THE SOCIAL THOUGHT OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
In this chapter the discussion of earliest social thought will be
presented from the standpoint of the ancient civilizations of Egypt,
Babylonia and Assyria, India, China, and Persia. The evidences of
social thought are meagre and inchoate. Nevertheless, there are data
which cannot be ignored. Inferential evidence and proverbial references
constitute the main portion of these data.
(1) The ancient Egyptian social order was bureaucratic and autocratic.
The king was supreme. With the rise of the Theban hierarchy, the
priestly class came to power and established a theocratic régime. Then
military leaders came into prominence and overthrew the theocracy of
the priests.
With the historical rise of Egypt, about 4000 B. C., the emphasis upon
law as the basis of the social order stands out prominently. The books
of laws early acquired sacred significance. They were reputed to be of
divine and monarchical origins; they provided courts of justice; and
they prescribed punishments for offenses.
The social ideas are to be gleaned almost entirely from proverbial
sayings. Egyptian scholars refer to collections of these moral precepts
as being of a practical rather than a systematic philosophical nature.
The most frequently mentioned of the Egyptian books of proverbs are the
Proverbs of Ptah-hotep, and the Prescriptions of Ani.
The social order was dominated as a rule by the king, who was supposed
to be divine. The king and a relatively small number of nobles owned
the land. The large percentage of the people were serfs and slaves.
Throughout ancient Egyptian history, the middle class must have been
weak, and small in numbers. When the lands passed under the control of
the temple authorities no change occurred in the social conditions of
the masses. The priests shared the authority with their auxiliaries,
the soldiers. The unprivileged classes included the farmers, boatmen,
mechanics, trades-people, besides the slaves.[III-1]
Egyptian life was rural. Commerce was undeveloped. Higher education
was reserved for the very few, although it appears that elementary
education was widespread. The priests often used their educational
advantages to prey upon and excite the superstitions of the people,
thereby strengthening the social control which they enjoyed.
An anomalous phase of the Egyptian mind was that it shifted back
and forth from a hedonistic enjoyment of the moment to a serious
contemplation of the future life. Amusements were fostered; the
drinking of intoxicating liquors was extensive, and music was promoted.
The game of draughts was perhaps the national pastime. The people were
not warriors. They employed mercenaries, who ultimately became socially
powerful.
Polygamy was countenanced and practised, but only of course among the
wealthy. A relatively high degree of freedom was granted the women
among the privileged classes. They appeared in public with their
husbands; they publicly engaged in religious ceremonies; and they were
given unusual property rights. At one time it is reported that Egyptian
women could not only own property, but could dispose of it as they
wished, or could loan money at interest to their husbands. At another
time the following injunction seems to have been issued: “Thou shalt
never forget thy mother, and what she has done for thee, that she bore
thee, and nurtured thee in all ways.” Children were enjoined to obey
their parents, to be respectful to their superiors, and to be reserved.
Greatness was identified with kindness. Justice and kindliness were
urged upon the leaders.[III-2]
The belief in the future world claimed a lion’s share of the attention
of the Egyptian. As a result, sculpture flourished. It was believed
that if the human figure was copied and the copy preserved, the spirit
and the body of the departed person could be more easily re-united.
Architecture developed, but with the tombs or pyramids and other
monuments as the chief forms. Urban mural divisions and fortified walls
are still to be found as evidences of Egyptian social institutions.
It was taught that in the next world the individual would be held
accountable for his deeds in this life. This belief acted as a powerful
social control; it involved specific social obligations. The individual
must deal openly with his fellowmen. He must observe the rights of the
weaker members of society. For example, he must not make false charges
against a slave to the master of the slave. He must show that he has
respected the social rights that were invested in property. From the
moral and social writings of the Egyptian scribes, it is apparent that
in religious matters, the individual was moved to give thought to his
duties as a citizen and as a neighbor.
(2) The ancient Babylonian and Assyrian social order was similar in
many ways to Egyptian civilization. The Babylonian description of a
great deluge resembles the account of the Flood that is given in the
Old Testament, and indicates thought about morals and social life. Both
Babylon and Assyria developed a religion which was expressed in terms
of the nation-group. The boundaries of one, with Merodach at the head,
and of the other with Assur in supreme control, marked the national
group divisions. Merodach, it was believed, accompanied the king in the
wars and fought for the nation. He was concerned entirely, according
to traditions, with the welfare of Babylonia as a population group.
The attitude in Babylonian society toward the institution of slavery
was distinctly different from that in Rome, but similar to the Egyptian
practices. The slave was considered in a more social way than by the
Romans. He was frequently regarded as one of the family; he could even
become a free member of society. “Slavery was no bar to his promotion.”
Moreover, slavery did not necessarily imprint a social stigma upon the
slave.
The social rights of women were similar to the Egyptian customs.
The married woman of the ruling classes possessed definite property
rights. She could use the property that she owned as she saw fit;
she could even bequeath it as she chose. Her dowry gave her economic
independence; it was her absolute property, which she could bequeath by
will in any way that she desired.
The earliest well-known Babylonian ruler was Hammurapi (2124–2081). He
is known best through his famous book of laws, the Code of Hammurapi.
The Code bespeaks for the author the desire to rule Babylonian society
justly. There are minute regulations of private business and of labor
conditions which give the Code some of the characteristics of modern
mercantilistic thought.
The Code contains perhaps the earliest forms of labor legislation that
were enacted. Hammurapi sought through legislation to determine wages
for different classes of labor. The Code prescribed severe punishment
for anyone who sheltered a runaway slave. In this and similar ways,
property rights were protected and human elements subordinated. It was
not until the Deuteronomic Code was written that the rights of labor
received legislative recognition.
Hammurapi stood for a paternalistic control of society. His idea
of justice was literally that of an eye for an eye. “If a man has
caused the loss of a patrician’s eye, his eye shall one cause to be
lost.”[III-3] Justice, moreover, was subject to the law of social
gradation. An offense against a man of lower rank might be atoned by
paying money. “If a man has caused a poor man to lose his eye, he
shall pay one mina of silver.”[III-4] Additional light is thrown on
the concept of justice by other passages from the Code, especially by
this one: “If a builder has built a house for a man and has not made
strong his work, and the house he has built has fallen, and he has
caused the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put
to death.”[III-5]
The intellectual progress and the inventions of the Babylonians are
indicative of social status. The development along artistic lines,
particularly in architecture and sculpture, must have exerted an
indirect but important social influence. Significant advances in
surgery had been made preceding the reign of Hammurapi. In medicine,
however, the demonic theory of the causes of disease enslaved the
people.
The Assyrians, who lived to the north of the Babylonians, were less
social in type. They were little concerned about the future life; their
religion was relatively undeveloped. The Assyrian artists gave their
attention chiefly to the king, the court, and to war. They reproduced
in artistic form the king and the soldier, but ignored the life and
customs of the people.
(3) When we turn to early East Indian records, we find a higher
development of social ideals than among any peoples which have thus
far been considered. In the Vedic documents there is considerable
evidence of communal life and of a remarkable degree of social spirit
and brotherliness. In the East Indian account of a Deluge--similar
to the Deluge that is described in Genesis--there is a conception
of punishment that falls upon the group because of the sins of
individuals. Sacrifice, among the Vedic believers, had acquired a
positive social function. It was considered as a social act, in which
the worshipper and the god took part. The food strengthened the god and
the spiritual contact strengthened the worshiper. Hence mutual sympathy
was generated.
With the rise of Brahmanism, the caste system developed. It divided
society. It gave structure to the concept that some people are
naturally--and artificially--superior to other people. In the laws of
Manu, several social concepts are broached. The nature of marriage and
the duties of a householder are explained. The duties of a woman are
prescribed. The nature of private and public law is noteworthy, and
the recognition of the obligation of one caste to another in times of
distress marks the beginning of a reaction against the caste system.
It was considered possible for an individual to fall from a caste
to the one below, but not for an individual to rise in caste. The
moral standards for individuals reached a level comparable to those
represented in certain of the teachings of Jesus. For example, notice
this instruction:
Let him patiently bear hard words, let him not insult anybody, nor
become anybody’s enemy for the sake of this perishable body. Against an
angry man let him not in return show anger; let him bless when he is
cursed.
Buddhism inaugurated a set of social ideas which involved the abolition
of the caste system. In the fourth of the “Four Noble Truths” the
principles which are formulated, are partly of social import.
Commendation is extended to right speech--speech that is friendly, and
sincere toward others. The requirements include right conduct--conduct
which is peaceable and honorable toward other persons. Stress is placed
upon right means of securing livelihood--methods which do not involve
the injury or the taking of life. There are types of modern business
enterprise that are extolled in our Christian America which would fall
under the ban of the “Noble Truths” in pagan India.
Among the “ten commandments” of Buddha, eight represent social ideas
and obligations:
(1) Not to kill any living being.
(2) Not to take that which is not given (not to steal).
(3) To refrain from adultery.
(4) To speak no untruth (not to lie to other people).
(5) To abstain from intoxicating liquors.
(6) Not to slander.
(7) Not to covet.
(8) Not to be angry.
Buddha taught that hatred is to be repaid by love, that life is to be
filled with kindness and compassion, that the widest toleration is to
be practised. The teachings of Buddha engendered a delicate social
consciousness regarding the relation of the individual to his fellows.
The precepts were strong enough to break down rigid class barriers. The
underlying conception was broadly human.
Additional light is thrown on the social thought of Buddha by the
following sayings which are credited to him:
Pity and sympathy is the Buddha’s mind.
Pity to his parents is the Supreme Law.
Honesty is the Paradise of the Bodhisattva.
O my Disciples, flee from fornication, know how to be content with your
own wife, and do not even for a single moment lust after another woman.
A state without a ruler is like a body without a head; it cannot exist
very long.
The king looks upon his subjects with a heart of mercy, as if they were
his children; and the people regard the king as their father.
If there is no Buddha in the world, be good to your parents; for to be
good to one’s parents is to minister unto Buddha.
Nursing a sick man is the great field where the righteous tree of mind
grows.
Even a strong man cannot lift himself.
Ten people have ten colors (opinions).
The paint which is painted by ten fingers (men) is accurate. (In the
multitude of counsellors there is safety.)
The sayings of Buddha may be summed up in the statement that, like
many of the teachings of Jesus, they accent the gentle virtues and
the passive traits of a people bearing a yoke against which they are
powerless to revolt, the virtues of obedience, respect to those in
authority, long-suffering, patience, even resignation.
(4) The social thought of early China can best be gleaned from the
writings of Confucius. This scholar was not a reformer or a religious
leader, but primarily a conserver. He was interested in civil and
political affairs. His books reflect not his own ideas, for his
originality was not great, but the concepts which had been worked out
before his time. In the _Li Ki_, or Record of Rites, there are many
social and domestic precepts. In a way the _Li Ki_, “the Chinamen’s
manual of conduct,” is a treatise on social as well as individual
ethics. Around the family group, Chinese social ideas revolved. On the
death of his mother, Confucius, for example, went into seclusion for
twenty-seven months. On sacrificial occasions the living members and
the departed spirits of the household were accustomed to gather in one
filial communal group. The welfare of the individual was completely
subordinated to the interests of the family group of spirits.
The Chinese worship, or honor, their ancestors. The worship of the past
has paralyzed new thought. Custom imitation has ruled and tradition has
been reverenced.
Marriage receives special attention, but the arrangements are made by
parents or “go-betweens.” Socially, the sexes do not intermingle. The
parents exercise complete control over the children; the mother bears
a considerable portion of the burdens of parental discipline. Filial
piety is the cardinal virtue. Although polygamy is discountenanced,
concubinage is permitted. The sexes dress very much alike, except in
headdress and footgear. The style of wearing apparel is not only simple
and aesthetic, but it “minimizes the visible distinctions of sex.”
Confucius, or Kung-fu-tsze, believed in the efficacy of setting good
examples. Imitation would then accomplish the desired results. By
these methods, Confucius expected that society would be improved.
Fundamental principles of a stable social order, more than of
social progress, were in the mind of Confucius. He conceived of the
universe as a perfect order. Likewise, he thought of the state as a
perfect social order. Confucius urged that the individual strive for
perfection. According to the Confucian doctrine of the Superior Man,
the individual should master his own passions and desires, substituting
an enjoyment of music, ceremony, and of friendship, for the enjoyment
that comes from the exercise of the bodily passions. He should seek
salvation through the study of nature and of things. Moral character
and intelligence if accompanied by bravery will produce the highest
type of personality.
In Chinese social thought the family and state were early recognized
as the two leading institutions in society. In the civil organization
it is worth while to note the _hien_, or city district. The _hien_ has
been pronounced “the real unit of Chinese corporate life”; and the
_hien_ magistrate, “the heart and soul of all official life.” Since
this magistrate keeps closely in touch with the masses, he is called by
the people “the father and mother officer.” The _hien_ contains some of
the germ ideas of democracy; it emphasizes local self-government.
The ancient laws were elaborate, giving an unusual degree of power
to the judges. Although customs ruled, the judges often possessed a
liberal margin of freedom in determining the nature of punishments.
Contrary to Western procedure, the Chinese consider an accused man
as guilty until proved otherwise. Excessive corporate punishment is
deplored.[III-6] Confucius objected to the maintenance of a government
by the use of fear and of coercive measures. He predicted that capital
punishment (even in a land ruled by custom) would be abolished in a
hundred years.
The ideas of peace and harmonious social relationships have long held
sway in China. Militarism has been scorned, and war held in contempt.
It is ironical that as China begins to function as a world power in
contact with Western and Christian nations, she is compelled to find
her chief defense in an uncivilized and unChristian militarism.
Sympathy is a fundamental concept among the Chinese. Unfortunately,
it has been instrumental in producing a highly specialized and
professionalized class of beggars. Industry and patience are
characteristic social virtues. Lao-tse, the founder of Taoism and a
contemporary of Confucius, taught the social precept: Recompense injury
with kindness. Confucius, who disagreed, taught that kindness should
be paid with kindness, and injury with injury. This conception led
Confucius to formulate his golden rule of human conduct: Do not do to
others what you would not have others do to you.
Obedience to authority has been for centuries a cardinal social
principle of the Chinese. It was enunciated by Confucius, who spoke
as a representative of the ruling classes. In stressing obedience to
temporal authorities and in shunning the gods, Confucius has been
accused of fostering a materialistic philosophy. This charge is partly
offset by his ethical teachings. Confucius was a humanitarian rather
than a materialist; he was a utilitarian rather than an idealist. In
these attitudes he reflects not his own opinions so much as the thought
of the generations which preceded him.
Mencius, who lived shortly after Confucius, was an environmentalist in
the sense that he believed that external evil influences have corrupted
man’s original good nature. On the other hand, Mencius urged progress
through regeneration of the heart. Mencius was a more thoroughgoing
humanist than Confucius, for he made the happiness of the people the
supreme goal for the individual. He condemned war and warriors alike
and declared that generals are criminals. He asserted that it is wrong
to conquer a territory against the will of the people of that territory.
Additional sidelights upon early Chinese social thought are afforded by
the following social proverbs of ancient Chinese origin:
If a cat cries after eating the mouse, this is false sympathy.
Follow good, learn good; follow beggar, learn to beg.
Gentlemen use heart; lesser men use strength.
New clothes but old friends are good.
Within the four seas all are brothers.
If two people were 1000 miles apart and be like-minded, they will come
together; if they sit opposite one another and are not like-minded
there will be no mutual acquaintance.
Speak language fitting to station of man you meet.
All under heaven is one home.
Although a man is away from home, his heart is there.
The big fish eat the little ones, the little ones eat the shrimps, and
the shrimps are forced to eat mud (applied to the classes of society
who pay taxes).
He who praises me on all occasions is a fool who despises me or a knave
who wishes to cheat me.
Govern thyself, and you will be able to govern the world.
The hearts of the people are the only legitimate foundations of an
empire.
By nature all men are alike; but by education, widely different.
For the sake of one good action, a hundred evil ones should be
forgotten.
To forget one’s ancestors is to be a brook without a source, a tree
without a root.
Rogues differ little; each began first as a disobedient son.
Of all man’s actions, there is none greater than filial piety.
When they saw an old man, people walking or driving gave him the road.
Men who had white hairs mingling with the black did not carry burdens
along the highways (care for the aged).
When the man of high station is well instructed, he loves men; when the
man of low station is well instructed, he is easily ruled.
Three friendships are advantageous: friendship with the upright,
friendship with the sincere, and friendship with the man of
observation. Three are injurious: friendship with a man of spurious
airs, friendship with the insinuatingly soft, and friendship with the
glib-tongued.
Who taught you politeness? The impolite.
To be a successful monarch, one must be a just monarch.
Of the different peoples which have thus far been considered, the
Chinese have furnished the most elaborate degree of social thought.
While the social ideals of the Chinese are largely unsystematic, they
accent the family and the state as essential social institutions. They
also reveal even a significant conception of world brotherliness.
The Chinese have probably created more social proverbs than any
other people, past or present. For the stage of civilization that
is represented by proverbs and sayings, the social thought of the
Chinese is unsurpassed. In this regard the Chinese have but one close
competitor, the ancient Hebrews.
(5) The Persians, who after their defeat by Alexander the Great in
331 B. C. have been credited with having turned over the torch of
civilization to the Greeks, made a contribution to social thought
similar to that of the other ancient peoples. Under Cyrus the Great,
Darius, and Xerxes a system of state education was fostered which
was designed chiefly to train soldiers. It did not stress social and
intellectual development, although it existed in a land that produced
the Magi. The individuals who were not in the army received slight
educational benefits.
It is in the teachings of Zoroaster of the sixteenth century B. C.
that we first find the main trend of Persian social thought. The Zend
Avesta, the document from which Zoroasterism and the modern Parsee
religion have evolved, emphasizes the principle of kindliness in all
important human relationships. Sanitation, business honesty, and
chastity in family relationships are taught.
The ancient Hebrews and the Greeks each made such large contributions
to social thought that separate chapters will be devoted to these
peoples. In a summary of the social thought of the Egyptians,
Babylonians and Assyrians, East Indians, Chinese, and Persians, it may
be said that there is a rather uniform emphasis upon the elemental
virtues, particularly upon kindliness. While the individual’s
salvation is given prominence, the individual is urged to be socially
considerate and to cultivate sympathetic relationships with the gods
and with his fellow human beings.