect to an allied species, in which there is an equal

sexual difference in colour, see Sir S. Baker, 'The Albert

Nyanza,' 1866, vol. ii. p. 327. For the _A. sing-sing_, Gray,

'Cat. B. Mus.' p. 100. Desmarest, Mammalogie,' p. 468, on the

_A. caama_. Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' on the Gnu.

[358] 'Ottawa Academy of Sciences,' May 21, 1868, p. 3, 5.

[359] S. Mueller, on the Banteng, 'Zoog. Indischen Archipel.'

1839-1844, tab. 35; see also Raffles, as quoted by Mr. Blyth,

in 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 476. On goats, Dr. Gray, 'Cat.

Brit. Mus.' p. 146; Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 482. On the

_Cervus paludosus_, Rengger, ibid. s. 345.

[360] Sclater, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1866, p. 1. The same fact has

also been fully ascertained by MM. Pollen and van Dam.

[361] On Mycetes, Rengger, ibid. s. 14; and Brehm,

'Illustrirtes Thierleben,' B. i. s. 96, 107. On Ateles,

Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 75. On Hylobates, Blyth, 'Land and

Water,' 1867, p. 135. On the Semnopithecus, S. Mueller, 'Zoog.

Indischen Archipel.' tab. x.

[362] Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammiferes,' 1854, p, 103.

Figures are given of the skull of the male. Desmarest,

'Mammalogie,' p. 70. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist.

Nat. des Mamm.' 1824, tom. i.

[363] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' 1868, vol. ii. p. 102, 103.

[364] 'Essays and Observations by J. Hunter,' edited by Owen,

1861, vol. i. p. 194.

[365] Sir S. Baker, 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867.

[366] _Fiber zibethicus_, Audubon and Bachman, 'The Quadrupeds

of N. America,' 1846, p. 109.

[367] 'Novae species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7.

What I have called the roe is the _Capreolus Sibiricus

subecaudatus_ of Pallas.

[368] See the fine plates in A. Smith's 'Zoology of S. Africa,'

and Dr. Gray's 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley.'

[369] 'Westminster Review,' July 1, 1867, p. 5.

[370] 'Travels in South Africa,' 1824, vol. ii. p. 315.

[371] Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,' p.

64. Mr. Blyth, in speaking ('Land and Water,' 1869, p. 42) of

the hog-deer of Ceylon, says it is more brightly spotted with

white than the common hog-deer, at the season when it renews

its horns.

[372] Falconer and Cautley, 'Proc. Geolog. Soc.' 1843; and

Falconer's 'Pal. Memoirs,' vol. i. p. 196.

[373] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' 1868, vol. i. p. 61-64.

[374] 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1862, p. 164. See, also, Dr. Hartmann,

'Ann. d. Landw.' Bd. xliii. s. 222.

[375] I observed this fact in the Zoological Gardens; and

numerous cases may be seen in the coloured plates in Geoffroy

St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammiferes,' tom. i.

1824.

[376] Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii. p.

310.

[377] I have seen most of the above-named monkeys in the

Zoological Society's Gardens. The description of the

_Semnopithecus nemaeus_ is taken from Mr. W. C. Martin's 'Nat.

Hist. of Mammalia,' 1841, p. 460; see also p. 475, 523.

[378] Schaaffhausen, translation in 'Anthropological Review,'

Oct. 1868, p. 419, 420, 427.

[379] Ecker, translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct.

1868, p. 351-356. The comparison of the form of the skull in

men and women has been followed out with much care by Welcker.

[380] Ecker and Welcker, ibid. p. 352, 355; Vogt, 'Lectures on

Man,' Eng. translat. p. 81.

[381] Schaaffhausen, 'Anthropolog. Review,' ibid. p. 429.

[382] Pruner-Bey, on negro infants, as quoted by Vogt,

'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 189: for further

facts on negro infants, as quoted from Winterbottom and Camper,

see Lawrence, 'Lectures on Physiology,' &c. 1822, p. 451. For

the infants of the Guaranys, see Rengger, 'Saeugethiere,' &c. s.

3. See also Godron, 'De l'Espece,' tom. ii. 1859, p. 253. For

the Australians, Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng.

translat. 1863, p. 99.

[383] Rengger, 'Saeugethiere,' &c. 1830, s. 49.

[384] As in _Macacus cynomolgus_ (Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p.

65) and in _Hylobates agilis_ (Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F.

Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. des Mamm.' 1824, tom. i. p. 2).

[385] 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 353.

[386] Mr. Blyth informs me that he has never seen more than one

instance of the beard, whiskers, &c., in a monkey becoming

white with old age, as is so commonly the case with us. This,

however, occurred in an aged and confined _Macacus cynomolgus_,

whose moustaches were "remarkably long and human-like."

Altogether this old monkey presented a ludicrous resemblance to

one of the reigning monarchs of Europe, after whom he was

universally nick-named. In certain races of man the hair on the

head hardly ever becomes grey; thus Mr. D. Forbes has never

seen, as he informs me, an instance with the Aymaras and

Quechuas of S. America.

[387] This is the case with the females of several species of

Hylobates, see Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat.

des Mamm.' tom. i. See, also, on _H. lar_. 'Penny

Encyclopedia,' vol. ii. p. 149, 150.

[388] The results were deduced by Dr. Weisbach from the

measurements made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz, see 'Reise

der _Novara_: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, s. 216, 231, 234, 236,

239, 269.

[389] 'Voyage to St. Kilda' (3rd edit. 1753) p. 37.

[390] Sir J. E. Tennent, 'Ceylon,' vol. ii. 1859, p. 107.

[391] Quatrefages, 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Aug. 29,

1868, p. 630; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. p. 127.

[392] On the beards of negroes, Vogt, 'Lectures,' &c. ibid. p.

127; Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Engl. translat. 1863,

vol. i. p. 96. It is remarkable that in the United States

('Investigations in Military and Anthropological Statistics of

American Soldiers,' 1869, p. 569) the pure negroes and their

crossed offspring seem to have bodies almost as hairy as those

of Europeans.

[393] Wallace, 'The Malay Arch.' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.

[394] Dr. J. Barnard Davis on Oceanic Races, in 'Anthropolog.

Review,' April, 1870, p. 185, 191.

[395] Catlin, 'North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol.

ii. p. 227. On the Guaranys, see Azara, 'Voyages dans

l'Amerique Merid.' tom. ii. 1809, p. 58; also Rengger,

'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 3.

[396] Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz ('Journey in Brazil,' p. 530)

remark that the sexes of the American Indians differ less than

those of the negroes and of the higher races. See also Rengger,

ibid. p. 3, on the Guaranys.

[397] Ruetimeyer, 'Die Grenzen der Thierwelt; eine Betrachtung

zu Darwin's Lehre,' 1868, s. 54.

[398] 'A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,' 8vo. edit. Dublin,

1796, p. 104. Sir J. Lubbock ('Origin of Civilisation,' 1870,

p. 69) gives other and similar cases in North America. For the

Guanas of S. America see Azara, 'Voyages,' &c. tom. ii. p. 94.

[399] On the fighting of the male gorillas, see Dr. Savage, in

'Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1847, p. 423. On

_Presbytis entellus_, see the 'Indian Field,' 1859, p. 146.

[400] J. Stuart Mill remarks ('The Subjection of Women,' 1869,

p. 122), "the things in which man most excels woman are those

which require most plodding, and long hammering at single

thoughts." What is this but energy and perseverance?

[401] An observation by Vogt bears on this subject: he says, it

is a "remarkable circumstance, that the difference between the

sexes, as regards the cranial cavity, increases with the

development of the race, so that the male European excels much

more the female, than the negro the negress. Welcker confirms

this statement of Huschke from his measurements of negro and

German skulls." But Vogt admits ('Lectures on Man,' Eng.

translat. 1864, p. 81) that more observations are requisite on

this point.

[402] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 603.

[403] 'Journal of the Anthropolog. Soc.' April, 1869, p. lvii.

and lxvi.

[404] Dr. Scudder, "Notes on Stridulation," in 'Proc. Boston

Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. April, 1868.

[405] Given in W. C. L. Martin's 'General Introduct. to Nat.

Hist. of Mamm. Animals,' 1841, p. 432; Owen, 'Anatomy of

Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 600.

[406] Helmholtz, 'Theorie Phys. de la Musique,' 1868, p. 187.

[407] Mr. R. Brown, in 'Proc. Zoo. Soc.' 1868, p. 410.

[408] 'Journal of Anthropolog. Soc.' Oct. 1870, p. clv. See

also the several later chapters in Sir John Lubbock's

'Prehistoric Times,' second edition, 1869, which contain an

admirable account of the habits of savages.

[409] Since this chapter has been printed I have seen a

valuable article by Mr. Chauncey Wright ('North Amer. Review,'

Oct. 1870, page 293), who, in discussing the above subject,

remarks, "There are many consequences of the ultimate laws or

uniformities of nature through which the acquisition of one

useful power will bring with it many resulting advantages as

well as limiting disadvantages, actual or possible, which the

principle of utility may not have comprehended in its action."

This principle has an important bearing, as I have attempted to

shew in the second chapter of this work, on the acquisition by

man of some of his mental characteristics.

[410] See the very interesting discussion on the Origin and

Function of Music, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his collected

'Essays,' 1858, p. 359. Mr. Spencer comes to an exactly

opposite conclusion to that at which I have arrived. He

concludes that the cadences used in emotional speech afford the

foundation from which music has been developed; whilst I

conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first acquired by

the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of

charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly

associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is

capable of feeling, and are consequently used instinctively, or

through association, when strong emotions are expressed in

speech. Mr. Spencer does not offer any satisfactory

explanation, nor can I, why high or deep notes should be

expressive, both with man and the lower animals, of certain

emotions. Mr. Spencer gives also an interesting discussion on

the relations between poetry, recitative, and song.

[411] Rengger, 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 49.

[412] See an interesting discussion on this subject by Haeckel,

'Generelle Morph.' B. ii. 1866, s. 246.

[413] A full and excellent account of the manner in which

savages in all parts of the world ornament themselves is given

by the Italian traveller, Prof. Mantegazza, 'Rio de la Plata,

Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, p. 525-545; all the following

statements, when other references are not given, are taken from

this work. See, also, Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropolog.' Eng.

transl. vol. i. 1863, p. 275, _et passim_. Lawrence also gives

very full details in his 'Lectures on Physiology,' 1822. Since

this chapter was written Sir J. Lubbock has published his

'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, in which there is an

interesting chapter on the present subject, and from which (p.

42, 48) I have taken some facts about savages dyeing their

teeth and hair, and piercing their teeth.

[414] Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iv.

p. 515; on the imagination shewn in painting the body, p. 522;

on modifying the form of the calf of the leg, p. 466.

[415] 'The Nile Tributaries,' 1867; 'The Albert N'yanza,' 1866,

vol. i. p. 218.

[416] Quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' 4th. edit.

vol. i. 1851, p. 321.

[417] On the Papuans, Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol.

ii. p. 445. On the coiffure of the Africans, Sir S. Baker, 'The

Albert N'yanza,' vol. i. p. 210.

[418] 'Travels', p. 533.

[419] 'The Albert N'yanza,' 1866, vol. i. p. 217.

[420] Livingstone, 'British Association,' 1860; report given in

the 'Athenaeum,' July 7, 1860, p. 29.

[421] Sir S. Baker (ibid. vol. i. p. 210) speaking of the

natives of Central Africa says, "every tribe has a distinct and

unchanging fashion for dressing the hair." See Agassiz

('Journey in Brazil,' 1868, p. 318) on the invariability of the

tattooing of the Amazonian Indians.

[422] Rev. R. Taylor, 'New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855,

p. 152.

[423] Mantegazza, 'Viaggi e Studi,' p. 542.

[424] 'Travels in S. Africa,' 1824; vol. i. p. 414.

[425] See, for references, 'Gerland ueber das Aussterben der

Naturvoelker,' 1868, s. 51, 53, 55; also Azara, 'Voyages,' &c.

tom. ii. p. 116.

[426] On the vegetable productions used by the North-Western

American Indians, 'Pharmaceutical Journal,' vol. x.

[427] 'A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,' 8vo. edit. 1796,

p. 89.

[428] Quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' 3rd edit.

vol. iv. 1844, p. 519; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat.

p. 129. On the opinion of the Chinese on the Cingalese, E.

Tennent, 'Ceylon,' vol. ii. 1859, p. 107.

[429] Prichard, as taken from Crawfurd and Finlayson, 'Phys.

Hist. of Mankind,' vol. iv. p. 534, 535.

[430] "Idem illustrissimus viator dixit mihi praecinctorium vel

tabula faeminae, quod nobis teterrimum est, quondam permagno

aestimari ab hominibus in hac gente. Nunc res mutata est, et

censet talem conformationem minime optandam est."

[431] 'The Anthropological Review,' November, 1864, p. 237. For

additional references, see Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,'

Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 105.

[432] 'Mungo Park's Travels in Africa,' 4to. 1816, p. 53, 131.

Burton's statement is quoted by Schaaffhausen, 'Archiv fuer

Anthropolog.' 1866, s. 163. On the Banyai, Livingstone,

'Travels,' p. 64. On the Kafirs, the Rev. J. Shooter, 'The

Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country,' 1857 p. 1.

[433] For the Javanese and Cochin-Chinese, see Waitz,

'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. On

the Yura-caras, A. d'Orligny, as quoted in Prichard, 'Phys.

Hist. of Mankind,' vol. v. 3rd edit. p. 476.

[434] 'North American Indians,' by G. Catlin, 3rd edit. 1842,

vol. i. p. 49; vol. ii. p. 227. On the natives of Vancouver

Island, see Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868,

p. 25. On the Indians of Paraguay, Azara, 'Voyages,' tom. ii.

p. 105.

[435] On the Siamese, Prichard, ibid. vol. iv. p. 533. On the

Japanese, Veitch in 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1860, p. 1104. On

the New Zealanders Mantegazza, 'Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, p. 526.

For the other nations mentioned, see references in Lawrence,

'Lectures on Physiology,' &c. 1822, p. 272.

[436] Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 321.

[437] Dr. Barnard Davis quotes Mr. Pritchard and others for

these facts in regard to the Polynesians, in 'Anthropological

Review,' April, 1870, p. 185, 191.

[438] Ch. Comte has remarks to this effect in his 'Traite de

Legislation,' 3rd edit. 1837, p. 136.

[439] The Fuegians, as I have been informed by a missionary who

long resided with them, consider European women as extremely

beautiful; but from what we have seen of the judgment of the

other aborigines of America, I cannot but think that this must

be a mistake, unless indeed the statement refers to the few

Fuegians who have lived for some time with Europeans, and who

must consider us as superior beings. I should add that a most

experienced observer, Capt. Burton, believes that a woman whom

we consider beautiful is admired throughout the world,

'Anthropological Review,' March, 1864, p. 245.

[440] 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 518, and

elsewhere. Mantegazza, in his 'Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, strongly

insists on this same principle.

[441] On the skulls of the American tribes, see Nott and

Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 440; Prichard, 'Phys.

Hist. of Mankind,' vol. i. 3rd edit. p. 321; on the natives of

Arakhan, ibid. vol. iv. p. 537. Wilson, 'Physical Ethnology,'

Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 288; on the Fijians, p. 290.

Sir J. Lubbock ('Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869, p. 506)

gives an excellent resume on this subject.

[442] On the Huns, Godron, 'De l'Espece,' tom. ii. 1859, p.

300. On the Tahitians, Waitz, 'Anthropolog.' Eng. translat.

vol. i. p. 305. Marsden, quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of

Mankind,' 3rd edit. vol. v. p. 67. Lawrence, 'Lectures on

Physiology,' p. 337.

[443] This fact was ascertained in the 'Reise der _Novara_:

Anthropolog. Theil,' Dr. Weisbach, 1867, s. 265.

[444] 'Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 289. On the fashions

of Arab women, Sir S. Baker, 'The Nile Tributaries,' 1867, p.

121.

[445] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. i. p. 214; vol. ii. p. 240.

[446] Schaaffhausen, 'Archiv fuer Anthropologie,' 1866, s. 164.

[447] Mr. Bain has collected ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868,

p. 304-314) about a dozen more or less different theories of

the idea of beauty; but none are quite the same with that here

given.

[448] These quotations are taken from Lawrence ('Lectures on

Physiology,' &c. 1822, p. 393), who attributes the beauty of

the upper classes in England to the men having long selected

the more beautiful women.

[449] "Anthropologie," 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Oct.

1868, p. 721.