Causes of the Revolution--The Act of Navigation--Acts of Trade--Odious
Customs Laws--English Jealousy of New England--Effect of Restrictions on
Colonial Trade--Du Chatelet Foresees Rebellion and Independence--The
Revolution a Struggle for More Than Political Freedom.
It was not for the sake of the colonists that England had assisted them
in driving the French from America, but with the wholly selfish aim of
building up the trade and commerce of Great Britain. European nations
looked upon their American colonies simply as resources from which the
mother country might become enriched, and in this respect the policy of
England was not different from that of Spain, described in the beginning
of this volume. As early as 1625 an English author (Hagthorne) wrote that
even in time of peace it was the purpose and aim of England to undermine
and beat the Dutch and Spaniards out of their trades, "which may not
improperly be called a war, for the deprivation and cutting off the
trades of a kingdom may be to some prince more loss if his revenues
depend thereon than the killing of his armies." The wars against Holland,
which resulted in the subjection to the British crown of the colonial
possessions of that industrious people, and which compelled the fleets of
the United Provinces to acknowledge British supremacy on the high seas,
were in the line of commercial aggrandizement, and the Navigation Act
transferred to England a large share of the Dutch carrying trade, and
enriched English shipowners with an utterly selfish indifference to the
welfare of English colonies.
When the colonists, their western bounds no longer threatened by
civilized foes, their plantations flourishing and their seaport towns
wealthy with the profits of a commerce carried on in contempt of imperial
restrictions, began to feel and to assert that they were entitled to all
the rights of freeborn Englishmen, and to the same commercial and
industrial independence enjoyed by loyal subjects in England, they were
surprised to learn that Parliament and the English people regarded them
not as freemen, but as tributaries. The colonists were themselves loyal,
even up to the hour when they were compelled by stubborn tyranny to
assert the right of revolution, for, to quote the language of John Adams,
"it is true there always existed in the colonies a desire of independence
of Parliament in the articles of internal taxation and internal policy,
and a very general, if not universal opinion, that they were
constitutionally entitled to it, and as general a determination to
maintain and defend it. But there never existed a desire of independence
of the Crown, or of general regulations of commerce for the equal and
impartial benefit of all parts of the empire." "If any man," said the
same great statesman, "wishes to investigate thoroughly the causes,
feelings and principles of the Revolution, he must study this Act of
Navigation, and the Acts of Trade, as a philosopher, a politician and a
philanthropist."
When the Act of Navigation was originally passed, in the Cromwell period,
it is probable that the colonies were not seriously in the minds of the
people and of Parliament. The act was aimed, as we have before stated, at
the Dutch, and was effective for the purposes intended; but within the
decade that elapsed before its re-enactment under the Restoration, the
colonial trade had grown with a vigor that aroused jealousy and
uneasiness at home, and the Act of Navigation was soon followed, in 1663,
by the first of the Acts of Trade, which provided that no supplies should
be imported into any colony, except what had been actually shipped in an
English port, and carried directly thence to the importing colony. This
cut the colonies off from direct trade with any foreign country, and made
England the depot for all necessaries or luxuries which the colonies
desired, and which they could not obtain in America. Nine years later, in
1672, followed another act "for the better securing the plantation
trade," which recited that the colonists had, contrary to the express
letter of the aforesaid laws, brought into diverse parts of Europe great
quantities of their growth, productions and manufactures, sugar, tobacco,
cotton, wool and dye woods being particularly enumerated in the list, and
that the trade and navigation in those commodities from one plantation to
another had been greatly increased, and provided that all colonial
commodities should either be shipped to England or Wales before being
imported into another colony, or that a customs duty should be paid on
such commodities equivalent to the cost of conveying the same to England,
and thence to the colony for which they were destined. For instance, if a
merchant in Rhode Island desired to sell some product of the colony of
Massachusetts in New York, and to forward the same by a vessel, either a
bond had to be given that the commodity would be transported to England,
or a duty had to be paid, in money or in goods sufficiently onerous to
protect the English merchant and shipowner against serious colonial
competition in the carrying trade.
The above act was followed up by another providing penalties for
attempted violation of the customs laws. In this statute no mention was
made of the plantations and its general tenor indicated that it was
intended to apply to Great Britain only, providing, as it did, for the
searching of houses and dwellings for smuggled goods by virtue of a writ
of assistance under the seal of His Majesty's court of exchequer. Under
William the Third, who was as arbitrary a monarch toward the colonies as
the second James had been, the statute was made directly applicable to
the plantation trade, with the provision that "the like assistance shall
be given to the said officers in the execution of their office, as by the
last-mentioned act is provided for the officers in England." It was on
the question of whether such a writ could be issued from a colonial court
that James Otis made the famous speech in which he arraigned the
commercial policy of England, stripped the veil of reform from the bust
of the Stadtholder-King, and awakened the colonists to a throbbing sense
of English oppression and of American wrongs--the oration which, in the
language of John Adams, who heard it, "breathed into this nation the
breath of life."
* * *
It is needless to follow the numerous Acts of Trade in their order, for
they were all in a line with the accepted and established principle of
that age in England that the colonies should minister to the commercial
aggrandizement of the mother country, instead of being the centres of an
independent traffic, that they should be communities for the consumption
of British manufactures and the feeding of British trade. New England was
especially the object of English jealousy and restriction, and for
reasons, as given by Sir Josiah Child, in his "New Discourse on Trade,"
written about the year 1677, that are creditable to the founders of those
States, for after speaking of the people of Virginia and the Barbadoes as
a loose vagrant sort, "vicious and destitute of means to live at home,
gathered up about the streets of London or other places, and who, had
there been no English foreign plantation in the world, must have come to
be hanged or starved or died untimely of those miserable diseases that
proceed from want and vice, or have sold themselves as soldiers to be
knocked on the head, or at best, by begging or stealing two shillings and
sixpence, have made their way to Holland to become servants to the Dutch,
who refuse none," he goes on to describe "a people whose frugality,
industry and temperance and the happiness of whose laws and institutions,
do promise to themselves long life, with a wonderful increase of people,
riches and power." But, after paying this probably reluctant tribute to
New England virtue and industry, he frankly avows his full sympathy with
the restrictive system, and adds that "there is nothing more prejudicial
and in prospect more dangerous to any mother kingdom than the increase of
shipping in her colonies, plantations and provinces." It is no wonder
that John Adams said that he never read these authors without being set
on fire, and that at last the same fire spread to every patriotic breast.
The Acts of Navigation and of Trade were not the dead letters that some
superficial writers and readers have seen fit to term them. It is true
that obedience was reluctant and slow, and that evasion was extensive,
and it is also true, that colonial commerce flourished in spite of the
restrictions; but it should be remembered that the prolonged wars in
which England was engaged gave lucrative opportunities for privateering,
and that even the customs duties, though intended to be virtually
prohibitory, were not heavy enough to overcome the advantages which the
colonists enjoyed. In Rhode Island the General Assembly asserted and
maintained the right to regulate the fees of the customs officers, and,
as far as was possible, the collection of the dues. The shipping of the
colony rapidly increased, and in 1731 included two vessels from England,
as many from Holland and the Mediterranean, and ten or twelve from the
West Indies, and ten years later numbered one hundred and twenty vessels
engaged in the West Indian, African, European and coasting trade. The
period preceding the Revolution witnessed New England's greatest
commercial prosperity, and it was in that age that Moses Brown and other
enterprising merchants and shipowners laid the foundation of fortunes, a
liberal share of which has been expended with illustrious munificence in
monuments of learning, of art and of charity. As for the restrictions
upon domestic industry, they were not severely felt among a people
devoted, in the country to agriculture, and in the towns to local traffic
and shipping, and the American farmer who wore homespun attire, did not
realize the harshness or appreciate the purpose of the statute which
prohibited the export of wool, or woolen manufactures. As for the
Southern planter, the question of fostering domestic manufactures never
entered his thoughts. He raised his tobacco and his cotton, exported them
to England, and got what goods he needed there just as his descendants,
in a later age, procured the manufactured necessities and luxuries of
life from the depots of New England trade.[1]
[1] "English Free Trade; Its Foundation, Growth and Decline." By
Henry Mann.
But even if the British Parliament had never attempted to raise a revenue
by taxation in the American colonies, it is probable that in time the
restrictions on commerce would have led to revolution, unless rescinded.
This was the opinion of the shrewd observer Du Chatelet, who, after
France had surrendered her American possessions to Great Britain, said
that "they (the chambers of commerce) regard everything in colonial
commerce which does not turn exclusively to the benefit of the kingdom as
contrary to the end for which colonies were established, and as a theft
from the state. To practice on these maxims is impossible. The wants of
trade are stronger than the laws of trade. The north of America can alone
furnish supplies to its south. This is the only point of view under which
the cession of Canada can be regarded as a loss for France; but that
cession will one day be amply compensated, if it shall cause in the
English colonies the rebellion and the independence which become every
day more probable and more near."
* * *
America, if not contented, was quiet under restrictive laws not
stringently enforced, and but for the measures initiated by Grenville and
Townshend, and approved by the king, the Parliament and the people of
England, there would, if the leading American minds of that day were
sincere, have been no insurrection in that era against British authority.
George the Third is called a tyrant on every recurring Fourth of July,
but the nation he ruled was as tyrannical as he, and impartial history
cannot condemn the monarch without awarding a greater share of odium to
his people, who sustained by their pronounced opinion and through their
chosen representatives, every measure for the destruction of the
liberties of these colonies, and who began to listen to the dictates of
reason and of humanity only when America had become the prison of
thousands of England's soldiers, and thousands of others, hired Hessian
and kidnapped Briton alike, had been welcomed by American freemen to
graves in American soil. The measures which led to war, and the war
itself, were inspired and incited by the trading classes, as well as the
aristocracy of England, who expected, in the destruction of a powerful
commercial and menacing industrial rival, an ample return for the blood
and treasure expended in the strife. The American people recognized that
the struggle was for commercial and industrial as well as for political
independence, and the stand in behalf of American industry was taken long
before the scattered colonies met an empire in the field of arms.