ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
[Illustration:
There are some who
follow the arts from poverty
and necessity, also for gain,
and for love of the art; but
those who pursue them from
love of the art and true
nobleness of mind are to
be commended above all
others.--_Cennino Cennini._
Sidney Farnsworth
1920
]
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
BY
SIDNEY FARNSWORTH
_Illustrated with Drawings
and Diagrams by the Author_
NEW YORK
[Illustration]
GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY
_Printed in Great Britain_
PREFACE
This book is the outcome of a series of articles which appeared
in _Drawing and Design_. At the suggestion of the Editor of this
periodical, the whole of the chapters originally published have been
entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged; at the same time a large
amount of quite new matter has been added.
The additions that have been made include a chapter on the development
of writing in the past, together with a number of alphabets based on
historical examples. I have also added a brief sketch of the history
of Illumination, as I felt that the book would not be complete without
some reference to this side of the subject. Some attention has been
given to the colours and gilding methods of the mediæval artists, and
it is hoped that the notes given may be of interest to the student.
Extensions have also been made in connection with the use of colours
and materials by the student to-day.
Chapters on the further development of illumination, the illumination
of the printed book, and printed book decoration, are also amongst the
additions. The chapters on the application of lettering and decoration
from the commercial standpoint have also been developed considerably,
and at the end of the book some notes have been added on books for
further study.
I have tried to write in as simple a manner as possible, so that
the youngest student should have no difficulty in understanding the
instructions that are given.
So many books have been written on the subject of Illumination that
it may seem quite superfluous to add yet another to the long list.
Still, I think that a work treating the matter from the present-day
standpoint ought to be of some service to the student who is desirous
of practising this art to-day.
I have felt for some time past that there was a need for a work that
would deal with the various ways in which this art could be applied
in a time like the present. I have found that most of the books that
have been written on Illumination treat the subject either from the
standpoint of the archæologist or merely from that of the amateur. It
is simply the result of a sincere desire to supply what I feel to be a
real need that this book has been written, and in the hope that it may
serve as a handbook and guide for the serious worker.
It has not been written with the idea of introducing a quick and easy
method of becoming expert in the art of illumination. Success, in this,
as in anything else of importance, can come only through hard work.
I have endeavoured to foster interest and enthusiasm, so that the
student may not look upon the hard work entailed with this subject
merely as a certain amount of drudgery to be got through. To one who
is keenly interested in any particular study hard work often becomes a
pleasure, and it is only when such is the case that the full benefit is
derived from such study.
Illumination has a value in the present day as well as it had in the
past. The developments of this art are seen in many of the common-place
things of to-day. In some cases the development has been carried so far
as to lose almost its identity with the original craft from which it
has sprung, but the connection is there all the same.
The art of the book began with the illuminated manuscript, the early
printed books being based entirely on the manuscripts that preceded
them; and the same thing may be said with regard to the application of
decoration to printed lettering generally.
The practice of illumination in the present day should result in
something more than weak imitations of illuminated borders which were
produced in the mediæval period. Illumination ought to be a real living
art to-day.
There are numerous ways in which it could be used as a craft at the
present time, quite apart from the many ways in which it could be
applied commercially.
With regard to the study of lettering, there is a great need for more
serious attention to be given to it. We are so surrounded by bad
lettering that it is well that an effort should be made to get better
results, and, as a means to this, some study of the beautiful forms of
lettering used in the past should be of the greatest service. For this
reason I have tried, by giving some examples, to direct the student’s
attention to at least some of the fine styles of lettering that were
employed in centuries gone by.
It is a great pity that the splendid book-hands of the past should
have fallen into disuse, to say nothing of the beautiful decoration
that accompanied the writing. It would, undoubtedly, be a good thing
if some further encouragement were given to serious study of the
well-formed lettering that was produced during the mediæval period.
I trust that this small work may, in some slight measure, be the means
of fostering increased interest in lettering and illumination. I am
deeply conscious of its many imperfections, and I only hope that, in
spite of its many faults, it may be of some use to the reader who is
interested in this art. If the study of it is the means of creating
greater zeal and energy in the production of good work in this
direction, I shall feel that my efforts have not altogether been in
vain.
SIDNEY FARNSWORTH.
THE ISLAND,
LITTLE WALTHAM,
NEAR CHELMSFORD.
INTRODUCTION
“In all great arts, as in trees, it is the height that charms us; we
care nothing for the roots or trunks; yet they could not exist without
the aid of these.” This quotation from Cicero may as well be applied to
the art of illumination as to anything else. The fact, however, that
the tree cannot exist without the aid of the trunk and roots, shows how
important these are; and no one who intends giving serious attention to
the tree in its entirety can afford to neglect these.
It is only through careful study of the art of illumination that it
is possible to understand fully the construction that enters into
the growth of this art. When some knowledge has been gained of the
manner in which this work has been done in the past, through practical
experience, it is then that a real appreciation is felt for the choice
work of the mediæval period.
“Perfect illumination,” says Ruskin, in one of his _Lectures on
Art_, “is only writing made lovely;... But to make writing _itself_
beautiful--to make the sweep of the pen lovely--is the true art of
illumination.” Certainly it is only when the student is able to produce
writing that is attractive in itself, that it is permissible to add
decoration to it. The decoration should be the natural outgrowth from
the writing.
A page of well-formed lettering makes good pattern, and is not merely
pattern, as it serves also the purpose for which it was intended,
_viz._, to be read.
It is when he has gained the mastery of the pen, in making well-formed
letters with good arrangement on the page, that the student may
consider that he has well started on the road to the production of good
illumination.
For the construction of well-finished lettering it is essential that
a mastery of the tool and materials employed should be acquired. It
is when the pen becomes almost a part of the writer, so that he is
able to concentrate all his energy on the writing, giving scarcely any
attention to the pen itself, that he may claim to be proficient in the
use of the pen.
If there is one thing more than another that one feels when examining
some of the best illuminated work of the past, it is that the writer
was a master of the pen as a letter-making tool. He did his work well;
his books were transcribed in a workmanlike manner, and the decoration
which followed seems to come quite naturally from the writing itself.
It is for this reason that so much attention has been given to the use
of the quill and reed pen in the formation of good writing.
Students are frequently at a disadvantage from inability to handle the
pen properly. To help, in some measure, to remedy this, the student is
shown how to make sharply-defined strokes before attempting to form
letters. At the same time no particular manner of holding the pen has
been insisted upon.
In the Introduction to his “Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful,” Burke
says: “I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches
most nearly to the method of investigation is incomparably the best;
since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths,
it leads to the stock on which they grew; it tends to set the reader
himself in the track of invention, and to direct him into those paths
in which the author has made his own discoveries, if he should be so
happy as to have made any that are valuable.”
This has been the ideal that the present writer has tried to keep ever
before him in writing the instructions that are given in the succeeding
pages. His aim has been to direct the student in the right way, and
then to encourage him to study the subject for himself. Whether he has
been successful in this endeavour must be left for the reader to judge.
The study of calligraphy, in connection with illumination, ought to be
helpful in making the ordinary handwriting more legible. Before the age
of printing, the book-hand developed alongside of the ordinary cursive
handwriting, and possibly the fact that the book-hand has been lost
may be advanced as a reason why most of the handwriting to-day is so
degenerate. A careful study of some of the fine models of book-hands of
the past cannot but be beneficial. It will certainly enable the student
to appreciate beautiful forms of lettering, and its influence should
soon be apparent in the lettering in general use. This should result in
better sign-writing, better lettering in our magazines and papers, in
short, better lettering all round.
Undoubtedly it would be a good thing if the children in our schools
could be taught to form some of the fine book-hands of the past with
the quill pen. It is certainly, to a great extent, due to the lack of a
practical knowledge of some of the splendid forms of lettering used in
the past, that the general lettering in use at the present time is so
bad. It ought not to be at all impracticable for this suggestion to be
carried out.
After the student is able to make well-formed letters with the quill
and reed pen, and arrange them well, the use of decoration and the
further development of illumination should follow naturally.
There is undoubtedly a place for illumination to-day, and even in
connection with the illuminated manuscript book, which should certainly
possess the first place amongst the work of the modern illuminator.
There is not the slightest suggestion there that the illuminated
manuscript should usurp the place of the printed book, but there is no
reason why it should not be in use at the same time. One of the great
charms that a fine manuscript possesses is its uniqueness, not being
one of many, as in the case of the printed book. Then again, some
things, as, for example, Poetry and Romance, are rendered in a much
more sympathetic fashion in the illuminated manuscript than in the
printed book.
There are many ways in which the art of illumination might be applied
to-day, as well as in the usual illuminated testimonial. Several
suggestions are given in the following pages for different ways in
which it may be employed.
In the decoration of the printed book the services of the artist who is
well-trained in the use of good lettering and book-decoration should
be of value to the printer. Although there is no need for the printer
to endeavour to imitate the work of the illuminator, there ought,
certainly, to be room for a well-developed style of decoration that
could be used with a good form of type.
A few centuries ago, before printing was used for the production of
books, illumination as a part of calligraphy was an important craft.
Books were not only beautifully written but they were also richly
decorated with gold and colours. The writing of long manuscripts
was very slow work, compared with the increased speed of production
afforded by the printing press; but, notwithstanding this, it appears
to have been important that the writing should be rendered more
beautiful by the enrichment of decoration. Unfortunately, although
methods of book-production are now so speedy, most of the lettering is
of the barest and crudest kind. Book-decoration seems to be, in most
cases, confined to illustration, and even this does not often form an
altogether inseparable part of the book.
With regard to the various developments on the purely commercial
side, the study of pen- and brush-formed lettering cannot but be of
the greatest service to the commercial artist who requires lettering
for posters, labels, book-covers, and the many things that require
lettering.
In fact, lettering enters so largely into decorative design that the
study of some of the fine forms of lettering is of paramount importance
to any artist who desires that the lettering that he uses should be
of good construction. So many drawings have been spoiled through the
introduction of weak and badly formed lettering that the need for
training the student to produce lettering that is well-finished and of
good form should be obvious to everyone.
Without doubt one of the great things in lettering is to allow the
tool to have its way. Pen-formed lettering should be of a form easily
constructed with the pen, and should not pretend to be a brush-formed
lettering, and _vice versâ_.
It is for this reason that in the first chapter so much attention
has been given in noting the influence that the tools and materials
employed have had on the shaping of the letters.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE 1
INTRODUCTION 5
CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL
Writing the Foundation of Illumination--Early
Influences--Babylonian Characters--Egyptian
Hieroglyphics--The reed and quill Pen--The use
of Vellum 23
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST
Majuscule Writing--Square Capitals--Rustic
Capitals--Uncials--Mixed Uncial and Minuscule
Writing--Half-Uncials--Irish Half-Uncials--
English Half-Uncials--Minuscule Writing--
Lombardic Writing--Visigothic Writing--
Merovingian Writing--Carlovingian Writing--Later
Styles 32
CHAPTER III
THE PREPARATION AND USE OF THE PEN
Cutting the Pen--Simple Exercises 42
CHAPTER IV
THE FORMATION OF LETTERS
Letters formed with simple Pen-strokes--Method in
working--How the various Letters are formed 48
CHAPTER V
FORMING WORDS AND SENTENCES
Writing a short Quotation--Spacing Letters--
Italics--Pen-formed Figures 54
CHAPTER VI
ALPHABETS FOR STUDY, BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES
Uncial Letters--Half-Uncials--Writing, from the
Tenth to the Fifteenth Century 60
CHAPTER VII
ROMAN LETTERING
Building up Letters with Pen-strokes--Roman
Letters made with simple direct Pen-strokes--The
Construction of Roman Capitals 70
CHAPTER VIII
SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF ROMAN LETTERING
The Alphabet of the Trajan Column--Various
Alphabets from the Thirteenth to the Sixteenth
Century 76
CHAPTER IX
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
1. _From the Fourth to the Eleventh Century_
Classical and Byzantine Illumination--Celtic and
Anglo-Celtic--Carlovingian--The Winchester
School 84
CHAPTER X
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
2. _From the Twelfth Century to the Decline_
Illumination in the Twelfth Century--Thirteenth
Century--Fourteenth Century--Fifteenth Century
and later 93
CHAPTER XI
THE INITIAL LETTER
How the Decoration springs from the Initial letter--
Examples from the Seventh to the Fifteenth
Century 101
CHAPTER XII
SIMPLE ILLUMINATION IN BLACK AND RED
Method of setting out a Page--Arranging the
Lettering--Initial letters, and how to construct
them--Various arrangements of Lettering 107
CHAPTER XIII
THE COLOURS USED BY THE MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATOR
Early treatises--Theophilus--The Book of the Art
of Cennino Cennini 115
CHAPTER XIV
COLOURS: THEIR COMPOSITION AND PERMANENCE
The importance of a knowledge of the different
Colours employed--Yellow Pigments--Red
Pigments--Blue Pigments--Green Pigments--Brown
Pigments--Black Pigments--White Pigments 123
CHAPTER XV
COLOURS: THEIR PREPARATION AND USE
Various forms in which Colours are prepared--Mixing
Colours--A method of keeping body colours in a
convenient form--Preparing a set of Colours for
Illuminating 131
CHAPTER XVI
THE GILDING METHODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES
Early gilding methods--Powder gold--The early use
of gold-leaf--Raised gilding 138
CHAPTER XVII
THE USE OF GOLD
Shell-gold--The use of gold-leaf--How to handle
gold-leaf 146
CHAPTER XVIII
ILLUMINATION WITH GOLD AND COLOURS
Vellum for Illuminating--Hand-made paper--
Brushes--Colour-work 152
CHAPTER XIX
THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The development of decoration--Present-day uses of
Illumination--Possible developments 161
CHAPTER XX
THE ILLUMINATED ADDRESS
The Framed Address--The Vellum Scroll--The
Book-form 171
CHAPTER XXI
THE VARIOUS METHODS OF REPRODUCTION
Line Blocks--Half-tones--The Three-colour
Process--Lithography 178
CHAPTER XXII
CHRISTMAS CARDS
Bronze gilding--Setting out to design--
Suggestions--Hand-written Cards--Invitation
Cards 185
CHAPTER XXIII
LETTERING FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES
Various things requiring Lettering--Lettering for
Maps, Plans, etc.--Lettering for Poster-work--
Arrangement of letters--Designing a Magazine
Cover 192
CHAPTER XXIV
HAND-WRITTEN POSTERS, ETC.
A quick method of writing a Poster--The reed pen
and the brush--Window Tickets--Showcards 203
CHAPTER XXV
THE ILLUMINATED MS. BOOK
The Arrangement of Pages--Planning out--The
Colophon--The Primary Object of the Book--The
Decoration 216
CHAPTER XXVI
A SIMPLE METHOD OF BINDING MSS.
Binding in limp Vellum--Sewing the sections--The
Decoration of the Cover 225
CHAPTER XXVII
THE ILLUMINATION OF THE PRINTED BOOK
The Combination of Printing and Illumination--
Books suitable for Illumination--The Style of
Decoration suited to this 232
CHAPTER XXVIII
PRINTED BOOK DECORATION
The Title-page--The Initial Letter--Types to
avoid--Tail-pieces, etc. 238
CHAPTER XXIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS 248
CHAPTER XXX
NOTES ON BOOKS 256
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Illuminated Page _Frontispiece_
Babylonian Characters (Fig. 1) 25
Egyptian Hieroglyphics (Fig. 2) 27
Egyptian Hieratic Writing 28
Stylus and Early Pens 29
Cadmus gives the Greeks an Alphabet 32
The Development of Writing (Fig. 3) 34
The Development of Writing (Fig. 4) 38
The Pen (Fig. 5) 43
Simple Pen-Strokes (Fig. 6) 45
Pen-formed Letters (Fig. 7) 49
The Construction of Letters (Fig. 8) 51
Forming Words and Sentences (Fig. 9) 55
Word-spacing, etc. (Fig. 10) 57
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 11) 61
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 12) 63
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 13) 64
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 14) 66
Roman Lettering (Fig. 15) 71
Pen-formed Roman Lettering (Fig. 16) 74
The Trajan Column 76
The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 17) 77
The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 18) 78
The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 19) 79
Roman Alphabets (Fig. 20) 80
Roman Alphabet, pen-formed (Fig. 21) 81
Roman Alphabets (Fig. 22) 82
The Lindisfarne Gospels 84
Flemish Initials 101
Initial Letters (Fig. 23) 102
Initial Letters (Fig. 24) 105
A Simple Page in Black and Red 107
Method of Setting out Page (Fig. 25) 108
Mediæval Alphabets (Fig. 26) 110
The Construction of Initials (Fig. 27) 111
Illumination in Black and Red (Fig. 28) 113
The Preparation of Colours (Fig. 29) 133
Gilding Materials (Fig. 30) 148
Illumination with Gold and Colours (Fig. 31) 157
Illuminated Altar Tablet 161
The Development of Illumination (Fig. 32) 162
Rough Sketches of Illuminated Pages (Fig. 33) 166
A Roll of Honour 167
Illuminated Altar Tablet 169
A Church Porch Text 170
An Illuminated Address 171
Various Forms of Illuminated Addresses (Fig. 34) 172
Designs for Christmas Cards 185
A Christmas Card 187
Styles of Cards (Fig. 35) 188
Styles of Cards (Fig. 36) 189
Designs for Programme and Progressive Whist Card 190
Booklet Cover 192
An Attractive Advertisement 192
A Handbook Cover 194
Lettering for Maps, etc. (Fig. 37) 195
A Design for a Certificate 196
An Alphabet for Poster Work (Fig. 38) 197
Two Designs for Labels 198
A Design for a Letter Heading 199
A Design for a Music Cover 200
A Design for a Bookplate 201
An Attractive Piece of Lettering 204
Guide for Hand-written Posters (Fig. 39) 205
Specimen Poster written with Pen (Fig. 40) 207
Specimen Poster written with Brush (Fig. 41) 209
Design for a Menu 210
Window Tickets (Fig. 42) 213
A Showcard (Fig. 43) 214
Frontispiece of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence” 216
Arrangement for MS. Book (Fig. 44) 218
Title-page of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence” 219
Examples of Colophons (Fig. 45) 221
Two pages from “Songs of Innocence” 223
Method of Stitching MS. Book (Fig. 46) 226
Vellum Cover (Fig. 47) 228
Cover ready for Binding (Fig. 48) 229
Completing the Cover (Fig. 49) 230
The Illumination of the Printed Book (Fig. 50) 233
Styles of Title Pages (Fig. 51) 239
Types of Initials to Avoid (Fig. 52) 242
Decorative Initials (Fig. 53) 243
Tail-pieces (Fig. 54) 245
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL
Calligraphy and Illumination are inseparably bound up with each other.
The art of Illumination cannot be severed from that of Writing. One
cannot imagine the decoration apart from the writing. Undoubtedly this
sprang from a desire to beautify the writing. Man sought to make his
manuscripts beautiful, and the result was a form of illumination, at
first very primitive, but gradually developing into the beautiful art
that we are so familiar with in the choice manuscripts of the middle
ages.
When commencing the study of the art of illumination it is extremely
important that it should be approached from the proper standpoint. It
is to be feared that this has not always been the case. The lure of the
bright gold and colours has often led both teacher and taught astray,
and the proper use of the pen in writing has been almost entirely
neglected.
Instead of allowing the tool to have its own way, it has been forced to
form laborious shapes that are not suited to its construction at all.
The decoration, it is to be feared, has been looked upon as a sort
of spice to be added as a finishing touch, instead of being a vital
growth springing naturally from the writing. Until it be viewed from
this standpoint, no real progress can be made. If a building is to be
soundly constructed, the first thing to see to is that the foundations
are well laid. The same principle applies in this case. The decoration,
if it is to be living and real, must have a starting-point for growth.
The student should see that this is a sure foundation and not a
tottering, shaky structure. Well-formed writing should be the first
consideration.
Ordinary hand-writing is a development of the kind of writing used by
the old calligraphers. Generally speaking, the connection between the
two is not recognised. Probably if this were so calligraphy of the
present day would be much better than it generally is. The fact that
it is generally referred to as “printing” shows how the connection has
been lost. Drawing is thought to be more akin to it than hand-writing.
It is no uncommon sight to see a student carefully drawing the shapes
of the letters and then filling them in with a fine mapping pen. If the
individuality of the pen as a letter-making tool were recognised this
kind of thing would not occur.
It may be interesting to consider briefly some of the early influences
at work in the production of writing.
[Illustration: BABYLONIAN CHARACTERS.
Showing the influence of the tool on the shapes of the Characters.
FIG. 1.]
In Fig. 1 some examples of early Babylonian characters are shown. In
these early days the common writing material was clay. The characters
used in writing were rough pictures of different objects which were
drawn in outline. Thus the sign for “king” was a rude drawing of a
man crowned; this was scratched on the surface of the soft clay with
a pointed tool. One can quite understand how these characters could
be constructed with a series of impressions in much less time than it
would take to draw them in outline. Then again it must have been much
easier to draw on the soft clay in this way. A square-pointed stylus
was used for this purpose, and, with the wedge-shaped impressions thus
produced, the characters could be formed quite easily. Not only was
the scribe able to write with greater speed, but the way in which the
characters were produced was more methodical. The character for “king,”
when made with the wedge-shaped impressions, was constructed as shown
in (_b_). One can easily recognise the same form placed horizontally,
instead of vertically, as was originally the case. In course of time
the characters became somewhat simplified. The next step in the
development of the character is shown in (_c_). The final form is shown
in (_d_), this being very much simplified. In like manner the signs
represented in (_e_) and (_h_) were used to denote “star” and “sun”
respectively. The development of these is seen in (_f_) and (_g_),
also in (_i_) and (_j_). The reason for calling attention to these
characters is to show how the shapes are influenced by the tool and the
material employed. This is a most important factor in the formation of
letters.
Where soft clay was used as a material, and the characters were formed
by making impressions with a stylus, one would naturally expect that
these signs would take the form of a series of indentations rather than
flowing lines as from a brush or pen.
In the case of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, shown in Fig. 2, a
difference is at once noticed. These characters were at first small
pictures carved on stone. The hieratic characters were simple
interpretations of these formed with a reed pen. It is quite obvious,
to all who care to observe, how easily these characters could be
formed, especially when they are compared with the earlier signs. In
this case the influence is quite different from that of the Babylonian
characters. Instead of a series of impressions, one notices long
flowing strokes characteristic of the pen. It is interesting to note
how the essential quality of the more elaborate character is obtained
with simple pen-strokes. Although the hieroglyphic is often quite
complex there is still a likeness retained in the hieratic form.
[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.
Showing the development into the Hieratic or pen-formed Characters.
FIG. 2.]
The reed pen used by the Egyptian scribes was the forerunner of the
modern pen. It was formed from the hollow stalk of grasses that grew
in marshy districts. Sometimes pens were made from hollow canes and
bamboos. This kind of pen is still used in the East.
The material used for writing upon was known as papyrus. This was made
from the pith of a species of reed, the _Cyperus Papyrus_ of Linnæus.
This was, in early days, cultivated in the Delta of Egypt. It was
used for several different purposes, one of the most important being
for writing-material. This was prepared by cutting it into strips and
placing these side by side, with another set placed across them at
right angles. The two layers were stuck together and the whole pressed
and dried, and the surface smoothed to make a sheet of writing-material.
It is a most difficult matter to state when the quill pen was first
used. Probably the earliest allusion to it occurs in the writings of
St Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, who lived in the early part of the
seventh century. The following is the quotation in question:
“_Instrumenta scribæ calamus et penna; ex his enim verba paginis
infiguntur; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen dividitur
in duo._”
(“The tools of the writer are a reed and a quill; for by these words on
pages are impressed; the reed is of wood, the quill from a bird, and
its point is divided into two.”)
But of course it is extremely probable that quill pens were in use
at a much earlier period than this. It is well known that metal pens
were used by the Romans, as a number of these, made of bronze, are in
existence at the present time.
For general writing purposes tablets coated with wax were used by
the Greeks and Romans. A stylus with one end pointed and the other
flattened was used to write with, the writing being done with the sharp
point and erasures made with the flattened end.
[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HIERATIC WRITING.]
[Illustration:
_Ivory Stilus._
_Silver Stilus, bound with gold wire._
_Ancient Roman Bronze Pen._
_Ancient Reed Pen._
]
The skins of animals have been used as a writing material since quite
an early period, and the use of vellum was probably an improvement
upon this. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” tells the story, on the
authority of Varro, of how Eumenes II., King of Pergamus from 197 to
159 B.C., was desirous of extending the library in his capital, but
the Ptolemies, being jealous, stopped the export of papyrus, thinking
by this means to prevent the royal library from growing. Owing to the
lack of papyrus, skins were employed and, necessity being the mother
of invention, the manufacture of vellum came about. Whether any real
importance can be attached to this story or not, it is certain that
Pergamus was a great centre for the manufacture of vellum. In fact, the
word “parchment” is derived from _charta Pergamena_, _i.e._, “paper
from Pergamum.”
It is easy to see how this ideal writing-material, with the quill
pen, must have had a great influence upon the formation of letters.
Generally speaking, the writing on parchment or vellum is crisper and
more sharply defined than that on the papyrus.
There is not the slightest doubt that the influence of the tool and the
writing-material had a great deal to do with forming the shapes of the
letters. Good lettering was seldom or never consciously designed, but
was the result of certain influences at work.
In the development of lettering in the past, the pen, as a
letter-making tool, has played a most prominent part. A reed or quill
pen cut with a broad nib, so as to give crisp thick and thin strokes,
is an ideal tool for the formation of letters, but one thing is
necessary: the pen must be allowed to have its own way. The letters
should not be designed first and copied with the pen afterwards. If the
lettering is to be pen-formed, let it be formed with the pen; it should
come straight from the pen.
The capabilities of the pen as a letter-making tool should be carefully
studied. The reed or quill pen should be used, and one of the best ways
to become intimate with the pen is to cut it to shape for oneself. One
is thus able to understand the possibilities of this tool as a means
for the formation of letters, in a much more intimate manner than if
a ready-made tool is placed in the hand. The first thing to endeavour
to grasp is how to cut and use the pen. After this has been mastered,
the next step should be the formation of letters. This is followed
by forming letters into words. Then comes writing and designing with
masses of writing. Not until the student is thoroughly familiar with
the use of lettering should he attempt to add any decoration to it. A
fine piece of writing in black, or black and red, on vellum or fine
hand-made paper is a piece of decoration by itself, but a bad piece
of lettering cannot be made beautiful, however much ornament be added
afterwards. The first step towards the study of illumination proper
comes then, and attention should be given to the place of the initial
letter and the part it has played in the past as a starting-point for
the decoration in the MSS. of the mediæval period. At first a good deal
can be done with the use of black and red only, or black, red, and
blue. Then come simple decoration with gold and colours; the use of
raised burnished gold; the application of illumination for commercial
purposes; and the illuminated MS. book.