CASTES AND TRIBES
OF
SOUTHERN INDIA
By
EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E.,
Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger,
Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa,
Romana di Anthropologia.
Assisted by
K. Rangachari, M.A.,
of the Madras Government Museum.
Volume VII--T to Z
Government Press, Madras
1909.
CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA.
VOLUME VII.
T
Tabelu (tortoise).--A sept of Aiyarakulu, and section of Gazula Kapu
and Koppala Velama.
Taccha Kurup.--Barbers who shave Malabar Kammalans.
Tacchan.--The name of the carpenter sub-division of Kammalans, and
further returned, at the census, 1891, as an occupational sub-division
by some Paraiyans. Taccha Karaiyan has been recorded as a name for some
members of the Karaiyan fishing caste. The Tacchasastram, or science
of carpentry, prescribes in minute details the rules of construction.
Tacchanadan Muppan.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 and
1901, as a sub-division of Kuricchans, and of Kurumbas of the Nilgiris.
Tadan.--See Dasari.
Tagara.--A section of Poroja.
Takru.--A class of Muhammadan pilots and sailors in the Laccadive
islands. (See Mappilla.)
Talaivan (a chief).--A title of the Maravans. Jadi or Jati Talaivan
is the name of the hereditary chief of the Paravas of Tinnevelly, who,
at times of pearl fisheries, receives a fixed share of the 'oysters.'
Talamala.--A sub-division of Kanikar.
Talayari.--The Talayari (talai, head) or chief watchman, or Uddari
(saviour of the village), is a kind of undepartmental village
policeman, who is generally known as the Talari. Among other duties,
he has to follow on the track of stolen cattle, to act as a guard
over persons confined in the village choultry (lock-up), to attend
upon the head of the village during the trial of petty cases, to
serve processes, and distrain goods. In big villages there are two or
three Talayaris, in which case one is a Paraiyan, who officiates in
the Paraiya quarter. In parts of the Telugu country, the Mutrachas,
who are the village watchmen, are known as Talarivallu, or watchman
people, and, in like manner, the Bedars are called Talarivandlu in
the Kurnool and Bellary districts.
It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district (1906), that
"from the earliest years of the British occupation of the country,
fees were paid to the talaiyari or village watchman. He was probably
survival of a state of society in which kavalgars did not exist, and
his duties were, it seems, to look after the villagers' fields and
threshing floors. At any rate, he continued in existence even after
the abolition of the kaval system (see Maravan), and was declared by
the early Police Regulation (XI of 1816) to be part of the regular
police establishment. Practically he did little real police duty,
and in 1860, when the mufassal police was reorganised, all claims
to the services of the talaiyari as a servant of the State were
formally abandoned, the Inspector-General of Police having reported
that any attempt to utilise the talaiyari body would be fruitless
and unpopular. Talaiyaris still continue to be employed and paid by
the ryots (cultivators) as the private guardians of their crops and
harvested grain. Recently, however, the district was brought into
line with the rest of the Presidency by the creation of a new force
of talaiyaris, who now perform the police duties assigned to such
persons elsewhere. They are provided with lathis (sticks) and badges,
and are a useful auxiliary to the police."
Tali.--"The tali," Bishop Caldwell writes, [1] "is the Hindu sign of
marriage, answering to the ring of European christendom. I have known
a clergyman refuse to perform a marriage with a tali, and insist upon
a ring being used instead. A little consideration will show that the
scrupulous conscience can find no rest for itself even in the ring;
for, if the ring is more Christian than the tali, it is only because
its use among Christians is more ancient. Every one knows that the
ring has a Pagan origin, and that, for this reason, it is rejected by
Quakers." "The custom," Wagner informs us, [2] "of wearing the wedding
ring on the fourth finger of the left hand had unquestionably a Pagan
origin. Both the Greeks and the Romans called the fourth left-hand
finger the medicated finger, and used it to stir up mixtures and
potions, out of the belief that it contained a vein, which communicated
directly with the heart, and therefore nothing noxious could come in
contact with it, without giving instant warning to that vital organ."
The marriage badge, as it occurs in Southern India, is, broadly
speaking, of two types. The one in use among the Tamil castes is oblong
in shape, with a single or double indentation at the base, and rounded
at the top. The corresponding bottu or sathamanam of the Telugu and
Canarese castes is a flat or cup-shaped disc. The tali in use among
various Malayalam castes at the tali-kettu ceremony is a long cylinder.
Tali-kettu kalyanam (tali-tying marriage).--A ceremony gone through by
Nayar girls, and girls of some other Malayalam castes, in childhood. Of
those who gave evidence before the Malabar Marriage Commission, some
thought the tali-kettu was a marriage, some not. Others called it a
mock marriage, a formal marriage, a sham marriage, fictitious marriage,
a marriage sacrament, the preliminary part of marriage, a meaningless
ceremony, an empty form, a ridiculous farce, an incongruous custom,
a waste of money, and a device for becoming involved in debt. "While,"
the Report states, "a small minority of strict conservatives still
maintain that the tali-kettu is a real marriage intended to confer on
the bridegroom a right to cohabit with the bride, an immense majority
describe it as a fictitious marriage, the origin of which they are at
a loss to explain. And another large section tender the explanation
accepted by our President (Sir T. Muttusami Aiyar), that in some
way or other it is an essential caste observance preliminary to the
formation of sexual relations." In summing up the evidence collected
by him, Mr. Lewis Moore states [3] that it seems to be proved beyond
all reasonable doubt that "from the sixteenth century at all events,
and up to the early portion of the nineteenth century, the relations
between the sexes in families governed by marumakkathayam (inheritance
in the female line) were of as loose a description as it is possible
to imagine. The tali-kettu kalyanam, brought about by the Brahmans,
brought about no improvement, and indeed, in all probability, made
matters much worse by giving a quasi-religious sanction to a fictitious
marriage, which bears an unpleasant resemblance to the sham marriage
ceremonies performed among certain inferior castes elsewhere as a
cloak for prostitution (see Deva-dasi). As years passed, some time
about the opening of the nineteenth century, the Kerala mahatmyam
and Keralolpathi were concocted, probably by Nambudris, and false
and pernicious doctrines as to the obligations laid on the Nayars by
divine law to administer to the lust of the Nambudris were disseminated
abroad. The better classes among the Nayars revolted against the
degrading system thus established, and a custom sprang up, especially
in North Malabar, of making sambandham a more or less formal contract,
approved and sanctioned by the Karnavan (senior male) of the tarwad
[4] to which the lady belonged, and celebrated with elaborate ceremony
under the pudamuri (female cloth cutting) form. That there was nothing
analogous to the pudamuri prevalent in Malabar from A.D. 1500 to 1800
may, I think, be fairly presumed from the absence of all allusion
to it in the works of the various European writers." According to
Act IV, Madras, 1896, sambandham means an alliance between a man
and woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom
of the community to which they belong, or either of them belongs,
cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife.
Tambala.--The Tambalas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as "Telugu-speaking temple priests. Their social position differs
in different localities. They are regarded as Brahmans in Godavari,
Kistna and Nellore, and as Sudras in the other Telugu districts." It
is noted, in the Census Report, that the Tambalas are described by
C. P. Brown as a class of beggars, who worship Siva, and who beat
drums; secular priests, etc. These men are generally Sudras, but
wear the sacred thread. "It is said that, during his peregrinations
in the north, Sankaracharya appointed Tamil Brahmans to perform
temple services in all the Saiva shrines. Hence the Telugu people,
in the midst of whom the Tamilians lived, called them the Tambalas
(Tamils). They are not now, however, regarded as Brahmans, whatever
their original position may have been. They will eat only with
Brahmans. Most of them are Saivites, and a few are Lingayats. The
Smarta Brahmans officiate as their priests at birth, marriage,
and death ceremonies. They do not eat animal food, and all their
religious rites are more or less like those of Brahmans. Their usual
titles are Aiya and Appa."
Tamban.--One of the divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore. (See
Tirumalpad.)
Tambi (younger brother).--A term of affection in the Tamil country,
used especially when a younger person is being addressed. It is also
recorded as an honorific title of Nayars in Travancore, and a suffix
to the names of Nayar sons of Travancore sovereigns.
Tambiran.--The name for Pandaram managers of temples, e.g., at
Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot.
Tamburan.--For the following note on the Rajahs or Tamburans, I
am indebted to the Travancore Census Report, 1901. "They form an
endogamous community of Kshatriyas, and live as seven families in
Travancore. They are distinguished by the localities in which they
reside, viz., Mavelikkara, Ennaikkat, Kartikapalli, Mariappalli,
Tiruvalla, Praikkara, and Aranmula. They are all related by blood,
the connection between some of them being very close. Like the
Koiltampurans, all the members of their community observe birth
and death pollution with reference to each other. Their original
home is Kolattunat in North Malabar, and their immigration into
Travancore, where the reigning family is of the Kolattunat stock, was
contemporaneous, in the main, with the invasion of Malabar by Tippu
Sultan. The first family that came into the country from Kolattunat was
the Putuppalli Kovilakam in the 5th century M.E. (Malabar era). The
Travancore royal family then stood in need of adoption. The then
Rajah arranged through a Koiltampuran of Tattarikkovilakam to bring
from Kolattunat two princesses for adoption, as his negotiations
with the then Kolattiri were fruitless. The Puttuppali Kovilakam
members thus settled themselves at Kartikapalli, the last of whom
died in 1030 M.E. The next family that migrated was Cheriyakovilakam,
between 920 and 930 M.E. They also came for adoption. But their right
was disputed by another house, Pallikkovilakam. They then settled
themselves at Aranmula. The third series of migrations were during
the invasion of Malabar by Tippu in 964 M.E. All the Rajahs living
there at the time came over to Travancore, of whom, however, many
returned home after a time.
The Rajahs, like the Koiltampurans, belong to the Yajurveda section of
Dvijas, but follow the sutra laid down by Baudhayana. Their gotra is
that of Bhargava, i.e., Parasurama, indicating in a manner that these
are Kshatriyas who were accepted by Parasurama, the uncompromising
Brahmin of the Hindu Puranas. They have all the Brahminical Samskaras,
only the Brahmin priest does most of them on their behalf. Chaulam, or
tuft ceremony, is performed along with Upanayanam. The Samavartanam,
or termination of the pupil stage, is celebrated on the fourth day
of the thread investiture. Instruction in arms is then given to the
Kshatriya boy, and is supposed to be kept up until the requisite skill
has been obtained. The tali-tying (mangalya dharanam or pallikkettu of
a Raja lady) is done by a Koiltampuran, who thereafter lives with her
as her married husband. The Kanyakadanam, or giving away of the bride,
is performed by the priest who attends also to the other Sastraic
rites. The males take Sudra consorts. If the first husband leaves
by death or otherwise, another Koiltampuran may be accepted. This is
not called marriage, but kuttirikkuka (living together).
At Sradhas (memorial services), the Karta, or performer of the
ceremony, throws a flower as a mark of spiritual homage at the feet
of the Brahmins who are invited to represent the manes, and greets
them in the conventional form (namaskara). The priest does the other
ceremonies. After the invited Brahmins have been duly entertained,
oblations of cooked rice are offered to the ancestors by the Karta
himself.
They are to repeat the Gayatri ten times at each Sandhya prayer,
together with the Panchakshara and the Ashtakshara mantras.
Their caste government is in the hands of the Nambutiri Vaidikas. Their
family priests belong to the class of Malayala Pottis, known as
Tiruveli Pottis.
Besides the ordinary names prevalent among Koiltampurans, names such as
Martanda Varma, Aditya Varma, and Udaya Varma are also met with. Pet
names, such as Kungaru, Kungappan, Kungoman, Kungunni, Unni and Ampu
are common. In the Travancore Royal House, the first female member
always takes the name of Lakshmi and the second that of Parvati.
Tamoli.--A few members of this North India caste of betel-leaf sellers
have been returned at times of census. I am unable to discover in
what district they occur. Tambuli or Tamuli is recorded as a caste
of betel-leaf sellers in Bengal, and Tamboli as a caste carrying on
a similar occupation in the Bombay Presidency.
Tanamanadu.--A sub-division of Valaiyan.
Tanda.--The word literally refers to a settlement or encampment of
the Lambadis, by some of whom it is, at times of census, returned as
a tribal synonym.
Tandan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "in
Walluvanad and Palghat (in Malabar) Tandan is a distinct caste. The
ceremonies observed by Tandans are, in general outline, the same
as those of the southern Tiyyans, but the two do not intermarry,
each claiming superiority over the other. There is a custom which
prohibits the Tandan females of Walluvanad from crossing a channel
which separates that taluk from Mankara on the Palghat side." The
Tandans of Malabar are described by Mr. F. Fawcett as a people allied
to the Izhuvans, who observe the custom of fraternal polyandry,
which the Izhuvans abhor.
For the following note on the Tandans of Travancore, I am indebted
to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.
The castemen are known as Uralis to the south of Varkallay, and Tandans
to the north of it. In some places to the east of Kottarakaray,
they were popularly termed Mutalpattukar, or those who receive
the first perquisite for assistance rendered to carpenters. In the
days when there were no saws, the rough instruments of the Tandan
served their purpose. Hence some members of the caste were called
Tacchan (carpenter). Tandan is derived from the Sanskrit dandanam or
punishment, as, in ancient times, men of this caste were employed to
carry out the punishments that were inflicted by the authorities upon
offenders. For the execution of such punishments, the Tandans were
provided with swords, choppers and knives. As they were also told off
to guard the villages (ur) of which they happened to be inhabitants,
they acquired the title of Urali. In some places, Tandans are also
called Velans. Males and females have respectively the title Muppan
and Muppatti, meaning an elder. In addressing members of higher castes,
the Tandans call themselves Kuzhiyan, or dwellers in pits.
The Tandans are said to have once belonged to the same caste as the
Izhuvans, but to have fallen away from that position. They must,
in times gone by, have joined the military service of the various
States in Malabar. They were, in some places, given rent-free lands,
called Urali parambu, in return for the duties they were expected to
perform. With the return of peaceful times, their occupation changed,
and the climbing of palm trees, to extract the juice thereof, became
their most important calling. They are also largely engaged in the
manufacture of ropes. Many families still receive the mutalpattu,
or allowance from the carpenters.
The Tandans are divided into four endogamous sections, called Ilanji,
Puvar, Irunelli, and Pilakkuti.
The ornaments of the women are, besides the minnu, wreaths of red
and red and black beads. Nowadays the gold gnattu of the Nayars is
also worn. Tattooing is popular. Even males have a crescent and a dot
tattooed on the forehead, the corresponding mark in females being a
line from the nasal pit upwards. Among the devices tattooed on the
arms are the conch shell, lotus, snake, discus, etc. In their food
and drink the Tandans resemble the Iluvans.
The priests of the Tandans are called Tanda Kuruppus, and they are
also the caste barbers. The chief deity of the Tandans is Bhadrakali,
at whose shrines at Mandaikkad, Cranganore, and Sarkkaray, offerings
are regularly made. At the last place, a Tandan is the priest. The
chief days for the worship of this deity are Bharani asterism in March
and Pattamudayam in April. November is a particularly religious month,
and the day on which the Kartikay star falls is exclusively devoted to
worship. The first Sunday in January is another religious occasion, and
on that day cooked food is offered to the rising sun. This is called
Pogala. Maruta, or the spirit of smallpox, receives special worship. If
a member of the caste dies of this disease, a small shed is erected
in his memory either at his home or near the local Bhadrakali shrine,
and offerings of sweetmeats and toddy are made to him on the 28th of
Makaram (January-February). Chitragupta, the accountant of Yama, the
god of death, is worshipped on the full-moon day in April-May. Ancestor
worship is performed on the new-moon day in July.
A girl's tali-tying ceremony, which is called kazhuttukettu, takes
place when she is between seven and twelve years old. The bridegroom
is a relative called Machchampi. The Kuruppu receives a money present
of 2 1/2 fanams for every tali tied in his presence. Though more than
one girl may go through the ceremony in the same pandal (booth), each
should have a separate bridegroom. The relations between the bride
and bridegroom are dissolved by the father of the former paying the
latter sixteen rasi fanams. The daughter of a man's paternal aunt
or maternal uncle may be claimed as murappen or lawful bride. The
sambandham, or actual marriage, takes place after a girl has reached
puberty. A family is regarded as out-caste, if she has not previously
gone through the tali-tying ceremony.
Only the eldest member of a family is cremated, the rest being
buried. Death pollution lasts for ten days. The anniversary of a death
is celebrated at the sea-shore, where cooked food, mixed with gingelly
(Sesamum) is offered to the departed, and thrown into the sea.
Tandan.--The Tandan is the hereditary headman of a Tiyan tara
(village), and is a Tiyan by caste. He is appointed by the senior
Rani of the Zamorin's family, or by some local Raja in territories
outside the jurisdiction of the Zamorin. The Tandan is the principal
person in the decision of caste disputes. He is expected to assist
at the tali-tying, puberty, marriage and pregnancy ceremonies of
members of the caste. His formal permission is required before the
carpenter can cut down the areca palm, with which the shed in which
the tali is tied is constructed. In cases of divorce, his functions
are important. When a new house is built, a house-warming ceremony
takes place, at which the Tandan officiates. Fowls are sacrificed, and
the right leg is the Tandan's perquisite. He is a man of importance,
not only in many affairs within his own caste, but also in those of
other castes. Thus, when a Nayar dies, it is the Tandan's duty to get
the body burnt. He controls the washerman and barber of the tara, and
can withdraw their services when they are most needed. He officiates,
moreover, at marriages of the artisan classes.
Tangalan.--A sub-division of Paraiyan. The word indicates one who
may not stand near, in reference to their belonging to the polluting
classes.
Tangedu.--Tangedu or Tangedla (Cassia auriculata) has been recorded
as an exogamous sept of Kapu and Padma Sale. The bark of this shrub is
one of the most valuable Indian tanning agents, and is, like myrabolams
(Terminalia fruits), used in the manufacture of indigenous dyes.
Tantuvayan (thread-wearer).--An occupational name used by various
weaving castes.
Tapodhanlu.--The name, meaning those who believe in self-mortification
as wealth, adopted by some Telugu mendicants.
Tarakan.--See Muttan.
Tartharol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, [5] of a
division of the Todas. Tartal is also given by various writers as a
division of this tribe.
Tarwad.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [6] as a marumakkathayam family,
consisting of all the descendants in the female line of one common
female ancestor.
Tassan.--A Malayalam synonym for the Telugu Dasari.
Tattan.--The goldsmith section of the Tamil and Malayalam Kammalans.
Teivaliol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, [5] of a
division of the Todas.
Telaga.--"The Telagas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [7] "are a Telugu
caste of cultivators, who were formerly soldiers in the armies of
the Hindu sovereigns of Telingana. This may perhaps account for the
name, for it is easy to see that the Telugu soldiers might come to be
regarded as the Telugus or Telagas par excellence. The sub-divisions
returned under this name show that there has been some confusion
between the Telagas proper, and persons who are members of other Telugu
castes. The Telagas are Vaishnavites, and have Brahmans for their
priests. Their customs closely resemble those of the Kapus. They eat
flesh, but are not allowed to drink liquor. They are usually farmers
now, but many still serve as soldiers, though their further recruitment
has recently been stopped. Their common titles are Naidu and Dora."
In a note on the Telagas and Vantaris (strong men), it is suggested
that they should be classed with the Kapus, of which caste they are
an offshoot for the following reasons:--"(1) Members of the three
classes admit that this is so; (2) a collation of the intiperulu or
septs shows that the same names recur among the three classes; (3)
all three interdine, and intermarriage between them is not rare. A
poor Telaga or Vantari often gives his daughter in marriage to a rich
Kapu. The Telagas and Vantaris are highly Brahmanised, and will have
a Brahman for their guru, and get themselves branded at his hands. A
Kapu is generally content with a Satani or Jangam. Though they do not
differ in their marriage and funeral rites from the Kapus, they usually
marry their girls before puberty, and widow remarriage and divorce are
disallowed. A Kapu is invariably a cultivator; a Vantari was in olden
days a sepoy, and, as such, owned inam (rent-free) lands. Even now
he has a prejudice against ploughing jirayati (ordinarily assessed)
lands, which a Kapu has no objection to do. Similarly, a Telaga takes
pride in taking service under a Zamindar, but, unlike the Vantari,
he will plough any land. Kapu women will fetch their own water, and
carry meals to the fields for their fathers and husbands. The women
of the other classes affect the gosha system, and the men carry their
own food, and fetch water for domestic purposes, or, if well-to-do,
employ Kapus for these services. It may be added that rich Kapus
often exhibit a tendency to pass as Telagas."
Telikula.--The Telikulas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as "a Telugu oil-presser caste, which should not be confused
with Tellakula, a synonym for Tsakala, or with Telli, a caste of Oriya
oil-pressers." Telikula is a synonym for the Ganiga or Gandla caste
of oil-pressers, derived from the oil (gingelly: Sesamum indicum),
whereas the names Ganiga and Gandla refer to the oil-mill. In the
Northern Circars, the name Telikula is used in preference to Ganiga
or Gandla, and the oil-pressers in that part of the country are
known as Telikula-vandlu. The Telikulas are Onteddu, i.e., use a
single bullock for working the oil-mill, whereas, among the Ganigas,
there are both Onteddu and Rendeddu sections, which employ one and
two bullocks respectively.
Tellakula (white clan).--Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901,
as a synonym for Tsakala. According to the Rev. J. Cain, [8] the
Tellakulas are Telugu washermen (Tsakalas), who, in consequence
of having obtained employment as peons in Government offices, feel
themselves to be superior to other members of their caste.
Telli.--The Tellis are the oil-pressers of the Oriya country,
whose caste name is derived from telo, oil. They are apparently
divided into three endogamous sections, named Holodia, Bolodia, and
Khadi. The original occupation of the Holodias is said to have been
the cultivation and sale of turmeric. They may not carry turmeric and
other articles for sale on the back of bullocks, and consequently use
carts as a medium of transport thereof. And it is further contrary to
their caste rules even to assist in loading or unloading packs carried
by bullocks. The Bolodias receive their name from the fact that they
carry produce in the form of oil-seeds, etc., on pack bullocks, bolodo
being Oriya for bullock. The Khadis are mainly engaged in expressing
various oils in oil-mills, and this occupation is also carried on
by some members of the other sections. All Tellis seem to belong to
one gotra, called Karthikeswara. The caste title is Sahu. In social
position the Tellis, unlike the Tamil Vaniyans (oil-pressers), are on
a par with the agricultural castes, and are one of the panchapatako,
or five castes from which individuals are selected to decide serious
issues which arise among the Badhoyis. The headman of the Tellis is
called Behara, and he is assisted by a Bhollobaya, and in some places
apparently by another officer called Pento.
It is considered by the Tellis as a breach of caste rules to sail in a
boat or ship. If a cow dies with a rope round its neck, or on the spot
where it is tethered, the family which owned it is under pollution
until purification has been effected by means of a pilgrimage,
or by bathing in a sacred river. The Holodias will not rear male
calves at their houses, and do not castrate their bulls. Male calves
are disposed of by sale as speedily as possible. Those Holodias who
are illiterate make the mark (nisani) of a ball of turmeric paste
as a substitute for their autograph on documents. In like manner,
the nisanis of the Bolodias and Khadis respectively are the leather
belt of a bullock and curved pole of the oil-mill. Among nisanis used
by other Oriya castes, the following may be noted:--
Korono (writer caste), style.
Ravulo (temple servants), trident.
Bavuri (basket-makers and earth-diggers), sickle.
Dhoba (washermen) fork used for collecting firewood.
Brahman, ring of dharba grass, such as is worn on ceremonial
occasions.
In their marriage ceremonies, the Tellis observe the standard Oriya
type, with a few variations. On the day before the wedding, two young
married women carry two new pots painted white on their heads. To
support the pots thereon, a single cloth, with the two ends rolled
up to form a head-pad, must be used. The two women, accompanied by
another married woman carrying a new winnowing basket, and mokkuto
(forehead chaplet), proceed, to the accompaniment of the music of a
chank shell and pipes, to a temple, whereat they worship. On their
way home, the two girls, according to the custom of other Oriyas
castes, go to seven houses, at each of which water is poured into their
pots. During the marriage ceremony, after the ends of the cloths of the
bride and bridegroom have been tied together, they exchange myrabolams
(Terminalia fruits) and areca nuts. Until the close of the ceremonies,
they may not plunge into a tank (pond) or river, and, in bathing,
may not wet the head.
Most of the Tellis are Paramarthos, and follow the Chaitanya form
of Vaishnavism, but some are Smartas, and all worship Takuranis
(village deities).
Telugu.--Telugu or Telaga is used as a linguistic term indicating a
person who speaks that language. It has, at recent times of census,
been returned as a sub-division of various classes, e.g., Agasa,
Balija, Banajiga, Bedar, Bestha, Devanga, Holeya, Kumbara, Rachewar,
Tsakala, and Uppara. Further, Telugu Vellala appears as a synonym of
Velama, and Telugu Chetti as a synonym of Saluppan.
Ten (honey).--Ten or Jen has been recorded as a sub-division or
exogamous sept of jungle Kurumbas and Holeyas. Some Irulas style
themselves Ten Padaiyachi or Ten Vanniyan, Padaiyachi and Vanniyan
being a title and synonym of the Pallis.
Tendisai (southern country).--Recorded as a division of Vellalas in
the Madura and Coimbatore districts.
Tene (millet: Setaria italica).--An exogamous sept of Holeya.
Tengina (cocoanut palm).--The name of a section of Halepaiks, who
tap the cocoanut for extracting toddy.
Tennam.--Tennam (cocoanut) or Tennanjanar (cocoanut tappers) is
recorded as the occupational name of Shanan. Tenkayala (cocoanut)
occurs as an exogamous sept of Yanadi, and the equivalent Tennang as
a tree or kothu of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans.
Tennilainadu.--A territorial sub-division of Kallan.
Terkattiyar (southerner).--A term applied to Kallan, Maravan,
Agamudaiyan, and other immigrants into the Tanjore district. At
Mayavaram, for example, it is applied to Kallans, Agamudaiyans,
and Valaiyans.
Tertal.--A division of Toda.
Teruvan.--A synonym of the Malabar Chaliyans, who are so called
because, unlike most of the west coast castes, they live in streets
(teru).
Tevadiyal (servant of god).--The Tamil name for Deva-dasis. Tevan
(god) occurs as a title of Maravans.
Teyyambadi.--A section of Ambalavasis or temple servants in Malabar,
the members of which dance and sing in Bhagavati temples, and perform
a song called nagapattu (song in honour of serpents) in private houses,
which is supposed to be effective in procuring offspring. [9]
Thadla.--Thadla or Thalla, meaning rope, is an exogamous sept of
Devanga and Karna Sale.
Thakur.--About a hundred members of this caste are returned, in
the Madras Census Report, 1901, as belonging to a Bombay caste of
genealogists and cultivators. It is recorded, in the Bombay Gazetteer,
that "inferior in rank to Marathas, the Thakurs are idle and of
unclean habits. Though some of them till and twist woollen threads
for blankets, they live chiefly by begging and ballad singing. At
times they perform plays representing events mentioned in the Purans
and Ramayan, and showing wooden puppets moved by strings."
Thalakokala (female cloths).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Thalam (palmyra palm).--An exogamous sept or illam of Kanikar.
Thamballa (sword bean: Canavalia ensiformis).--An exogamous sept of
Tsakalas, members of which will not eat the bean.
Thamburi.--A class of people in Mysore, who are Muhammadans, dress
like Lambadis, but do not intermarry with them. (See Lambadi.)
Thanda Pulayan.--For the following note, I am indebted to
Mr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Aiyar. [10] The Thanda Pulayans constitute
a small division of the Pulayans, who dwell in South Malabar and
Cochin. The name is given to them because of the garment worn by the
females, made of the leaves of a sedge, called thanda (apparently
Scirpus articulatus), which are cut into lengths, woven at one end,
and tied round the waist so that they hang down below the knees. The
following story is told with regard to the origin of this costume. A
certain high-caste man, who owned lands in those parts, chanced to sow
seeds, and plant vegetables. He was surprised to find that not a trace
of what he sowed or planted was to be seen on the following day. With
a view to clearing up the mystery, he kept a close watch during
the night, and saw certain human beings, stark naked, come out of a
hole. They were pursued, and a man and a woman were caught. Impressed
with a sense of shame at their wretched condition, the high-caste man
threw his upper garment to the male, but, having nothing to give as a
covering for the woman, threw some thanda leaves over her. The Thanda
Pulayans are also called Kuzhi Pulayans, as they were found emerging
from a pit (kuzhi). The leafy garment is said to be fast going out of
fashion, as Mappillas, and others who own the Pulayans, compel them to
wear cotton cloths. According to the Rev. W. J. Richards, a division of
the Pulayans, who are called Kanna Pulayans, and found near Alleppey,
wear rather better, and more artistically made aprons. [11]
The following legend is current regarding the origin of the Thanda
Pulayans. In the south, the Pulayans are divided into the eastern
and western sections. The former were the slaves of Duryodhana, and
the latter were attached to the Pandus. These formed the two rival
parties in the war of the Mahabaratha, and the defeat of Duryodhana
was the cause of their degradation.
The Thanda Pulayans appear to have been the slaves of the soil till
1854, when they were emancipated. Even now, their condition has not
undergone much material improvement. Though they are left more to
themselves, they still work for farmers or landlords for a daily wage
of paddy (unhusked rice). If they run away, they are brought back,
and punished. There is a custom that, when a farmer or landlord wants
a few Pulayans to work in the fields, he obtains their services on
payment of fifteen to twenty rupees to them, or to their master. When
a Pulayan's services are thus obtained, he works for his new master
for two edangalis of paddy a day. They can obtain their liberation
on the return of the purchase-money, which they can never hope to
earn. Having no property which they can claim as their own, and
conscious perhaps that their lot will be the same wherever they go,
they remain cheerful and contented, drudging on from day to day,
and have no inclination to emigrate to places where they can get
higher wages. The Cherumars of Palghat, on the contrary, enjoy more
freedom. Many go to the Wynad, and some to the Kolar gold-fields,
where they receive a good money-wage. The Thanda Pulayans work, as has
been said, for some landlord, who allows them small bits of land. The
trees thereon belong to the master, but they are allowed to enjoy
their produce during their residence there. When not required by the
master, they can work where they like. They have to work for him for
six months, and sometimes throughout the year. They have little to do
after the crop has been garnered. They work in the rice-fields, pumping
water, erecting bunds (mud embankments), weeding, transplanting, and
reaping. Men, women, and children may be seen working together. After
a day's hard work, in the sun or rain, they receive their wages,
which they take to the nearest shop, called mattupitica (exchange
shop), where they receive salt, chillies, etc., in exchange for a
portion of the paddy, of which the remainder is cooked. The master's
field must be guarded at night against the encroachment of cattle,
and the depredations of thieves and wild beasts. They keep awake by
shouting aloud, singing in a dull monotone, or beating a drum. Given
a drink of toddy, the Pulayans will work for any length of time. It
is not uncommon to see them thrashed for slight offences. If a man is
thrashed with a thanda garment, he is so much disgraced in the eyes
of his fellow men, that he is not admitted into their society. Some
improve their condition by becoming converts to Christianity. Others
believe that the spirits of the departed would be displeased, if they
became Christians.
The Thanda Pulayan community is divided into exogamous illams,
and marriage between members of the same illam is forbidden. Their
habitations are called matams, which are miserable huts, supported on
wooden posts, sometimes in the middle of a paddy field, with walls
of reeds, bamboo mats or mud, and thatched with grass or cocoanut
leaves. A few earthen pots, bamboo vessels, and cocoanut shells
constitute their property. They are denied admission to the markets,
and must stand at a distance to make their purchases or sales.
Pulayan girls are married either before or after attaining puberty,
but there is special ceremony, which is performed for every girl
during her seventh or eighth year. This is called thanda kalyanam,
or thanda marriage. It consists in having the girl dressed at an
auspicious hour in the leafy garment by a woman, generally a relative,
or, in her absence, by one selected for the purpose. The relations and
friends are entertained at a feast of curry and rice, fish from the
backwater, and toddy. Prior to this ceremony, the girl is destitute
of clothing, except for a strip of areca bark.
At the marriage ceremony, the tali (marriage badge) is made of a piece
of a conch shell (Turbinella rapa), which is tied on the bride's neck
at an auspicious hour. She is taken before her landlord, who gives
her some paddy, and all the cocoanuts on the tree, beneath which she
happens to kneel. When the time has come for her to be taken to the
hut of the bridegroom, one of her uncles, taking her by the hand,
gives her into the charge of one of her husband's uncles. On the
third morning, her paternal and maternal uncles visit her at the hut
of the bridegroom, by whom they are entertained. They then return,
with the bride and bridegroom, to the home of the former, where
the newly-married couple stay for three days. To ascertain whether
a marriage will be a happy one, a conch shell is spun round. If it
falls to the north, it predicts good fortune; if to the east or west,
the omens are favourable; if to the south, very unfavourable.
The Thanda Pulayans follow the makkathayam law of inheritance (from
father to son). They have their tribal assemblies, the members of which
meet together on important occasions, as when a woman is charged with
adultery, or when there is a theft case among them. All the members
are more or less of equal status, and no superior is recognised. They
swear by the sun, raising their hands, and saying "By the sun I did
not." Other oaths are "May my eyes perish" or "May my head be cut
off by lightning."
Every kind of sickness is attributed to the influence of some
demon, with whom a magician can communicate, and discover a means
of liberation. The magician, when called in professionally, lights
a fire, and seats himself beside it. He then sings, mutters some
mantrams (prayers), and makes a discordant noise on his iron plate
(kokkara). The man or woman, who is possessed by the demon, begins to
make unconscious movements, and is made to speak the truth. The demon,
receiving offerings of fowls, sheep, etc., sets him or her free. A
form of ceremonial, called urasikotukkuka, is sometimes performed. At
a place far distant from the hut, a leaf, on which the blood of a fowl
has been made to fall, is spread on the ground. On a smaller leaf,
chunam (lime) and turmeric are placed. The person who first sets eyes
on these becomes possessed by the demon, and sets free the individual
who was previously under its influence. In the event of sickness,
the sorcerer is invited to the hut. He arrives in the evening,
and is entertained with food, toddy, and betel. He then takes a
tender cocoanut, flower of the areca palm, and some powdered rice,
which he covers over with a palm leaf. The sick person is placed in
front thereof, and a circle is drawn round him. Outside the circle,
an iron stylus is stuck in the ground. The demon is supposed to be
confined within the circle, and makes the patient cry out "I am in pai
(influence of the ghost) and he is beating me," etc. With the promise
of a fowl or sheep, or offerings thereof on the spot, the demon is
persuaded to take its departure. Sometimes, when the sorcerer visits
a house of sickness, a rice-pan containing three betel leaves, areca
nuts, paddy, tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), sacred ashes, conch and cowry
(Cypræa moneta) shells, is placed in the yard. The sorcerer sits in
front of the pan, and begins to worship the demon, holding the shells
in his hands, and turning to the four points of the compass. He then
observes the omens, and, taking his iron plate, strikes it, while
he chants the names of terrible demons, Mullva, Karinkali, Aiyinar,
and Villi, and utters incantations. This is varied by dancing, to
the music of the iron plate, sometimes from evening till noon on the
following day. The sick person works himself up into the belief that
he has committed some great sin, and proceeds to make confession,
when a small money fine is inflicted, which is spent on toddy for
those who are assembled. The Thanda Pulayans practice maranakriyas,
or sacrifices to certain demons, to help them in bringing about the
death of an enemy or other person. Sometimes affliction is supposed
to be brought about by the enmity of those who have got incantations
written on a palm leaf, and buried in the ground near a house by the
side of a well. A sorcerer is called in to counteract the evil charm,
which he digs up, and destroys.
When a member of the tribe has died an unnatural death, a man, with
a fowl and sword in his hands, places another man in a pit which has
been dug, and walks thrice round it with a torch. After an hour or
two, the man is taken out of the pit, and goes to a distance, where
certain ceremonies are performed.
The Thanda Pulayans worship the gods of Brahmanical temples at a
distance of nearly a quarter of a mile. A stone is set up in the
ground, on which they place tender cocoanuts and a few puttans (Cochin
coins). A temple servant takes these to the priest, who sends in return
some sandal paste, holy water, and flowers. They worship, as has been
already hinted, demons, and also the spirits of their ancestors, by
which small brass figures of males and females representing the pretas
(ghosts) are supposed to be possessed. They worship, among others,
Kandakarnan, Kodunkali, Bhairavan, and Arukola pretas, who are lodged
in small huts, and represented by stones. In the month of May, they
celebrate a festival, which lasts for several days. Chrysanthemum and
thumba (apparently Leucas aspera) flowers are used in the performance
of worship, and paddy, beaten rice, tender cocoanuts, toddy, etc.,
are offered up. There is a good deal of singing, drum-beating
and devil-dancing by men and women, who on this occasion indulge
liberally in toddy. The Pandavas, whom they call Anju Thamburakkal,
are favourite deities. They devise various plans for warding off the
evil influence of demons. Some, for example, wear rolls of palm leaf,
with incantations written on them, round their necks. Others hang
baskets in the rice fields, containing peace offerings to the gods, and
pray for the protection of the crop. Wherever there is a dense forest,
Matan and Kali are supposed to dwell, and are worshipped. From the end
of November to April, which is the slack season, the Thanda Pulayans
go about dancing from hut to hut, and collecting money to purchase
fowls, etc., for offerings. Club-dancing is their favourite amusement,
and is often indulged in at night by the light of a blazing fire. The
dancers, club in hand, go round in concentric circles, keeping time
to the songs which they sing, striking each other's clubs, now bending
to ward off a blow on the legs, or rising to protect the head.
The dead are buried, and lighted torches are set up all round the
grave, on to which the relations of the dead person throw three
handfuls of rice. Near it, squares are made in rice flour, in each
of which a leaf with rice flour and paddy, and a lighted torch or
wick is placed. The chief mourner, who should be the son or nephew,
carrying a pot of water, goes several times round the grave, and breaks
the pot over the spot where the head rests. A few grains of rice are
placed at the four corners of the grave, and a pebble is laid on it,
with mantrams to keep off jackals, and to prevent the spirit from
molesting people. Every morning the chief mourner goes to the grave,
and makes offerings of boiled rice, gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds,
and karuka grass. On the fourteenth day, he has an oil-bath, and, on
the following day, the Pulayans of the village (kara) have a feast,
with singing and beating of drums. On the sixteenth day, which is
pulakuli or day of purification, the chief mourner makes offerings
of rice balls, the guests are fed, and make a present of small coin
to the songster who has entertained them. Similar offerings of rice
balls are made to the spirit of the deceased person on the new-moon day
in the month of Kartigam. During the period of pollution, the chief
mourner has to cook his own food. The spirits of deceased ancestors
are called Chavar (the dead), and are said to manifest themselves
in dreams, especially to near relations, who speak in the morning of
what they have seen during the night. They even say that they have held
conversation with the deceased. The Rev. W. J. Richards informs us that
he once saw "a little temple, about the size of a large rabbit-hutch,
in which was a plank for the spirits of the deceased ancestors to come
and rest upon. The spirits are supposed to fish in the backwaters,
and the phosphorescence, sometimes seen on the surface of the water,
is taken as an indication of their presence." [12]
The Thanda Pulayans will not eat with the Ulladans or Parayans, but
stand at a distance of ninety feet from Brahmans and other high-caste
people. They are short of stature and dark-skinned. Like the Cherumans,
the women adorn their ears, necks, arms and fingers with masses of
cheap jewellery.
Thappata (drum).--An exogamous sept of Odde.
Thathan (a Vaishnavite mendicant).--The equivalent of the Telugu
Dasari.
Thatichettu (palmyra palm).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale and Odde.
Thavadadari.--The name of a section of the Valluvans (priests of the
Paraiyans), who wear a necklace of tulsi beads (thavadam, necklace,
dhari, wearer). The tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum) is a very sacred
plant with Hindus, and bead necklaces or rosaries are made from its
woody stem.
Thelu (scorpion).--Thelu and Thela are recorded as exogamous septs
of Padma Sale and Madiga. The Canarese equivalent Chelu occurs as a
sept of Kuruba.
Thenige Buvva.--A sub-division of Madigas, who offer food (buvva)
to the god in a dish or tray (thenige) at marriages.
Thikka (simpleton).--A sub-division of Kuruba.
Thippa (rubbish heap).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale.
Thogamalai Korava.--Recorded [13] as a synonym of a thief class in
the southern districts of the Madras Presidency. In a recent note on
the Koravas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes that "a fact to be noted is that
people such as the members of the well-known Thogamalai gang, who
are always called Koravas by the police, are not Koravas at all. They
are simply a criminal community, into which outsiders are admitted,
who give their women in marriage outside the caste, and who adopt
children of other castes."
Thogaru (bitter).--An exogamous sept of Musu Kamma.
Thoka (tail).--An exogamous sept of Yerukala.
Thonda (Cephalendra indica).--An exogamous sept of Musu Kamma, and
gotra of Janappans, members of which abstain from using the fruit or
leaves of the thonda plant.
Thumma (babul: Acacia arabica).--An exogamous sept of Mala and Padma
Sale. The bark, pods, and leaves of the babul tree are used by tanners
in the preparation of hides and skins, or as a dye.
Thumu (iron measure for measuring grain).--An exogamous sept of
Mutracha.
Thupa (ghi, clarified butter).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Thurpu (eastern).--A sub-division of Yerukala and Yanadi.
Thuta (hole).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.