THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST
Before describing the method of cutting and using the pen, it may
possibly be instructive to survey briefly the development of writing
through the centuries.
The alphabet, as we know it, has been traced right back to that used
by the Phœnicians. In fact, until a comparatively short time ago,
it was thought by some that it could be traced back to the Egyptian
hieroglyphics, but in the light of recent discoveries this theory is
no longer tenable. The origin of our alphabet is therefore still a
matter for research, although there seems to be no doubt concerning its
descent from the Phœnician alphabet.
The Roman alphabet seems to be a direct descendant from this, and it is
from the Roman alphabet that the lettering that is in use to-day has
been derived.
Roman writing was divided into two distinct classes: the formal
book-hand, and the cursive hand which was the common hand-writing of
the people.
MAJUSCULE WRITING
The book-hand first took the form of majuscules, which in turn were
divided into Square Capitals, Rustic Capitals, and Uncials. After
this came the modified forms of Uncials caused by the admixture of
minuscules.
[Illustration: CADMUS GIVES THE GREEKS AN ALPHABET.
(Tradition relates that letters were first introduced into Greece by a
Phœnician named Cadmus.)]
By way of explanation it may be here mentioned that, in both Greek and
Latin palæography, capital letters are termed “majuscules,” while small
letters are known as “minuscules.”
SQUARE CAPITALS
Probably the earliest Latin majuscule writing is that known as square
capitals. These seem to be modelled on the same type of letter that
was used for the fine inscriptions. Although the general opinion is
that these are the earliest form, there is very little square capital
writing in existence. The earliest specimen known has been attributed
to the end of the fourth century, although it is thought that this
form of writing had been in use some centuries before this. It was
in use until the fourth or fifth century. There is not the slightest
doubt that writing, when these letters were used, must have been
comparatively slow work.
RUSTIC CAPITALS
Rustic capitals seem to be an attempt to write the letters by means of
simple pen-strokes. Writing with this type of letter must have been
much quicker than when the square capitals were used. This style of
writing has been used in the earliest Latin MSS. now in existence,
but, although this is the case, the general opinion seems to be that
the square capitals were used first. The title “Rustic” is somewhat
misleading, as it might lead one to suppose that these letters are
rough in character, when they are generally written quite as carefully
as the square capitals.
UNCIALS
[Illustration:
Roman Square Capitals.
Rustic Capitals.
Uncials.
Half-Uncials.
Irish Half-Uncials.
English Half-Uncials.
FIG. 3.]
The next stage is the use of the majuscules known as “Uncials.” These
are true pen-formed letters. They seem to be based on the square
capitals, but, in place of so many angles, curves are employed, these
being much more adapted to the use of the pen. It is a round hand, and
a very beautiful form of writing. The simplicity of the characters
with their flowing curves is such that they may be easily formed with
a sharply-cut reed or quill. The letters, A, D, E, H, M, and U, are
the principal letters that show the characteristics of this form of
writing. It seems to have been in common use as a book-hand in the
fourth century. It is, however, thought by some that it is quite
possible that it may have been in use as early as the third century,
as in the oldest specimens that are known the lettering appears to
be fully developed. One of the special distinctions of this kind of
writing is the way some of the vertical strokes rise above, or fall
below, the line of writing. From the fifth to the eighth centuries it
was given the premier place as a literary hand. The early uncials, as
also were the square capitals and rustic capitals, were written with a
pen cut with a slanted point.
MIXED UNCIAL AND MINUSCULE WRITING
It must be remembered that all the time these majuscules, both capitals
and uncials, represent only one side of the handwriting employed,
_viz._, that used for the production of books. The ordinary handwriting
of the people, known as “cursive” writing, was in extensive use at
the same time. Very often this form of writing got mixed up with the
other, and the result was a mixed style. For example, in some of the
early majuscule MSS., notes have been found written in this style. This
gradually came to be used as a book-hand, until soon very few of the
early uncial forms were left.
HALF-UNCIALS
To this form of writing in its full development the title of
“Half-Uncial” has been given. It was employed as far back as the fifth
century for writing MSS. It may have been used because it could be
written more quickly than the ordinary uncial; anyway, it seems to
have been very extensively used as a literary hand. This style is very
important, as it marks the beginning of the change from majuscule
to minuscule writing. These characters were generally formed with a
straight-cut pen.
IRISH HALF-UNCIALS
Writing in the British Isles was greatly different from that used on
the Continent. On the Continent the hand was developed from the Roman
cursive writing, while in England and Ireland the Roman Half-Uncial was
the starting-point of development.
There is not the slightest doubt but that the rise of Christianity in
the British Isles had a great deal to do with the development of the
book-hand. It is a well-known fact that the Christian missionaries
from Rome brought with them a number of MSS. which may have served as
models for the native scribes. These were probably written in Roman
half-uncials, which would account for the manner in which the Irish
handwriting developed. Evidently no MSS. written in pure uncials came
to Ireland; anyway, there seems to be no reason to suppose that such
was the case, as no MS. of this type has been found that may be claimed
to be purely Irish without any shadow of doubt.
Early Irish writing is in two forms, round and pointed. The round hand
is distinctly half-uncial. Although it is most difficult to state the
earliest date of the Irish MSS., the general opinion is that they date
back at least as far as the seventh century. The famous Book of Kells
is a well-known example of Irish half-uncials. The pointed writing
was developed in the eighth and ninth centuries. This is probably a
development of the round hand, and in course of time became the Irish
national hand.
ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS
In England there were two distinct schools of writing, one of which
came from Ireland and the other brought over by the Roman missionaries.
Very little is known of the writing brought over by the foreign
missionaries, as only a small amount is known to be in existence. There
is evidence, however, that some of the Roman rustic capitals were made
use of.
The English half-uncials were modelled on the Irish half-uncials. The
writing in the Durham Book, now in the British Museum, affords a good
example of this kind of writing. It is interesting to compare this
writing with that of the Book of Kells; there is a great similarity.
Both are carefully written with the straight-cut pen. The English
half-uncials also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a
pointed hand. Capitals which were used for initials, etc., are simply
variations of the majuscules.
MINUSCULE WRITING
As mentioned before, the Roman cursive was the basis of the writing
on the Continent. Three great national hands were formed, _viz._,
Lombardic, Visigothic, and Merovingian.
LOMBARDIC WRITING
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
This was the national handwriting of Italy; it was used from the eighth
to the eleventh centuries. The term “Lombardic” is given as a general
term to the writing of Italy in the early middle ages. In Fig. 4 some
free renderings are given of this hand. The first (_a_) is an example
in one of its earliest stages, written cursively in the early part of
the ninth century. The next, shown in (_b_) is the book-hand a little
later. The third example (_c_) is a later development of the eleventh
century, known as “broken Lombardic.” It may be noted that in all these
the slanted-cut pen has been used.
VISIGOTHIC WRITING
The title “Visigothic” has been given to the national handwriting
of Spain. Derived also from the Roman cursive, it developed into a
book-hand that was used in the eighth century. It was in use until the
twelfth century. The first example (_d_) is a half-cursive book-hand of
the seventh or eighth century. The next (_e_) a book-hand of the early
tenth century. The last example (_f_) is the last stage, being of the
twelfth century. All these are written with the slanted-cut pen.
MEROVINGIAN WRITING
This is the name given to the writing practised in the Frankish
empire. This form of writing leads on to the great reform in the time
of Charlemagne. Starting, as was the case in the other two schools,
from the Roman cursive, it developed into a set book-hand which is
noticeable in several MSS. of the seventh and eighth centuries. An
early specimen is shown in (_g_). Several different types of writing
were used within the limits of the Frankish empire, some of which bear
a strong resemblance to the Lombardic style. In fact, so similar are
they that it is rather difficult to distinguish one from the other.
The example (_h_) is one of this type, being of the late seventh
century. As uncial and half-uncial characters were still used for a
good number of MSS. it is but natural that these should influence the
style of writing. The specimen given in (_i_) is an example showing
the influence of the half-uncial, and is a step towards the full
development of the Caroline minuscule.
CARLOVINGIAN WRITING
The great revival of learning during the reign of Charlemagne resulted
in the development of a new school of writing known as Caroline, or
Carlovingian. Towards the end of the eighth century the decree calling
for the revision of the Church books naturally became the cause of
fresh activity in the writing schools connected with the monasteries.
At Tours the book-hand was developed which is known as the Caroline
Minuscule. An example is given of this hand. This form of writing
spread rapidly all over the Frankish empire and gradually influenced
the book-hands employed in the neighbouring countries. The use of the
slanted-cut pen is an important thing in connection with the formation
of these minuscules.
LATER STYLES
The tenth century example given is from the Benedictional of Æthelwold,
Bishop of Winchester from A.D. 963-984. This lettering is of the
foreign type, but it has a strongly defined native character all its
own, some of the letters being distinctly Saxon in type.
From the twelfth century onwards a great number of MSS. were produced,
each country having its own particular style and developing on certain
definite lines. It is impossible to give specimens of all the different
kinds of Calligraphy. The examples shown must be taken as roughly
indicating the general style of the writing. The use of the slanted-cut
pen tended towards the compression of the letters, thus forming a
strong contrast to the letters produced in the earlier periods with the
straight-cut pen.
In the thirteenth century writing became considerably smaller. In
the latter part of this century a very large number of Bibles appear
to have been written, and volumes were smaller, standing out in
strong contrast to the ponderous tomes of the preceding century. In
the fourteenth century the writing became considerably stiffer and
more angular. This tendency showed itself still more strongly in the
fifteenth century.
In Italy this tendency did not make itself felt quite as early as in
the writings of Northern Europe. Although later on they became more
or less affected in this way, there is a decided difference between
Italian writing and the styles employed by the other countries.
In the fifteenth century the Italian scribes appear to have gone back
to their early periods for models for book-hands, and it is this that
influenced the early printers of Italy to use type of this character,
which has its modern representative in the Roman type of to-day.