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Heath's Modern Language Series
TRES COMEDIAS
_SIN QUERER_
_DE PEQUEÑAS CAUSAS_...
_LOS INTERESES CREADOS_
POR
JACINTO BENAVENTE
EDITED BY
JOHN VAN HORNE, Ph.D.
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
COPYRIGHT, 1918,
BY D. C. HEATH & CO.
2 B 3
Printed in U. S. A.
CONTEMPORARY SPANISH TEXTS
_General Editor_
FEDERICO DE ONÍS
Professor of Spanish Literature,
University of Salamanca and Columbia University
CONTEMPORARY SPANISH TEXTS
=1. Jacinto Benavente: Tres Comedias=, _Sin querer_, _De pequeñas causas_,
_Los intereses creados_. Edited with notes and vocabulary by Professor
JOHN VAN HORNE of the University of Illinois. xxxvi + 189 pages.
=2. Vicente Blasco Ibáñez: La Batalla del Marne= from _Los cuatro jinetes
del Apocalipsis_. Edited with notes and vocabulary by Professor FEDERICO
DE ONÍS of the University of Salamanca and Columbia University. xi + 201
pages.
=3. Gregorio Martínez Sierra: Canción de Cuna.= Edited with notes,
direct-method exercises, and vocabulary by Professor AURELIO M. ESPINOSA
of Stanford University. xxvi + 142 pages.
=4. Juan Ramón Jiménez: Platero y yo=. Edited with notes, direct-method
exercises, and vocabulary by GERTRUDE M. WALSH of the North High School,
Columbus, Ohio. xiv + 136 pages.
=5. Manuel Linares Rivas: El Abolengo=. Edited with direct-method
exercises, notes, and vocabulary by Dr. PAUL G. MILLER, formerly
Commissioner of Education of Porto Rico. xvi + 124 pages.
=6. Hill and Buceta: Antología de cuentos españoles:= Edited with
direct-method exercises, notes, and vocabulary by Professor JOHN M. HILL
of Indiana University, and Professor ERASMO BUCETA of the University of
California. xvi + 257 pages.
ADVERTENCIA GENERAL
Con este volumen iniciamos la publicación de una nueva serie de textos
para el uso general de las clases de español. Intentamos con ella
responder a las nuevas necesidades creadas por el rápido y
extraordinario crecimiento del estudio del español que a través de todo
el país estamos en estos días presenciando. El caudal de textos
utilizado para esta enseñanza necesita ser renovado y aumentado de
acuerdo con las nuevas demandas.
No creemos equivocarnos al interpretar la transformación a que estamos
asistiendo, no sólo como un aumento en el número de estudiantes y en la
intensidad del estudio, sino como un cambio en la dirección y en los
fines de éste. Hasta ahora dominaba una tendencia más bien literaria e
histórica; desde ahora, aun continuada e intensificada ésta, el primer
plano de interés en el estudio del español lo ocupa el interés práctico,
político y comercial. Reconocido este hecho a él debemos ajustar
nuestras normas y a sus necesidades tenemos que subvenir; pero hemos de
apresurarnos a afirmar que entendemos grave error el considerar esos dos
fines como antitéticos. El estudio práctico del español, para ser
verdaderamente práctico y eficaz, requerirá en el mayor grado posible el
conocimiento y el uso de las obras puramente literarias.
La lectura de textos literarios originales de autores españoles será
siempre uno de los modos esenciales de llegar al conocimiento práctico
de la lengua. Será además un insustituible medio de llegar a conocer la
vida, las costumbres, el carácter y el espíritu de esos pueblos con los
que nos ligan lazos múltiples. La transformación a que estamos
asistiendo no deberá pues entenderse en ningún sentido ni en ningún caso
como motivo de exclusión de los textos literarios en la enseñanza; pero
sí habrá seguramente que escoger entre la literatura de esos países la
que más se adapte a las nuevas necesidades. Parece evidente que el
estudio del español se dirige ahora mucho más que antes a las realidades
actuales de los pueblos hispánicos, y que por lo tanto la literatura que
debe ser conocida y utilizada generalmente en las clases debe ser la
literatura de hoy, la literatura actualmente viva, la que representa el
espíritu y los ideales actuales de la gran comunidad hispana.
Se han utilizado con éxito hasta ahora (y se seguirán utilizando)
ciertas manifestaciones literarias españolas pertenecientes sobre todo
al siglo XIX; pero pueden contarse con los dedos de una mano las obras
de autores rigurosamente contemporáneos y las de autores
hispano-americanos que hasta ahora se han puesto en circulación. El gran
caudal de la producción literaria contemporánea--que por otra parte
tiene el interés de ser uno de los momentos más brillantes de la
literatura española--permanece fuera de nuestras clases de español. Y
esto es más grave si se tiene en cuenta que un cambio esencial se ha
llevado a cabo en las postrimerías del siglo XIX en las tendencias y en
los gustos literarios y por lo tanto en el espíritu colectivo, un cambio
tal que significa la aparición de una nueva época claramente distinta y
aun contradictoria de la anterior. Esta época es la que ahora se
encuentra en su momento de plenitud y madurez. Los más de los escritores
del siglo XIX han desaparecido ya, los que aun viven son escritores
retardados en contradicción con el espíritu del tiempo, y la nueva
generación de escritores que surgió a la vida literaria en los últimos
diez años del siglo XIX se encuentra ahora, después de veinte o treinta
años de labor, en la cumbra de su vida y con una gloriosa obra detrás.
El mérito y el valor relativo de los hombres de esa generación ha sido
aquilatado por el público y la crítica españoles durante este tiempo y
algunos de ellos han obtenido una consagración que les da, hasta donde
el juicio contemporáneo puede llegar, el valor y la autoridad de
escritores clásicos. Unos han visto abiertas las puertas de la Real
Academia Española, otros ven sus obras publicadas en ediciones completas
y en selecciones y antologías, todos ellos las han visto traducidas a
las diversas lenguas europeas, y--lo que significa más que nada--todos
ellos cuentan con la reputación, la autoridad y la influencia a través
de la gran comunidad espiritual de los pueblos que hablan español.
Creemos llegado el momento de ofrecer a nuestros estudiantes lo mejor de
este caudal literario, y para ello hemos concebido la publicación de una
serie constituida por un número limitado de textos que sean ejemplos de
primer orden de los diversos autores y de las diversas manifestaciones
literarias modernas en España y en Hispano-América y que al mismo tiempo
reúnan aquellas condiciones que los hagan aptos para la enseñanza
práctica del idioma en nuestras escuelas y colegios.
La selección cuidadosa de los textos irá acompañada de ciertas
innovaciones en la edición que tiendan a darle mayor eficacia práctica.
Cada texto llevará una breve introducción escrita en español claro, puro
y sencillo, destinada a ser leída en las clases por los alumnos mismos
como parte del texto. Los profesores comprenderán la importancia que
tiene preparar al alumno para la inteligencia de un texto y un autor que
forman parte de las realidades actuales de los países cuya vida se
pretende dar a conocer. El Sr. Onís, director de la serie, escribirá
para ella dichas introducciones.
Las notas tendrán un carácter práctico; se pretenderá en ellas no sólo
resolver las dificultades gramaticales y de significación, sino dar a
conocer el valor que, respecto al uso de la lengua comúnmente hablada,
tiene la lengua literaria empleada en el texto. Muchas de las obras irán
acompañadas de ejercicios adecuados al grado de enseñanza a que la obra
se considere destinada. En todo caso la obra irá acompañada de un
vocabulario en el que se explicará suficientemente la significación y el
valor usual del caudal lexicográfico, el cual, por su modernidad, ofrece
muchas voces comunes que aun no han sido recogidas por los
diccionarios.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
JACINTO BENAVENTE
SIN QUERER
DE PEQUEÑAS CAUSAS
LOS INTERESES CREADOS
NOTES
VOCABULARY
PREFACE
The text of this edition is taken from Benavente's _Teatro_, Librería de
los Sucesores de Hernando, Madrid; _Sin querer_ comes from vol. 4, 2d
ed., 1913; _De pequeñas causas_... from vol. 18, 1909; _Los intereses
creados_ from vol. 16, 4th ed., 1914. A few obvious misprints are
corrected; accentuation is made to conform to the regulations in the
1914 edition of the Spanish Academy Dictionary; punctuation is
unchanged. The text proper is complete except for two slight omissions
from _De pequeñas causas_..., both of which are mentioned in the notes.
_Los intereses creados_ is chosen as one of the finest of Benavente's
plays, and the one best suited to class use; the two shorter pieces are
included to give an idea of the author's more normal manner. Although
_De pequeñas causas_... was produced on the stage after _Los intereses
creados_, it precedes it in this edition in order that the long play may
stand at the end of the volume.
It is believed that these plays can be read to greatest advantage after
students have had one year of Spanish. The Notes and Vocabulary have
been prepared with that in mind, as much material as possible being
placed in the Vocabulary rather than in the Notes. However, in the
present dearth of good elementary texts, the book might be used toward
the end of the first year; it is hoped that the vocabulary is adequate
for such a purpose. The introduction aims to give as complete an account
as space permits, of Benavente's dramatic career. Therefore,
non-dramatic works, such as _De sobremesa_, are treated in much more
summary fashion than they deserve.
The editor wishes to express his thanks to the author, Sr. D. Jacinto
Benavente, for kind permission to edit these plays; to his father for
careful reading and correction of introduction, notes and vocabulary; to
Professor John D. Fitz-Gerald, and Dr. Homero Serís, of the University
of Illinois, and to Mr. José G. García, of New York City, founder of the
newspaper _Las Novedades_, for valuable suggestions on difficult points.
Dean Roscoe Pound, of the Law School of Harvard University, kindly
furnished suggestions as to the probable interpretation of Emiliano and
Triberiano.
INTRODUCTION
=Benavente's Life.=--Jacinto Benavente y Martínez or Jacinto Benavente, as
he is commonly known, was born in Madrid on August 12th, 1866. He
attended school in his native city, studied law at the University there,
and finally abandoned his thought of a legal career in order to devote
himself to dramatic literature. Much intercourse with varied types of
people has supplied him with the knowledge of human nature evident in
his dramatic productions. Although he has traveled to a considerable
extent, Madrid has been the center of nearly all his literary activity,
and it is impossible to identify him with any other place. The principal
events of his life have been associated with the theater, and are best
reviewed in connection with the study of his dramatic career.
Mariano Benavente, the father of the author, was a physician and
specialist in children's diseases, who came originally from Murcia. His
influence upon his son is perhaps noticeable in the respect shown by the
latter for the medical profession and in his fondness for children.[i.1]
=Devotion to the Stage.=--In an interview published in the Madrid
periodical _La Esfera_ (in 1916) Benavente tells us that his affection
for the theater was awakened at a very early age. He says that as a boy
he took delight in fashioning little theatrical pieces in which he could
act, and that his enthusiasm was aroused by the presentation rather than
by the composition of such pieces. Even recently[i.2] he declared that he
would rather have been a great actor than a writer of plays. In fact, he
has been known to appear on the stage with the actress María Tubau and
in some of his own productions, one of which was _Sin querer_.
Benavente is a peculiarly natural product of the stage. No one could
give himself more whole-heartedly to his profession than he has done. He
is interested in all theatrical matters: in the writing and presentation
of plays, in actors, in the Madrid public which he praises and censures
in turn, in the history and criticism of the drama, in aesthetic
principles, in the relation between good art and financial success; in
short, no detail escapes his notice. He likes to work with his
audiences, to please and to amuse them, yet he does not lose sight of
the serious mission of the drama. No outside interests have ever taken
him for any considerable time from his true vocation. He is an excellent
and well-rounded, but at the same time a delightfully spontaneous
product of Spanish dramatic art.
=Minor Works.=--We are informed in the interview already mentioned that
Benavente was forced to write several plays before he composed one that
was accepted. In characteristically ironical style he asserts that it
was not hard for him to gain a hearing, because his father was the
physician of the theatrical manager to whom he made application. His
earliest models, according to his own statement, were Shakespeare and
Echegaray. Veneration for the great English dramatist is apparent in
Benavente's entire career. The influence is perhaps most directly seen
in the _Teatro fantástico_, the first in date of his published writings
(1892). Short sketches and prose dialogues are contained in two other
early volumes, _Figulinas_ and _Vilanos_. A fourth book containing
youthful writings and entitled _Cartas de mujeres_ is a series of
letters meant to illustrate the thoughts and the epistolary style of
women. These letters have been much praised in Spain for their literary
workmanship and for their insight into the feminine heart, a faculty
which has always been considered one of the clearest manifestations of
Benavente's genius.[i.3]
Other productions distinct from the central body of Benavente's dramatic
works (the _Teatro_) are _De sobremesa_ and the _Teatro del pueblo_. The
former, a collection in five volumes of weekly articles composed for
_Los lunes_ of _El Imparcial_ (1908-1912), is the principal source for
its author's views on dramatic criticism and on worldly affairs in
general. The _Teatro del pueblo_ is a series of papers on subjects
connected with the stage. Both these productions will be discussed after
a review of the plays.
=List of Plays.=--The following titles are encountered, in the order here
followed, in the twenty-two volumes of the _Teatro_. The date of the
_estreno_ (first performance) and a brief description are given with
each title.[i.4]
1894 October 6th. _El nido ajeno_ (comedy, three acts).
1896 October 21st. _Gente conocida_ (scenes of modern life, four acts).
1897 February 13th. _El marido de la Téllez_ (comedy sketch, one act).
February 27th. _De alivio_ (monologue).
October 31st. _Don Juan_ (translated from Molière).
November 30th. _La farándula_ (comedy, two acts).
1898 November 7th. _La comida de las fieras_ (comedy, three acts).
December 28th, _Teatro feminista_ (farce comedy with music, one act).
1899 March 11th. _Cuento de amor_ (from Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night").
May 4th. _Operación quirúrgica_ (comedy, one act).
December 7th. _Despedida cruel_ (comedy, one act).
1900 March 31st. _La gata de Angora_ (comedy, four acts).
April 6th. _Viaje de instrucción_ (zarzuela).
July 15th. _Por la herida_ (drama, one act).
1901 January 18th. _Modas_ (sketch, one act).
January 19th. _Lo cursi_ (comedy, three acts).
March 3rd. _Sin querer_ (comedy sketch, one act).
July 19th. _Sacrificios_ (drama, three acts).
October 8th. _La gobernadora_ (comedy, three acts).
November 12th. _El primo Román_ (comedy, three acts).
1902 February 24th. _Amor de amar_ (comedy, two acts).
March 17th. _¡Libertad!_ (translated from the Catalan of Rusiñol).
April 18th. _El tren de los maridos_ (farce comedy, two acts).
December 2nd. _Alma triunfante_ (drama, three acts).
December 19th. _El automóvil_ (comedy, two acts).
1903 March 17th. _La noche del sábado_ (stage romance, five divisions).
No date. _Los favoritos_ (adapted from episode in Shakespeare's
"Much Ado About Nothing").
March 23rd. _El hombrecito_ (comedy, three acts).
October 29th. _Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle_
(translated from Dumas Pére).
October 26th. _Por qué se ama_ (comedy, one act).
November 20th. _Al natural_ (comedy, two acts).
December 9th. _La casa de la dicha_ (drama, one act).
March 16th. _El dragón de fuego_ (drama, three acts).
1904 March 15th. _Richelieu_ (translated from Bulwer-Lytton).
No date. _La princesa Bebé_ (scenes of modern life, four acts).
March 3rd. _No fumadores_ (farce, one act).
1905 April 13th. _Rosas de otoño_ (comedy, three acts).
No date. _Buena boda_ (based on Augier).
July 18th. _El susto de la condesa_ (dialogue).
July 22nd. _Cuento inmoral_ (monologue).
December 23rd. _La sobresalienta_ (farce with music).
December 1st. _Los malhechores del bien_ (comedy, two acts).
December 24th. _Las cigarras hormigas_ (farce comedy, three acts).
1906 February 22nd. _Más fuerte que el amor_ (drama, four acts).
No date. _Manón Lescaut_ (adapted from the Abbé Prévost).
1907 February 8th. _Los buhos_ (comedy, three acts).
February 21st. _Abuela y nieta_ (dialogue).
No date. _La princesa sin corazón_ (fairy-tale).
January 10th. _El amor asusta_ (comedy, one act).
March 16th. _La copa encantada_ (adapted from Ariosto,
one act zarzuela).
November 7th. _Los ojos de los muertos_ (drama, three acts).
No date. _La historia de Otelo_ (comedy, one act).
No date. _La sonrisa de Gioconda_ (comedy sketch, one act).
No date. _El último minué_ (comedy sketch, one act).
September 21st. _Todos somos unos_ (farce with music).
December 9th. _Los intereses creados_ (comedy of masks).
1908 February 22nd. _Señora ama_ (comedy, three acts).
October 19th. _El marido de su viuda_ (comedy, one act).
November 10th. _La fuerza bruta_ (comedy, one act).
March 14th. _De pequeñas causas_... (comedy sketch, one act).
December 23rd. _Hacia la verdad_ (scenes of modern life,
three divisions).
1909 January 20th. _Por las nubes_ (comedy, two acts).
April 10th. _De cerca_ (comedy, one act).
No date. _¡A ver qué hace un hombre!_ (dramatic sketch, one act).
October 14th. _La escuela de las princesas_ (comedy, three acts).
December 1st. _La señorita se aburre_ (based on Tennyson, one act).
December 20th. _El príncipe que todo lo aprendió en los libros_
(fairy-tale, two acts).
December 20th. _Ganarse la vida_ (fairy-tale, one act).
1910 January 27th. _El nietecito_ (from Grimm's Fairy Tales, one act).
1911 November 9th. _La losa de los sueños_ (comedy, two acts).
1913 December 12th. _La malquerida_ (drama, three acts).
1914 March 25th. _El destino manda_ (from Hervieu).
1915 March 4th. _El collar de estrellas_ (comedy, four acts).
No date. _La verdad_ (dialogue).
December 22nd. _La propia estimación_ (comedy, two acts).
1916 February 14th. _Campo de armiño_ (comedy, three acts).
May 4th. _La ciudad alegre y confiada_ (second part of
_Los intereses creados_).[i.5]
It will be observed that the _Teatro_ includes nearly all varieties of
dramatic output: one, two, three, and four act plays, monologues,
dialogues, translations, adaptations, zarzuelas, farces, fairy-dramas,
comedies, and tragedies.
=First Period.=--Between 1894 and 1901 Benavente produced eighteen plays
on the Madrid stage. They represent, in a general way, the first phase
of his dramatic career. The element that characterizes them most
conspicuously is satire. Benavente holds up to scorn Spanish
aristocratic society of the present day. He introduces to his audiences
a succession of types whose failings and foibles are displayed with
merciless precision. The author himself is concealed behind the array of
personages whom he presents to the public.
Occasionally the reader will encounter a noble character isolated in the
midst of selfish, amusement-seeking men, frivolous women, scheming
parents and thoughtless sybarites. Such types, however, are
comparatively rare; their function is to bring into stronger relief the
general worthlessness of other characters. A woman is usually chosen to
play the part of strength and virtue. This is by no means accidental.
Study of Benavente reveals him as a defender of women; not at all their
blind worshiper, it is true, but distinctly a sympathizer with their
trials and problems.
It is to be noted that no character in any of these early plays is
represented as utterly bad. That would be contrary to the author's
conception of human nature. Benavente insists that no man or woman can
be regarded as entirely perverse or entirely admirable. Although his
attitude is nearly always objective, and his general method satirical or
ironical, he evinces upon occasion the ability to sympathize with the
very weaknesses of the persons whom he ridicules. If we will try to
forget for a moment that Benavente is making fun of an idle aristocracy
vainly seeking relief from boredom, we shall understand that we are
brought face to face with individuals drawn from real life, whose
principal attributes are a discouraging mediocrity and inability to rise
above a certain level.
=Originality.=--Benavente has been accused of plagiarism in his early
plays. The charge has been brought, particularly with reference to
_Gente conocida_, that he borrowed the character of the strong woman
from Ibsen. His reply to this censure argues that there was no conscious
imitation. He declares that Henri Lavedan served as a model as much as
any writer can be said to have done so. That is to say, Benavente wished
to unfold a picture of life as it is, in a series of photographic
scenes.[i.6] Such a species of play has always been preferred by him. In
days of more mature power, when he was writing with a more obvious
purpose, he lamented that he was no longer doing what was pleasing to
him, but was catering to the desires of others.
It may be gathered from what has just been said that there is not a
strong element of plot in these plays of Spanish society. The object is
rather delineation of character. Among the longer plays _Gente
conocida_, _La comida de las fieras_ and _Lo cursi_ have perhaps
received the greatest attention. _Lo cursi_ is an excellent example of a
skilfully constructed society comedy. Some of the shorter pieces, such
as _Operación quirúrgica_, _Despedida cruel_, and _Por la herida_ are
very effective. A glance at the list of plays shows that _Don Juan_,
_La farándula_, _Cuento de amor_, and _Viaje de instrucción_ are
unconnected in subject matter with the characteristic type just
discussed.
It may not be amiss to call attention to Benavente's reason for choosing
the aristocracy as a butt of ridicule. That he is not a mere vulgar
reviler of rich and prominent people is shown by the following remarks,
made in the course of a panegyric of the interest of the nobility in
agriculture.
"If at times I have lashed our aristocracy, it was not on account of
prejudice against it, but because, called upon to satirize, and
considering the natural and roguish desire of the public to laugh at
somebody's cost, it seemed to me more charitable to excite laughter at
the expense of those who enjoy many advantages in life, rather than at
the expense of the humble who toil and who suffer privations of all
kinds. It has never seemed to me that hunger is a fit subject for
laughter, and we know that in half of our comic plays hunger is the
principal cause of merriment."[i.7]
=Transition.=--Many discussions and criticisms of Benavente indicate that
he is known principally as a composer of plays that deal with society,
written objectively to depict life as it is, without any betrayal of the
author's opinions. As we pass beyond the year 1901, we realize that a
change is taking place. This does not mean that pictures of life in the
upper classes are to constitute an unimportant part of Benavente's
_teatro_. As has been noted, they are especially congenial to his
artistic sense. However, the later periods of his career give evidence
of ever-expanding powers and of increasing versatility. The early type
of play does not disappear, but it becomes only one of a number of
different _genres_, all of which are connected by their author's
keenness of observation, fidelity to life, genius for irony and
universal human interest.
=1901-1904.=--No convincing bond of union is found in the eighteen plays
written in the first three years of the present century. Four
translations and adaptations are encountered. The society play is
continued in _El automóvil_ and _El hombrecito_, although the latter
shows elements of the problem drama. With scarcely any change of method
the scene of action is shifted from Spanish to royal and international
society in _La noche del sábado_ and _La princesa Bebé_. _El primo
Román_, _Al natural_, and _La casa de la dicha_, although differing
widely in details, evidence a broader view of human nature. Free rein is
given to the spirit of fun in _El tren de los maridos_ and _No
fumadores_. Serious steps toward a thesis drama are evident in _Alma
triunfante_ and _Por qué se ama_. But the two most striking plays of the
period are _La gobernadora_ and _El dragón de fuego_.
_=La gobernadora.=_--In this play the spectator or reader is introduced to
prominent political characters in a provincial town. The successive
incidents show how influence may be brought to bear upon an
administrative official from a variety of undesirable sources. The
governor's wife, a shrewd, capable woman, persuades her husband to use
his authority against his better judgment. The moneyed classes, devoted
to reaction, use intrigues of all kinds to force him to forbid the
performance of a play that extols liberal tendencies. The working
classes attempt a riot in order to compel him not to interfere with the
spectacle. The details of the plot need not be given. One thing,
however, deserves to be mentioned--the brilliancy of the scenes in which
a great number of characters are shown on the stage at the same time.
One scene brings before our eyes a crowd collected in a café, and
another shows us the spectators at a bull-fight. Benavente portrays
faithfully and vividly the gayety inherent in the outdoor life of the
races of Southern Europe. He reminds us of the splendid pictures that
mark some of the best plays of Goldoni.[i.8]
=Political Ideas.=--Benavente has more than once called himself a
reactionary in politics. Unfortunately we do not know just what he means
by reaction. He speaks of the folly of endeavoring to correct abuses by
law, but just when he appears to be on the point of committing himself,
a satirical or ironical remark leaves us in doubt as to his real
convictions. In recent utterances he has demonstrated greater
willingness to discuss current problems from a severely logical point of
view. In many respects he is a modern thinker; projects for the gradual
improvement of Spanish and world-wide ills meet with his unqualified
approval. Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, he is not always
consistent in his desire to see things accomplished without governmental
interference; for instance, he favors state control of the theater.
_=El dragón de fuego.=_--No better example could be given of the
difficulty of determining Benavente's political notions than _El dragón
de fuego_. It is at the same time his most serious, most mysterious,
and, in the opinion of some critics, his most pessimistic work. The plot
is as follows: A certain civilized country called Sirlandia has gained
control over the uncivilized people of Nirván, thereby outdistancing the
rival powers, Franconia and Suavia (the names may be applied to Western
European nations as each reader sees fit). The emissaries of
civilization are a general, a merchant, and a clergyman, who symbolize
arms, money, and spirituality. The Europeans uphold upon the throne a
puppet-king, Dani-Sar, who is the protagonist of the play and whose
character is in every respect admirable. His weakness and his strength
are those of a man removed from western civilization. Although in love
with a maiden, Sita, he surrenders her to his brother Duraní, whom he
thinks she loves. Foreigners and natives are alike dear to him, but he
falls victim to the selfish and cruel policy of civilization. When the
Sirlandians discover that Dani-Sar is not a pliant tool, they dethrone
him and make his brother king. Dani-Sar is taken to Sirlandia, where he
is held in custody. Outwardly he receives good treatment, but his heart
is eaten away by loneliness, despair, and homesickness. He cannot endure
the cold climate of the north and the hypocritical hospitality of his
captors.
In this remarkable play Benavente is well-nigh as inscrutable as the
sphinx. He recognizes the power of civilization and the inevitability of
its advance. Yet he seems to value even more highly the gentle, noble
patriotism of his hero. Other savages he describes as depraved and
superstitious, although brave and in love with liberty. The whole
composition is a masterly objective treatment of the unavoidable
conflict between an advanced and a backward race.
=Thesis Plays.=--Those who are familiar only with Benavente's earlier
manner can scarcely conceive of him as the author of a problem or thesis
drama. A tendency to deny the presence of a thesis may be observed on
the part of certain reviewers and critics. But careful reading of the
plays and consideration of their chronological development disclose that
at one period in his career Benavente's mind was busy with the problems
of married life in such a way that he produced something very close to
the drama with a purpose. We may trace the beginning of this tendency
back to some of the first plays in which a strong woman is introduced as
a foil to her worthless companions. Later, _Alma triunfante_ is a
glorification of a woman's generosity of soul, and _Por qué se ama_
describes the influence of compassion in causing a woman to cling
through thick and thin to the object of her affection.
In 1905 and 1906 appeared the plays that best illustrate a purposeful
treatment of conjugal relations. Benavente's prime object is to idealize
feminine love and constancy. A second theme, second in prominence only
to the first, is a glorification of true love itself. The topic of
compassion, already referred to, is carried to its greatest extreme in
the gloomy but powerful tragedy _Más fuerte que el amor_.
_=Rosas de otoño.=_--The most striking of the problem plays is _Rosas de
otoño_. Some critics who deny a thesis elsewhere admit it in this
production. The heroine, Isabel, is married to Gonzalo, an unfaithful
husband, who gives no heed to his wife's strictures, but persists in
asserting that she is sacred to him in spite of everything. Gonzalo's
daughter by an earlier marriage, María Antonia, marries a certain Pepe,
whose actions are not above criticism. Yet Gonzalo defends him. Baseless
rumors are circulated against the fair fame of María Antonia, and Pepe
wishes to divorce her. Again Gonzalo defends him. This is too much for
Isabel, who chides her husband so severely that she really succeeds in
breaking through his selfishness. Although he endeavors to defend a
feeble cause by an argument in favor of delinquent men, it is clear that
his heart has been touched, and that Isabel, after long years of patient
resignation, is destined to enjoy her "Autumn Roses."
The prevailing gloom of _Rosas de otoño_ is relieved by certain trivial
and even comic incidents on the part of minor characters, so arranged
that they do not appear out of place. Moreover, Benavente is not too
partisan; although frankly defending a cause, as a follower of
Shakespeare he cannot forget that he is depicting human life. He gives
due weight to the partial justice in the selfish arguments of Gonzalo
and Pepe, and does not insist that they are utterly depraved.
Heedlessness and egoism make them yield to temptation, but Gonzalo never
overlooks the fact that his wife's honor must be respected and
treasured.
Notwithstanding the good qualities of _Rosas de otoño_ and kindred
pieces, the play dealing with more or less conventional marital problems
can scarcely be regarded as characteristic of Benavente. He is probably
more successful in other directions.
_=Los malhechores del bien.=_--No other play of Benavente has provoked so
great an outcry as _Los malhechores del bien_. On the surface it is a
clever comedy containing an arraignment of misguided charity. It was
received by the audience as anti-religious propaganda. On the night of
its first performance many people left the theater by way of protest. It
does not seem necessary to regard a dramatist as anti-clerical because
he censures and ridicules the abuses and the patronizing attitude of
religious organizations. The fact that they are religious is really
accidental. The fault lies in the frailty of human nature. One Spanish
reviewer very sensibly treats the play as a simple comedy and deprecates
the storm of disapproval that greeted its appearance.[i.9]
It is worth noting that side by side with serious efforts Benavente
produced between 1904 and 1906 four pieces marked exclusively by the
search for comic effect. Especially amusing is _Las cigarras hormigas_,
the longest member of the _Teatro_, a rollicking three act comedy,
literally crammed with fun from beginning to end.
=Period of Maturity.=--_Los buhos_ was first performed in February, 1907,
and _La malquerida_ in December, 1913. To the seven years between these
dates belong twenty-five theatrical pieces that reveal Benavente as a
mature, confident, versatile dramatist. So perplexing is the succession
of different types of plays that they can be logically discussed only by
disregarding chronology and making divisions according to subject
matter.
=Moral Tendency.=--Prepared as a reader might be, after perusal of the
problem plays, to anticipate further changes, he could scarcely expect
from Benavente's pen simple sketches written with no other aim than to
uphold humble virtues. Yet in some cases that is exactly what we find. A
definite moral tone is observable in a large portion of Benavente's
recent output. _Los buhos_ is a beautiful treatment of the pure
affection entertained by two scholars, father and son, for two friends
who are mother and daughter. _Por las nubes_ suggests emigration to
South America as a remedy for the struggling middle classes; in this
play there is a resort to the expedient of making one of the characters
(a physician) a mouth-piece for the author's opinions. _¡A ver qué hace
un hombre!_ is a plea for the unemployed workman. _Hacia la verdad_
furnishes a eulogy of simple pleasures. _De cerca_ is a literary gem
that shows how the distrust existing between rich and poor may be
overcome if they can learn to understand the common humanity that binds
them. _La fuerza bruta_ and _La losa de los sueños_ glorify the spirit
of sacrifice.
At first sight it seems as if Benavente's whole theory of art had been
revolutionized. The key to the solution of the problem is in the pages
of _De sobremesa_. In his weekly articles he frequently discusses
conditions of wretchedness in the world about him. He suggests practical
remedies for the alleviation of misery among the poor and in the middle
classes. He evinces such a spirit of commiseration for human woes that
no one can wonder that his natural feelings of sympathy and his desire
to benefit his fellow men are reflected in his dramas. Thus it is that
we find intensely moral plays coming from the hand of the man who wrote
in the preface to the standard edition of his works: "I love art above
all things, but all that I have attained in my works has been only a
vain longing of my infinite love."
=Plays for Children.=--A passion for the welfare and happiness of children
is one of the keynotes of Benavente's existence. In periodical writings
he maintains that the young are neglected in Spain, that they receive a
miserable education, and that the poor are wont to regard those children
who die young as truly fortunate. Yet he feels that the most important
element in the future improvement of the race is the careful upbringing
of the newer generations. In company with other people Benavente long
agitated the founding of a theater for children. His efforts were at
last crowned with success, and he himself wrote for the new institution
_El príncipe que todo lo aprendió en los libros_, _Ganarse la vida_, and
_El nietecito_. He endeavored, with considerable success, to combine
fairy legends, playful imagination, and educational value. Unfortunately
the theater seems to have been a failure; its existence was limited to
about one year.
=Romantic Plays.=--Benavente has always possessed a vein of poetry or of
romance that makes him take delight in pure fancy. More than once in _De
sobremesa_ he defends works of imagination. In his own career the
tendency can be traced back to the _Teatro fantástico_, and it is
presumably connected with veneration of Shakespeare. Thus it is that we
find among recent productions, not only the children's plays but _La
princesa sin corazón_, _La copa encantada_, _El último minué_, and other
flights of fancy. The inspiration that brought forth _Los intereses_
creados may perhaps be assigned to the same source.[i.10]
=Miscellanies.=--It must not be supposed that recent years have witnessed
a decline on the part of Benavente in power of irony and observation of
character. Not only are these qualities present in nearly all his plays,
but they are predominant in some. _Abuela y nieta_ is a delightful
character sketch. _De pequeñas causas_... is reminiscent of the earliest
plays. _Los ojos de los muertos_ is a gloomy tragedy of unhappy marital
relations. And so we might continue with other scattered titles.
_=Señora ama and La malquerida.=_--To the period now being discussed
belong the two most striking (from the point of view of tendencies) of
Benavente's latter-day achievements, _Señora ama_ and _La malquerida_.
They carry us to rural districts and plunge us into an inferno of
ignorance, corruption, and vice. The author of these tragic histories
has no illusions about the innocence of the country. Benavente is
reported to have said that he liked _Señora ama_ better than any other
of his plays. The verdict of public and critics has been in favor of the
companion piece. One critic, in particular, has used _La malquerida_ as
an argument to place Benavente among the really great masters of the
world's literature.[i.11]
_La malquerida_ is a tragedy with a unified plot; the end of each act
forms a climax, while the whole leads to a final crisis. A drama with
the plot hinging upon a complicated series of incidents was about the
only thing lacking to round out Benavente's _teatro_. It may now be
claimed that he has cultivated with success practically every variety of
composition that might reasonably be attempted in modern times for a
modern audience.
=Analysis.=--The scene of _La malquerida_ is laid among country people in
fairly easy circumstances. Raimunda, the leading female character, is
married to Esteban.[i.12] She has a daughter, Acacia, from a former
marriage, and one of her chief desires is that her husband and daughter
be on good terms. To her disappointment, Acacia ever since childhood has
shown an aversion toward her stepfather, too strong to be overcome by
Esteban's kindness and by the many presents that he has brought to her
upon various occasions.
At the time of the opening scene of the play, Acacia is betrothed to
Faustino, son of a neighboring farmer, Eusebio. She had previously been
engaged to her cousin, Norberto, but the engagement had been broken for
no obvious reason. One night, just after a visit in company with his
father to the house of his fiancée, Faustino is murdered; shortly
afterwards the first act ends.
The community is aroused, and the finger of suspicion is directed
against the unfortunate cousin, Norberto. Especially do Eusebio and his
remaining sons believe him guilty, and when justice, on account of lack
of proof, does not detain Norberto, they determine to take their own
revenge. They lie in wait for him as he is coming to see Raimunda, fall
upon him, and wound him. He is carried to Raimunda's home, and there
tells her a secret and also some horrible rumors that are being
circulated in the community. He discloses that Esteban had long been in
love with his stepdaughter Acacia, and that he could not bear the idea
of losing her. Therefore he had threatened Norberto with death if he
should insist upon marrying his cousin; that was the true reason for the
breaking of the engagement. Later, when Acacia was betrothed to an
outsider, Esteban could not use threats, but he was driven nearly crazy
at the thought of being abandoned by his stepdaughter. He talked matters
over with his servant El Rubio, and inflamed him to such an extent that
he murdered Faustino.
Suspicion has been aroused by certain unguarded statements made by El
Rubio while under the influence of wine. The whole community begins to
suspect Esteban of the crime.
At the beginning of the last act Esteban and El Rubio have gone away,
apparently with a vague idea of flight, but they soon return to face
justice. Esteban regrets having been an accomplice in murder; El Rubio
offers to take the responsibility if Esteban will agree to secure his
liberty after a short interval. At this moment Raimunda enters, and
accuses her husband of the crime. Together they review their life of the
past few years, she criticizing him and he defending himself. He says
that he has not been able to endure it; that the presence of the girl
Acacia has always made his blood boil; that he has tried to resist, but
in vain. If Acacia when a child had only called him father and had loved
him, all would have been well. Raimunda takes pity on him when he says
this, and assures him that they will live happily after sending Acacia
to the house of a relative. Thereupon Acacia enters, and shows hatred
and scorn for her stepfather. He is saddened by her attitude, and chides
her. Raimunda begs her to call him father, before he gives himself up to
justice. Then Acacia can no longer restrain the feelings that she has so
long concealed from everybody. Instead of father she calls him Esteban;
she embraces him, and Raimunda realizes the final truth. Her daughter
has always loved her stepfather. Infuriated, she calls upon everybody
within hearing, and tells the dreadful secret. Esteban tries to escape
with Acacia, in order to enjoy his newly discovered love. When he finds
that he is unable to get away, he fatally wounds his wife, Raimunda.
Fatality again places Acacia, the "Ill-beloved," on the side of her
mother, and this time forever; Raimunda prepares to die, satisfied with
her final victory.
=The Latest Plays.=--The _estreno_ of a play of Benavente is now one of
the principal events of the theatrical year in Madrid. His reputation is
securely established, and the public looks to him for the great events
of the season. It is true, perhaps, that no play since 1913 has reached
the heights achieved by _La malquerida_ and other masterpieces. The
keynote of _El collar de estrellas_, _La propia estimación_, and _Campo
de armiño_ seems to be the building of character. Nowhere else, perhaps,
is the author quite so insistent in setting a standard of human virtue.
As a natural consequence he paints some personages who come perilously
close to being angels or villains. The tendency is quite in line with
the progressive development of Benavente's dramatic and intellectual
life. Possibly his art has suffered slightly from a desire to exert a
good moral influence, but his reflections have become correspondingly
more profound and valuable. Moreover, we must not forget his astonishing
versatility. He can stop in the midst of a series of didactic plays and
compose something like _Los intereses creados_ or _La malquerida_.[i.13]
Therefore it is fair to assert that each new step in the evolution of
his _teatro_ adds to what has gone before without supplanting it.
=Replies to Criticism.=--Certain criticisms of methods employed by
Benavente have been noticed. Replies made by him to unfavorable comment
are contained in the following statements:
"If any remorse troubles my artistic conscience, it is because I have
often sacrificed art to preaching; but in Spain... it is necessary to
preach so much, and the theater is such a good pulpit!"[i.14]
"And what shall I say of myself? I am the same man that I was in 1897;
even my concessions to middle-class sentimentalism, as I could
demonstrate with texts, do not belong to the present day alone. And why
not? An author has the whole work in which to say what he feels and what
he thinks; later, in the conclusion, seeing that life does not conclude
anything, why not please the public? If this public, with or without
concessions, had not been on my side from the beginning of my dramatic
career, could I have continued to present plays? The public was my real
support against the critics, who were almost unanimous in affirming that
that was not drama."[i.15]
"No one is more opposed than I am to giving scandal either in books or
in conduct. I shall never defend my works as literary works, but I will
defend them as works of spotless morality. If in any of them there is
anything that may seem sinful in appearance, it is not I who am
speaking; it is some person for whose morality I am not responsible. I
am accustomed to allow the personages of my works to express themselves
according to their character and temperament. Unfortunately these evil
characters are the ones who are always closest to the truth. Only God
and my artistic conscience know that it is necessary for us to lie when
we wish to moralize."[i.16]
"My life as a dramatic author cannot be remembered without remembering
Rosario Pino, the ideal interpreter of so many comedies of mine when my
comedies were pleasing only to myself; whereas at present they are
pleasing to many people, and not at all to me. And I am more mournful
now at not being in accord with the applause, than I was then, when I
could not agree with the censure."[i.17]
_=Teatro del pueblo.=_--The opinions of Benavente on various technical and
critical matters related to the stage are found in a book of essays
called _Teatro del pueblo_ after the first article, which is an argument
in favor of the establishment of a free theater for the people. Many of
the themes discussed in the book allow the author to give free play to
satire and irony. He criticizes savagely theatrical conditions in Spain,
favors translations, upholds moving-pictures, one act plays, vaudeville,
the circus, photography, etc., at the expense of the legitimate stage;
but through it all there appears a man fond of poetry, interested in the
lower classes and in children, an artist and a clear-headed man of
affairs.