attempting to restore Kleomenes to his throne; and amidst the drunken
licence of the court of his successor, the affairs of Kleomenes were
entirely neglected. The young king[18] was so given up to wine and
women, that his soberest moments were spent in organising religious
ceremonies in the palace, and in carrying a kettledrum in honour of the
mother of the gods. The whole of the public business of the kingdom was
managed by Agathoklea, the king's mistress, her mother, and the
brothel-keeper Oenanthes. Yet even here it seems that the assistance of
Kleomenes was needed, for the king, fearing his brother Magas, who
through his mother had great influence with the army, attached himself
in a special manner to Kleomenes, and made him a member of his own
secret council, desiring to make use of him to kill his brother.
Kleomenes, although every one in the court bade him do this, refused,
saying that it would rather be his duty, if it were possible, to raise
up more brothers for the king, to strengthen and confirm his throne.
When Sosibius, the most powerful of the king's favourites, said that the
mercenary troops were not to be depended upon while Magas was alive,
Kleomenes answered that he might be quite easy on that score, for more
than three thousand of the mercenaries were Peloponnesians, and at the
slightest sign from him would seize their arms and rally round him. This
speech was thought at the time to be a great proof of the loyalty of
Kleomenes, and gave the courtiers a great idea of his power; but
afterwards, as Ptolemy's weakness of character produced cowardice, and
after the manner of empty-headed men he began to think it safest to
suspect every one, these words made the courtiers fear Kleomenes, as
having a dangerous power over the mercenaries; and many of them were
wont to say, "This man moves among us like a lion among a flock of
sheep." Indeed the demeanour of Kleomenes in the Egyptian palace, as he
calmly and quietly watched the course of events, naturally suggested
this simile.
XXXIV. Kleomenes gave up asking for a fleet and an army; but hearing
that Antigonus was dead, and that the Achæans were involved in a war
with the Ætolians, while his presence was imperatively demanded at home,
as all Peloponnesus seemed to be going to ruin, he desired to be sent
home alone with his friends. However, he could persuade no one to accede
to this request, as the king thought of nothing but his concubines and
his revels, and Sosibius, upon whom devolved the whole conduct of
affairs, although he knew that Kleomenes would be dangerous and hard to
manage if kept in Egypt against his will, yet feared to set at large so
daring and enterprising a man, who had gained a thorough insight into
the utter rottenness of the Ptolemaic dynasty. For Kleomenes could not
be bribed into remaining quiet, but as the bull[19] sacred to Apis,
although he is abundantly fed and supplied with every luxury, yet longs
to frisk and range about as nature intended, so he cared for none of
their effeminate pleasures,
"but wore his soul away"
like Achilles,
"Idling at home, though eager for the fray."
XXXV. While his affairs were in this posture, there arrived at
Alexandria one Nikagoras, a Messenian, who pretended to be a friend to
Kleomenes, but really hated him bitterly, because he had once sold him a
fair estate, but had never received the money, either because Kleomenes
intended to cheat him, or because he was unable to pay him on account of
the wars. As this man was disembarking from his ship, Kleomenes, who
happened to be walking upon the quay, saw him, and at once warmly
greeted him, and inquired what business had brought him to Egypt.
Nikagoras returned his salutation with equal friendliness, and said that
he had brought over some fine horses for the king's use in the wars. At
this Kleomenes laughed, and said, "I had rather you had brought
singing-girls or beautiful boys, for they are what please the king
best." Nikagoras listened to this remark with a smile, but a few days
afterwards he reminded Kleomenes of the estate which he had bought, and
asked him to pay the price, saying that he would not have pressed for it
if he had not sustained losses on his cargo. As Kleomenes replied that
all his pension from the king was spent, Nikagoras in a rage repeated to
Sosibius the sarcasm which he had used. Sosibius was much pleased to
hear of it, but as he wished to have some graver matter of which to
accuse him to the king, he persuaded Nikagoras to write a letter before
he left Egypt, accusing Kleomenes of a design to make himself master of
Cyrene, if the king put him in possession of a fleet and army. Nikagoras
wrote the letter, and sailed away to Greece; and after forty days
Sosibius took the letter and showed it to Ptolemy, as though he had just
received it. By this means he so wrought upon the young king's mind,
that he confined Kleomenes in a large house, and placed a guard before
all the doors, although he continued to allow him his pension as before.
XXXVI. This treatment was in itself sufficiently grievous to Kleomenes,
and made him fear that something worse was in store. Now Ptolemy, the
son of Chrysermes, who was a friend of the king's, had always been on
good terms with Kleomenes, and they had been in the habit of conversing
familiarly together. This man now, at Kleomenes's own request, came to
see him, and talked amicably with him, explaining away all which had
appeared suspicious about the king's conduct. As he was leaving the
house, without noticing that Kleomenes had followed him to the door, he
harshly reproved the guard for keeping such careless watch over so great
and savage a monster. Kleomenes himself heard him say this, and before
Ptolemy observed him, retired and told his friends what he had heard.
They at once abandoned all hope, and fiercely determined to avenge
themselves on Ptolemy for his wickedness and arrogance, and die as
became Spartans, not wait to be butchered like fat cattle. They thought
that it was intolerable that Kleomenes should have disdained to make
terms with Antigonus, who was a soldier and a man of action, and should
sit waiting for the pleasure of a timbrel-playing king, who as soon as
he was at leisure from his kettle-drummings and revellings, intended to
murder him.
XXXVII. As soon as they had formed this resolution, as it happened that
Ptolemy had gone to Canopus, they spread a report that the king had
given orders for the guard to be removed. Next, observing the custom of
the kings of Egypt, which was to send a dinner and various presents to
those who are about to be released from confinement, the friends of
Kleomenes prepared many presents of this kind and sent them to him,
deceiving the guard, who believed that they had been sent by the king.
Kleomenes offered sacrifice, and gave the soldiers on guard an ample
share of the meat, while he himself put on a garland and feasted with
his friends. It is said that they proceeded to action sooner than had
been originally intended, because Kleomenes perceived that one of the
servants who was in the plot had left the house, though he had only gone
to visit his mistress. Fearing that he meant to denounce them, as soon
as it was noon, and the guard were sleeping off their wine, Kleomenes
put on his tunic, slit up the seam over the right shoulder, seized his
naked sword, and sallied forth with his friends similarly arrayed,
thirteen in all. One of them named Hippitas, who was lame, came boldly
out with the rest, but finding that they proceeded slowly to enable him
to keep up with them, begged them to kill him, and not spoil their plot
by waiting for a useless man. It happened that one of the Alexandrians
was leading a horse past the door; they at once took it, placed Hippitas
on its back, and ran quickly through the streets, calling upon the
populace to rise and set itself free. The people, it appears, had spirit
enough to admire Kleomenes, but no one dared to follow or help him.
Three of the conspirators met Ptolemy, the son of Chrysermes, coming out
of the palace, and killed him: and when another Ptolemy, the governor of
the city, drove towards them in a chariot, they rushed to meet him,
scattered his bodyguard, dragged him out of the chariot and killed him.
They now made their way to the citadel, intending to break open the
prison and make use of the prisoners to swell their numbers; but the
guardians of the prison had closed the gates effectually before they
arrived, and Kleomenes, failing in this attempt, roamed through the city
without finding any one to join him, as all fled in terror at his
approach. At last he stopped, and said to his friends, "No wonder women
bear rule in a city where men fear to be free." He now bade them all end
their lives worthily of him and of themselves. First of all Hippitas, at
his own request, was struck dead by one of the younger men; after which,
each man deliberately and fearlessly inflicted upon himself a mortal
stab, with the exception of Panteus, who had been the first to break
into the city of Megalopolis. This man, the handsomest and best warrior
of all the Spartan youth, was especially loved by the king, and was
ordered by him to wait till all the rest were dead, and then to put an
end to his life. When they had all fallen, Panteus pricked each man with
his dagger, to make certain that none of them were alive. When he
pricked Kleomenes in the ankle he saw his face contract. He kissed him
and sat down beside him until he was quite dead, and then, embracing the
corpse, killed himself upon it.
XXXVIII. Thus perished Kleomenes, after having reigned over Sparta for
thirteen years, as described above. The news of his death was soon
bruited abroad, and Kratesiklea, although a woman of high spirit, was so
overcome by her misfortune that she embraced the children and wept for
Kleomenes. Upon this the eldest boy leaped up, and before any one knew
what he was going to do, threw himself headlong from the roof of the
house. He was much hurt, but not killed, and was taken up, crying out
and reproaching his friends because they would not allow him to die.
When Ptolemy heard the news, he ordered the corpse of Kleomenes to be
flayed and exposed on a gibbet, and his children, his mother, and her
attendants to be put to death. Among these was the wife of Panteus, the
fairest and noblest-looking of them all. She and her husband had only
recently been married when their misfortunes began. When Panteus left
Sparta she wished to accompany him, but her parents would not allow her
to do so, and locked her up in their house. But she shortly afterwards
procured a horse and a little money, and made her escape by night. She
rode all the way to Taenarum, where she found a ship about to sail to
Egypt, on board of which she crossed the sea, joined her husband, and
cheerfully shared his exile. She now, when the soldiers came to lead
away Kratesiklea, took her by the hand, held up the train of her dress,
and bade her be of good courage; although Kratesiklea herself was not
afraid to die, but only asked one favour, that she might die before her
children. When they arrived at the place of execution, the children were
first killed before the eyes of Kratesiklea, and then she herself. All
she said was: "My children, whither have you come?" The wife of Panteus,
being a tall and robust woman, girded up her robe, and arranged each of
the corpses as decently as her means permitted. After she had paid the
last offices to each of them she prepared herself for death, bared her
neck, allowed no one to approach her but the executioner, and died like
a heroine, without requiring any one to arrange her corpse. Thus the
modesty which she had observed throughout her life, did not desert her
even when she was dead.
XXXIX. Thus gloriously, even during its last days, did Lacedæmon, whose
women are taught to vie with men in courage, prove that virtue is
superior to Fortune. A few days afterwards, those who were watching the
body of Kleomenes as it hung upon the gibbet, observed a large snake
which wound its body round his head and covered his face, so that no
ravenous bird could alight upon it. On hearing this, the king was struck
with superstitious terror, fearing that he had offended the gods by the
murder of one who was evidently a favourite of Heaven, and something
more than mortal. All the ladies of his court began to offer sacrifices
of atonement for his sin, and the people of Alexandria went to the place
and worshipped Kleomenes as a hero and child of the gods, until they
were restrained by the learned, who explained that as from the corrupted
bodies of oxen are bred bees, from horses wasps, and from asses beetles,
so human bodies, by the melting and gathering together of the juices of
the marrow, produce serpents. This was observed by the ancients, who
therefore considered that of all animals the serpent was peculiarly
appropriated to heroes.
LIFE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS.
I. Having finished the first History,[20] it remains to contemplate
equal calamities in the pair of Roman Lives, in a comparison of Tiberius
and Caius Gracchus with Agis and Kleomenes.[21] Tiberius and Caius were
the sons of Tiberius Gracchus,[22] who was censor and twice consul, and
celebrated two triumphs, but was still more distinguished for his
personal character, to which he owed the honour of having for his wife
Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio,[23] the conqueror of Hannibal, whom he
married after Scipio's death, though Tiberius had not been a friend of
Scipio, but rather a political opponent. A story is told that Tiberius
once caught a couple of snakes[24] in his bed, and the diviners, after
consulting on the matter, told him that he must not kill both nor yet
let both go; as to the male, they said, if it were killed, the death of
Tiberius would follow, and if the female were killed, Cornelia would
die. Now Tiberius, who loved his wife and thought it would be more
suitable for him to die first, as he was an elderly man and his wife was
still young, killed the male snake and let the female go; and he died
no long time after, leaving twelve children by Cornelia. Cornelia
undertook the care of her family and her husband's property, and showed
herself so prudent, so fond of her children, and of so exalted a
character, that Tiberius was judged to have done well in dying in place
of such a wife. And though Ptolemæus,[25] the king of Egypt, invited
Cornelia to share his crown, and wooed her for his wife, she refused the
offer and continued a widow. All her children died before her, except
one daughter, who married the younger Scipio,[26] and two sons, of whom
I am going to speak, Tiberius and Caius, who were brought up by their
mother so carefully that they became, beyond dispute, the most
accomplished of all the Roman youth, which they owed, perhaps, more to
their excellent education than even to their natural good qualities.
II. Now as the figures of the Dioscuri,[27] whether sculptured or
painted, though resembling one another, still present such an amount of
difference as appears when we contrast a boxer with a runner, so in
these two youths, with all their resemblance in courage, temperance,
generous temper, eloquence, and magnanimity, yet great contrasts also in
their actions and polity blossomed forth, so to speak, and displayed
themselves, which I think it well to set forth. First in the character
and expression of his countenance, and in his movements, Tiberius was
mild and sedate; Caius was animated and impetuous. When Tiberius
harangued the people, he would stand composedly on one spot; but Caius
was the first Roman who moved about on the rostra[28] and pulled his
toga from his shoulder while he was speaking, as Kleon[29] the Athenian
is said to have been the first popular orator at Athens who threw his
cloak from him and struck his thigh. The manner of Caius was
awe-striking and vehemently impassioned; the manner of Tiberius was more
pleasing and calculated to stir the sympathies: the language of Tiberius
was pure and elaborated to great nicety; that of Caius was persuasive
and exuberant. In like manner, in his mode of life and his table,
Tiberius was frugal and simple; compared with others, Caius was moderate
and austere, but, contrasted with his brother, luxurious and curious, as
we see by Drusus charging him with buying silver dolphins[30] at the
price of twelve hundred and fifty drachmæ for every pound that they
weighed. The differences in their character corresponded to their
respective styles of speaking: Tiberius was moderate and mild; Caius was
rough and impetuous, and it often happened that in his harangues he was
carried away by passion, contrary to his judgment, and his voice became
shrill, and he fell to abuse, and grew confused in his discourse. To
remedy this fault, he employed Licinius, a well-educated slave, who used
to stand behind him when he was speaking, with a musical instrument,[31]
such as is used as an accompaniment to singing, and whenever he
observed that the voice of Caius was becoming harsh and broken through
passion, he would produce a soft note, upon which Caius would
immediately moderate his vehemence and his voice, and become calm.
III. Such were the contrasts between the two brothers, but in courage
against the enemy, in justice to the subject nations, in vigilance in
the discharge of public duties, and in self-control over indulgence,
they were both alike. Tiberius was the elder by nine years, a
circumstance which caused their political career to be separated by an
interval, and greatly contributed to the failure of their measures, for
they did not rise to eminence at the same time nor unite their strength
in one effort, which from their union, would have been powerful and
irresistible. I must accordingly speak of each separately, and of the
elder first.
IV. Immediately on attaining man's estate, Tiberius had so great a
reputation that he was elected a member of the college of augurs,[32]
rather for his excellent qualities than his noble birth. Appius
Claudius,[33] a man of consular and censorian rank, who in consideration
of his dignity was appointed Princeps Senatus,[34] and in loftiness of
character surpassed all his contemporaries, showed his opinion of
Tiberius; for when the augurs were feasting together, Appius addressed
Tiberius with many expressions of friendship, and solicited him to take
his daughter to wife. Tiberius gladly accepted the proposal, and the
agreement was forthwith made. As Appius was entering the door on his
return home, he called out to his wife in a loud voice, "Antistia, I
have given our daughter Claudia to wife." Antistia in surprise replied,
"What is the need or the hurry, unless you have got Tiberius Gracchus
for her husband?" I am aware that some writers tell this story of
Tiberius the father of the Gracchi and of Scipio Africanus; but the
majority have the story as I give it, and Polybius[35] says that after
the death of Scipio Africanus, his kinsmen selected Tiberius to be the
husband of Cornelia, and that she had neither been given in marriage nor
betrothed by her father in his lifetime. Now the younger Tiberius served
in the army in Africa[36] with the second Scipio,[37] who had married
his sister, and by living in the general's tent he soon learned his
character, which exhibited many and great qualities for virtuous
emulation and practical imitation. Tiberius, also, soon surpassed all
the young soldiers in attention to discipline and in courage; and he was
the first to mount the enemy's wall, as Fannius[38] says, who also
asserts that he mounted the wall with Tiberius and shared the honour
with him. While he was in the army Tiberius won the affection of all the
soldiers, and was regretted when he went away.
V. After that expedition he was elected quæstor,[39] and it fell to his
lot to serve in that capacity under the consul Caius Mancinus,[40] no
bad man, but the most unlucky of Roman generals. Accordingly in adverse
fortune and critical affairs the prudence and courage of Tiberius became
the more conspicuous, and not only his prudence and courage, but what
was truly admirable, his consideration and respect for his general,
whose reverses almost made him forget who he was. Having been defeated
in several great battles, Mancinus attempted to leave his camp by night
and make a retreat. The Numantines, however, perceived his movements,
and immediately seizing the camp, fell on the Romans in their flight and
killed those in the rear; and at last, when they were surrounding the
whole army and driving them to unfavourable ground, from which escape
was impossible, Mancinus, despairing of all chance of saving himself by
resistance, sent to treat for a truce and terms of peace. But the
Numantines declared that they would trust nobody except Tiberius, and
they bade Mancinus send him. The Numantines had come to this resolution
as well from a knowledge of the young man's character, for there was
much talk about him in this campaign, as from the remembrance of his
father Tiberius, who, after carrying on war against the Iberians and
subduing many of them, made peace with the Numantines, and always kept
the Roman people to a fair and just observance of it. Accordingly
Tiberius was sent, and had a conference with the Numantines, in which he
got some favourable conditions, and, by making some concessions,
obtained a truce, and thus saved twenty thousand Roman citizens, besides
the slaves and camp-followers.
VI. All the property that was taken in the camp became the booty of the
Numantines; and among it were the tablets of Tiberius, which contained
the entries and accounts of his administration as quæstor. Being very
anxious to recover them, though the army had already advanced some
distance, he returned to the city with three or four companions, and
calling forth the magistrates of Numantia, he begged to have back his
tablets, in order that his enemies might not have an opportunity of
calumniating him if he should not be able to give an account of his
administration of the public money. The Numantines were pleased at the
opportunity of doing him a service, and invited him to enter the city;
and when he stood hesitating, they came near and clung to his hands, and
were urgent in entreating him not to consider them as enemies any
longer, but as friends, and to trust them. Tiberius determined to do so,
as he was very anxious to get the tablets, and feared to irritate the
Numantines if he should seem to distrust them. When he had entered the
city, the first thing they did was to prepare an entertainment, and to
urge him most importunately to sit down and eat with them. They
afterwards gave him back the tablets, and bade him take anything else he
liked. Tiberius, however, would have nothing except the frankincense
which he wanted for the public sacrifices, and after a friendly embrace
he took his leave of them.