half; white wax, three drachms; rose-water, three ounces; carbonate of
potass, fifteen grains; spirits of wine, three-quarters of an ounce;
essential oil of bergamot, three drachms. Melt the three first, then
add the rose-water, carbonate of potass, and spirits of wine, stirring
well, and when nearly cold add the perfume. I can safely say that this is
first-rate, having made many pounds of it.—G. R. M. D.
TO PERFUME LINEN.—Rose leaves dried in the shade, or at about four feet
from a stove, one pound; cloves, carraway seeds, and allspice, of each
one ounce; pound in a mortar, or grind in a mill; dried salt, a quarter
of a pound. Mix all these together, and put the compound into little
bags.—S., _Clapham_.
POT-POURRI.—Take of orris-root, flag-root, bruised, each four ounces;
yellow sandal-wood, three ounces; sweet cedar-wood, one ounce; gum
benzoin, storax, of each one ounce; cloves, half an ounce; nutmegs, one
ounce; patchouli leaves, one ounce. The above should be all coarsely
powdered, and well mixed. Then add—bay salt, one pound; rose leaves,
three ounces; essence of lemon, half a drachm; millefleurs, one drachm;
oil of lavender (English) twenty drops; musk, ten grains. The above may
be used for _saquets_, if the bay salt and rose leaves are omitted,
substituting for the latter ten drops of otto of roses. The above forms a
grateful perfume, and will retain its scent for a considerable time. It
may be relied upon as excellent.—W. G. G.
TO MAKE EAU DE COLOGNE.—Rectified spirits of wine, four pints; oil of
bergamot, one ounce; oil of lemon, half an ounce; oil of rosemary, half
a drachm; oil of neroli, three-quarters of a drachm; oil of English
lavender, one drachm; oil of oranges, one drachm. Mix well and then
filter. If these proportions are too large, smaller ones may be used.—A.
L.
TO EXTRACT THE PERFUME OF FLOWERS.—Procure a quantity of the petals of
any flower which has an agreeable flavour; card thin layers of cotton
wool, which dip into the finest Florence oil; sprinkle a small quantity
of fine salt on the flowers, and place layers of cotton and flowers
alternately, until an earthen or wide-mouthed glass vessel is quite full.
Tie the top close with a bladder, and lay the vessel in a south aspect,
exposed to the heat of the sun, and in fifteen days, when opened, a
fragrant oil may be squeezed away from the whole mass; little inferior
(if roses are made use of) to the dear and highly-valued otto, or odour
of roses.
ESSENTIA ODORIFERA.—Take of musk grain, ten grains; civet, five grains;
Peruvian balsam, twelve grains; oil of cloves, four drops; oil of
rhodium, two drops; sub-carbonate of potash, half a drachm; rectified
spirits of wine, two ounces. Digest them together in a close vessel, with
a heat equal to that of the sun in summer (78 deg. Fahr.) for several
days, and afterwards pour off the essence for use. This is an exquisite
perfume, and a single drop gives a fine flavour to many ounces of other
liquors.—K.
A VERY PLEASANT PERFUME, AND ALSO PREVENTIVE AGAINST MOTHS.—Take of
cloves, caraway seeds, nutmegs, mace, cinnamon, and Tonquin beans, of
each one ounce; then add as much Florentine orris-root as will equal the
other ingredients put together. Grind the whole well to powder, and then
put it in little bags, among your clothes, &c.—A. L.
TO LOOSEN THE STOPPERS OF SMELLING-BOTTLES.—If the stopper is firmly
fixed by means of the salts contained within the bottle, do not attempt
to strike the stopper, but add as much citric acid to water as it will
take up, thus making what chemists term a saturated solution; or else
pour some vinegar into a tumbler, and immerse the bottle in the solution
or vinegar. In the former case a citrate of ammonia will be formed, and
in the latter case an acetate of ammonia. After the bottle has remained
in the tumbler a short time, remove it to a basin of warm water, and it
will soon be released.—K.
CLEANING COMBS.—I beg leave to offer a plan that will do away with the
“cleaning of a comb,” or, at least, in a great measure lessen that
disagreeable duty. Cut a bit of coarse flannel the size of the comb
(small-tooth comb I mean) and before you use it work the flannel on to
one edge of the comb, push it about half-way up the teeth; when you have
used it, draw the flannel off and the comb will easily be made perfectly
clean by being rinsed in water. I keep bits of flannel cut always with my
comb.—S. K. Y.
TO WASH HAIR-BRUSHES.—Never use soap. Take a piece of soda, dissolve it
in warm water, stand the brush in it, taking care that the water only
covers the bristles; it will almost immediately become white and clean;
stand it to dry in the open air with the bristles downwards, and it will
be found to be as firm as a new brush.—A RIGID ECONOMIST, _Guernsey_.
TO CLEAN HAIR OR CLOTHES-BRUSHES.—Dissolve about the size of a walnut of
washing soda, and an atom of soap in a basin _quite full_ of warm water.
Pass the hairs of the brush quickly for a few minutes on the surface of
the water without wetting either the handle or back, which always loosens
it and spoils varnish brushes; if cleaned in this manner it will save
great trouble, and last a much longer time.—M. L. J.
TO CLEAN HEAD AND CLOTHES-BRUSHES.—Put a table-spoonful of pearlash into
a pint of boiling water. Having fastened a bit of sponge to the end of a
stick, dip it into the solution, and wash the brush with it; carefully
going in among the bristles. Next pour over it some clean hot water, and
let it lie a little while. Then drain it, wipe it with a cloth, and dry
it before the fire.—J. GREGORY.
TO CLEAN SPONGE.—Immerse it in cold buttermilk, let it soak for a few
hours, and wash it out in clean water, it will be perfectly clean and
soft. This I have often tried, and never found it to fail.—J. E. C.
TO CLEAN A COMB.—Many of the readers of the _Practical Housewife_ may
perhaps smile upon seeing so simple a recipe as the one I now send,
but having during my experience as a housekeeper felt more annoyance
from trifling than material causes, I venture to send my contribution.
Tie one end of a strong silk thread to the handle of a wash-stand or
bureau-drawer. Sit down before it with a towel spread on your lap, and
holding the other end of the silk tightly in your left hand, take the
comb in your right hand and pass it hard and carefully along the thread,
which must be made to go in between all the teeth separately, so as
to remove or scrape down all the impurities. Then rub the comb with a
comb-brush, or a soft cloth; rinse it in warm soap-suds, and wipe it
dry.—M. G., _Stockport_.
TO CLEAN BOTTLES INFECTED WITH BAD SMELLS.—Put into bottles so affected
some pieces of gray or brown paper; fill them with water; shake the
bottles strongly; leave them then a day or two in this state, when,
finding them more or less affected, repeat the process, and afterwards
rinse them with pure water.—S. S. T.
FOOD FOR INVALIDS.
One of the useful accomplishments of a lady is to understand how to
make the invalid in her family comfortable. Food prepared by the kind
hand of a wife, mother, sister, friend, has a sweeter relish than the
mere ingredients can give, and a restorative power which money cannot
purchase. These receipts will enable the watchful attendant to vary
the food, as choice or symptoms may render expedient. Jellies and meat
broths, together with the various kinds of farinaceous food, are the
lightest on the stomach, as well as generally the most nutritious for an
invalid. Milk preparations are useful when the lungs are weak. Food that
the stomach can digest without distressing the patient is the kind that
gives actual strength.
TO MAKE GRUEL.—Mix a dessert-spoonful of fine oatmeal or patent groats,
in two of cold water, add a pint of boiling water, and boil it ten
minutes, keeping it stirred. _Or_,—boil a quarter of a pint of groats
in a quart of water for about two hours, and strain through a sieve.
Stir into the gruel a small piece of butter, and some sugar, nutmeg, or
ginger, grated; or, if it be not sweetened, add a small pinch of salt.
BARLEY GRUEL.—Wash four ounces of pearl-barley; boil it in two quarts
of water with a stick of cinnamon, till reduced to a quart; strain and
return it into the saucepan with sugar and three-fourths of a pint of
milk. Heat up, and use as wanted.
FLOUR CAUDLE.—Mix, smoothly, a table-spoonful of flour with a gill of
water; set on the fire in a saucepan a gill of new milk, sweeten it, and,
when it boils, add the flour and water; simmer and stir them together for
a quarter of an hour.
WHITE CAUDLE.—Make the gruel as above, strain through a sieve, and stir
it till cold. When to be used, sweeten it to taste, grate in some nutmeg,
and add a little white wine; a little lemon-peel or juice is sometimes
added. The yolk of an egg, well beaten, may likewise be stirred in when
the gruel is boiling.
RICE CAUDLE.—This may be made with water or milk; when it boils, add some
ground rice, previously mixed smoothly with a little cold water; boil
till thick enough, when sweeten it, and grate in nutmeg, or add a little
powdered cinnamon.
ARROW-ROOT.—It is very necessary to be careful not to get the counterfeit
sort; if genuine, it is very nourishing, especially for persons with weak
bowels. Put into a saucepan half a pint of water, grated nutmeg, and fine
sugar; boil up once, then mix it by degrees into a dessert-spoonful of
arrow-root, previously rubbed smooth with two spoonfuls of cold water.
_Or_,—Mix a dessert-spoonful of arrow-root, with a little cold water,
have ready boiling water in a kettle, pour it upon the arrow-root until
it becomes quite clear, keeping it stirred all the time; add a little
sugar. Where milk may be taken, it is very delicious made in the same way
with milk instead of water, a dessert-spoonful of arrow-root, and half a
pint of milk; add a small bit of lemon-peel.
TAPIOCA.—Choose the largest sort, pour cold water on to wash it two or
three times; then soak it in fresh water five or six hours, and simmer it
in the same until it becomes quite clear; then put lemon-juice, wine, and
sugar. The peel should have been boiled in it. It thickens very much.
SAGO.—Cleanse it by first soaking it an hour in cold water, and then
washing it in fresh water. To a tea-cupful add a quart of water and a bit
of lemon-peel, simmer it till the berries are clear, season it with wine
and spice, and boil it all up together. The sago may be boiled with milk
instead of water, till reduced to one-half, and served without seasoning.
SAGO MILK.—Cleanse as above, and boil it slowly, and wholly with new
milk. It swells so much, that a small quantity will be sufficient for a
quart, and when done it will be diminished to about a pint. It requires
no sugar or flavouring.
GROUND RICE MILK.—Boil one spoonful of ground rice, rubbed down smooth,
with one pint and a half of milk, a bit of cinnamon, lemon-peel and
nutmeg. Sweeten when nearly done.
RESTORATIVE MILK.—Boil a quarter of an ounce of isinglass in a pint of
new milk till reduced to half, and sweeten.
SUET MILK.—Cut one ounce of mutton or veal suet into shavings, and
warm it slowly over the fire in a pint of milk, adding a little grated
lemon-peel, cinnamon, and loaf sugar.
IMITATION OF ASSES’ MILK.—Boil together equal quantities of new milk and
water; sweeten with white sugar-candy, and strain.—Or, Stir into a gill
each of milk and boiling water a well-beaten egg, and sweeten with white
sugar-candy.
BARLEY MILK.—Boil half a pound of washed pearl-barley in one quart of
milk and half a pint of water, and sweeten: boil it again, and drink it
when almost cold.
BAKED MILK.—Is much recommended for consumption. The milk should be put
into a moderately warm oven, and be left in it all night.
CALF’S FEET AND MILK.—Put into a jar two calf’s feet with a little
lemon-peel, cinnamon, or mace, and equal quantities of milk and water to
cover them; tie over closely, and set in a slack oven for about three
hours; when cold, take off the fat: and sweeten and warm as required.
SHEEP’S TROTTERS.—Simmer six sheep’s trotters, two blades of mace, a
little cinnamon, lemon-peel, a few hartshorn shavings, and a little
isinglass, in two quarts of water to one; when cold, take off the fat,
and give nearly half a pint twice a day, warming with it a little new
milk.
ISINGLASS.—Boil one ounce of isinglass shavings, forty Jamaica
peppercorns, and a bit of brown crust of bread, in a quart of water, to a
pint, and strain it. This makes a pleasant jelly to keep in the house; of
which a large spoonful may be taken in wine and water, milk, tea, soup,
or any way most agreeable.
GLOUCESTER JELLY.—Boil in two quarts of water till reduced to one
quart, the following ingredients: hartshorn shavings, isinglass, barley
and rice, one ounce of each. When this jelly, which is light and very
nourishing, is to be taken, a few table-spoonfuls of it must be dissolved
in a little milk, together with a bit of cinnamon, lemon-peel, and sugar.
It will be very good without the seasoning.
BREAD JELLY.—Cut the crumb of a penny roll into thin slices, and toast
them equally of a pale brown; boil them gently in a quart of water till
it will jelly, which may be known by putting a little in a spoon to cool;
strain it upon a bit of lemon-peel, and sweeten it with sugar.
RICE JELLY.—Boil half a pound of rice, and a small piece of cinnamon,
in two quarts of water, for one hour; pass it through a sieve, and when
cold it will be a firm jelly, which, when warmed in milk and sweetened,
will be very nutritious; add one pint of milk to the rice, in the sieve,
boil it for a short time, stirring it constantly, strain it, and it will
resemble thick milk, if eaten warm.
STRENGTHENING JELLY.—Simmer in two quarts of soft water, one ounce of
pearl-barley, one ounce of sago, one ounce of rice, till reduced to one
quart; take a tea-cupful in milk, morning, noon, and night.
HEMP-SEED JELLY.—Bruise hemp-seeds, boil them in water, and strain;
afterwards, simmer the liquor until it is of the thickness of gruel.
TAPIOCA JELLY.—Wash the tapioca, soak it for three hours in cold water,
in which simmer it till dissolved with a piece of thin lemon-peel; then
sweeten, and take out the peel before using.
TO MAKE PANADA IN FIVE MINUTES.—Set a little water on the fire with some
sugar and a scrape of nutmeg and lemon-peel; meanwhile grate some crumbs
of bread. The moment the mixture boils up, keeping it still on the fire,
put the crumbs in, and let it boil as fast as it can. When of a proper
thickness just to drink, take it off. _Or_,—Put to the water a bit of
lemon-peel, mix the crumbs in, and, when nearly boiled enough, put some
lemon or orange syrup. Observe to boil all the ingredients, for if any be
added after, the panada will break and not jelly.
CHICKEN PANADA.—Boil a chicken, till about three parts ready, in a quart
of water; take off the skin, cut the white meat off when cold, and put
into a marble mortar; pound it to a paste with a little of the water it
was boiled in, season with salt, a grate of nutmeg, and the least bit of
lemon-peel. Boil gently for a few minutes to the consistency you like;
it should be such as you can drink, though tolerably thick. This conveys
great nourishment in a small compass.
SIPPETS.—When the stomach will not receive meat, sippets are very
nutritious, and prepared in this simple manner:—On an extremely hot
plate, put two or three sippets (small square pieces) of bread, and pour
over them some gravy, from beef, mutton, or veal, with which no butter
has been mixed. Sprinkle a little salt over.
BROTHS OF BEEF, MUTTON, AND VEAL.—Put two pounds of lean beef, one
pound of scrag of veal, one pound of scrag of mutton, sweet herbs, and
ten peppercorns, into a nice tin saucepan, with five quarts of water;
simmer to three quarts, and clear off the fat when cold. Add one onion,
if approved. Soup or broth made of different meats is more supporting,
as well as better flavoured. To remove the fat, take it off when cold
as clean as possible; and if there be still any remaining, lay a bit of
clean blotting-paper on the broth when in the basin, and it will take up
every particle. Or, if the broth is wanted before there is time to let
it get cold, put a piece of cork up the narrow end of a funnel, pour the
broth into it, let it stand for a few minutes, and the fat will rise to
the top; remove the cork and draw off in a basin as much of the broth as
is wanted, which will be perfectly free from fat.
FOR A QUICK-MADE BROTH.—Take a bone or two of a neck or loin of mutton,
take off the fat and skin, set it on the fire in a small tin saucepan
that has a cover, with three-fourths of a pint of water, the meat being
first beaten and cut in thin bits; put a bit of thyme and parsley, and,
if approved, a slice of onion. Let it boil very quickly; skim it; take
off the cover if likely to be too weak, else cover it. Half an hour is
sufficient for the whole process.
CALF’S FEET BROTH.—Boil two calf’s feet, two ounces of veal, and two
of beef, the bottom of a penny loaf, two or three blades of mace, half
a nutmeg sliced, and a little salt, in three quarts of water, to three
pints; strain, and take off the fat.
CHICKEN BROTH.—May be made of any young fowl, which is afterwards to be
brought to table; but the best sort is to be procured from an old cock
or hen, which is to be stewed down to rags, with a couple of onions,
seasoned with salt and a little whole pepper; skim and strain it.
A WEAKER KIND.—After taking off the skin and rump, put the body and legs
of a fowl, from the white meat of which chicken panada has been made,
into the water it was boiled in, with one blade of mace, one slice of
onion, and ten white peppercorns. Simmer till the broth be of a pleasant
flavour.
BEEF TEA.—Cut half a pound of lean fresh beef into slices, lay it in a
dish, and pour over it a pint of boiling water; cover the dish and let it
stand half an hour by the fire, then just boil it up, pour it off clear,
and salt it very little.
VEAL TEA is made in the same way, and CHICKEN TEA also.
ANOTHER, TO DRINK COLD.—Take one pound of lean beef, clear it from every
particle of skin, fat, or sinew, rasp or divide it into very small
pieces; then put it into a jar, and pour a quart of boiling water upon
it; plunge the jar into a kettle of boiling water, let it stand by the
side of the fire, but not near enough to simmer, and allow it to grow
cold. Then strain the beef tea through a muslin sieve, and, if the
patient be very delicate, filter it through blotting-paper. This tea
is to be taken when cold, and will remain upon the stomach when other
nourishment fails; it may be given to infants.
EGGS.—An egg broken into a cup of tea, or beaten and mixed with a basin
of milk, makes a breakfast more supporting than tea alone. An egg
divided, and the yolk and white beaten separately, will afford two very
wholesome draughts, and prove lighter than when taken together. Eggs
very little boiled, or poached, taken in small quantities, convey much
nourishment; the yolk only, when dressed, should be eaten by invalids.
STEW FOR PERSONS IN WEAK HEALTH.—Cut veal into slices, and put them into
an earthen jar, with sliced turnips, and a little salt; cover closely,
set the jar up to the neck in boiling water, and stew till the meat is
tender.
DOMESTIC MANIPULATION.
Under the head of Domestic Manipulation, we propose giving a series of
instructions on the numerous and essential manual operations that are
constantly being required in every family, and which, whether they are
well or ill done, must of necessity be performed. The term Domestic
Manipulation, employed in the widest sense, would include all the manual
operations required in a house, but we propose to limit it to such as
partake in a slight degree of a chemical or other scientific character;
thus the operations of Filtering, Decanting, Weighing, Measuring,
Bottling, Corking, Unstoppering, Pounding, Heating, Boiling, Distilling,
Cementing, &c., &c., will be included; whilst Dusting, Washing, and
Scrubbing, though no less, in strictness, manipulations, will be passed
over in silence. These general directions will be followed by a number
of Receipts and Hints tried and recommended by numerous intelligent
Housekeepers.
I.
CLEANING, DRYING, CORKING, TYING DOWN, STOPPERING, AND UNSTOPPERING.
CLEANING.—Perhaps no more effectual and easy mode of cleaning wine and
beer bottles can be recommended than that commonly adopted, viz., the
use of small shot and water; in the case of old port wine bottles,
however, it often occurs that the mechanical action of the shot fails
to remove the hardened crust from the interior; a small quantity of
pearlash or soda, or still better, the washing liquids described in
another page, added to the water, will soften the crust sufficiently to
permit its easy removal; there is, however, one objection to the use of
shot for the purpose of cleaning bottles; unless due care be taken, by
the violence of the shaking it often happens that several become firmly
wedged between the bottom and sides of the bottles, and are not removed
by the subsequent rinsings with clean water, and if the bottles are used
for acid wines or other liquids (almost all our home-made wines contain
a considerable portion of free acid), the shots are slowly dissolved;
and from the metallic arsenic which they contain, as well as from the
lead itself, the liquid is rendered poisonous. This effect may be readily
guarded against by removing any shots which may have become fixed, by a
stiff wire slightly hooked at the end.
Decanters are formed of flint glass, which is much softer and more
readily scratched than the common kinds, they require therefore a less
rough treatment; in general, warm (not boiling) water, with the addition
of a few pieces of coarse brown paper, and if requisite a little soda,
will be found effectual; should greater force be required, a small
portion of tow wrapped round the notched end of a moderately stiff wire,
and used with a little strong soda, will be found sufficient. Sand or
ashes should never be employed in cleaning decanters, as they roughen and
totally disfigure the brilliant surface of the glass.
DRYING.—It is scarcely necessary to speak of the advantages of being
able to dry thoroughly both decanters and common bottles; if the former,
after having been cleaned, are put away wet, they become musty; and many
liquids are much injured by being put into wet bottles. Some of our
readers have doubtless experienced the inefficiency of the ordinary means
for drying decanters, &c., after draining for some days they still remain
damp, and if placed near a fire the warmth merely drives the vapour to
the colder part of the vessel; they may, however, be readily and quickly
dried after draining, by making them slightly warm and blowing in fresh
air with a pair of bellows, which rapidly carries out the damp vapour,
and leaves the vessel perfectly dry. If bellows are not at hand, the damp
air may be _drawn out_ (not blown) with the mouth, assisted by a tube
sufficiently long to reach nearly to the bottom of the decanter; in the
laboratory a piece of glass tube is usually taken, being always at hand,
but for domestic use a piece of paper may be rolled up so as to form an
extemporaneous and effectual substitute.
CORKING.—Little can be said with regard to the corking of bottles, beyond
stating the fact that cheap bad corks are always dear; the best corks
are soft, velvety, and free from large pores; if squeezed they become
more elastic and fit more closely. If good corks are used of sufficiently
large size to be extracted without the corkscrew, they may be employed
many times in succession, especially if they are soaked in boiling water
after, which restores them to their original shape, and renews their
elasticity.
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]
TYING DOWN.—The operation of tying down corks merits a longer notice, as
without it many effervescent wines and liquids could not be preserved.
The most common mode of fastening down corks, is with the ginger beer
knot, which is thus made:—First the loop is formed as in Fig. 1, then
that part of the string which passes across the loop is placed on the
top of the cork, and the loop itself passed down around the neck of the
bottle, and by pulling the ends of the cord is made tight beneath the
rim; the ends of the string are finally brought up, and tied either in
a double knot, or in a bow on the top of the cork. When ginger beer is
made at home it will be found most advantageous to use the best corks,
and to tie them down with a bow, when both corks and strings may be made
use of repeatedly.
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
For effervescent wines, such as champagne, gooseberry, &c., which require
to be kept a longer time, and are more valuable, a securer knot is
desirable, which may be made thus:—A loop as in _Fig. 2_ is first formed,
and the lower end is then turned upwards and carried behind the loop, as
shown at _Fig. 3_; it is then pulled through the loop as in _Fig. 4_, and
in this state is put over the neck of the bottle; the part a being on one
side, and the two parts of the loop on the other; on pulling the two ends
the whole becomes tight round the neck, and the ends, which should be
quite opposite, are to be brought up over the cork, twice twisted, as in
_Fig. 5_, and then tied in a single knot.
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
STOPPERING.—The stoppering of bottles is an operation usually performed
by the makers; it may, however, be useful to know that badly fitting
stoppers may be readily fitted by re-grinding; this is done by dipping
the stopper in a mixture of fine sand, or still better, emery and water,
replacing it, and turning it backwards and forwards with a slight
pressure; fresh sand must be applied from time to time. When the fitting
is exact, so that the stopper turns freely without shaking, the whole may
be finished off by using a little fine emery and oil.
UNSTOPPERING.—This operation is much more likely to be required than the
one last described, for the stoppers of decanters, smelling-bottles, &c.,
from various causes, frequently become fixed, and many are the fractures
both of bottles and stoppers, caused by the misdirected efforts to
remove them. In treating of the various means that may be employed, we
will mention them in the order in which they should be tried, beginning
with the simpler and more easy, and passing on to those which are more
effectual, and at the same time, unfortunately, more dangerous. The first
method, then, that should be tried, is to press the stopper upwards with
the fore-finger and thumb of the left hand (the other fingers holding
the neck of the bottle), and at the same time giving the stopper a
succession of short, sharp, light taps, with the wooden handle of a
chisel, knife, or small hammer; care must be taken not to strike the
stopper with sufficient force to break it, and it should be borne in mind
that it is not the force of the blow, but the vibration, or jar, which is
effectual in loosening it; should this plan be found ineffectual after
a short trial, it may probably be from the stopper being cemented by
some substance, such as the dried sugar of a sweet wine. In such cases
we should endeavour to dissolve the cement by a suitable solvent, which
should be placed in the groove between the stopper and the bottle; thus,
if the stopper is cemented with sugar, gum, or salt, water may be used;
in many circumstances, oil is advantageous, or spirit, or even strong
acid may be used; whatever liquid is employed it should be allowed to
remain some days, being renewed if requisite, and the tapping, &c.,
should be again had recourse to.
Should these methods fail, a piece of cloth may be dipped in very hot
water and wrapped round the neck of the bottle, when the heat causes the
expansion of the glass, and if the stopper be tapped or twisted _before_
the heat has had time to enlarge it, its removal may be effected; this
operation must necessarily be a quick one, for if the stopper is heated
and enlarged, as well as the bottle, it is obvious that no benefit will
result. In the laboratory it is often customary to heat the bottle,
not by a strip of cloth dipped in hot water, but by turning it rapidly
over the flame of a lamp; in this way there is more danger of cracking
the bottle, and the plan is not to be recommended in general, although
employed with considerable success by those who, like operative chemists,
are constantly in the habit of applying heat to glass vessels; it will
at once be seen that the plan is fraught with great danger if applied to
bottles containing inflammable liquids, as spirits, &c.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6._]
The most effectual mode of removing stoppers, especially those of small
bottles, such as smelling-bottles, remains to be described. Take a piece
of strong cord, about a yard or four feet in length, double it at the
middle, and tie a knot (_Fig. 6_, _b_) so as to form a loop (_a_) of
about four inches in length at the doubled end, bring the knot close
to one side of the stopper, and tie the ends tightly together on the
opposite side, as at _Fig. 7_, _e_, so as to fasten the string securely
round the neck of the stopper; now pass one of the ends through the loop
(_a_), and tie it firmly to the other end; the doubled cord is next to be
placed over a bar or other support, then if the bottle is surrounded by a
cloth to prevent accidents in case of fracture, and pulled downwards with
a jerk, the force of which is gradually increased, it will be found that
in a short time the stopper is liberated. Two precautions are requisite:
one is, that the strain on both sides of the stopper is equal; the other,
that care be taken that when the stopper is liberated, it is not dashed
by the rebound against any hard substance, which would cause its fracture.
[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
II.
CUTTING, GRINDING, AND WRITING ON GLASS.
We have described the most advantageous modes of extracting fixed
stoppers from decanters, &c. It is possible that some of our readers
may have followed our advice sufficiently well to have succeeded _in
cracking the necks of their decanters_. In case any should have been
so unfortunate, or rather we would say—if we were quite sure we were
not addressing ladies—so clumsy, let them not despair; dexterity in
manipulation comes by practice; and as no evil is without a remedy, we
will next consider what can be done with the broken decanter. Unless
it is cracked down to the bottom, it may be cut off and converted into
a handsome sugar basin; or if not high enough for that purpose, will
serve for a pickle dish, or a flower-stand, &c.; and in the same way, a
tumbler broken at the upper part will furnish an elegant salt-cellar, or
serviceable soap dish; and even common bottles, if sufficiently stout,
may be made into useful jars, instead of being consigned to the dust-heap.
The operation of cutting glass, consists in leading a crack in the
required direction; this is readily done by a hot iron rod, a piece
of pointed burning charcoal, or, what is still better, a burning
pastile—which is somewhat similar in its composition to those used for
fumigation; and which latter, although rather expensive, and inconvenient
from their shape, may be applied for the purpose. When the operation
of cutting up glass vessels into useful forms is much had recourse to,
pastiles are prepared for the purpose, being superior to a heated iron
rod, as they continue to burn and retain their heat, whilst the latter
requires to be re-heated, if the crack has to be led any considerable
distance. Pastiles are readily made by rubbing up half an ounce of
powdered gum tragacanth with water, so as to form a mucilage about
as thick as ordinary starch; this should be allowed to remain a few
hours, and then mixed with a quarter of an ounce of benzoin, previously
dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of proof spirit; after mixing
them together in a mortar, as much powdered charcoal should be added
as will form a stiff paste, and the whole well worked together, rolled
into sticks the size of a common black-lead pencil, and dried. As thus
prepared, they should be free from cracks, and solid throughout; and on
being ignited at the end, they will burn steadily away to a point. If
an iron rod is used, it should be nearly as stout as the little finger,
and taper at the end for an inch and a half to a blunt point. Before
commencing the line along which it is wished to divide the glass, it
should be marked with a pen and ink, and allowed to dry, when the iron,
heated to dull redness, or the lighted extremity of the pastile, should
be brought to the end of a crack, being held in a slanting direction with
regard to the glass, as shown in the cut, and slowly moved in an oblique
direction towards the line; the crack will be found to follow the heated
point, and may be thus led as required, even passing over parts varying
very considerably in thickness, as in the case of the flutings on a cut
decanter; but it cannot, with certainty, be made to pass suddenly from
a very thin to a very stout part, or the reverse: thus it may be led
around the sides of a tumbler, but could hardly be made to pass down one
side, across the bottom, and up the other. The rapidity with which the
operation is performed, depends upon the heat of the iron or pastile;
if the former is very hot, or the latter made to burn more vividly by
blowing upon it, the operation is quickened, but it is not performed with
so much certainty, as the crack may pass on further than is desirable:
care should be taken not to lead the crack too near the edge of the
vessel, or to another crack, as in that case it is apt to leave the
proper course, and fly suddenly to the edge, to which an inexperienced
operator should not attempt to go nearer than half an inch.
[Illustration]
It sometimes occurs that a piece is broken out of a glass, without
leaving any crack to commence from; in this case, one must be made, by
heating the edge (one formed by the fracture, if possible), with the iron
or pastile, and instantly applying the moistened finger. When a crack is
formed which may be used as described above, care must be taken not to
cause an extensive fracture, which may run across the intended line of
division; this may be avoided by commencing the crack at some distance
from the line, and by applying the heated point for a very short time,
preferring to make two or three unsuccessful attempts rather than to
hasten the operation, and risk the destruction of the glass. When a glass
vessel has been thus divided, the edges are sufficiently sharp to cut
the fingers in handling, and are usually wavy; it is therefore necessary
to make them smooth and even. The most ready way of doing this is, by
grinding them down on a flat sandstone or ordinary paving-stone, with a
little sharp sand or emery, and water, taking care to move the glass in a
circular direction, and not merely backwards and forwards; the smoothness
of the whole will depend entirely on that of the stone, and on the
fineness of the sand or emery employed. If, from any irregularity, there
is much glass to grind away, it is preferable to commence with sand, and
finish with emery on a smooth stone; if the edges are not thus ground
down, they should have the sharp angles, which are really dangerous,
removed by a fine file, which should be moistened with oil of turpentine
or camphine, as this liquid has an extraordinary effect in increasing the
action of the file upon the glass, and at the same time protecting the
steel instrument from wear.
Advantageous as cracks are in glass vessels whenever we wish to
separate them into two parts, they are by no means desirable under
other circumstances; and it is as important to know how to stop their
progress, as to lead them forward. This is readily done in stout glass,
by drilling a hole about half an inch in advance of the crack, which
gradually passes on into it, and then its further progress is arrested.
Holes may be drilled in glass with a common drill and bow, the place
being first marked with a file or flint, and the drill point kept wet
with oil of turpentine. (It is hardly necessary to state, that a crack
existing in the neck of a decanter, and liable to be forced apart with
the stopper, could not be arrested in its progress by such means.) If
necessary, a little emery powder may be used with the oil of turpentine;
and after the operation, the hole must be filled up with some cement; if
the vessel is to be used for holding liquids, a little fresh slaked lime,
moistened with equal parts of white of egg and water, may be used for
this purpose.
The grinding of glass on a flat stone with sand or emery, and water,
is often useful in making a bottle stand steadily; and by its means a
wine-glass with a broken foot may be turned to good account; for if as
much of the stem as possible is knocked off, by striking it with the back
of a knife, the remainder may be ground away so that the vessel will
stand.
One of the most important Domestic Manipulations, although one of the
most simple and easy, is the labelling of glass vessels. It is not too
much to affirm, that scores of lives might have been saved if this had
been attended to; in cases of accidental poisoning, we usually find that
the victim has drunk from some bottle which has been put away without
a label; and thus some corrosive liquid used for cleaning, or some
poisonous lotion, has been inadvertently swallowed. One of the most
ready modes of labelling glass, and other objects, consists in having at
hand a sheet of paper, which has had spread on one side some gum water,
mixed with half its weight of coarse brown sugar, and allowed to dry;
this may be cut into labels, written on, and readily attached to glass
by moistening with the tongue; the white margin of a sheet of postage
stamps answers the purpose very well. If, however, acid liquids are used,
or the vessel is placed in a damp situation, as a cellar, other means
must be had recourse to. With a little practice it is easy to write in a
legible, though not very conspicuous manner, on glass, with a gun-flint,
or with the sharp-edged fragments of common flint. In the laboratory what
is called a _writing_ diamond is used for this purpose; this should not
be confounded with a glazier’s diamond, which is used for dividing, and
not scratching glass. We would here caution our reader against writing
on glass with a diamond ring, &c., as the practice injures the jewel
considerably; in the glazier’s diamond, the natural edges of the crystal
are used, which are not liable to injury as are the cut angles of a
brilliant.
When glass vessels are exposed to damp, the best mode of writing on them
is to prepare an ink for the purpose, by mixing the common cheap varnish,
called Brunswick black, with half its weight of oil of turpentine, or
what is the same thing, in a purer state, camphine; this should be kept
in a closely corked bottle, and used with a broad nibbed quill pen; it
soon dries, and though pale, is very distinct, and almost imperishable.
If it is required much darker, about a quarter of an hour after it has
been done, a little lamp-black should be rubbed over it, with cotton
or wadding, when it immediately becomes as black as common ink, and
resists damp, and rubbing or wiping with either wet or dry cloths for
a very long time; the same ink is equally advantageous for use with
white earthenware; and although we have never had occasion to use such
a mixture, there is no doubt that a little whiting mixed thin, with any
common varnish, would furnish an equally useful ink for writing on black
bottles.
III.
DECANTING, STRAINING, AND FILTERING OF LIQUIDS.
The decanting of liquids is, under ordinary circumstances, an operation
sufficiently simple to require no explanation; but the ease and certainty
with which it can be performed, depend entirely upon the form of the
vessel from which the liquid is poured; the adhesion existing between
liquids and solids giving rise to the tendency in the former to run
down the outside of the vessel; and, if the latter is nearly full, or
very large in circumference, or the sides approach the perpendicular
direction, this accident almost always occurs. The difficulty of
returning a glass of wine to the decanter, or of pouring from one full
tumbler into another, are well-known examples of this inconvenience.
Advantage may, however, be taken of the adhesion of liquids to solids,
and by it the former may be led into the required direction. This cannot
be better illustrated than by a description of the means by which a
glass of wine may be returned, without spilling, to the decanter. If a
tea-spoon is dipped into the wine, so as to become wetted with it, and
held perpendicularly with the bowl downwards, and the point over, but
not touching the entrance into the decanter, and the edge of the glass
be made to touch the back of the spoon, it will be found, on inclining
the former, that the wine, having a perpendicular solid body to adhere
to and run down, will do so in preference to trickling along the oblique
outer surface of the wine-glass; and in this mode a liquid may be poured
steadily out of any similar vessel with so little disturbance as not
to agitate any sediment that may exist in it. In the laboratory of the
chemist, a piece of glass rod is usually employed for this purpose; but
a spoon, or pencil, or any similar substance having a surface capable of
being wetted by the liquid, answers equally well.
If, however, the vessel out of which it is wished to decant is large,
very full, or the sides, on pouring, are nearly perpendicular, the
plan is not successful; thus, it could not be employed in aiding the
transfer of the liquid from one full tumbler to another. Even this may
be accomplished without the aid of a funnel, or without spilling, by
preventing the adhesion of the liquid to the edge or side of the vessel
out of which it is poured, which may be readily done by greasing the rim,
when it will be found quite practicable to pour out of a nearly full
tumbler without spilling.
In many instances, the employment of a syphon in decanting will be found
very advantageous, particularly when the containing vessel is large,
and cannot be readily moved, or when there is any sediment which it
is desirable not to disturb. The most simple form of this instrument
consists of a tube, bent as in _Fig. 1_, with one leg shorter than the
other; this may be made of glass, pewter, or, in fact, of any kind of
stiff tubing that will retain its form—a piece of gutta-percha pipe,
carefully bent by a moderate warmth, whilst a piece of stout cord is
in the interior to prevent the sides closing together, answers very
well. Before use, the syphon must be filled with liquor; this is best
accomplished by turning it upside down, with the opening to the short leg
raised on a level with that of the long one, when the liquid should be
poured into the former. When both legs are filled, they should be closed
with the fingers; the shorter leg introduced into the liquid it is wished
to draw off; and the opening of the longer leg brought to a lower level
than that of the shorter, and on removing the fingers the liquid will
flow as in _Fig. 1_, until it is below the level of the short leg. If the
syphon is made of small tubing, or is lessened at the openings so as not
to exceed one quarter of an inch in diameter, there will be no occasion
to close the end of more than one leg with the finger, as the liquid will
not flow when it is brought to the proper position unless both orifices
are open; and thus the necessity of plunging the finger into the liquid
is obviated, and the syphon can also be used with a narrow-necked bottle,
into which the hand could not be passed.
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
To do away with the necessity of filling the syphon before use, the
instrument is usually made with a sucking tube, as in _Fig. 2_; in this
case, all that is requisite is, to introduce the short leg, close the
opening to the long one, and, by the action of the mouth, draw up the
liquid until both legs are full, when, on removing the finger, the stream
will flow. A very ingenious syphon of this kind is described by the
German chemist Mohr; it is thus constructed:—Take a long Eau de Cologne
bottle, and, with a file and turpentine, make a deep notch across, about
an inch and a half from the bottom; then, with a charcoal point or
pastile, or hot iron, produce a crack, and cut off the bottom, grinding
it smoothly (all these manipulations are described in our last article,
page 152); then take a tube bent at an angle of forty-five degrees, and,
by means of a _good_ cork, perforated with a rat-tail rasp, fit it
tightly in the bottom of the bottle, and add also another piece of tubing
for a suction tube; the whole will then have the appearance represented
in _Fig. 3_, and will form an exceedingly useful and very convenient
syphon.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
In emptying large stone bottles or carboys, the following plan may be had
recourse to:—Perforate a sound cork with two openings by a rat-tail rasp,
and fit, air-tight, two tubes bent as in _Fig. 4_. On blowing through the
upper, the liquid will be forced to ascend and run over the bend of the
other, which will then act as a syphon. This plan is exceedingly useful
in emptying carboys of corrosive liquids as oil of vitriol, &c.; and if
all the joints are—as they should be—air-tight, the flow may be arrested
by closing the upper tube with the finger. In the figure the outer leg
of the syphon is shortened to save space; in practice, it must be of
sufficient length to be lower than the inner leg within the vessel.
If a syphon is required frequently for decanting the same kind of liquid,
it is found troublesome to be constantly filling it before each time of
using it; this trouble is obviated by the use of an instrument formed
with legs of equal length, which are turned up at the ends, as in _Fig.
5_; this having been filled, may be hung up in the erect position, and
the liquid will not escape, but on plunging one end into a liquid, it
will be found immediately to flow from the other, provided that the
latter is below the level of the surface of the liquid.
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
The operations of straining and filtering are frequently required in
domestic manipulations, and the apparatus employed usually consists of
sieves and a jelly-bag. As in many other instances, it will be found
advantageous to import several contrivances from the laboratory to the
kitchen; one of the most useful (because most simple) strainers consists
of a square frame, formed of four pieces of wood nailed together at
the corners, with a piece of calico, linen, or canvas, of suitable
fineness, tacked to the four sides; this strainer is particularly useful
in separating any solid substance—as the residue in making wines—or if
grated potatoes are put on one made of coarse cloth, the starch can be
readily washed through, leaving the useless portion on the strainer;
the cloth should not be tacked very loosely, as it bags down when
any substance is put on it, and the liquid runs away below from the
centre. This strainer is a most useful one; it is readily made, of any
degree of fineness, and of any size; and it also possesses the great
advantage, that, if necessary, the tacks fastening the cloth can easily
be withdrawn, when the substance remaining can be rolled up in the cloth,
and tightly squeezed to express the last portions of the liquid, which
are frequently the most valuable.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
In cases where a finer filtration is required than can be obtained by
means of a cloth, as in cleaning turbid wine or spirit, the use of
filtering-paper is recommended; this paper is merely a stouter kind of
blotting-paper, thick varieties of which answer very well for domestic
purposes; it is most simply used by taking a square piece, folding it
into half—by bringing the two opposite edges together—and then folding
the oblong so obtained across its length; by this means a small square
is obtained, one quarter the original size, which may be opened into a
hollow cup, having three thicknesses of paper on one side, and one on the
other; this is to be placed, with the point downwards, in a funnel, and
the liquid poured in; and as soon as the pores of the paper are expanded
by the moisture, it will be found to flow through perfectly clear; care
must be taken in making the filter, not to finger it much where the two
foldings cross each other, as a hole is readily made at that part, and
the filter spoiled. The objection to this simple contrivance is, that
from its flat sides applying themselves closely to those of the funnel,
the flow of the liquid is impeded, and is, therefore, slow. This effect
may be obviated by the use of the plaited filter, the construction of
which we will endeavour to describe. A square piece of filtering, or
stout blotting-paper, is to be doubled, and the oblong so obtained is
to be again folded in half, when if the last fold is opened, it will
have the appearance of _Fig. 6_. From the corners _b b_, folds are to be
creased in the direction towards _a_, but not reaching it for half an
inch; these are indicated by the dotted lines, which divide the double
paper into four triangles, each of which is to be again folded into
eighths, and care must be taken that all the folds are made the same way,
that is, projecting to the same side of the paper. When complete, the
double and creased paper will appear as _Fig. 7_. Now divide each eighth
into half, by a fold in the _opposite_ direction to those previously
made, when it will be found that the whole will fold up like a paper fan;
the projecting loose ends which are formed by the corners _b_, should be
cut off, and the double sides separated for the first time by blowing
them apart, when the whole may be readily opened out as in _Fig. 8_.
In making this filter, which takes a much less time than to follow the
description, two precautions are requisite. The folds should be made at
once with one firm pressure, and not with a series of rubbings; and all
the creases should stop short of the middle, otherwise a hole will be
made at that point, long before the filter is completed. The advantages
of this filter are, that it exposes a large surface for the liquid to
pass through; and from its only being in contact with the funnel where
the angles project, the current flows away readily.
[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
The best means for filtration of water, and the construction of water
filters will be treated of when we speak of the “domestic manipulation”
connected with that liquid.
IV.
THE MANUFACTURE AND USE OF CEMENTS.
The term cement, includes all those substances employed for the purpose
of causing the adhesion of two or more bodies, whether originally
separate, or divided by an accidental fracture. As the substances that
are required to be connected together are exceedingly various, and
differ very much in their properties as to texture, &c., &c., and as the
conditions under which they are placed, with regard to heat and moisture,
are also exceedingly variable, a number of cements, possessed of very
different properties, are required; for a cement that answers admirably
under one set of circumstances, may be perfectly useless in others. A
vast number of cements are known and used in the various arts; but they
may all be referred to a few classes, and our object in this paper will
be to describe the manufacture and use of the best of each class, and
also to state what are the general principles upon which the success or
failure of cementing usually depends.
The different parts of a solid are held together by an attraction between
their several particles, which is termed the attraction of cohesion,
or cohesive attraction. The amount of this varies with the substance;
thus, the cohesion of the particles of iron to one another is enormously
great, whilst that between those of chalk is but small. This attraction
acts only when the particles are in the closest possible contact; even
air must not be between them. If, after breaking any substance, we could
bring the particles into as close contact as before, and remove the
air, they would re-unite, and be as strongly connected as ever. But,
in general, this is impossible; small particles of grit and dust get
between them; the film of interposed air cannot be removed; and thus,
however firmly we press the edges of a broken cup together, it remains
cracked china still. _Perfectly_ flat, clean surfaces, like those of
freshly ground plate-glass, may sometimes be made to cohere, so that
the two pieces become one, and cannot be separated without breaking.
The attraction of cohesion takes place between the parts of the same
substance, and must not be confounded with that of adhesion, which is
the attraction of different substances to one another; for example, the
particles of a piece of wood are united by cohesive attraction, whilst
the union of glue and wood to each other depends on adhesive attraction.
And it is important that this distinction be borne in mind, for, in
almost all cases, the cohesion between the particles of the cement is
very much less than the adhesion of the cement to other bodies; and if
torn apart, the connected joint gives way—not by the loosening of the
adhesion—but by the layer of cement splitting down the centre. Hence the
important rule, that the _less_ cement in a joint, the stronger it is.
Domestic manipulators usually reverse this, by letting as much cement as
possible remain in the joint, which is, therefore, necessarily a weak
one. A thick, nearly solid cement, which cannot be pressed out of the
joint, is always inferior to a thinner one, of which merely a connecting
film remains between the united surfaces.
Having thus mentioned the general principles that ought always to be
borne in mind, we will now proceed to describe the manufacture of some of
the more useful cements, and their mode of use.
MOUTH GLUE affords a very convenient means of uniting papers, and other
small light objects; it is made by dissolving by the aid of heat, pure
glue, as parchment glue, or gelatine, with about one quarter or one-third
of its weight of coarse brown sugar, in as small a quantity of boiling
water as possible; this, when perfectly liquid, should be cast into
thin cakes on a flat surface _very_ slightly oiled, and as it cools
cut up into pieces of a convenient size. When required for use one end
may be moistened by the mouth, and is then ready to be rubbed on any
substances it may be wished to join; a piece kept in a desk or workbox is
exceedingly convenient.
PASTE is usually made by rubbing up flour with cold water and boiling;
if a little alum is mixed before boiling it is much improved, being less
clammy, working more freely in the brush, and thinner, a less quantity is
required, and it is therefore stronger. If required in large quantity, as
for papering rooms, it may be made by mixing one quartern of flour, one
quarter pound of alum, and a little warm water; when mixed, the requisite
quantity of boiling water should be poured on whilst the mixture is
being stirred. Paste is only adapted to cementing paper; when used it
should be spread on one side of the paper, which should then be folded
with the pasted side inwards, and allowed to remain a few minutes before
being opened and used; this swells the paper, and permits its being
more smoothly and securely attached. Kept for a few days, paste becomes
mouldy, and after a short time putrid; this inconvenience may be obviated
by the use of—
PERMANENT PASTE, made by adding to each half-pint of flour-paste without
alum, fifteen grains of corrosive sublimate, previously rubbed to powder
in a mortar, the whole is to be well mixed; this, if prevented from
drying, by being kept in a covered pot, remains good any length of time,
and is therefore convenient; but unfortunately it is extremely poisonous,
though its excessively nauseous taste would prevent its being swallowed
accidentally; it possesses the great advantage of not being liable to the
attacks of insects.
LIQUID GLUE.—Several preparations under this name have from time to time
found their way into use. The liquid glue of the shops, however, is a
totally different preparation, being inodorous, and very much cheaper.
It is made by dissolving shell-lac in water, by boiling it along with
borax, which possesses the peculiar property of causing the solution of
the resinous lac. This preparation is convenient for its cheapness and
freedom from smell, but it gives way if exposed to long-continued damp,
which that made with naphtha resists.
Of the use of COMMON GLUE, very little need be said; it should always be
prepared in a glue-pot or double vessel, to prevent its being burned;
which injures it very materially; the objection to the use of this
contrivance is, that it renders it impossible to heat the glue in the
inner vessel to the boiling point; this inconvenience can be obviated
by employing in the outer vessel some liquid, which boils at a higher
temperature than pure water, such as saturated solution of salt (made
by adding one-third as much salt as water). This boils at 224° Fahr.,
12° above the heat of boiling water, and enables the glue in the inner
vessel to be heated to a much higher temperature than when pure water is
employed. If a saturated solution of nitre is used, the temperature rises
still higher.
WATERPROOF CEMENTS are very numerous; a very good one for uniting china
and glass will be found in another page. It should be stated, however,
that the gum ammoniac should be also dissolved in a small quantity
of spirit. Mastic, used instead of ammoniac, makes a clearer cement.
This mixture, under various fanciful titles, is usually sold at a most
exorbitant rate.
LIME AND EGG CEMENT is frequently made by moistening the edges to be
united, with white of egg, dusting on some lime from a piece of muslin,
and bringing the edges into contact. A much better mode is to slake
some freshly burned lime with a small quantity of _boiling_ water; this
occasions it to fall into a very fine dry powder, if excess of water has
not been added. The white of egg used should be intimately and thoroughly
mixed, by beating, with an equal bulk of water, and the slaked lime
added to the mixture, so as to form a thin paste, which should be used
speedily, as it soon sets. This is a valuable cement, possessed of great
strength, and capable of withstanding boiling water. Cements made with
lime and blood, scraped cheese, or curd, may be regarded as inferior
varieties of it. Cracked vessels, of earthenware and glass, may often be
usefully, though not ornamentally repaired by white lead spread on strips
of calico, and secured with bands of twine. But in point of strength,
all ordinary cements yield the palm to Jefferey’s Patented Marine Glue,
a compound of India-rubber, shell-lac, and coal-tar naphtha. Small
quantities can be purchased at most of the tool warehouses, at cheaper
rates than it can be made. When applied to china or glass, the substance
should be cautiously made hot enough to cement the glue, which should be
then rubbed on the edges so as to become fluid, and the parts brought
into contact immediately. When well applied, the mended stem of a common
tobacco-pipe will break at any other part in preference to the junction.
The colour of the glue unfortunately prevents its being used.
The RED CEMENT, which is employed by instrument makers for cementing
glass to metals, and which is very cheap and exceedingly useful for a
variety of purposes, is made by melting five parts of black resin, one
part of yellow wax, and then stirring in, gradually, one part of red
ochre or Venetian red; in fine powder, and previously _well dried_.
This cement requires to be melted before use, and it adheres better
if the objects to which it is applied are warmed. A soft cement, of a
somewhat similar character, may be found useful for covering the corks
of preserved fruit and other bottles, and it is made by melting yellow
wax with an equal quantity of resin, or of common turpentine (not oil
of turpentine, but the resin), using the latter for a very soft cement,
and stirring in, as before, some dried Venetian red. Bearing in mind our
introductory remarks, it will be seen that the uniting broken substances
with a thick cement is disadvantageous, the object being to bring the
surfaces as closely together as possible. As an illustration of a right
and a wrong way of mending, we will suppose a plaster of Paris figure
broken; the wrong way to mend it is by a thick plate of plaster, which
makes, not a joint, but a botch. The right way to mend it, is by means of
some well-made carpenter’s glue, which, being absorbed into the porous
plaster, leaves merely a film covering the two surfaces, and, if well
done, the figure is stronger than elsewhere.
On carefully reading over our article, we find one useful substance has
been omitted, namely, what is termed _mastic_ cement, which is used
for making a superior coating to inside walls, and which must not be
confounded with the _resin mastic_. It is made by mixing twenty parts of
well-washed and sifted sharp sand, with two parts of litharge, and one of
freshly burned and slaked quick-lime, in fine _dry_ powder. This is made
into a putty, by mixing with linseed oil; it sets in a few hours, having
the appearance of light stone; and we mention it, as it may frequently
be employed with advantage in repairing broken stonework (as stairs) by
filling up the missing parts. The employment of Roman cement, plaster,
&c., for masonry work, hardly comes within the limits of Domestic
Manipulation.
V.
DIVIDING, POWDERING, GRINDING, ETC.
The operations of chopping, powdering, grinding, &c., are so frequently
required in cooking, and the other branches of domestic economy, as to
render any description of their utility wholly unnecessary; and we may
therefore confine ourselves to describing the best means of accomplishing
the object desired. Powdering is usually performed by the aid of the
pestle and mortar. Most of the works on Cookery recommend the use of a
marble mortar; this material is about one of the worst that could be
selected for the purpose. In the first place, it is expensive; secondly,
it is rapidly corroded, even by the weak acids used for food; thirdly,
it is readily stained by oily substances; fourthly, it is absorptive of
strong flavours, imparting them readily to the next substance pounded;
and lastly, it is brittle, and even if not broken, is not calculated
to withstand much wear. By far the best material for the purpose is
the Wedgewood ware; mortars made of it are cheaper, cleaner in use,
and stronger than those of marble, and are not corroded by acids or
alkalies—their pre-eminence is so great, that they are invariably used by
druggists.
[Illustration: _Fig. 9._]
The act of powdering requires great tact and practice to perform it
neatly and rapidly. After the object has been broken into small pieces
by blows from the pestle, a grinding action is required; this should
at first be given by striking the fragments, not in the centre of the
mortar, but towards the side furthest from the operator; the pestle,
by this means, grinds over them in its descent to the centre, and much
more rapidly accomplishes their division than if mere blows are given.
After the object has been divided to a certain extent, blows are entirely
useless, and a grinding in circles becomes requisite; if the circle is
confined to one part of the mortar, the same portions get rubbed over
and over again, the others escaping; this is avoided by constantly
and regularly altering the size of the circles. If they are commenced
in the centre, they should gradually increase in size until the sides
are reached, and then contract again, and so on. By this means, the
whole of the powder is brought under the action of the pestle, and the
operation is much quicker than if performed at random. One great fault
usually committed in powdering, is the endeavour to operate on too large
a quantity of material at one time. The operation is much more rapidly
conducted if small portions are taken, and if the material is tough, and
contains much fibrous matter, the process may be very much shortened
by removing those parts which are sufficiently powdered, by sifting
from time to time through a sieve. This may be objectionable, however,
from the fine powder escaping into the air; in this case, the following
contrivance will be found useful:—A cylindrical tea-canister of the
requisite size is taken, with a loosely fitting lid, (or, if tight, the
lid may be enlarged by four slits being made partly up the sides); a
bag of lawn is dropped into the canister, the top being turned over the
edge; the powder to be sifted is put in the bag, the lid put on, and, by
tapping and shaking, the finest portions pass into the canister without
any escaping into the air—a point of very considerable importance where
the powder is irritating or expensive.
Various contrivances are constantly had recourse to, in order to render
certain substances more readily pulverisable, the contrivance varying
very much with the peculiarities of the substance. We will mention
a few of these, as they may afford useful suggestions in cases of
difficulty. All vegetable, and many mineral substances, are much more
readily powdered after having been _thoroughly_ dried; so far is this
process carried, that many drugs are dried so as to lose fifteen per
cent. of their weight before powdering. In proof of the utility of the
drying, let any person try to powder a piece of whiting as it comes from
the oilman’s; it will be found to cake together, and be more readily
powdered; if dry, however, it powders with the greatest ease. After
drying, substances should not be exposed to the air; but, unless they are
of such a nature as to be softened by heat, are better operated on while
still warm. Flints are more readily powdered by being heated to redness
and quenched in cold water; charcoal, for tooth-powder, while still warm
from drying. Gum can only be powdered whilst perfectly dry. Camphor,
which is with great difficulty powdered alone, yields readily if a drop
or two of spirit is poured on it. Substances which clog together and cake
under the pestle, are not uncommon; to these it is sometimes requisite to
add sand, which may afterwards be separated—this prevents the clogging;
but its use is often impracticable. Lime, if required in very fine
powder, for dusting over plants to kill slugs, &c., is readily obtained
by slaking it, when fresh burned, with _boiling_ water; when, if too much
water is not used, it falls into an exceedingly fine powder.
Sal-ammoniac, and some other saline bodies, are most readily powdered
by dissolving them in as small a quantity of boiling water as possible,
and stirring the solution rapidly as the water is boiled away, or as
the solution cools. Before dismissing the pestle and mortar, we may
allude to their use in mixing powders together, although a much more
ready mode of doing this is with a sieve. Two or more powders stirred
together, and passed two or three times through a sieve, are much more
intimately mixed, than if rubbed for a long time in a mortar. Metals
cannot be divided in the mortar; the most convenient mode of proceeding,
if they are fusible under a white heat, is to melt them, and pour them
whilst liquid into a pail of water, which should be full to avoid any
spluttering, and the hotter the metal, the more filmy the particles. It
is scarcely requisite to state, that the metal should be poured in a
circle, so as not to collect at one place.
Chopping is usually performed in the kitchen, with a large common knife;
but is more speedily done by some of the improved contrivances similar
to the following:—The chopping-board should be made of hard wood,
with the grain at right angles to the surface of the board, by which
it is rendered much more durable than if they are parallel to it. The
chopping-knives should be placed at right angles to the handles, and may
be of either the following patterns. If a large quantity of material has
to be acted on, we would recommend a board as above, not less than three
inches thick, and smooth on both sides, so that either may be used, of
the requisite size—say eighteen inches or two feet in diameter. On this
should stand a loose bottomless tub, to confine the materials, and the
whole resting on the floor, should be used with a knife, sufficiently
long in the handle to be employed by a person standing erect, and it
would be very convenient to have a small cross-bar for the hands, as
shown in _Fig. 12_.
[Illustration: _Fig. 10._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 11._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 12._]
Small chopping-knives are sold, consisting of three blades riveted
together, and a very convenient one is made by fastening, at convenient
distances, a number of flat circular disks, sharpened at the edges, on to
a central axis with a handle at each end.
Many substances, such as stale bread, dried herbs, &c., may be very
conveniently powdered by rubbing them through a wire sieve, of the
requisite degree of fineness. Herbs intended for use in this way, should
be dried as rapidly as possible, without being scorched, in small heaps,
before the fire; parsley and others done this way, may be powdered,
retaining their bright green colour and flavour, both of which are
preserved if they are corked tightly in bottles, and kept in a dry,
dark cupboard. The use of waxed paper to preserve dried powders in, or
for tying them down in jars, or generally as a very good substitute for
bladder, will often be found convenient. It is readily made by laying a
sheet of smooth stout paper on a warm iron plate, as the top of a kitchen
oven; on this place the thin tissue or other paper to be waxed; put a
piece of wax on it, and as it melts, rub it over, spreading it evenly.
One end of a cork, covered with two thicknesses of linen, answers very
well for a rubber. If a hot plate is not at hand, the sheet of paper may
be held before the fire, and rubbed over as it warms, with the cut edge
of a cake of white wax; but this requires the co-operation of two persons.
VI.
KNOTS, PACKAGES, PARCELS, ETC.
The poet Crabbe, speaking of the writing of the rustics, signing his
parish register, says—
“’Tis strange that men
Who guide the plough should fail to guide the pen!
For half a mile the furrows even lie;
For half an inch the letters stand awry.”
A parallel remark might with equal justice be made on the gentler sex,
who, after exercising a degree of tact, neatness, and tasteful invention,
that the self-styled “lords of the creation” might in vain hope to rival,
in the formation of a piece of needlework, knitting, netting, or crochet,
are for the most part, totally unable, when it is finished, to tie it
up so as to make a decent parcel; ladies’ packages are, in fact, the
opprobrium of the sex—the annoyance of all carriers, cads, and coachmen,
who have anything to do with their conveyance, and the torment of their
owners; the cords are certain to become loose, the knots are sure to
slip, except when a slip-knot is requisite, and then it is a fixture! It
is in the hope that we may be instrumental in improving this state of
things, that we are induced to devote this article to Knots, Packages,
Parcels, &c., and we shall at once lay before our fair readers a method
of tying a parcel neatly and securely, and at the same time affording
facilities of releasing the contents without destroying the string by
cutting it away—a too ordinary practice, especially where time is an
object.
[Illustration: _Fig. 13._]
The most simple purpose for which a knot is required, is the fastening
together of two pieces of string or cord: the knot selected for this
purpose should possess two important properties—it should be secure from
slipping, and of small size. Nothing is more common than to see two cords
attached together in a manner similar to that shown in _Fig. 13_. It is
scarcely possible to imagine a worse knot; it is large and clumsy, and
as the cords do not mutually press each other, it is certain to slip,
if pulled with any great force. In striking contrast to this—the worst
of all—we place one of the best; namely, the knot usually employed by
netters, and which is called by sailors “the sheet-bend.” It is readily
made by bending one of the pieces of cord into a loop (_a b_, _Fig. 14_),
which is to be held between the finger and thumb on the left hand;
the other cord _c_ is passed through the loop from the farther side,
then round behind the two legs of the loop, and lastly, under itself,
the loose end coming out at _d_. In the smallness of its size, and the
firmness with which the various parts grip together, this knot surpasses
every other: it can, moreover, be tied readily when one of the pieces,
viz., _a_, _b_, is exceedingly short; in common stout twine, less than
an inch being sufficient to form the loop. The above method of forming
it is the simplest to describe, although not the most rapid in practice;
as it may be made in much less time by crossing the two ends of the
cord (_a b_, _Fig. 15_) on the tip of the fore-finger of the left hand,
and holding them firmly by the left thumb, which covers the crossing;
then the part _c_ is to be wound round the thumb in a loop, as shown
in the figure, and passed between the two ends, behind _a_ and before
_b_; the knot is completed by turning the end _b_ downwards in front of
_d_, passing it through the loop, securing it under the left thumb, and
tightening the whole by pulling _d_. As formed in this mode, it is more
rapidly made than almost any other knot; and, as before stated, it excels
all in security and compactness, so firmly do the various turns grip each
other, that after having been tightly pulled, it is very difficult to
untie; this is the only drawback to its usefulness, and in this respect
it is inferior to the reef-knot, _Fig. 16_, which is made in precisely
the same manner that a shoestring is tied, only pulling out the ends
instead of leaving them as bows. The only precaution necessary in making
a reef-knot is, to observe that the two parts of each string are on the
same side of the loop; if they are not, the ends (and the bows, if any
are formed) are at right angles to the cords; the knot is less secure,
and is termed by sailors a granny-knot. Other knots are occasionally used
to connect two cords, but it is unnecessary to describe them, as every
useful purpose may be answered by those above mentioned.
[Illustration: _Fig. 14._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 15._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 16._]
The binding knot (_Figs. 17_ and _18_) is exceedingly useful in
connecting broken sticks, rods, &c., but some difficulty is often
experienced in fastening it at the finish; if, however, the string is
placed over the part to be united, as shown in _Fig. 17_, and the long
end _b_, used to bind around the rod, and finally passed through the loop
_a_, as shown in _Fig. 18_, it is readily secured by pulling _d_, when
the loop is drawn in, and fastens the end of the cord.
For fastening a cord to any cylindrical object, one of the most useful
knots is the clove hitch, which, although exceedingly simple and most
easily made, is one of the most puzzling knots to the uninitiated.
There are several modes of forming it, the most simple being perhaps
as follows:—Make two loops, precisely similar in every respect, as _a_
and _b_, _Fig. 19_, then bring _b_ in front of _a_, so as to make both
loops correspond, and pass them over the object to be tied, tightening
the ends; if this is properly done, the knot will not slip, although
surrounding a tolerably smooth cylindrical object, as a pillar, pole, &c.
This knot is employed by surgeons in reducing dislocations of the last
joint of the thumb, and by sailors in great part of the standing rigging.
The loop which is formed when a cable is passed around a post or tree
to secure a vessel near shore is fastened by what sailors term two half
hitches, which is simply a clove hitch made by the end of the rope which
is passed around the post or tree, and then made to describe the clove
hitch around that part of itself which is tightly strained.
[Illustration: _Fig. 17._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 18._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 19._]
From the tying of knots we may pass on to the tying over of bottles,
preserves, jars, &c.; the object with which this operation is performed
is either to prevent the excess of air or the escape or entrance of
moisture; the act itself is so very simple as to require no explanation;
but a few words may be said on the choice of material, which should be
varied, so as to suit the exigencies of each particular case. When a
vessel of spirit is to be tied over, leather is frequently selected—a
very erroneous practice, as the vapour of spirit passes readily through
that substance, but cannot penetrate bladder, which should be invariably
used for the purpose. So effectually is spirit confined by bladder, that
when weak spirits are put into bladders or into vessels tied over with
bladder, and allowed to remain some time, they are strengthened, as the
vapour of the water passes away, that of the spirit being retained.
Bladder, or other animal membranes of the same nature, in a moist and
flaccid state, are usually selected for tying over preserves and jams,
for which they are well adapted; should it be impracticable to obtain
them, the waxed paper described at page 165 is a very good substitute.
Many persons place a thin piece of oiled paper in the jar resting on
the jam, in addition to tying it down; this assists in excluding air
and preventing mouldiness, but we have found a piece of very thin paper
moistened with white of egg much more efficacious. The thin sheet-lead
used for lining the interior of tea-chests, or stout tin-foil, is very
advantageously used in tying down vessels containing specimens of natural
history preserved in spirits, as they effectually prevent the escape of
the latter for a long series of years. The plan usually pursued is to
tie the cork over first with a single bladder, then with the metal, and
finally with a second piece of bladder, which is afterwards covered with
a coat of black paint.
[Illustration: _Fig. 20._]
The tying up of parcels in paper is an operation which is seldom neatly
performed by persons whose occupations have not given them great
facilities for constant practice. Whether the paper be wrapped round the
objects, as is the case usually when it is much larger than sufficient
to enclose them, or merely folded over itself, as is done by druggists,
who cut the paper to the required size, it is important that the breadth
of the paper should be no more than sufficient to enable it to be folded
over the ends of the object enclosed, without passing over the opposite
side: it is impossible to make a neat or close parcel with paper which
is too broad; excess in length may be readily disposed of by wrapping
it round; but excess of breadth should be cut away. With regard to
turning in the ends, the mode adopted by grocers is the best. The most
common cause of failure in parcels is their being badly corded; we will,
therefore (however unnecessary the description of so simple a performance
may appear to those already acquainted with it), describe the most
readily acquired mode of cording.
[Illustration: _Fig. 21._]
Let a single knot be made in the end of the cord, which is then passed
round the box or parcel. This knotted end is now tied by a single hitch
round the middle of the cord (_Fig. 20_) and the whole pulled tight.
The cord itself is then carried at right angles round the end of the
parcel, and where it crosses the transverse cord on the bottom of the
box (_Fig. 21_), it should (if the parcel is heavy, and requires to be
firmly secured) be passed _over_ the cross cord, then back underneath it,
and pulled tightly, then over itself; lastly, under the cross cord, and
on around the other end of the box. When it reaches the top it must be
secured by passing it under that part of the cord which runs lengthways
(_a_, _Fig. 20_) pulling it very tight, and fastening it by two half
hitches round itself. The great cause of parcels becoming loose is the
fact of the cord being often fastened to one of the transverse parts
(as _b_, _Fig. 20_) instead of the piece running lengthways, and in this
case it invariably becomes loose. The description may perhaps be rendered
clearer by the aid of the figures, which exhibit the top and bottom of a
box corded as described. The cords, however, are shown in a loose state,
to allow their arrangements to be perceived more easily.
VII.
ON THE OPERATIONS AFFECTING WATER.
The subject of the Water supply to the Metropolis and other large towns
is one of the highest importance to the well-being of the community at
large, in whatever point of view it may be regarded—whether as affecting
the comfort, the health, or the pocket of the consumer, its influence can
scarcely be overrated. To enter, however, into this matter, affecting,
as it does, so many varied and conflicting interests, would be to pass
beyond the limits set to this series of papers; what remains for us to do
is to avail ourselves of the vast amount of scientific knowledge which
has been recently brought to bear upon the question, and to cull from it
such portions as bear directly upon _Domestic Manipulation_.
The quantity of water for domestic purposes depends mainly upon its
degree of hardness or softness; and this in its turn depends almost
entirely upon the quantity of lime dissolved in some form or other in
the water. In speaking of the quality of water, the term “degree of
hardness” is much used; thus we say that the water of the Thames is of
fourteen degrees of hardness, that of the Hampstead springs about ten
degrees, &c. &c. In these and most other cases the hardness is owing to
a certain amount of chalk (carbonate of lime) dissolved, and the degrees
of hardness correspond with the number of grains contained in a gallon
of water. Thus the Thames water, of fourteen degrees of hardness, has
in each gallon fourteen grains of chalk, and the Hampstead ten grains.
It is found, upon experiment, that one gallon (weighing 70,000 grains)
of _pure_ water will not dissolve more than two grains of chalk, and so
acquire two degrees of hardness; and that whenever more is contained in
water, the excess is always owing to the presence of carbonic acid gas,
which enables it to dissolve a much larger quantity. The practical part
of our subject depends on this fact; for if by any means we can get rid
of the carbonic acid, the dissolved chalk is necessarily precipitated,
and the hard water, unfit for culinary and domestic purposes, becomes
soft, and well adapted to both these uses. Carbonic acid is in part
expelled from water by heating it to the boiling point: a still larger
quantity is got rid of after boiling for some few minutes, and nearly
every trace disappears at the end of half an hour; and just in proportion
as the carbonic acid gas is expelled, so does the chalk fall, rendering
the water in the first instance turbid, and becoming deposited on the
interior surface of kettles, where it forms the well-known rock or _fur_.
It has been found that water of fourteen degrees of hardness lost two
degrees when merely made boil; boiling for five minutes reduced the
hardness to six degrees; and for a quarter of an hour, to little more
than four degrees. The practical application of this knowledge needs
scarcely to be pointed out. Whenever a soft water is required, boil for
several minutes before using. In making tea, for instance, the economy
and general superiority of soft water is well known. Those, however,
who use Thames water, just made to boil, employ a water of upwards of
eleven degrees of hardness: those who boil for five minutes, diminish
the hardness of the water by nearly one-half; and by boiling for a
quarter of an hour, it can be lessened to one-third. This circumstance
is one of those that prove how great a substratum of truth there is at
the bottom of most popular notions. How many a young gentleman, with a
smattering of science just enough to inform him that water gets no hotter
however long or violently it is boiled, has laughed at his grandmother’s
antiquated notions, because she requested that the water might be made
to boil thoroughly before the tea was made: the old lady could give no
very satisfactory explanation of her prejudice, yet it was not the less a
correct one.
Before going further in this matter, it may be stated that there are some
waters in which the lime is dissolved in the form of gypsum (sulphate
of lime); in these, which fortunately are rare, the hardness is of a
permanent character, and cannot be lessened by boiling. Tea made under
such circumstances may be improved, either by the addition of a _very
small_ quantity of carbonate of soda, or the tea should be kept soaking
for half an hour, under such circumstances as will retain the heat. This
latter is the plan followed in Greenwich Hospital, where they use a well
water of nineteen degrees of permanent hardness.
In washing, the use of hard water is, as is well known, extremely
prejudicial. The explanation is exceedingly simple: every degree of
hardness in a gallon of water destroys ten grains of soap; and by
following out the calculation, it will be found that 100 gallons of
unboiled Thames water waste exactly two pounds of soap before any
approach to a lather can be made. Now what is the remedy for this evil?
Simply to boil the water some time before use; one quarter of an hour’s
boiling will reduce the waste of soap from two pounds to ten ounces; and
half an hour’s boiling will still further lessen it to six ounces; but no
amount of boiling will make Thames water equal to rain water, which is
without hardness.
There is one practical matter of great importance to which we wish to
draw the attention of all concerned; it is the effect of boiling linen
in hard water. If clothes are put into cold water, and then boiled, the
precipitation of chalk (which has been so often alluded to) takes place
on the clothes, and whatever colouring matter exists in the water goes
down with the chalk, and also becomes attached to the linen, rendering it
of that disagreeable and unremovable dirty hue which is so characteristic
of certain laundries. If boiling is absolutely requisite for white
fabrics, it should be done in water which has been boiled half an hour,
allowed to stand, and then poured off from the sediment; otherwise, from
the immediate precipitation of the chalk, the dirt is boiled in and
thoroughly fixed to the fabric. A moment’s consideration will convince
any one that a deposit similar to the _fur_ in a tea-kettle cannot be
expected to improve the appearance of white linen. Where clear rain water
can be obtained, there is no objection to the boiling of clothes in it,
as, being absolutely free from lime, no precipitation can take place.
The use of soda in softening water employed in washing, is well known;
but the remedy is not without its own evil: it weakens the fibre of the
cloth, and unless it is much more thoroughly removed by rinsing than is
usually the case, it occasions a very permanent yellow tinge when the
cloth is heated.
VIII.
BOILING, STEWING, ETC.
From our last article on the properties of hard and soft water, we pass,
by a natural transition, to the employment of that liquid in the culinary
operations above named. In practice, nothing can at first sight appear
more simple than the operation of boiling, whether it be confined to the
mere heating of a liquid, or extended to the preparation of an article
of food; yet it is one which involves chemical principles of a very high
order, and which is by no means so simple a matter as it may be regarded
at a cursory glance.
To trace the steps of the process from its commencement, let us imagine
a vessel of water placed over the fire, and receiving constantly a
supply of heat from that source; the effect is, that its temperature
gradually rises from about 50° or 60°, the usual warmth of ordinary
water, to 212°, the point at which boiling takes place; but before it
reaches that height, a number of bubbles may be observed forming on the
sides of the vessel; these gradually increase in size, and when they
become sufficiently buoyant, quit their position, rise to the surface,
and escape; they consist of air previously dissolved in the water, and
which is expelled by the increased heat. Water which has been boiled
and allowed to become cold, without much exposure to the air, fails to
re-absorb the quantity it previously contained, and consequently has its
character somewhat altered. Thus, it freezes more readily than water
which has not been boiled, in consequence of the air not having to be
expelled in the act of solidifying, as is usually the case: hence, the
ice from boiled water is free from those numerous air bubbles which
are always to be observed in common ice. It possesses also a mawkish
unpleasant taste, and is totally unable to preserve the life of any
aquatic animal. The presence of this minute quantity of air in ordinary
water, is very essential to its utility. Faraday found that water,
_totally_ destitute of air, does not boil in the usual mode, but when
heated to the boiling point, it at once, with an instantaneous and
violent explosion, passes into the form of steam. This strange fact,
which shows upon what small, and, apparently, trivial circumstances, the
comfort—nay, we may truly say—the existence of man depends, is strikingly
shown by a very ingenious experiment, devised by that most celebrated
chemist. He took a piece of Wenham Lake ice (which, from peculiar local
causes, such as being formed from spring water, is totally destitute
of air), and melted it under a covering of sweet oil; this prevented
the absorption of any air during the liquefaction; on continuing the
heat, the water rose in temperature, and on reaching the boiling point,
suddenly burst into steam, with an explosive power, sufficiently great to
scatter the glass vessel in which the experiment was made into fragments;
and had it not been for a protecting covering of wire gauze, very serious
effects might have ensued.
From the precipitation of the dissolved chalk present in most kinds of
water, a cloudiness or slight turbidity is always to be observed in
boiled water.
After the escape of the air, bubbles of steam, at first very small in
size, are formed at the bottom of the vessel, those formed at first are
at once cooled from the whole water not being of an equal temperature,
and are condensed before they reach the surface: this very rapid and
successive condensation of numerous small bubbles gives rise to that
peculiar vibration which occasions what is termed the _singing_ of the
tea-kettle, and which, as is well known, is indicative of its approach
to the boiling point; when the whole water is uniformly heated, this
effect no longer occurs, but the bubbles of steam rise to the surface
and escape. After having been heated to 212°, the temperature of water
no longer rises; it is not possible, under ordinary circumstances, to
increase the temperature in the slightest degree, for all the extra heat
that is given to boiling water merely produces an increased quantity of
steam, by which it is carried off, without affecting the heat of the
remaining water. This is a matter of considerable practical importance
in cookery; and it should be always borne in mind, that the most gentle
simmer is as efficacious in cooking as the most violent boiling, for
the degree of heat in both cases is precisely the same, so that after
having once raised the water to the boiling point, the most moderate fire
is sufficient in ordinary cases to keep it there; by attention to this
point, a most enormous saving may often be effected in the consumption of
fuel, although this is a consideration that will be more fully entered
into in a subsequent article. Thick liquids, which do not readily permit
the escape of steam or the rapid motion between the particles of the
fluid, may, however, be readily heated at the part exposed to the fire
to a much higher degree, whilst those portions not immediately in contact
with the heat are much colder; from this cause they are very apt to be
charred, and if articles of food, they are totally spoiled. To avoid
this effect, recourse may be had to the _bain marie_, which is simply
the same contrivance that may be observed in a carpenter’s glue-pot,
applied to the preparation of articles of food, being merely an inner
vessel to contain the substance to be heated; this is placed in an outer
one, the space between the two containing water. On placing this on the
fire, it is obvious that the substance in the inner vessel, being heated
solely by the boiling water, cannot possibly become burnt; this most
useful contrivance is adopted in all first-class kitchens, and is equally
indispensable in the chemist’s laboratory; by its aid, soups, gravies,
&c., can be kept hot any length of time without risk, preserves made
without burning, &c.; the chief precautions required in its use are, that
the inner vessel should be thin and formed of metal, so as to allow the
rapid transmission of heat from the boiling water, and care should be
taken that the outer vessel does not boil dry. One serious disadvantage
attends its use as ordinarily employed, it is, that it is impossible to
heat substances in it to the boiling point, for the water itself is only
at that temperature, and the substance in the inner vessel is always a
few degrees below. This evil may, however, be entirely obviated, by using
a solution in the outer vessel, which boils at a higher temperature than
212°, and which will therefore raise the inner vessel and its contents to
that point; thus, if the water be made to dissolve as much common salt as
it is capable of doing, it will not boil until it is heated to 224°; or
if it is saturated with sal-ammoniac or nitre, the heat will rise 12° or
14° higher. We need scarcely say that the first of these substances will
be found a very useful and economical addition to the _bain marie_. When
chemists require a still higher temperature, they have recourse to a bath
of olive oil, which is capable of bearing a degree of heat as high as
500°; but its extreme danger over an open fire entirely precludes its use
in any culinary operation.
The mode of conducting the operation of boiling should not be uniform,
but vary with the different purposes required. Thus, in the case of
meat, a temperature of 212° hardens, instead of softening, two of the
substances which it contains; namely, the fibrine, or material forming
the chief part of the muscular fibre, and the albumen, or portion which
is analogous to white of egg; if, on the contrary, meat is cooked by
means of water at a lower temperature, the most nutritious parts are
dissolved out, and the solid food left comparatively innutritious. The
celebrated German chemist, Liebig, proposes the following plan:—he
recommends that a piece of meat of considerable size should be taken and
plunged into perfectly boiling water, over a good fire; that the water
should be kept boiling for a few minutes, and then a portion of cold
water, equal in quantity to about one-half of the boiling water, should
be thrown in: this will reduce the temperature to about 160°, at which
point the meat should be kept until thoroughly done; which, however,
takes a much longer time than in the ordinary mode.
The object of this mode of proceeding is, in the first instance, to
harden the exterior of the meat, converting it into a sort of crust,
which prevents the escape of the nutritious juices into the water, whilst
the long continuance of the gentle heat afterwards cooks the interior
without hardening either the albumen or the fibrine. Of course, where
the object of boiling is to make soup, the opposite plan must be had
recourse to; the meat should be in small instead of large pieces, put on
in cold water and very slowly heated, so that all the soluble parts may
be dissolved before the fibre is hardened by the action of boiling water.
In boiling eggs, the effect of heat in hardening the albumen is well
known; by being suddenly plunged into boiling water, the outside is
hardened to the greatest degree of which it is capable, and is thereby
rendered extremely difficult of digestion, whilst the inside is barely
warmed; if, on the contrary, they are placed in cold water, which is then
raised to the boiling point, removed from the fire, and allowed to stand
about a minute (or two, if required to be well done), it will be found
that, instead of having an almost leathery consistence, the white will be
uniformly partially hardened, and will furnish a much more pleasant and
digestible article of diet; the improvement, in fact, is so great, the
common eggs cooked in this manner very nearly approach new-laid ones in
quality.
If the operation of boiling has to be performed on any substance
containing starchy matters—as potatoes, rice, flour, &c., then the heat
must, on the contrary, be raised to a sufficient degree to burst the
little grains of which the starch consists, and liberate the interior
nutritious portions, before it can become fit food for man; uncooked
starch not being readily or easily digested. And even in the case of
those vegetable-feeding animals whose power of digesting such substances
surpasses that of man, there is the greatest advantage to be derived from
the use of cooked food, as the most intelligent and scientific farmers
at the present day well know; and we would strongly urge on those of our
readers who keep pigs, to try the experiment of baking the potatoes they
give them, for this process, like boiling, has the effect of bursting the
starch grains; they will find the effect to be that the food will go much
further, all of it being digested, and that the quality of the flesh will
be very materially improved.
IX.
ECONOMY OF HEAT.
Perhaps few of our readers are aware of the extraordinary wastefulness
of our usual processes for obtaining artificial heat; at the most
moderate computation, seven-eighths of the warmth produced by an open
fire, pass up the chimney, and are entirely useless; and according to
other estimates, which we regard as being nearer the truth, fourteen
parts out of every fifteen are thus uselessly wasted. In no other
civilized country in the world, except in England, is such an enormous
waste of fuel allowed; nor would it be the case here, were it not that
the comparatively low price of fuel, from the abundance of coal, has led
to the extravagance. It may be asked, what are the defects of a common
fire-place that render it so wasteful, and in what way is the heat
carried off? In reply it may be stated, that one-half the heat produced
passes away with the smoke and heated air arising from the fire, a
quarter is carried up by the draught of cold air from the room, which,
flowing around the fire and between it and the mantel-piece, rises with
the smoke. Again, the soot which passes away is unburned fuel, and is,
therefore, useless; and a large portion of heat is thrown downwards
on to the ashes, and is wasted; whilst the iron, of which the grates
are generally made, conveys away a very considerable quantity. On the
continent of Europe, where the cold in winter is much more intense than
in this country, and where fuel is considerably dearer than with us, the
production of heat is more economically managed—stoves of very admirable
construction being constantly had recourse to, both for the purpose of
producing warmth and for cookery. It is to the latter application of heat
that we must mainly confine ourselves in this paper, and having been at
some considerable pains in examining the various stoves and ranges now
to be obtained in this country, we place the results of our experience
before our readers.
The cooking-stove common on the continent, consists of an enclosed
fire-pan, with a grating below and a lid at the top for the supply of
fuel; this is enclosed in an oven, supported on the floor of the room
by feet, and which is heated by the warmth thrown out by the sides of
the fire-pan, and also by a flue spreading over the top, which is thus
heated; whilst the upper surface of the flue forms a hot plate, on which
many saucepans, &c., can be kept boiling, and any vessel can also be
placed over the fire by the removal of the lid. As the draught is under
perfect control, the fuel is slowly consumed; and the stove affords means
of baking, boiling, frying, and stewing, at a very small expense.
Some years since, a modification of this contrivance was introduced here,
under the title of the Bruges Stove, by Messrs. Cottam & Hallam, Oxford
Street. But it had one deficiency, which, in English eyes, overwhelmed
all its advantages, viz., that no fire was visible, and also that
boiling, toasting, and roasting, were, not to be performed by its means.
Those of our readers who visited Prince Albert’s Model Cottages opposite
the Exhibition, may have noticed a stove, looking very much like a long
oblong box, standing on four legs, having two doors in the front, one
opening into a large-sized oven, the other disclosing the fire-grate,
which was fed by the removal of a lid at the top—the draught from the
fire passed over the oven, heating it and the hot plate above. This stove
combines all the advantages of the continental cooking stoves, with the
cheerful appearance of an open fire; at the same time, by closing up the
fire-place door, it is converted into a close stove, with an excessively
small consumption of fuel. From experience in its use, we can state that
it bakes admirably, either bread or large joints of meat; at the same
time, it boils a saucepan and steamer over the fire-hole, and also four
large or six smaller saucepans on the top of the hot plate; it fries
well, and broils before the fire, and this, with less than one-half the
fuel that was employed to do a portion of the work in the range which it
has deposed. The _bain marie_, the use of which was described in our last
article, and which is so excellent a means of keeping soups, gravies,
sauces, &c., hot without burning or drying them up, is readily used with
it; and the _sauté_ pan, or deep frying-pan, which is employed as a
preliminary operation in most French-made dishes, is conveniently used.
This contrivance (which is absurdly termed by our cooks the _sooty_ pan)
derives its name from the verb _sauter_, to jump—the meat being rapidly
turned over and browned previous to stewing. The only disadvantage
attending the use of the stove is, that it is not calculated for
roasting; but every other operation in cooking, it performs infinitely
better than a common fire, and that at a consumption of less than half a
bushel of coke per day. This stove, which is termed the Cottager’s Stove
(_Fig. 1_), is made by Messrs. Benham, Wigmore Street.
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]
Those who object to a stove of this character, preferring a range, even
at a greater sacrifice of economy, should still be somewhat guided by
correct principles in their selection; a range surrounded by iron is an
absurdity, as the metal conducts away the heat rapidly; it should be
backed and lined with fire-brick or Welsh lumps, which throw out the heat
with great power. In an open fire-place, the active combustion is wanted
in front for roasting, and there only should air enter the fire; in most
ranges the air enters below, causing the greatest heat to be thrown upon
the ashes. It may be thought that closing up the bottom would produce the
same effect as allowing it to be choked up with ashes in a common grate,
deadening the fire; this is not the case with a properly constructed
range, backed with a slanting back of fire-clay; the ashes can be readily
removed at the bottom, and from all the draught being in front, there is
a bright fire at the place where it is required. The range in the Reform
Club, which was erected by Messrs. Benham, under the direction of the
late Sir Charles Barry, the architect of the new Houses of Parliament,
is of this kind, and it is, perhaps, the finest in the world. Our common
ranges are far too deep—the burning of such a mass of coal being useless.
One of the best constructed ranges, of a small size, is Nicholson’s
Cottage Range, that obtained the prize given by the Royal Agricultural
Society; it is free from the objections raised above, and comprises an
oven and boiler; is economical in price and efficient in use. Unlike the
Cottager’s Stove, it is a fixture, requiring setting, and, therefore, is
more a subject for the landlord’s than the tenant’s consideration. It may
be seen in London at Pierce’s, in Jermyn Street. The improvements in the
use of fuel have mainly arisen from philanthropic individuals directing
their attention to improving the comfort of the working classes, and the
improvements here made have been copied for the use of the wealthier
class, by both the makers above named, as well as by others.
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
In situations where gas is to be obtained, it forms a ready, and, for
some purposes, very economical means of obtaining heat; its economy does
not arise from its cheapness compared with other means, but from the fact
that it need not be lighted till the instant it is required, and can be
as quickly extinguished when it has done its required duty; for heating
any vessels containing liquids, especially if the heat is required to
be only of short continuance, gas will be found extremely advantageous;
a ring burner, constructed as shown in _Fig. 2_, less than three
inches in diameter, will quickly boil a gallon of water in a metallic
vessel; burners of this description are usually used in the laboratory,
surrounded by a case made of sheet-iron or tinned plate, as _Fig. 3_;
this serves to support the vessel to be heated, to steady the jets of
flame, and to conduct every portion of hot air against the bottom; the
door also gives a ready access to the burner for the purposes of lighting
the gas.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
For the domestic use of gas in heating, we believe there is no
contrivance so useful as the following:—A circular hole, from two to
four or more inches in diameter, is cut in the dresser, through which
is passed a sheet-iron tube, supported by three little elbows; this
tube projects a few inches above the table, and about a foot and a half
below; its lower end is open, and into it projects a gas pipe, furnished
with a stop-cock; the upper extremity is covered with a sheet of wire
gauze, similar to that used for blinds, on which, as shown in _Fig. 4_,
may be placed some pieces of pumice-stone, surrounded and kept together
by a broad ring—neither the pumice-stone nor the ring, however, are
essential parts of the contrivance. The action of this arrangement is
as follows:—When the gas is turned on it escapes from the pipe, rising
through the tube, and mixing with the air contained within it; this
mixture then escapes through the wire gauze, and may be lighted on its
upper side, without passing through it to the gas below; the flame
should be perfectly free from smoke, which indicates too much gas—should
be pale, colourless, and not soil any bright metal placed in it; if the
flame is in the slightest degree yellow it will do this, and then the
gas should be partly turned off—on the contrary, if there is not enough
gas, the flame will be extinguished. When lighted, the pumice becomes
red-hot, and throws out a great heat; when used in boiling, the vessel
should be supported a short distance over the flame by a trivet; if it is
made to rest on the top of the ring, and is sufficiently large to close
it entirely, the current is stopped and the flame extinguished, whilst
the unburned gas still escapes below. This contrivance is most useful,
it is lighted in an instant, is perfectly free from smoke, no unburned
gas escapes, it throws out great heat, and may be employed to heat bright
tools with much more convenience than a charcoal fire: the objections to
its use are, that in burning it produces, as all gas does, a quantity of
carbonic acid gas, deteriorating the air, and that the flame cannot be
very much enlarged or diminished, so that if fires of different power
are required, two or more of the contrivances must be put in order.
Otherwise, the instantaneous action, small cost, great heating power,
and cleanliness of the plan, strongly recommend it. In summer weather,
in many small families, it can be made to dispense altogether with the
use of a fire. By a little variation, the whole contrivance may be made
to stand on the table like _Fig. 2_; in this and other cases, vulcanized
India-rubber will be found to form by far the best kind of flexible tube,
being quite impervious, very durable, and excessively pliant. Those who
wish to try the experiment of heating on this plan, may readily do so by
covering the top of the glass chimney of any common burner with a piece
of wire gauze, folding it over the sides; the gas may then be turned on,
and lighted above the gauze, after it has mingled with the air in the
chimney; a small burner, however, does not afford sufficient gas for the
purpose, and there is consequently too much air, and the flame is weak
and liable to go out.
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
We cannot conclude this article on heat, without entering our most
earnest protest against _all_ those injurious contrivances for burning
charcoal without a flue; the use of charcoal-braziers in a large kitchen
is not to be recommended, but a charcoal stove in a dwelling-room is
most objectionable. Charcoal, in burning, produces carbonic acid gas,
an invisible and therefore insidious poison, which is so deadly in its
effects, that if the air of a room contains but one-tenth of its bulk,
the breathing of it for a short time is fatal. Every pound of charcoal,
in burning, produces more than three pounds and a half of this deadly
gas, and the ill effect of charcoal stoves may be readily imagined.
In Paris, in the years 1834 and 1835, there were 360 cases resulting from
the fumes of charcoal, of which more than 260 were fatal. In order to
test the effects of these stoves, Mr. Coathupe, of Wraxall, shut himself
up in a close room containing eighty cubic yards of air, with one of
them in action. In four hours he was seized with giddiness, which, in an
hour’s time, became most intense; he then had the desire to vomit, but
not the power; this was followed by an utter loss of strength, throbbing
at the temples, and agonizing headache, but no sense of suffocation;
finding that the experiment was becoming dangerous, he essayed to open
the window, but had the greatest difficulty in so doing; and when his
wife came into the room, he was found in a speechless state, in which he
remained for some time.
In a fatal case, which happened in St. John’s Wood, where two girls
were killed by the use of one of these stoves, the writer found, on
investigation, that the quantity of carbonic acid produced was capable of
rendering poisonous the air of a room ten times the size of the one in
which it was used; and yet the maker is guilty, even to the present time,
of the moral turpitude of recommending these as fitted for burning in a
close room. Men who, knowing the poisonous effects of these stoves, still
sell them, recommending them as wholesome, with the deliberate assertion
that their prepared fuel, which is merely charcoal disguised, is not
deleterious, evince a much more lively interest in the state of their own
pockets, than in the lives of their customers.
Let it not be imagined that the case of Mr. Coathupe is only a solitary
one; the action of burning charcoal is of the same deleterious nature on
all persons. In January, 1836, seventy people suffered the same symptoms,
though in a milder degree, in the church at Downham, in Norfolk, where
two of these dangerous contrivances had been introduced: and in the
_Annales d’Hygéine_, tome xi., will be found an account of the suicides
in the department of the Seine in ten years, these were 4595 in number,
of which 1426 deaths were produced by burning charcoal. We would again
recommend our readers under no circumstances, however much they may be
recommended by false assertions, to admit stoves without flues into their
houses. In France, the deaths from charcoal have been mostly suicides,
as, from their deadly effects, they are never used in close rooms. But in
England, persons are often ignorant of the action of charcoal fumes, and
relying on the word of some stove makers, whose “conscience,” as Milton
says, “is their maw,” the numerous deaths have been chiefly those of
innocent persons, victims to the cupidity of the makers.
X.
CLEANING AND DISINFECTING.
In our previous papers on Domestic Manipulation, we have several times
given directions as to the best mode of conducting processes for cleaning
various articles, such as bottles, glass, &c. What remains, therefore,
under this head, is to furnish hints for cleaning miscellaneous articles,
which have not been included under previous accounts; and the very
important process of disinfecting, which may be regarded as a medical
cleaning, falls, naturally, into the same chapter. As the substances to
be submitted to the process of cleaning vary greatly from one another,
we shall find it more convenient to throw our remarks into the form of
miscellaneous hints, than to arrange them in a chapter for consecutive
reading.
IRON-WORK which is exposed to wet, rusts rapidly; it is usually preserved
from the action of moisture either by covering it with two or three
coatings of paint, as is customary in large out-door works, or by
brushing it over with a varnish termed Brunswick black; this plan is
usually followed in the case of smaller substances used in-doors. A very
superior plan of protecting small iron goods from the injurious action of
wet, is to heat them a little below redness, and whilst hot to brush them
over with common linseed oil, which is decomposed by the heat, and forms
a thin, very firm coating of varnish, which is quite impervious to water,
and unlike paint or Japan-black does not chip off. It is evident that
this plan can only be adopted in a limited number of cases, but where it
is available we very strongly recommend it.
FLOOR BOARDING and other wood-work is exceedingly apt to be stained by
various substances spilt upon it. Ink stains, for instance, are extremely
obstinate; they withstand washing many times, and at last turn to a rusty
iron colour, from the application of the alkali of the soap. Both the
black stain of recent ink and the rusty iron-mould may be removed by the
action of oxalic or muriatic acid. As wood is not likely to be injured
like cloth or linen, muriatic acid may be used, being the cheaper, and it
should be diluted with two or three times its bulk of water, and applied
until the stain is removed. Grease which has been trodden in, or has
remained a long time, should be first softened by the application of a
little turpentine, and then it will be found to yield much more readily
than it otherwise would to the action of fuller’s earth and pearlash
or soda. Fruit stains are quickly removed by the action of a little
chloride of lime, mixed with water, and applied until the desired effect
is produced. It should be borne in mind that all vegetable colours are
utterly destroyed beyond any restoration, by the energetic action of this
agent.
PAINT, when soiled, is readily cleaned by soap and water; soda and
pearlash are frequently employed, but they act by removing a portion of
the paint, and if not thoroughly washed off with clean water afterwards,
they will be found to soften the whole. Caustic alkalies, such as the
solution for washing on the new plan, will rapidly dissolve paint, and
are therefore inapplicable for cleaning; they may, however, be usefully
employed in removing paint from wood, where such an operation is
requisite.
PLATE may be cleaned by rouge, or if this is not readily obtained, by
washed whiting; this is readily made by stirring some whiting up with
water, then allowing the larger particles and the grit to subside, and
pouring off the water charged with the finer powder, which is allowed
to settle, and dried for use. When plate is very much stained, it may be
cleaned with putty powder, but this preparation would soon wear away the
silver if used frequently or unnecessarily. It may be mentioned, that
this substance is not made from putty, as its name might seem to imply,
but is a rust or oxide of tin, obtained by heating the metal.
JAPANNED GOODS, such as tea-boards, should not have boiling water poured
upon them, but should be washed with warm water, and polished with a
piece of wash-leather and fine flour.
KNIVES.—The common wooden knife-board wears out the knives very rapidly,
it is therefore much better to employ a piece of buff-leather to cover
the board; for very superior cutlery emery powder should be used instead
of Bath brick. Whatever the material of the board, it will be rapidly
spoiled by cleaning the backs of knives upon the edge of the board; to
prevent this evil, a small piece of leather should be fixed at one end to
clean the backs upon. We have seen several knife-boards lately, covered
with a material formed of India-rubber and powdered cork, which was
manufactured as a substitute for floor-cloth, and sold under the name of
_kamptulicon_; but we have had no experience in their use.
STEEL FORKS are readily cleaned by having a pot of damp moss or hay, with
some sand intermixed, into which they may be repeatedly thrust. If knives
or forks get an unpleasant taint which cannot be removed readily, they
may be plunged into the mould of the garden, which has a very absorptive
power, and rapidly removes such odours.