well as far simpler, than any other. It exhibits the universe, as a
universe of intelligence and will-power; and by enabling us to rid
ourselves of the impossibility of thinking of mind, but as connected
with our old notions of matter, opens up infinite possibilities of
existence, connected with infinitely varied manifestations of force,
totally distinct from, yet as real as, what we term matter.
The grand law of continuity which we see pervading our universe, would
lead us to infer infinite gradations of existence, and to people all
space with intelligence and will-power; and, if so, we have no
difficulty in believing that for so noble a purpose as the progressive
development of higher and higher intelligences, those primal and general
will-forces, which have sufficed for the production of the lower
animals, should have been guided into new channels and made to converge
in definite directions. And if, as seems to me probable, this has been
done, I cannot admit that it in any degree affects the truth or
generality of Mr. Darwin's great discovery. It merely shows, that the
laws of organic development have been occasionally used for a special
end, just as man uses them for his special ends; and, I do not see that
the law of "natural selection" can be said to be disproved, if it can be
shown that man does not owe his entire physical and mental development
to its unaided action, any more than it is disproved by the existence of
the poodle or the pouter pigeon, the production of which may have been
equally beyond its undirected power.
The objections which in this essay I have taken, to the view,--that the
same law which appears to have sufficed for the development of animals,
has been alone the cause of man's superior physical and mental
nature,--will, I have no doubt, be over-ruled and explained away. But I
venture to think they will nevertheless maintain their ground, and that
they can only be met by the discovery of new facts or new laws, of a
nature very different from any yet known to us. I can only hope that my
treatment of the subject, though necessarily very meagre, has been clear
and intelligible; and that it may prove suggestive, both to the
opponents and to the upholders of the theory of Natural Selection.
NOTES.
_NOTE A._ (_Page_ 360.)
Some of my critics seem quite to have misunderstood my meaning in this
part of the argument. They have accused me of unnecessarily and
unphilosophically appealing to "first causes" in order to get over a
difficulty--of believing that "our brains are made by God and our lungs
by natural selection;" and that, in point of fact, "man is God's
domestic animal." An eminent French critic, M. Claparede, makes me
continually call in the aid of--"_une Force superieure_," the capital F,
meaning I imagine that this "higher Force" is the Deity. I can only
explain this misconception by the incapacity of the modern cultivated
mind to realise the existence of any higher intelligence between itself
and Deity. Angels and archangels, spirits and demons, have been so long
banished from our belief as to have become actually unthinkable as
actual existences, and nothing in modern philosophy takes their place.
Yet the grand law of "continuity," the last outcome of modern science,
which seems absolute throughout the realms of matter, force, and mind,
so far as we can explore them, cannot surely fail to be true beyond the
narrow sphere of our vision, and leave an infinite chasm between man and
the Great Mind of the universe. Such a supposition seems to me in the
highest degree improbable.
Now, in referring to the origin of man, and its possible determining
causes, I have used the words "some other power"--"some intelligent
power"--"a superior intelligence"--"a controlling intelligence," and
only in reference to the origin of universal forces and laws have I
spoken of the will or power of "one Supreme Intelligence." These are the
only expressions I have used in alluding to the power which I believe
has acted in the case of man, and they were purposely chosen to show,
that I reject the hypothesis of "first causes" for any and every
_special_ effect in the universe, except in the same sense that the
action of man or of any other intelligent being is a first cause. In
using such terms I wished to show plainly, that I contemplated the
possibility that the development of the essentially human portions of
man's structure and intellect may have been determined by the directing
influence of some higher intelligent beings, acting through natural and
universal laws. A belief of this nature may or may not have a
foundation, but it is an intelligible theory, and is not, _in its
nature_, incapable of proof; and it rests on facts and arguments of an
exactly similar kind to those, which would enable a sufficiently
powerful intellect to deduce, from the existence on the earth of
cultivated plants and domestic animals, the presence of some intelligent
being of a higher nature than themselves.
_NOTE B._ (_Page_ 365.)
A friend has suggested that I have not here explained myself
sufficiently, and objects, that _life_ does not exist in matter any more
than _consciousness_, and if the one can be produced by the laws of
matter, why may not the other? I reply, that there is a radical
difference between the two. Organic or vegetative life consists
essentially in chemical transformations and molecular motions, occurring
under certain conditions and in a certain order. The matter, and the
forces which act upon it, are for the most part known; and if there are
any forces engaged in the manifestation of vegetative life yet
undiscovered (which is a moot question), we can conceive them as
analogous to such forces as heat, electricity, or chemical affinity,
with which we are already acquainted. We can thus clearly _conceive_ of
the transition from dead matter to living matter. A complex mass which
suffers decomposition or decay is dead, but if this mass has the power
of attracting to itself, from the surrounding medium, matter like that
of which it is composed, we have the first rudiment of vegetative life.
If the mass can do this for a considerable time, and if its absorption
of new matter more than replaces that lost by decomposition, and if it
is of such a nature as to resist the mechanical or chemical forces to
which it is usually exposed, and to retain a tolerably constant form, we
term it a living organism. We can _conceive_ an organism to be so
constituted, and we can further conceive that any fragments, which may
be accidentally broken from it, or which may fall away when its bulk has
become too great for the cohesion of all its parts, may begin to
increase anew and run the same course as the parent mass. This is growth
and reproduction in their simplest forms; and from such a simple
beginning it is possible to conceive a series of slight modifications of
composition, and of internal and external forces, which should
ultimately lead to the development of more complex organisms. The LIFE
of such an organism may, perhaps, be nothing added to it, but merely the
name we give to the result of a balance of internal and external forces
in maintaining the permanence of the form and structure of the
individual. The simplest conceivable form of such life would be the
dewdrop, which owes its existence to the balance between the
condensation of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere and the evaporation of
its substance. If either is in excess, it soon ceases to maintain an
individual existence. I do not maintain that vegetative life _is_ wholly
due to such a complex balance of forces, but only that it is
_conceivable_ as such.
With CONSCIOUSNESS the case is very different. Its phenomena are not
comparable with those of any kind of _matter_ subjected to any of the
known or conceivable _forces_ of nature; and we cannot _conceive_ a
gradual transition from absolute unconsciousness to consciousness, from
an unsentient organism to a sentient being. The merest rudiment of
sensation or self-consciousness is infinitely removed from absolutely
non-sentient or unconscious matter. We can conceive of no physical
addition to, or modification of, an unconscious mass which should create
consciousness; no step in the series of changes organised matter may
undergo, which should bring in sensation where there was no sensation
or power of sensation at the preceding step. It is because the things
are utterly incomparable and incommensurable that we can only conceive
of _sensation_ coming to matter from without, while _life_ may be
conceived as merely a specific combination and co-ordination of the
matter and the forces that compose the universe, and with which we are
separately acquainted. We may admit with Professor Huxley that
_protoplasm_ is the "matter of life" and the cause of organisation, but
we cannot admit or conceive that _protoplasm_ is the primary source of
sensation and consciousness, or that it can ever of itself become
_conscious_ in the same way as we may perhaps conceive that it may
become _alive_.
INDEX.
_ABRAXAS grossulariata_, 119.
_Acanthotritus dorsalis_, 94.
_Accipiter pileatus_, 107.
ACRAEIDAE, the subjects of mimicry, 85, 86.
_Acronycta psi_, protective colouring of, 62.
ADAPTATION brought about by general laws, 276;
looks like design, 281.
AEGERIIDAE mimic Hymenoptera, 90.
AGASSIZ, or embryonic character of ancient animals, 301.
_Agnia fasciata_, mimics another Longicorn, 95.
_Agriopis aprilina_, protective colouring of, 62.
ALCEDINIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 240.
AMADINA, sexual colouring and nidification of, 243.
AMPELIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 243.
ANCYLOTHERIUM, 300.
ANDRENIDAE, 98.
_Angraecum sesquipedale_, 272;
its fertilization by a large moth, 275.
ANIMALS, senses and faculties of, 127;
intellect of, compared with that of savages, 341.
ANISOCERINAE, 92.
ANOA, 196.
ANOPLOTHERIUM, 299.
ANTHRIBIDAE, mimicry of, 94;
dimorphism in, 155.
_Anthrocera filipendulae_, 120.
ANTHROPOLOGISTS, wide difference of opinion among, as to origin of
human races, 304;
conflicting views of, harmonized, 321.
ANTIQUITY of man, 303, 322.
APATHUS, 98.
APPARENT exceptions to law of colour and nidification, 253.
AQUATIC BIRDS, why abundant, 32.
_Araschnia prorsa_, 154.
ARCHEGOSAURUS, 300.
ARCHAEOPTERYX, 300.
ARCHITECTURE of most nations derivative, 228;
Grecian, false in principle, 226.
ARCTIC animals, white colour of, 50, 51.
ARGYLL, Duke of, on colours of Woodcock, 53;
on mind in nature, 265;
criticism on Darwin's works, 269;
on humming birds 282;
on creation by birth, 287.
ASILUS, 97.
ASPECTS of nature as influencing man's development, 317.
BABIRUSA, 196.
BALANCE in nature, 42.
BARRINGTON, Hon. Daines, on song of birds, 220.
BASILORNIS, 196.
BATES, Mr., first adopted the word "mimicry," 75;
his observations on Leptalis and Heliconidae, 82;
his paper explaining the theory of mimicry, 83;
objections to his theory, 108;
on variation, 165;
on recent immigration of Amazonian Indians, 214.
BAYMA, Mr., on "Molecular Mechanics," 363, 364.
BEAUTY in nature, 282;
not universal, 284;
of flowers useful to them, 285;
not given for its own sake, 285.
BIRDS, possible rapid increase of, 29;
numbers that die annually, 30;
mimicry among, 103;
dull colour of females, 114;
nidification as affecting colour of females, 116;
refusing the gooseberry caterpillar, 119;
the highest in rank and organization, 137;
dimorphism in, 155;
why peculiar nest built by each species, 215-219;
build more perfect nests as they grow older, 224, 227;
alter and improve their nests, 226;
sexual differences of colour in, 239.
_Bombus hortorum_, 90.
_Bombycilla, garrula_, colours and nidification of, 255.
BOMBYLIUS, 98.
BRAIN of the savage but slightly less than that of civilized man, 336;
size of, an important element of mental power, 335;
of savage races larger than their needs require, 338, 343;
of man and of anthropoid apes compared, 338.
BROCA, Professor Paul, on the fine crania of the cave men, 337.
_Bryophila glandifera_ and _B. perla_ protectively coloured, 63.
BUCEROTIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 241.
BUCCONIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 241.
BUFF-TIP moth, resembles a broken stick, 62.
BUILDINGS of various races do not change, 213.
BUPRESTIDAE, resembling bird's dung, 57;
similar colours in two sexes, 114.
BUTTERFLIES, value of, in studying "natural selection," 131;
varieties of, in Sardinia and Isle of Man, 178.
_CACIA anthriboides_, 94.
_Callizona acesta_, protective colouring of, 59.
CALORNIS, 239.
CAPITONIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 241.
_Capnolymma stygium_, 94.
CARABIDAE, special protection among, 72;
similar colouring of two sexes, 114.
CASSIDAE, resemble dew drops, 58.
CATERPILLARS, mimicking a poisonous snake, 99;
gaudy colours of, 117;
various modes of protection of, 118;
gooseberry caterpillar, 119;
Mr. Jenner Weir's observations on, 119;
Mr. A. G. Butler's observations on, 121.
CELEBES, local modifications of form in, 170;
probable cause of these, 176;
remarkable zoological peculiarities of, 195-199.
CENTROPUS, sexual colouring and nidification of, 242.
_Cephalodonta spinipes_, 92.
_Ceroxylus laceratus_, imitates a moss-covered stick, 64.
CERTHIOLA, sexual colouring and nidification of, 244.
_Cethosia aeole_, 172;
_biblis_, 172.
CETONIADAE, how protected, 73;
similar colours of two sexes, 114.
CEYCOPSIS, 196.
_Charis melipona_, 96.
CHEMATOBIA, wintry colours of this genus, 62.
_Chlamys pilula_, resembles dung of caterpillars, 58.
CHRYSIDIDAE, how protected, 72.
CHRYSOMELIDAE, similar colouring of two sexes, 114.
CICINDELA, adaptive colour of various species of, 57.
_Cilix compressa_, resembles bird's dung, 63.
CLADOBATES, mimicking squirrels, 107.
CLASSIFICATION, form of true, 6;
circular, inadmissible, 8;
quinarian and circular, of Swainson, 46;
argument from, against Mr. Darwin, 295.
CLIMACTERIS, sexual colouring and nidification of, 243.
COCCINELLIDAE, how protected, 72;
similar colouring of sexes, 114.
COEXISTING varieties, 159.
_Collyrodes lacordairei_, 95.
COLOUR, in animals, popular theories of, 47;
frequent variations of, in domesticated animals, 48;
influenced by need of concealment, 49;
in deserts, 49, 50;
in Arctic regions, 50, 51;
nocturnal, 51;
tropical, 52;
special modifications of, 52;
different distribution of, in butterflies and moths, 58;
of autumnal and winter moths, 62;
white, generally dangerous and therefore eliminated, 66;
why it exists so abundantly although often injurious, 69;
influenced by need of protection, 113;
of female birds, 114;
in relation to nidification of birds, 116;
gaudy colours of many caterpillars, 117;
in nature, general causes of, 126;
local variations of, 173;
sexual differences of, in birds, 239;
in female birds, how connected with their nidification, 240, 246;
more variable than structure or habits, and therefore more easily
modified, 249;
of flowers, as explained by Mr. Darwin, 262;
often correlated with disease, 316.
COMPSOGNATHUS, 300.
_Condylodera tricondyloides_, 97.
CONSCIOUSNESS, origin of, 360;
Professor Tyndall on, 361;
not a product of complex organization, 365.
CORRELATION of growth, 310.
_Corynomalus sp._, 92.
COTINGIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 244.
CRATOSOMUS, a hard weevil, 94.
CRICKETS mimicking sand wasps, 98.
CRYPTODONTIA, 299.
_Cucullia verbasci_, 120.
CURCULIONIDAE, often protected by hard covering, 71;
similar colours of two sexes, 114.
_Cuviera squamata_, 258.
_Cyclopeplus batesii_, 92.
CYNOPITHECUS, 196.
_Cynthia arsinoe_, 172.
DANAIDAE, the subjects of mimicry, 85, 86.
_Danais erippus_, 88;
_chysippus_, 112;
_sobrina_, 179;
_aglaia_, 179;
_tytia_, 180.
DARWIN, Mr., his principle of utility, 47;
on cause of colour in flowers, 127, 262;
on colours of caterpillars, 118;
on sexual colouration, 260;
his metaphors liable to misconception, 269;
criticism of, in _North British Review_, 291.
DESERT animals, colours of, 49, 50.
DIADEMA, species of, mimic Danaidae, 86, 87;
female with male colouration, 112.
_Diadema misippus_, 112;
_D. anomala_, 113.
_Diaphora mendica_, 89.
DICNYODONTIA, 299.
DICROURUS, 253.
_Diloba coeruleocephala_, 120.
DIMORPHISM, 145;
in beetles, 155;
in birds, 155;
illustrated, 157.
DINOSAURIA, 298.
DIPTERA mimicking wasps and bees, 97.
_Doliops curculionides_, 94.
DOMESTICATED animals, their essential difference from wild
ones, 38-41.
DOTTERELL, 251.
DRUSILLA, mimicked by three genera, 181.
_Drusilla bioculata_, 180.
DYTISCUS, dimorphism in, 155.
EGYPTIAN architecture, introduced, 225.
_Elaps fulvius_, _E. corallinus_, _E. lemniscatus_, 101;
_E. mipartitus_, _E. lemniscatus_, _E. hemiprichii_, 102.
ENODES, 196.
ENNOMUS, autumnal colours of this genus, 62.
_Eos fuscata_, dimorphism of, 155.
EQUUS, 299.
_Eronia tritaea_, 172;
_valeria_, 172.
_Eroschema poweri_, 93.
ERYCINIDAE mimic Heliconidae, 84.
_Erythroplatis corallifer_, 92.
ESTRELDA, sexual colouring and nidification of, 243.
EUCNEMIDAE, mimicking a Malacoderm, 93.
_Eudromias morinellus_, 251.
_Euglossa dimidiata_, 98.
EUMORPHIDAE, a protected group 72;
imitated by Longicorns, 92.
EUPLOEA, local modifications of colour in, 173.
_Euploea midamus_, 87-113, 179;
_E. rhadamanthus_, 87, 179.
_Eurhinia megalonice_, 172;
_polynice_, 172.
EURYLAEMIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 243.
EXTINCT animals, intermediate forms of, 298.
EXTINCTION of lower races, 318.
FEMALE birds, colours of, 114;
sometimes connected with their mode of nidification, 240;
more exposed to enemies than the males, 248.
FEMALE butterflies generally dull-coloured, 259.
FEMALE insects, mimicry by, 110, 259;
colours of, 113.
FEMALE sex, has no incapacity for as brilliant colouration as the
male, 247;
in some groups requires more protection than the male, 258.
FISHES, protective colouring of, 55.
FISSIROSTRAL birds, nests of, 238.
FLOWERS, causes of colour in, 127.
FLYCATCHERS, genera of, absent from Celebes, 177.
FORBES, EDWARD, objections to his theory of Polarity, 17-23.
FORCE is probably all Will-force, 366.
GALAPAGOS, 10.
GALTON, Mr., on range of intellectual power, 339.
GANOCEPHALA, 298.
_Gastropacha querci_, protective colour and form of, 62.
GAUDRY, M., on fossil mammals of Greece, 299.
GEOGRAPHICAL distribution, dependent on geologic changes, 1;
its agreement with law of introduction of new species, 9;
of allied species and groups, 12.
GEOLOGICAL distribution analogous to geographical, 13.
GEOLOGY, facts proved by, 2-5.
GIRAFFE, how it acquired its long neck, 42.
GLAEA, autumnal colours of this genus, 62.
GOULD, Mr., on sexual plumage of Gray Phalarope, 115;
on incubation by male Dotterell, 115.
_Grallina australis_, 254.
GREEN birds almost confined to the tropics, 52.
_Gymnocerus cratosomoides_, 94.
_Gymnocerous capucinus_, 96.
_Gymnocerous dulcissimus_, 97.
GUNTHER, Dr., on arboreal snakes, 55;
on colouring of snakes, 102.
_Gynecia dirce_, 59.
HABITS, often persistent when use of them has ceased, 234;
of children and savages analogous to those of animals, 235;
if persistent and imitative may be termed hereditary, 235, 236.
HAIRY covering of Mammalia, use of, 344;
absence of, in man remarkable, 345;
the want of it felt by savages, 346;
could not have been abolished by natural selection, 348.
_Harpagus diodon_, 107.
HEILIPLUS, a hard genus of Curculionidae, 94.
HELICONIDAE, the objects of mimicry, 77;
their secretions, 88;
not attacked by birds, 79;
sometimes mimicked by other Heliconidae, 85.
HELLADOTHERIUM, 300.
HEMIPTERA, protected by bad odour, 72.
HERBERT, Rev. W., on song of birds, 221.
HESPERIDAE, probable means of protection of, 176.
HESTHESIS, longicorns resembling ants, 96.
_Hestia leuconoe_, 180.
HEWITSON, Mr., 131.
HIPPARION, 299.
HIPPOTHERIUM, 299.
HISPIDAE, imitated by Longicorns, 92.
HOLOTHURIDAE, 258.
_Homalocranium semicinctum_, 101.
HOOKER, Dr., on the value of the "specific term," 165.
HOUSES of American and Malay races contrasted, 213.
HUXLEY, Professor, on "Physical Basis of Life," 362;
on volition, 368.
HYAENICTIS, 300.
HYBERNIA, wintry colours of this genus, 62.
HYMENOPTERA, large number of, peculiar to Celebes, 196.
ICTERIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 244.
ICTHYOPTERYGIA, 298.
_Ideopsis daos_, 180.
IMITATION, the effects of, in man's works, 212.
INDIANS, how they travel through trackless forests, 207.
INSECTS, protective colouring of, 56;
mimicking species of other orders, 97;
senses of, perhaps different from ours, 202, 203.
INSTINCT, how it may be best studied, 201;
definition of, 203;
in many cases assumed without proof, 205;
if possessed by man, 206;
supposed, of Indians, 207;
supposed to be shown in the construction of birds' nests, 211.
INTELLECT of savages compared with that of animals, 341.
INTELLECTUAL power, range of, in man, 339.
_Iphias glaucippe_, 172.
ITHOMIA, mimicked by Leptalis, 83.
_Ithomia ilerdina_, mimicked by four groups of Lepidoptera, 84.
JAVA, relations of, to Sumatra and Borneo, 193.
JAMAICA swift altering position of nest, 228.
JERDON, Mr., on incubation by males in Turnix, 115.
_Kallima inachis_ and _Kallima paralekta_, wonderful resemblance of,
to leaves, 59-61.
LABYRINTHODONTIA, 298, 300.
LAKES as cases of imperfect adaptation, 278.
LANIADAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 245.
LAMARCK'S hypothesis very different from the author's, 41.
_Larentia tripunctaria_, 63.
LAW which has regulated the introduction of new species, 5;
confirmed by geographical distribution, 9;
high organization of ancient animals consistent with, 14;
of multiplication in geometrical progression, 265;
of limited populations, 265;
of heredity, 266;
of variation, 266;
of change of physical conditions, 266;
of the equilibrium of nature, 266;
as opposed to continual interference, 268.
LAYCOCK, Dr., on law of "unconscious intelligence," 360.
LEAF BUTTERFLY, appearance and habits of, 59-61.
LEPIDOPTERA, especially subject to variation, 132.
LEPTALIS, species of mimic Heliconidae, 82;
gain a protection thereby, 259.
LESTER, Mr. J. M., on wood-dove and robin, 53.
LEVAILLANT, on formation of a nest, 224.
_Limenitis archippus_, 88.
_Limenitis limire_, 172;
_procris_, 172.
LIZARDS refusing certain moths and caterpillars, 121;
devouring bees, 121.
LOCAL FORMS, 158.
LOCAL variation of form, 169;
of colour, 173;
general remarks on, 174;
in Celebesian butterflies, probable use of, 175.
LOCUSTIDAE, adaptive colouring of, 64.
LUMINOUSNESS of some insects a protection, 71.
LYCAENIDAE, probable means of protection of, 176.
MAMMALS, mimicry among, 107.
MAN, does he build by reason or imitation, 212;
his works mainly imitative, 225;
antiquity of, 303, 322;
difference of opinion as to his origin, 304;
unity or plurality of species, 305;
persistence of type of, 306;
importance of mental and moral characters, 312;
his dignity and supremacy, 324;
his influence on nature, 326;
his future development, 326;
range of intellectual power in, 339;
rudiments of all the higher faculties in savage, 341;
his feet and hands, difficulties on the theory of natural
selection, 349;
his voice, 350;
his mental faculties, 351;
difficulty as to the origin of the moral sense in, 352;
development of, probably directed by a superior intelligence, 359.
MANTIDAE, adaptive colouring of, 64;
mimicking white ants, 98.
MALACODERMS, a protected group, 93.
MALURIDAE, 255.
MATTER, the nature of, 363;
Mr. Bayma on, 363;
is force, 365.
MECHANITIS and Methona, mimicked by _Leptalis_, 83.
MECOCERUS, dimorphism of, 155.
_Mecocerus gazella_, 94.
MEGACEPHALON, 196.
MEGAPODIDAE, sexual colouring and nidification of, 246.
MEROPOGON, 196.
_Midas dives_, 97.
MIMETA, mimicking Tropidorhynchus, 104.