In the Bible there is no indication of a fixed ritual; there are,
however, a few instances of forms of prayer prescribed for certain
occasions. There is the priests’ blessing (Num. vi. 24–26); the
thanksgiving on bringing the first-fruit offering to the Temple (Deut.
xxvi. 3–10); prayer on distributing the tithes which accumulated in
three years (ibid. 13–15). David (Ps. lv. 18) says, “Evening, and
morning, and at noonday do I pray;” Daniel “kneeled upon his knees
three times a day and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he did
aforetime” (Dan. vi. 11); but nothing is said about the form and the
contents of these prayers. The Mishnah first speaks of certain fixed
forms of prayer: the “Eighteen” (שמונה עשרה), the reading of Shema
(קריאת שמע), and Benedictions (ברכות). The composition of the
tefillah, “Prayer” par excellence, is attributed to the Men of the
Great Synagogue (אנשי כנסת הגדולה), but only in its outlines. The
number of the paragraphs, the theme of each paragraph, and the formula
by which it is concluded may then have been fixed, the rest being left
to be filled up by each supplicant according to his capacity. It was
but natural that prayers uttered repeatedly by men eminent for their
piety should be eagerly copied by others, and gradually become, to some
extent at least, fixed forms of prayer. The tefillah, however, in the
time of the Mishnah was by no means identical with the tefillah of the
Men of the Great Synagogue. The destruction of the Temple necessitated
several changes; e.g., the prayers for the welfare of Jerusalem, for
the prosperity of Israel and of the Holy Land, and for the acceptance
of the Service in the Temple were altered in accordance with the new
state of affairs.
The Mishnah speaks of the tefillah as a well-known existing
institution; it seems that it was the regular prayer in the Synagogue
Service, and the discussion whether the tefillah should be repeated
every day in extenso or in an abbreviated form (Mishnah, Berachoth iv.
3) refers probably to the prayer recited privatim (תפלת יחיד), and
not to the Service in the Synagogue. The prescribed “Eighteen
Blessings” were the framework, into which each man was expected to fit
in his peculiar, individual supplications; whilst in the public Service
the tefillah remained uniform. In the days of Rabban Gamliel of Jamnia,
and with his sanction, an important addition was made by Samuel: a
prayer for the discomfiture of those who by slander, denunciation, or
other wicked means attempt to undermine the existence of the Jewish
religion and community (ברכת הצדוקים or ברכת המינים). [149] In some
congregations two other paragraphs (את צמח and ולירושלם) were at
the same time combined into one, in order to keep to the traditional
“Eighteen Blessings.” [150]
The reading of shema in the evening and in the morning, the three
sections constituting the shema, and the order of these sections, are
assumed in the Mishnah as fully established by law and usage. Only a
few regulations are discussed concerning the time and the mode of the
reading. There was this difference between the custom of the Babylonian
Jews and that of their brethren in Palestine, that the latter omitted
in the evening the passage referring to tsitsith. Later on, however,
the Palestine Jews conformed to the Babylonian custom. Suggestions have
been made to substitute other Biblical passages for shema, but they
have been rejected. Several attempts have been made to introduce, as an
addition to the three sections of shema, the reading of the Decalogue;
the addition was disallowed, lest people should be misled to think that
the Ten Commandments alone were to be observed, and that the other laws
were not binding (Babyl. T., Berachoth 12a). [151]
The Benedictions which precede and follow the reading of shema were
fixed in the time of the Mishnah as regards number, order, and form;
but the contents were left unsettled for some time (Mishnah, Berachoth
i. 4); in the Gemara their wording is still a subject for discussion.
The same can be said with regard to the relative order of shema and
tefillah. For the Evening Service the tefillah seems to have generally
been considered as optional. As to Benedictions in general, their
obligatory character is assumed in the Mishnah as admitted by all, and
only their form seems to have been fixed by the regulations mentioned
in Berachoth vi.–ix.
The Mishnah (Megillah iii. 4–iv. 10) includes a number of regulations
concerning the reading of the Law, the Prophets, and the Book of
Esther. Detailed rules were laid down for the reader and the translator
(methurgeman), pointing out which passages should be omitted in the
translation, and which should be omitted even in the original. It seems
that there was a regular, consecutive reading, which was interrupted on
extraordinary days by the reading of passages referring to these days.
The ritual which was adopted for the priests in the Temple was an
abridged form of the ritual then in general use. It was as follows:
They commenced with a benediction—the first of those which precede the
shema (יוצר אור); then they read the Decalogue, shema (the three
paragraphs), and three further benedictions, אמת ויציב, עבודה
(corresponding to רצה in our prayer), and the blessing of the priests
(Mishnah, Tamid v. 1).
A special ritual is also mentioned in the Talmud (Mishnah, Taanith iv.
2) for the Maamadoth and the Fast-days. [152] There were four Services
daily, as on the Day of Atonement. The principal feature in the Service
of the Maamadoth was the reading of the first chapter of Genesis.
At the conclusion of the Talmud (about 500 C.E.) the essential parts of
our present ritual were already in a settled state; the shema with the
benedictions preceding and following, the tefillah with its variations
for New-moon, Sabbath, and Holy-days, the reading from the Law and the
prophets, and Hallel. The Seder evening Service was complete in its
main parts. Of the Benedictions (Berachoth) on various occasions both
form and contents were fixed, and the rule was laid down by Rabbi Meir
(Berachoth 40a) that he who uttered a berachah in a form different from
that fixed by our Sages has not fulfilled his duty (or, according to
Maimonides, Hilchoth Berachoth i. 5, is in error). Notwithstanding this
rule, however, changes were made; new benedictions were introduced and
old ones discontinued. [153]—Kaddish and Kedushah seem to have formed
part of the Service; of the latter the Talmud mentions the name, of the
former the response: “May his great Name be praised” יהא שמו הגדול
מבורך or יהא שמיה רבא מ׳ (Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 3a).
In the next period, that of the Geonim, we meet with the complete
Siddur, “Arrangement” or “Order” of Service for ordinary days, for
Sabbaths and Festivals, Benedictions for all occasions, and Piyyutim as
optional additions. Such a Siddur was arranged by the Gaon Rabbenu
Saadiah (892–942), and another by the Gaon Rabbenu Amram (about 880).
Henceforth the principal prayers underwent only insignificant
alterations. Of the next period the most important Siddurim are those
included in the Mishneh-torah, at the end of the second book, and that
contained in the Machzor Vitry. [154]
The additional prayers and piyyutim, being optional, varied according
to the taste of each congregation and its leaders; in course of time
these variations became permanent; the same was the case with minor
changes, especially in the less essential elements of the Service, and
thus the various Minhagim (Rites) of the various congregations came
into existence. The principal Minhagim of importance for us are: the
Polish, the Sephardic, the German, and the Italian Rites. [155] In the
following description of the Ritual only the two rites adopted in the
principal Synagogues of the Anglo-Jewish congregations in England will
be noted.