Manual as "peasant population. Some are ryotwari land-holders in
their own right and possess large estates. The word is derived from
nattam, village, and is used in three forms, Nattamakkal, Nattamar,
and Nattamadi. A considerable proportion are converts to the Roman
Catholic religion, and, in the neighbourhood of Vallam, there are
very few who profess any other faith." In the Madura Manual, the
Nattambadiyans are further described as being "usually respectable
cultivators. They are said to have emigrated into the Madura country
not more than about eight years ago. They are an interesting class of
Tamils, inasmuch as very many of them have adopted the Roman Catholic
faith under the leadership of the Jesuit missionaries. They are said to
be a fine race physically; finer even than the Vellalans. They are also
called Udaiyans, and tradition says that they came from the Toreiyur
nadu or district in Tanjore, from a village called Udeiyapaleiyam. They
are chiefly resident in the great zamindaris, and contrast favourably
with the Maravans, being very orderly, frugal, and industrious."
I am informed that Nattaman women will do cooly work and carry food
for their husbands when at work in the fields, but that Malaiman
women will not do so.
The Sudarmans are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901,
as "cultivators chiefly found in the districts of Tanjore and
Trichinopoly. They are imitating the Brahmans and Vellalas in
their social customs, and some of them have left off eating meat,
with the idea of raising themselves in general estimation; but they
nevertheless eat in the houses of Kallans and Idaiyans. Their title
is Muppan." Some Sudarmans, I am told, have become Agamudaiyans.
Uddari.--A synonym for the village Taliyari.
Uddu (Phaseolus Mungo).--An exogamous sept of Kappiliyan.
Udhdhandra.--A title conferred by Zamindars on some Kurumos.
Uduma.--Uduma or Udumala, meaning the lizard Varanus, has been recorded
as an exogamous sept of Boya, Kapu, Tottiyan, and Yanadi.
Ugrani.--A village servant in South Canara, appointed to watch
the store-rooms (ugrana), e.g., the village granary, treasury, or
bhuta-sthana. In 1907, the powers of village policeman were conferred
on the Ugrani, who now wears a brass badge on his arm, with the words
Village Police in the vernacular engraved on it. It is the duty of
the Ugrani to report the following to the village magistrate:--
1. The commission of grave crimes, such as theft, house-breaking,
robbery, dacoity, accidental deaths, suicides, etc.
2. The existence of disputes in connection with landed property,
likely to give occasion to any fight or rioting.
3. The arrival of Fakirs, Bairagis, or other strangers in the village.
4. The arrival or residence in the village of any person whom the
villagers suspect to be a bad character.
5. The commission of mischief in respect of any public property, such
as roads, road avenues, bridges, cattle pounds, Government trees on
unreserved lands, etc.
Uliyakaran.--A synonym, denoting menial servant, of Parivaram.
Ulladan.--It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901,
that "the Ullatans and Nayatis are found in the low country, as well
as on the hills. At a remote period, certain Ullata families from
the plains settled themselves at Talpurakkotta near Sabarimala, and
even to-day pilgrims to Sabarimala consider this place as sacred. In
the low country, the offerings to the same deities as the Ullatans
worship are offered by the Valans. Hence the Ullatans were called by
them Kochchuvalans. The place near Sabarimala where they once dwelt is
known as Kochuvalakkuti, or the cottage of the Kochchuvalan. Most of
these Ullatans have left this place for fear of wild beasts, and are
now straying in the woods with no fixed abode. It is said that they
are the descendants from a Nambutiri woman, who, on being proclaimed
an outcast, said Ullatana, meaning that (the offence for which she
was ostracised) is true. [According to another derivation, the name
is derived from ull, within, and otunnu, runs, and means one who runs
away into the forest at the sight of a member of any of the higher
castes.] They are good hunters, and experts in the collection of wax
and other forest produce. A curious marriage custom, prevalent among
them, is thus related by Dr. Day. 'A large round building is made
of leaves, and inside this the bride is ensconced. All the eligible
young men of the village then assemble, and form a ring round this
hut. At a short distance sits the girl's father or the nearest male
relative with tom-tom in his hands, and a few more musical instruments
complete the scene. Presently the music begins. The young men, each
armed with a bamboo, commence dancing round the hut, into which each of
them thrusts his stick. This continues about an hour, when the owner
of whichever bamboo she seizes becomes the fortunate husband of the
concealed bride. A feast then follows.' [72] They subsist chiefly on
fruits, wild yams, and other forest products, and eke out a wretched
existence. When armed with guns, they make excellent sportsmen."
It is noted by the Rev. S. Mateer [73] that the Ulladans "subsist
chiefly on wild yams, arrowroot, and other esculents, which they find
in the jungle, and for the grubbing up of which they are generally
armed with a long pointed staff. They also further enjoy the fruits
of the chase, and are adepts in the use of the bow and arrow. The
arrow they use has an iron spear-head, and an Ulladan has been known
to cut a wriggling cobra in half at the first shot. They were claimed
as the property of celebrated hill temples, or great proprietors, who
exacted service of them, and sometimes sold their services to Nairs,
Syrians, and others. A few Ulladans in the low country say they or
their fathers were stolen in childhood, and brought down as slaves."
At Kottayam in Travancore, I came across a party of Ulladans carrying
cross-bows. These were said to be used for catching fish in rivers,
lagoons, and tanks. The arrow is between two and three feet in length,
and has an iron hook at one end. Attached to it is a thin but strong
string, one end of which is tied to the hook, while the other end
passes through a small hole in the wooden part of the arrow, and is
fastened to the cross-bar of the bow. This string is about thirty feet
in length, and serves not only to drag the captured fish out of the
water, and land it, but also to prevent the arrow from being lost. The
origin of the cross-bow, which I have not found in the possession of
any other tribe, puzzled me until the word Firingi was mentioned in
connection with it. The use of this word would seem to indicate that
the cross-bow is a survival from the days of the Portuguese on the
west coast, Firingi (a Frank) or Parangi being used by Natives for
European or Portuguese.
For the following note on the Ulladans of the Cochin State, I
am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer. [74] "Their huts
are situated in the forest of the plains, by the side of paddy
(rice) flats, or in cocoanut gardens remote from those of the
members of the higher castes. Only Christian Moplahs are found in
the neighbourhood. Their huts are erected on short bamboo posts,
the roof and four sides of which are covered with plaited cocoanut
leaves. A bamboo framework, of the same leaves, serves the purpose of
a door. A few plaited cocoanut leaves, and a mat of their own weaving,
form the only furniture, and serve as beds for them at night. Their
vessels in domestic use consist of a few earthen pots for cooking and
keeping water in, and a few shallow earthen dishes, from which they
drink water, and take their food. Some large pieces of the bark of the
areca palm, containing salt, chillies, etc., were also seen by me. What
little they possess as food and clothing is placed in small baskets
suspended from the framework of the roof by means of wooden hooks.
"The caste assembly consists of the elderly members of the caste. There
is a headman, who is called Muppan, and he has an assistant who
is known as Ponamban. The headman has to preside at all marriage
and funeral ceremonies, and to decide all disputes connected with
the caste. The caste assembly meets chiefly to deal with cases of
immorality. The guilty parties are summoned before the assembly. The
headman, who presides, inquires into the matter, and, in the event
of the accused parties confessing their guilt, they are taken before
His Highness the Raja, who is informed of the circumstances. The male
culprit is sometimes beaten or fined. The woman is given some water
or the milk of a green cocoanut, and this is supposed to set her free
from all sin. When a fine is imposed, it is sometimes spent on the
purchase of toddy, which is shared among the castemen present. The
headman gets a few puthans (Cochin coins) for his trouble.
"In religion, the Ulladans are pure animists or demon worshippers. All
cases of sickness, and other calamities, are attributed to the
malignant influence of demons, whom it is necessary to propitiate. They
worship Kappiri, Thikutti, and Chathan, all of whom are represented
by a few stones placed under a thatched roof called kottil. Offerings
of rice flour, sheep, fowls, toddy, rice, cocoanuts and plantains,
are given on Fridays in the month of Kanni (September-October). One
of the castemen acts as Velichapad (oracle), and speaks as if by
inspiration. He also casts out demons from the bodies of women who are
believed to be influenced by them. When he resumes his former self,
he takes half the offerings to himself, allowing the other half for
distribution among the bystanders. They also worship the spirits of
the departed members of their families, who, they think, sometimes
appear to them in dreams, and ask them for whatever they want. They
believe that, in the event of their neglecting to give what is asked,
these spirits will cause serious calamity to their family.
"The Ulladans generally bury their dead in special places called
chotala, but some of them bury the corpse a few yards away from their
huts. The young are buried deep in the ground, while the old ones are
buried not so deep. The dead body is placed on a new piece of cloth
spread on a bamboo bier, which is carried by the relatives to the
grave-yard. The castemen of the neighbourhood, including the relations
and friends of the deceased, accompany the bier to the burial-ground,
and return home after bathing. The members of the family fast for
the night. They observe pollution for fifteen days, and, on the
morning of the sixteenth day, the Thalippan (barber priest) comes
and cleans the huts and its surrounding, and sprinkles cow-dung mixed
with water on the members of the family as they return from bathing,
in order that they may be freed from pollution. They entertain their
castemen on that day. It is a custom among the Ulladans, Pulayas,
and other low classes, that, when they are invited to a feast,
they bring with them some rice, curry stuffs, toddy, or a few annas
to meet the expenses of the feast. Very often the above articles
are obtained as a gift from the charitably disposed members of the
higher castes. At the end of the year, a similar feast is given to
the castemen. Among the Ulladans, the nephew is the chief mourner,
for he usually succeeds to the property of the dead, and proves his
right of ownership by acting as the chief mourner.
"The Ulladans on the sea-coast make boats, and cut timber. Their
brethren in the interior gather honey, and collect minor forest
produce, and sell it to contractors. During the agricultural season,
they engage in every kind of agricultural work, such as ploughing,
sowing, transplanting, reaping, etc. They also graze the cattle of
the farmers. They get a few annas worth of paddy (unhusked rice)
for their labour. For most of the months in the year they are in
a half-starving condition, and resort to eating wild roots, and
animals, which they can get hold of (e.g., rats, tortoises, fish,
or crocodiles). They know where rats are to be found. They thrust
a long stick into their holes, moving it so violently as to kill
them there, or forcing them to come out, when they catch and kill
them. Very often in the rural parts, both men and women are found
with long poles ready to be thrust into any holes there may be by
the side of a fence, or where bamboos are growing luxuriantly. They
also catch crocodiles. They place the carcase of a fowl, sheep, or
other animal, on the bank of a canal, or by the side of a tank where
crocodiles are to be found. Into it is thrust a pointed piece of iron,
fastened to a long cord. When a crocodile comes out of the water to
eat it, or tries to get away with it, the piece of iron is fixed
firmly into its mouth, upon which the Ulladans, who are watching,
approach and kill it with their clubs and knives. They catch fish
by means of bait, and by poisoning the water. They are also very
skilful in spearing fish swimming near the surface. They are more
trackers of game than hunters, and very often accompany Moplahs, who
go out hunting to provide themselves with meat of all kinds for feasts
during their weddings. The Ulladans are engaged only as beaters. For
this service, they are given meals during the wedding, in addition
to three annas worth of paddy for each beater. They are armed with
clubs, and seldom go with dogs, fearing that they may drive away the
game. When any animal is killed in hunting, the right side of the
back of the animal goes to the Government. It is given to the Forest
Officer, who auctions it, and the money obtained is sent to the taluk
treasury. The left side of the back goes to the member of the party
who shoots the animal. He also gets the face with the tongue. The
headman among the Ulladans also gets a share. The remainder of the
carcase is equally divided among the members who have formed the
party. Should any dispute arise regarding the division of the game,
the man who shoots the animal is entrusted with the settlement of the
dispute, and his decision is final. In cases where the hunting party
is organised by the Moplahs, the Ulladans get wages and meals for their
trouble. In places where elephant pits are dug, hunting is forbidden.
"As regards their social status, the Ulladans, like the Nayadis,
form the Chandalas of the plains. Their approach to within a radius
of sixty-four feet pollutes Brahmans, and all higher castes, including
the Sudras (Nayars). The Ulladans cannot walk along the public roads,
or come to the bazaars. Nor can they approach the precincts of any town
or locality where the members of higher castes reside. The Pulayas
and Parayas profess to be polluted by them. It is curious to note
that the Ullada women consider it degrading to go to work like the
Pulaya woman. They say that their husbands have to provide for them."
Ulli (onions or garlic).--A sub-division of the Tigala
market-gardeners. The equivalent Ullipoyala occurs as an exogamous
sept of Golla, and Ulligadda as a sept of Boya and Korava.
Ulumban.--It is recorded in the Gazetteer of Malabar that "an
endogamous sub-caste (of Nayars) of foreign origin are the Ulumbans or
cowherds. According to one tradition, they were originally immigrants
from Dvaraka (Guzerat). Their original occupation still survives in the
privileges of supplying ghee (clarified butter) for the abhishegam or
libation at the great annual festival at the jungle shrine of Kottiyur,
and of supplying butter-milk to the Tiruvangad temple at Tellicherry,
which are exercised by families of this caste; and in the general
privilege of offering milk in any temple without previous ablution."
Uluvala (seeds of horse-gram: Dolichos biflorus).--An exogamous sept
of Boya and Jogi.
Ungara.--Ungara and Ungarala, meaning rings, have been recorded as
exogamous septs of Balija and Kuruba.
Unittiri.--Unittiri, or Unyatiri, meaning, it is said, venerable boy,
has been recorded as a sub-division of Samantam. Unnittan appears,
in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a title of Nayars, and is
said to be derived from unni, small, tan, a title of dignity.
Unnekankana.--A sub-division of Kurubas, who tie a woollen thread
(unne kankana) round the wrist at times of marriage.
Unni.--For the following note on the Unnis of Travancore, I am indebted
to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The word Unni, whatever its significance may
have been of old, at present forms the common title of four castes of
the Ambalavasi group, whose manners and custom differ considerably in
their details. They are known, respectively, as Pushpakans, Brahmanis,
Tiyattunnis, and Nattu Pattars, their social precedence being in this
order. Pushpakan comes from pushpa, which in Sanskrit means either
a flower or menses. Brahmanis, more vulgarly known as Pappinis,
are so named because they perform some of the priestly functions of
the Brahmans for the Sudra population of Travancore. Tiyattunnis,
also known as Taiyampatis in British Malabar, are so called from the
peculiar religious service they perform in some Hindu temples. Nattu
Pattars are also known as Pattar Unnis and Karappuram Unnis. Unni means
a child, and is used as an honorific term to denote the male children
of a Nambutiri's household. The reason why these Ambalavasi castes came
to be so called was that they were looked upon as more respectable than
the Nayars, by whom the term must doubtless have been made use of at
first. The Pushpakans are said to be divided into three classes, namely
Pushpakans, Nambiassans, and Puppallis. The first section live only
as far south as Evur in Central Travancore, and are called Nambiyars
in the north. The Nambiyassans live in Cochin and North Travancore,
while the Puppallis are found only towards the south. There are
no sub-divisions among the Brahmanis and Karappuramunnis. But the
Tiyattunnis are divided into two classes, namely the Tiyatinambiyans
of the north, who are generally employed in the temples of Sastha,
and Tiyattunnis proper, who perform a similar function in the shrines
of Bhadrakali. Women are also known as Atovarammamar and Kovillammamar.
Pushpakans are said to have arisen out of the union of a Brahman
woman in her menses with her husband. Parasurama set them apart,
and gave them the occupation of making garlands in the temples of
Malabar. Though this derivation is given in the Keralamahatmya, it may
be more easily believed that Pushpakan is derived from the occupation
of working in flowers. Puppalli, at any rate, is thus derived, and,
as Palli signifies anything sacred, the caste name arose from the
occupation of preparing garlands for deities. Nambiyassans, called
also Nambiyars and Nambis, must have been, as also the Puppallis
and Brahmanis, one with the Pushpakans. In some places, Nambiyassans
are known to have kept gymnasia and military training schools. The
Brahmanis must have undergone some degree of degradation because
of the religious songs which they sang during the marriages of the
Nayars, while those who did not take part therein became, as it were,
a separate sept. Another tradition, accounting for the origin of the
caste, is that, as in primitive ages early marriages prevailed among
the Malayala Brahmans, the family of the Nambutiri who first married
his daughter after puberty was excommunicated, and gave origin to
the Pushpakas. This is untrue, as, in Vedic times, adult marriage
was the rule, and the Nambutiris in this respect have been known
to follow a more primitive custom than the Brahmans of the east
coast. The Tiyattunnis are said to be the descendants of a Bhuta
or demon directed by Siva to sing songs in praise of Bhadrakali,
and appease her anger after the murder of Darika. They must from
the first have formed a distinct section of the Ambalavasis. The
Karappuram Unnis are supposed to have been elevated to their present
status by Cheraman Perumal, one of the rulers of ancient Kerala, as,
though belonging to the Sudra caste, they were obliged on one occasion
to perform Brahmanical service for him. Perumal is believed to have
permitted them to take the title of Unni, and call themselves Pattar,
by which name East Coast Brahmans are known in Malabar. Thus they came
to own the three names Nattu Pattar, Pattar Unni, and Karappuram Unni,
Karappuram or Shertallay being the territory where the sept received
the above-mentioned social elevation from their sovereign. Even now,
many of them reside in the taluks of Ambalapuzha and Shertallay.
The house of a Pushpaka is variously known as pushpakam, pumatum,
or padodakam, the last signifying a place where the water falls
from the feet of the deity, on account of its close proximity to the
temple, where the daily avocation of the Pushpaka lies. The houses
of the Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars are only known by the name of
bhavanam. As in the case of the Brahmans, the Pushpanis and Brahmanis
cover their bodies with a piece of cloth, carry an umbrella, and are
accompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out in public. The
women have one more fold in their dress than the Nambutiris. The
neck ornament of women is the cherutali-kuttam, and the ear ornament
the katila. Bell-metal bangles are worn round the wrists. Female
Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars do not wear the last, and are generally
unaccompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out.
Pushpakans are believed to be the most fitting caste for the
preparation of flower garlands to be used in temples. They
also assist in the preparation of the materials for the daily
offering. Nambiyassans were instructors in arms in days of old, and
kalari or gymnasia are owned by them even at the present day. Their
punyaha, or purificatory ceremony after pollution, is performed by
Pushpakans. Brahmani women sing religious songs on the occasion of
marriage among all castes from Kshatriyas to Nayars. In Kumaranallur
and other Bhagavati shrines, women are employed to sing propitiatory
songs, while the men make garlands, sweep the floor of the inner
court-yard and plinth, clean the temple vessels, and carry the lamp
when images are taken round in procession. It is only the first of
these temple services that the Pushpakas do, and their women never
go out to sing on marriage occasions. The word Tiyattu or Teyyatu
is said to be a corruption of Daivamattu, or dancing to please the
deity. According to one tradition, they were degraded from Pushpakas
for undertaking service in the temples. In more orthodox times,
tiyattu could be performed only in temples and Brahman houses, but
now Sudras also share the privilege of inviting the Tiyattunnis to
their homes for this purpose, though the ceremony cannot be performed
in their houses without a previous punyaha. The rite is extremely
popular when epidemic disease prevails. Ganapati and Bhadrakali
are, as a preliminary measure, worshipped, to the accompaniment of
musical instruments. As this has to be done in the noon, it is called
uchchappattu, or noon-day song. In the evening, an image of Bhadrakali
is drawn on the ground with powders of five colours, white, yellow,
black, green and red. At night, songs are sung in praise of that
deity by the Tiyattunni and his followers. A member of the troupe
then plays the part of Bhadrakali in the act of murdering the demon
Darika, and, in conclusion, waves a torch before the inmates of the
house, to ward off the evil eye, which is the most important item
in the whole ceremony. The torch is believed to be given by Siva,
who is worshipped before the light is waved.
The Karappuram Unnis, unlike the other septs of their class, are
mostly agriculturists. The Unnis are all Smartas, but a partiality for
Bhadrakali is manifested by the Tiyattunnis and Brahmanis. All social
matters among the Unnis are superintended by Nambutiri Brahmans,
but, in all that directly touches the social well-being, their own
headmen are the judges. Before entering a Pushpaka's house for the
observation of any ceremony, the Nambutiris insist upon the performance
of punyaha. Though the superiority of Ilayatus is acknowledged,
they are never employed by the Pushpakas for priestly functions. The
Ilayatus are believed to have once been the priests of the Nattu
Pattars, though at the present time learned men from their own sept
are employed for this purpose. The punyaha is, however, performed
through the agency of Nambutiris. The priests of the Nambiyassans,
Tiyattunnis, and Brahmanis are Ilayatus.