ROMAN SOCIAL THOUGHT
Roman social thought is an outgrowth of Hellenic philosophic movements.
It is represented in part by the codification of important phases of
societary control--the product of the legalistic genius of the Romans.
Stoicism, moreover, greatly affected and conditioned the meager social
thinking of the Roman scholars.
Lucretius (99–55 B. C.) was the chief Roman exponent of Epicureanism.
In his story of social evolution he began with the various phases
of the biological struggle for existence, and proceeded to depict
in a remarkably significant fashion the origins of social practices
and customs.[VII-1] Although his data are of questionable value, his
descriptions of social origins often run strangely parallel to modern
findings.
The ideal commonwealth of Cicero (106–43 B. C.) is founded on the
belief that Rome has the possibility of becoming an ideal state.[VII-2]
The best ideas in this connection were selected by Cicero from the
Aristotelian, Epicurean, and Stoic philosophies. Cicero was apparently
an exponent of honest statesmanship and finally gave his life for
civic efficiency. He argued that a child should not be punished by
either a parent or a teacher in a fit of anger. Corporal punishment
should be considered only when other methods fail to discipline.
The descriptive studies of Julius Caesar (100–44 B. C.) are noteworthy.
The _Commentaries_ present social studies of contemporary conditions;
they possess modern value. In a large number of instances the accuracy
of Caesar’s social notes has been verified.
The teachings of the Roman Stoics may be traced back to the Socratic
formula: Virtue is knowledge. Virtue is knowledge which grows out of
practical human conduct. Unlike Aristotle, the Stoics believed that
sympathy is a disease. It is pathological and hence must be overcome.
In helping other people the wise individual does not allow the emotion
of pity to appear.
Contrary to the theory of the Epicureans, the Stoics taught that
pleasure is a tiresome and sickly goal. Seneca (4 B. C.-65 A. D.), a
leading Roman Stoic, declared: “I am seeking to find what is good for a
man, not for his belly.”[VII-3] Virtue, according to Stoic philosophy,
consists in living a free and undisturbed life. A line was drawn
between the virtuous and non-virtuous, between a few virtuous and a
multitude of fools. This doctrine tends to engender in the few virtuous
a contemptuous regard for the pig-trough philosophy of the many.
This tendency, however, was offset by the Stoic belief that all
persons originally possess the same nature and that all are children
of the same universal Spirit. Social differences, hence, are external
and superficial. Beneath the surface of human nature there is a
cosmopolitanism which constitutes a passive brotherhood of man.
Brotherly love should rule, according to the Stoics, but it should rule
temperately, and not in such a way as to disturb the individual’s self
control. Brotherly love should be not a passionate but an intellectual
element.
In his treatise on Benefits, Seneca makes benevolence the most
social of all virtues; and ingratitude the most venal of all crimes.
Marcus Aurelius (121–180 A. D.) gave the social injunction: Love
mankind.[VII-4] Living should consist in passing from one social act to
another.[VII-5] This is a social world; men exist for the sake of one
another.[VII-6]
The Stoic Emperor declared that God is social and that individuals are
part of God’s universe. Each individual is a component part of the
social system, and hence every act of the individual is an integral
phase of social life.[VII-7] Inasmuch as the Intelligence of the
universe is social, human society functions as a phase of the cosmic
co-ordination. We are all co-laborers and co-operators. Even the
persons who find fault and who hinder what happens, are performing
useful co-operative functions.[VII-8] That which is harmful to the
swarm is likewise harmful to the individual. Man is a citizen of the
world.[VII-9] The services of a good citizen are never lost. The good
citizen does good chiefly by the example he sets.[VII-10]
But the cosmopolitanism of the Stoics never extended beyond a passive
interest in the world of affairs. It meant that the individual should
be agreeable with other persons, that he should be tolerant of the
weaknesses of others, and that he should be aware constantly that
others are watching him and likely to copy the example he sets.[VII-11]
Stoicism requires the suppression of anger and the exercising of
clemency toward all human beings. While Stoicism does not extend so far
in its profession as Christianity’s doctrine of brotherhood of man, it
represents a broader viewpoint of life than any code of conduct which
previously had developed in the non-Christian world.
The purpose of punishment, according to Seneca, is two-fold: either
to reform the evil-doer; or to prevent the operation of his evil
influence and to stop him from setting harmful examples.[VII-12] The
social medicine must be determined, quantitatively and qualitatively,
by the nature of the offender and the offense. Above all things else,
he who administers punishment must not act in anger. Justice cannot be
angry.[VII-13] Lynch procedure is entirely contrary to the teachings of
Stoicism.
First of all, thieves and robbers should be instructed in the error
of their ways. Obtain their point of view and administer punishment
accordingly. Pity them. The individual who understands why criminals
commit offenses is prevented from becoming angry with them.[VII-14]
Aurelius, like Jesus,[VII-15] gave the injunction: Love even those who
do wrong. Aurelius, like Paul,[VII-16] urged an attitude of charity
toward wrong-doers.[VII-17]
The Stoics condemned luxurious living and fashion racing. True riches
consists not in augmenting one’s fortune, but in abating the desires
for securing material wealth.[VII-18] The words of Emperor Aurelius
regarding ostentatious living do not seem out of place when applied to
the modern display of wealth. Seneca asserted that he would despise
wealth as much when he has it as when he does not possess it.
Stoicism urged the Aristotelian social mean regarding property. Much
property is a burden and a cause of worry and fear. It excites envy
in others. The best society is that which is characterized by neither
poverty nor plenty. The poor should not condemn riches, and the
wealthy err in extolling the benefits of poverty--each is speaking of
a situation which is objective to him and outside his sphere. Since it
is objective to him, he is not qualified to speak concerning it. The
individual is a great man who is not corrupted by his wealth; but he
is a greater man who is honestly poor in the midst of plenty.[VII-19]
Riches constitute a power to do evil, hence mediocrity of fortune with
a gentleness of mind represents the best status.[VII-20]
Stoicism enunciated excellent social ideals, which were, however,
passively intellectual. They were not affectively dynamic. Despite
their implications, they begat social inertia. The teachings of the
Stoics removed rather than instilled a sense of public responsibility.
The doctrines are available to the few rather than to the masses,
although a Roman slave, Epictetus, as an exception, rose to a full
interpretation of Stoic principles. The social ideals and concepts of
the Stoics did not possess enough power to regenerate a degenerate
society. They had sufficient strength, however, to maintain themselves
in a voluptuous and pleasure-seeking world. They performed the
exceedingly useful function of preparing the way for the invasion
of the Roman Empire by the new and active Christian propaganda.
The teachings of the Stoics made easier the conquest of Rome by
Christianity. They softened a little an otherwise hard-hearted world.
As a class the Romans were men of action. They were soldiers and
administrators. The name of Rome is still synonymous with power. On
the whole it must be said that the Romans made little contribution to
societary thought.
The constructive work of the Romans was legal and administrative. They
built up a special social science--legal science. The legal genius of
the Romans emphasized the rights of contract, of private property, of
interest. Although this attention to the development of individualistic
institutions was fatal to the rise of new social attitudes and to an
increase in the sense of social responsibility, it nevertheless was
instrumental in constructing a stable framework for the evolution of
the social process.
The Romans preserved a portion of Hellenic culture. The teachings of
Plato and Aristotle were saved to modern civilization. Credit is due
the Romans for receiving, keeping, working over, and handing on a part
of the best Hellenic civilization.
Roman thought accentuated military principles of authority, even to the
point of autocracy. It tended to crush the unprivileged populace. It
tried to keep the masses contented by generous state aid. It denied to
personality its complete individual and social expressions. In building
an individualistic framework which would provide an orderly _milieu_
for the rise of the institution of private property, it ignored the
needs of the uneducated and poverty-enslaved masses for a full measure
of liberty.
Rome developed the concept of organized power. The organizing ability
of the Romans was marvelous, an organizing power that lives today in
and through the Catholic Church.
The greatest gift of Rome was its Stoic concepts. Although these
originated in Hellas, they attained their maturity in Rome. They opened
the way for the reception of the Christian social concepts of love,
service, brotherhood of man.