EARLIEST SOCIAL THOUGHT
Primitive people were inquisitive. They thought about what happened
and they sought explanations. Their attention was centered on the
tangible phenomena of life. Their imagination worked out fantastic
and superstitious interpretations. They reasoned about the daily
occurrences of life in concrete, graphic, and personal terms.
Primitive people everywhere, apparently, sensed in a piecemeal and
microscopic way the meaning of social relationships. Archeological
records disclose crude and simple, but nevertheless genuine social
implications. Early mythologies recognize the importance of social
bonds. Out of the dim dawn of tribal life there appeared a rough-hewn
sense of social property. The proverbs of primitive people include
implications, if not definite statements, of social responsibility.
Primitive people lived simple group lives. If the paternal relationship
was not always known or recognized, the maternal relationship
functioned for at least a few years. The loose family ties harbored a
degree of social responsibility. Wherever ancestor worship developed,
the family group assumed large proportions and manifested strong
social characteristics. The clan, or _gens_, betokened social fealty.
Communal property testified to communal thinking. The existence of
common hunting grounds and tribal flocks was indicative of folk
thought. Group dances, feasts, building enterprises, celebrations
delineated the social spirit. Warfare produced bursts of tribal
loyalty. An examination of the folkways reveals indistinct but
incipient notions of societal welfare. Such a treatise as Sumner’s
_Folkways_ chronicles a vast amount of elemental folk thinking.
Folk thinking permeated primitive religions. The earliest forms of
religion presupposed societies of spirits or gods. The conduct of the
individual was regulated by his ideas concerning the ways in which he
had pleased or offended the spirits or gods. An infant was born into
a society peopled with human and spirit beings. The latter were often
more numerous than the former; they frequently were more feared; and
hence were more powerful. The living people, the departed spirits, and
the gods in a hierarchal order constituted an effective society for the
exercise of many vigorous forms of social control.
If pestilence came, it was because the gods had been offended by some
human being. As a result of the offense of one individual, the whole
tribe was considered to be liable to punishment. Consequently, the
tribe in turn would punish the offending member and through the use
of force and fear would exert a tremendous power over the conduct and
thought of individuals.
Primitive people were dominated by custom. They were subject to the
autocracy of the past. They were hopelessly caught between ancestral
ascendance and current fears. They threaded their way, mentally,
through tantalizingly uncertain and narrow apertures. They learned the
meaning of obedience, but obedience to a harsh and rigorous past and a
fickle and disconcerting future. Leadership was drastic and capricious;
followership was frantic and tremulous.
Some of the incipient social concepts of primitive peoples have been
preserved in the form of proverbs, maxims, fables, and myths. Many
of the subtler social relationships of life were recognized by early
man. His limited thinking drifted into simple formulae. His vocabulary
was scanty; his ideas were few. He spoke in conventional sayings.
“Primitive man spoke in proverbs.”
Many folkthoughts, or primitive conceptions of social obligations,
have been preserved. The early proverbs of man reveal the beginnings
of social thought. Equally valuable and similar materials are found
in the sayings of the tribes which today are in a state of arrested
development. A few illustrations of embryonic social thought will be
given here.[II-1]
The first examples will be selected from the folkthoughts of the
Africans of the Guinea Coast. The proverb, Ashes fly back in the face
of him who throws them, recognizes that evil deeds return upon the
doer, or as moderns declare, Curses come home to roost. In the saying,
Cowries are men, primitive man roughly but succinctly stated the
theory of the economic determination of human history. It is cowries,
or money, which molds human thought, determines human evaluations
and attitudes, gives social power, and “makes the man.” An age-long
conception, indicative of a low sense of social feeling, but possessing
great force in society, is revealed in the dictum, Full-belly child
says to hungry-belly child, “Keep good cheer.” Throughout human
history, the fortunate glutton has always recommended patience and
tranquility to the unfortunate, hard-working brother. An eminent
American financier of the multi-millionaire class expressed pity
for telephone girls who undergo hard labor, but declared that their
harsh conditions were what the good Lord had made for them. But how
far has this well-groomed citizen of our century advanced beyond the
“full-belly” social philosophy of savage man?
In the observation, A fool of Ika and an idiot of Iluka meet together
to make friends, the African has noted that friends are persons of
similar types, of similar minds, of similar prejudices, and that “birds
of a feather flock together.” Whether conscious or unconscious,
association occurs among persons of a kind, among fools of Ika and
idiots of Iluka.
Romantic love, evidently, has always been fickle, for the African has
discovered that “quick loving a woman means quick not loving a woman.”
If this naïve but shrewd reflection concerning lovemaking were taken
at its real worth at the present time, it would be crystallized into
a federal marriage law requiring that a license to marry should be
obtained at least fifteen or thirty days before the marriage could be
celebrated.
A rather keen sense of social injustice is expressed in the monologue:
“The ground-pig said: ‘I do not feel so angry with the man who killed
me as with the man who dashed me on the ground afterward.’” Here the
injustice of striking an individual when he is down is depicted. Even
primitive man has a sense of sympathy for the defeated and helpless.
“Three elders cannot all fail to pronounce the word _ekulu_ (antelope):
one may say _ekúlu_; another _ekulú_; but the third will say, _ékulu_
(which is correct).” In other words, several heads are better than
one; or, in a multitude of counsellors there is safety. It was this
simple social precept which a highly individualistic man like Roosevelt
used frequently to the advantage of himself and the nation. When a
perplexing problem would confront President Roosevelt, he was wont to
invite to the White House persons whose beliefs were contrary to his
own in order to secure their opinions. He acted independently, but
after taking counsel with several “elders.”
In _Thinking Black_, Daniel Crawford has presented phases of the
colored man’s philosophy.[II-2] While much is individual, more is
social philosophy. Custom imitation prevails. The social philosophy
of the African Negro is summarized in the rule: Follow your leader.
Social precedent, not principle, is the guide to conduct. If you are
a follower, follow patiently; if you are a leader, lead drastically.
“If thou art an anvil, be patient ... but if thou art a hammer, strike
hard.”
The African understands the social psychology of language. He watches
the eyes more carefully than the voice. To him the human eye speaks all
languages under the sun. Mr. Crawford says that the wary eye of the
African “can easily fish news out of the two deep liquid pools of your
eye-balls.” If your eye says one thing and your tongue another, then
the African “will plump for the verdict of the eye.”
The aphorism, There is no pocket in a shroud, warns the individual
against the possibility of taking his material goods into the next
world. To share with other persons is rated a higher act than to store
from others. He is richest who shares most. Among the Africans with
whom Mr. Crawford worked, the word for criminal was not applied to
the person who had stolen property or who had taken life, but to the
one who eats alone. “The high crime and misdemeanor of the town is to
dine alone;” the criminal above other criminals is “Mr. Eat-Alone.”
He who refuses to share his food with those who are less fortunate
than himself is an arch-devil. Such a vice is common among beasts; it
is beneath the dignity of man--according to the African. When several
primitives were taken to London and shown the wealthy and the poor
sections of that city, they were dumbfounded. They were utterly unable
to understand how any persons with the slightest spark of human nature
in them could endure to live to themselves in wealth when in the same
city there were the wretched and prostrated multitudes of Whitechapel
and the other cheerless slums.
“What baby lion ever trembled at his father’s roaring?” A few mornings
ago, I heard an angry parent yelling at his son, but the disobedient
child kept on in his own way. I wondered how far this father had
advanced in parental influence and discipline beyond the stage
represented by the African seer who drew his social images from a
lion-frequented environment. “If a tree has grown up crooked, it is
because no one straightened it when young.” This statement postulates
social responsibility for juvenile delinquency and even for adult
crime. The underlying principle is the same as that in the Hebraic
injunction: Train up a child in the way he should go; and when he is
old, he will not depart from it. The principle has received current
recognition in the doctrine of contributory negligence of parents.
The modern observation full of socially dangerous implications, that
parents are blind to the weaknesses of their children, has its African
counterpart: The beetle is a beauty in the eyes of its mother. A gleam
of light is thrown upon the current discussions concerning social
parasitism by the African’s assertion: The parasite has no roots.
The Australian Blackfellow who goes upon a journey, sometimes takes
a handful of mother earth with him. In this way he testifies to his
loyalty to home, and provides against the rise of lonesomeness which
he will experience during tribal hunts. His act crudely represents the
essence of the concept of patriotism. A sense of justice is common
to primitive Australians. Among the Whayook of Australia a man who
has wounded a fellow tribesman is required to present himself to the
injured in order to receive a similar wound.[II-3] Among the Wumbais, a
person who is absent when a relative dies must not speak on his return
to camp to anyone until he has had spears thrown at him.[II-4] Spencer
and Gillen report that the Australian primitive regards any offense as
wiped out by a suitable proffer of atonement.[II-5]
The Filipino declares: A piece of green wood will burn if placed
near the fire. In other words, temptation is a subtle element
that ultimately may destroy even persons who are supposedly
temptation-proof. In the proverb, Boastfulness drives away wisdom, the
Filipino has pointed out that the desire to make a strong impression
upon associates hinders intellectual progress. The chief danger of
luxury is stated in the saying: He who is raised in ease, is usually
destitute. The leading result of being financially fortunate is
summarized thus: Easy earning means quick spending. The evils of
hypercriticism are bluntly phrased: The fault-finder has the biggest
faults. The law of social compensation is stated as follows: You laugh
today; I laugh tomorrow. The organic nature of society is implied in
the truism: The pain of a finger is the suffering of the whole body.
The need for independent thinking is urged in the declaration: Whoever
believes everything said, has no mind of his own. On the other hand,
the egocentric mind receives solemn warning in the dictum: He who
despises counsel is on the way to misfortune. The value of a social
spirit is proclaimed as follows: Kindness is a great capital; and
again: Good deeds are more precious than gold or silver. A gentle hint
of social importance is given in the formula: Kindness is with kindness
to be paid, not with gold or silver. In these and related proverbs the
earliest social thought of the Filipino mind is indicated.
Let us now examine a few ancient Japanese axioms. (1) The mouth of
the mass melts gold. This proverb refers to the fundamental force
of public opinion. (2) The world is like a looking-glass; if you
smile, others also smile. Here is depicted the elemental character
of unconscious imitation. (3) What the ruler wants, the ruled also
wants. In other words, what the upper classes desire, the lower classes
long for; or, as Tarde has said: “The superior are imitated by the
inferior.” (4) Three men get together and have knowledge equivalent
to that of Monju (a famous Buddhist thinker). The African, Filipino,
and English equivalents of this adage have already been given. All
races, apparently, have early observed the safety which comes from
taking counsel. (5) The net of Heaven is rough, but will never miss one
victim. Our equivalent, of Graeco-Latin origin, is: The mills of the
gods grind slowly, but exceedingly small. Evil brings its own rewards
sooner or later. The law of retribution cannot be overcome, even by
social manipulations. (6) If one dog barks a falsehood, ten thousand
others spread it as a truth. In these words, gossip is condemned, and
the humanity-wide tendency of hearsay evidence to gain social force
is pictured. (7) The tongue is but three inches long, but it can kill
a man six feet high. Again, the vicious nature of gossip is shown.
Further, the severest punishment is not always physical; it may come
from the human tongue. (8) A man takes a drink; then the drink takes
the man. In this dramatic description, the drinking of intoxicating
liquors is effectively indicted. (9) Applause is the root of abuse.
Even the Japanese have recognized the force of opinion in influencing
the individual, and of favorable opinion in unduly expanding the ego. A
unique characteristic of many Japanese proverbs is the fundamental and
deep-moving knowledge of social psychology which they show. Judged by
their proverbs, the Japanese possess an unusual understanding of human
nature.
Bulgarian proverbs disclose social thought. The “full-belly” philosophy
of the African, or the pig-trough philosophy that has been analyzed by
T. N. Carver, has its Bulgarian counterpart: The satiated man cannot
believe the hungry man. The South Slavs are noted for their weddings
which often continue for three days. When these festivities are over,
the bride enters upon a more or less monotonous round of bearing and
rearing children. These social conditions are aptly described:
Dum! Dum! for three days;
Oh dear! Oh dear! for all days.
Patience is enjoined in the Bulgarian adage: Endure, O horse, until the
time of green grass. Hope that rises in the heart of man is paid homely
but genuine tribute in the rural Slavic proverb: The hungry hen dreams
of millet.
The Danes have many sayings which emphasize social dependence. The
individual is instructed: Act so in the valley that you need not fear
those that stand on the hill. The shrewd man is socially dangerous,
for: Cunning has little honor. Gossip is shown as a swift messenger in
the axiom: A man’s character reaches town before his person. The most
serious result of cheating others is the effect upon the cheater, or:
He is most cheated who cheats himself. The common character of sin
is recognized in the Danish proverb: He must be pure who would blame
another. Custom is a powerful agency of control. The Danes command:
Follow the customs, or fly the country.
The Portuguese have a social saying to the effect: He buys very
dear who begs. The unscientific nature of love is indicated in the
Portuguese declaration: Love has no law. The frequent antithesis
between money lending and friend making is succinctly phrased: Money
lent, an enemy made.
A few Arabian proverbs state social ideas. The laws of human
association and imitation can be found in the following axiom: A wise
man associating with the vicious becomes an idiot; a dog traveling with
good men becomes a rational being. The strength which comes from unity
is forcibly phrased: Three if they unite against a town will ruin it.
The transforming power of love is recognized: Love can make any place
agreeable. An idealistic social standard is set for the individual in
the aphorism: It is more noble to pardon than to punish. On the other
hand, mercy may be misplaced: Mercy to the criminal may be cruelty to
the people. The individual must beware of being an ingrate; he must not
permit his selfish desires to crush out the spirit of gratitude: A tree
that affords thee shade, do not order it cut down. The omnipresence of
envy is understood: Envy assails the noblest; the winds howl around
the highest peaks. The anti-social tendency of a vicious habit is
well described: A hand accustomed to take is far from giving. Perhaps
the Malthusian advocate will find solace in the simple dictum: If
the sailors become too numerous, the boat will sink. He who pleases
everybody has done so at the expense of his own character, or as the
Arabs say: He deserves no man’s good will of whom all men speak well.
From Ceylon comes the philanthropic request: When you eat, think of the
poor. The Cingalese, however, recognize the importance of maintaining
the scientific attitude in charity, for they have a saying: He who
gives alms must do it with discretion. The blighting influence of
wealth is stated in the Cingalese axiom: A covetous man has two sources
of iniquity--how to amass money, and how to use it.
Among Mexican proverbs, social ideas are not missing. The reader will
catch the social significance of the following: (1) A howling cat is
not a good hunter; (2) Everybody can climb up the limbs of the fallen
tree; (3) A rich widow cries with one eye and rings the wedding bells
with the other; (4) The tongue slow, the eyes quick; (5) From January
to January the bankers have all the money.
The illustrations which have been given from several racial sources
will suffice to show the nature of the earliest social thought of
primitive peoples. By way of comparison, a few social proverbs which
are common among English, Scotch, French, and German speaking peoples,
and which are of various origins, will be given. It will be unnecessary
to comment upon the social thought which is stated or implied in these
proverbs.
That is not lost which a friend gets.
The shortest road is where the company’s good.
A man is known by the company he keeps.
Do unto others as you would have others do to you.
A man who would have friends must show himself friendly.
One bad example spoils many precepts.
Honesty is the best policy.
One good turn deserves another.
Birds of a feather flock together.
As the twig is bent, the tree is inclined.
People who live in glass houses mustn’t throw stones.
Bare is the gift without the giver.
What is not good for the swarm is not good for the bee.
He laughs best who laughs last.
To make a happy couple, the husband must be deaf and the wife blind.
Charity gives itself rich; covetousness hoards itself poor.
The nature of the primitive social thought that has been preserved
through proverbs and sayings justifies the following observations.
(1) Primitive social thought was exceedingly simple, crude, and
undeveloped. (2) It was uncorrelated and unsystematic. (3) A
classification of the total number of known proverbs of any primitive
people into individual and social types shows that not more than ten
per cent are social. Primitive thinking was done in terms of the
welfare of the individual himself. The social thought was commonly of
individualistic origin. A social idea was originally not suggested
for its own sake or disinterestedly, but for the reason that its
observance would enable individuals to live together more harmoniously
and prosperously. (4) Social proverbs employ figures of speech. Similes
from nature are frequent; physical analogies are not uncommon. Many of
these figures disclose a rural or bucolic mind. (5) Frequently, the
social proverbs of the various races pertain to family and community
relationships. The sense of social responsibility does not penetrate
as a rule beyond the small group. The responsibility of group to group
is rarely expressed or implied. The social vision does not extend
to large groups. (6) A comparative study of primitive social sayings
indicates countless similarities, and testifies to the uniformity
of human experiences and social needs, irrespective of racial
distinctions. These resemblances do not imply collaboration, collusion,
or imitation. They mean that the needs of primitive individuals in
various and unrelated parts of the world have everywhere led the human
mind out in search of socially satisfactory explanations. Primitive
thinking produced fundamental social concepts, such as kinship,
authority, dependence, and tribal loyalty.