When the British had seized Mauritius, Bourbon, and the Seychelles

Islands, it was determined to finish the work of clearing the French

out of the Indian Ocean by taking the trading stations which still

remained in their possession on the east coast of Madagascar,

namely, Tamatave and Foule Point. In 1811 this was effected, and

Tamatave was occupied by British soldiers. This capture was ratified

by the definite treaty signed at Paris on May 30, 1814, which ceded

the settlements in Madagascar as “one of the dependencies of

Mauritius[218].” The Island of Bourbon was, however, restored to

France by this treaty. (In 1848 it was re-christened Réunion.) Sir

Robert Farquhar, a very enterprising governor of Mauritius, obtained

soon afterwards a large concession from the native chiefs of the

north-east of Madagascar, which included Diego Suarez Bay. Various

proclamations were issued in the _Mauritius Gazette_ claiming

Madagascar as a British possession. On the other hand, it had been

agreed that all French possessions in Madagascar which were in

existence in 1792 were to be restored to France by England; but as a

matter of fact, in 1792 France held no post in Madagascar, all

places having been abandoned. Tamatave was not founded till 1804.

All this confusion was due to the ignorance of local geography, then

most characteristic of both British and French Government offices.

Nevertheless, it is clear that France imagined that she still had

rights over Madagascar, because in 1817 the French Governor of

Bourbon protested against the British proclamation declaring

Madagascar an appendage of Mauritius, and the French protest was

further supported by the reoccupation of the island of St Marie de

Madagascar. While Sir Robert Farquhar was in England on leave of

absence, the Acting-Commissioner, a military officer named Hall,

deliberately undid much of Sir Robert Farquhar’s work, and thereby

prejudiced any further insistence on British claims over Madagascar.

Subsequently, when Sir Robert Farquhar returned, he deemed it the

better policy to back up the efforts of the Hova king Radama to

conquer the whole of the island, and proclaim himself king of all

Madagascar, in spite of a protest from the French, which was

absolutely disregarded.

In 1818 the first missionaries of the London Missionary Society

arrived, and established themselves on the Hova Plateau. Radama was

much helped in his conquests by the loan of several English soldiers

and non-commissioned officers, amongst whom one made himself

specially prominent, a Mr Hastie. By degrees Radama took possession

of Tamatave (held for some years by a French mulatto, Jean René),

and of all other French posts on the mainland of Madagascar,

including Fort Dauphin. Here he cut down the French flag and

deported the small French garrison to the island of St Marie de

Madagascar. Radama died in 1828, and was succeeded in a very

irregular, Catherine-the-Great manner by his senior wife,

Ranaválona. But her policy was not that of her great prototype in

Russia, for it was a reactionary return to barbarism. She persecuted

the native Christians and the missionaries, showed the greatest

enmity to any foreign influence, and so flouted the French that the

latter were compelled to take some notice of her hostility. In 1829

the Government of Charles X decided to send a small expedition

against Madagascar, which was to be largely composed of Yolof

soldiers from Senegambia—a new departure in European warfare in

Africa to be afterwards largely followed. The French bombarded

Tamatave successfully, but were repulsed at Foule Point, though they

made a successful attack on another Hova post. Still, the results of

the expedition were ineffective, though the Prince de Polignac wrote

to the Queen of Madagascar proposing a French protectorate, with

French stations at Diego Suarez, St Augustine’s Bay, and other

places on the coast. But the Government of July reversed this

policy, and evacuated all French posts on the mainland of

Madagascar, after which there was not for years a Frenchman on

Madagascar soil, with the exception of a remarkable personage named

Laborde, originally a French shipwrecked sailor, who had been sent

up to the Queen of Madagascar for her to decide on his fate. From

his comely appearance he found great favour in her eyes, and was the

only European tolerated at her court, where he attained a very

influential position. In 1833 a French surveying party had

pronounced Diego Suarez Bay to be a very suitable place for a

settlement.

During the thirties of the last century Queen Ranaválona had made

herself infamous by her persecution of the native Christians and by

forcing all European missionaries to leave the island; in addition

to which her soldiers, in exacting tribute and in emphasizing their

conquests over the Sakalavas, committed the most atrocious cruelties

and wholesale slaughters. The Queen of Madagascar, feeling at last

even in her remoteness that she was banned by Europe, sent an

embassy in 1836 to William IV of England, but the envoys effected

nothing in the way of renewing friendly relations.

In 1840 the Sakalavas[219], driven to desperation by the Hova

attacks, placed themselves under French protection, with the result

that France, to enforce her protectorate, occupied the islands of

Nosi Mitsiu, Nosi Bé, and Nosi Komba, as well as the island of

Mayotta, in the Komoro Archipelago. In 1845 the Hova Government

intensified its unfriendliness to Europeans by expelling all foreign

traders from Tamatave. This action roused the French and English

Governments, who replied by a joint bombardment of Tamatave.

Unhappily, the bombardment was followed by a landing party, which

met with a most disastrous repulse, which neither France nor England

thought fit to revenge otherwise than by breaking off all political

and commercial relations with Madagascar. Between 1847 and 1849 the

French had abolished slavery in Réunion and in their Madagascar

possessions; but this philanthropic action subsequently caused

outbreaks among the Sakalavas, who were angry at having their

slave-trading operations interfered with by the French.

Between 1847 and 1852 the queen’s son, Rakoto, heir-apparent to the

throne, applied at intervals for French protection, in order that he

might depose his mother and put an end to her ferocious policy. No

very definite answer was made to these appeals (which possibly were

not genuine, but fabricated for their own purposes by the Frenchman

Laborde, who still lived at the Malagasy capital, and by a M.

Lambert, who visited Madagascar as a slave-trader); nor were they

followed up by any action on the part of the French Government. In

1853 the merchants of Mauritius, finding that the Madagascar

Government continued to refuse to pay the indemnity demanded by the

British Government for the disaster of Tamatave (in consequence of

which refusal trade with Tamatave was forbidden), subscribed amongst

themselves and paid up the indemnity to the extent of £3125. Trade

was then reopened. In 1855 the French adventurer and

ex-slave-trader, Lambert, visited Tanánarivo, the Hova capital, and

after an interview with Prince Rakoto, conveyed from him to the

French Government fresh proposals for a French protectorate; but

these were rejected by the Emperor Napoleon III, because he was

loyal to the British alliance and would do nothing in Madagascar

which might seem unfriendly to Great Britain.

In 1856 Mr Ellis, one of the pioneers of the London Missionary

Society’s agents, who, after many years of work had left Madagascar

in despair in 1836, was invited to return thither to confer with the

Queen, and went out as an informal messenger of the British

Government. His mission resulted in nothing, however. Lambert, the

French adventurer, returned to Madagascar in that year, and escorted

to the capital Mme Ida Pfeiffer (one of the earliest of women

travellers, the Mrs Isabella Bird of her day). Lambert plotted a

_coup d’état_ which should place Rakoto on the throne under French

influence, with Lambert himself as Prime Minister. But Rakoto was

frightened, and kept his mother informed of the conspiracy. It was

therefore nipped in the bud, and Lambert and Laborde were promptly

expelled from the country, the latter after many years’ residence

losing in one day all his property in lands and slaves. But in 1861

this ferocious old Queen, who had ruled Madagascar with a rod of

iron for 33 years, and had successfully set Europe at defiance,

died, and was succeeded by her son Rakoto, who took the title of

Radama II.

If Ranaválona, his mother, was like Catherine of Russia, Radama II

resembled in his brief career Catherine’s predecessor, the unhappy

Peter III. He reversed the Queen’s anti-Christian policy, abolished

customs’ duties, and was such an enthusiastic reformer as almost to

suggest flightiness. He invited and received an English envoy in

1861. Laborde and Lambert returned, and were received by him with

almost extravagant affection. The foolish King signed without

hesitating a deed presented to him by M. Lambert which gave the

latter the most extravagant concessions in Madagascar. He is also

supposed to have created Lambert “Duc d’Emirne,” a title, however,

which the ex-slave-trader soon found it wiser to drop owing to the

ridicule it entailed. At this time also Roman Catholic

missionaries[220] came out to settle in the Hova country. Mr Ellis

also returned, and brought letters of congratulation from the

British Government. The English missionaries re-established

themselves, and in 1862 British and French Consuls were established

at Tanánarivo. The French Consul was Laborde, who had resided for so

many years in Madagascar. But the Hovas were profoundly dissatisfied

with their King’s reforms and extraordinary generosity to Europeans.

A palace revolution took place in 1862, and the unhappy Radama was

strangled. A female cousin, Rabodo (Rasohérina), was proclaimed

Queen, but was dominated by the Prime Minister, as have been

subsequently all the remaining queens of Madagascar. The French

treaty was denounced on account of Lambert’s claims. These last were

compounded for finally by the payment of £36,247. 7_s._ in silver.

The concession was returned to the Malagasy envoys, and solemnly

burned at Tamatave.

The whole procedure of the French Government in supporting Lambert’s

unfair claim profoundly affected the Hova people, and caused them to

be suspicious in future of all European enterprise. Queen Rasohérina

died in 1868, and was succeeded by her cousin, Ranaválona II, who

established Christianity as the state religion. In her reign arose a

very powerful Prime Minister, afterwards to be famous as the

opponent of the French, Rainilaiarivóny. In 1872 the French

Government again allowed its influence in Madagascar to wane, and

withdrew its subsidy from the Jesuit missionaries; but with

returning energy, and in the dawn of the new phase of colonial

activity, it resumed a more active policy at the beginning of the

eighties. Laborde, the French Consul, died in 1878, but the Malagasy

Government opposed his landed property passing to his heir on the

plea that he was only a life tenant, and that no land could be

alienated in Madagascar. The French Government supported the claims

of Laborde’s heirs, and disputed the matter between 1880 and 1882,

at the same time reviving the idea of a French protectorate over the

Sakalava of North-west Madagascar. The situation becoming strained,

the Madagascar Government sent a mission to Europe, but it was

unsuccessful in obtaining assurances of support. The Malagasy argued

with some justice that the French treaty of 1868 recognized the

Queen’s rule over the whole mainland of Madagascar, and made no

mention of any French protectorate over the Sakalavas. But we know

in the fable that the lamb’s arguments availed but little with the

wolf. The French had endeavoured in 1881 to find cause for a quarrel

in the murder by the Sakalavas of four French subjects on the west

coast of Madagascar, and claimed an indemnity from the Hova

Government; which, logically, they could not have done if the

country had been under a French protectorate. The Malagasy

Government promptly paid the indemnity demanded; but, when later on

they endeavoured to strengthen their authority over the Sakalavas,

they were forbidden to do so by the French. In the following year,

1882, a French protectorate over the northern coast was distinctly

asserted, and the demand was made that the Hova flag should be

withdrawn from those territories. The demand was refused, and the

French Commissioner left Tanánarivo. Lord Granville in 1882

protested against the assertion of French claims to the North-west

coast of Madagascar, but received no immediate reply, nor was the

opposition of the British Government deemed an obstacle worth taking

into account, seeing that we had already tied our hands with the

occupation of Egypt. It was, however, asserted by the French with

some degree of truth that a certain Sakalava chief opposite Nosi Bé

had concluded protectorate treaties with France in 1840 and 1843.

Another cause of complaint which France urged against Madagascar was

the passing of a law in 1881 forbidding the Malagasy to sell their

land to foreigners; but in 1883 this complaint was somewhat obviated

by other edicts facilitating the transfer of land on perpetual

leases[221]. Nevertheless in May 1883 war broke out between France

and Madagascar, and the French fleet under Admiral Pierre captured

Mojanga. Subsequently Admiral Pierre steamed round the island, and

anchored in the roadstead of Tamatave, where he found H.M.S. Dryad,

Commander Johnstone, already watching events. The French admiral,

after delivering an ultimatum, which was rejected, bombarded and

occupied Tamatave, and destroyed other Hova establishments on the

East coast. Mr Shaw, an English medical missionary, was established

at Tamatave, and, beyond rendering medical assistance to the wounded

natives, took no part in the struggle. Nevertheless, his dispensary

was broken into, and he was arrested, accused of poisoning French

soldiers[222], and closely confined as a prisoner on the French

flag-ship. The British Consul, Pakenham, who had gone down to

Tamatave and was very ill, was ordered to quit the town in 24 hours,

but died before this time elapsed. Anglo-French relations were

severely strained by the attempt of the French to intercept Captain

Johnstone’s mails. When the news of French action reached England Mr

Gladstone made a very serious speech in the House of Commons

regarding Mr Shaw’s arrest. The French Government, feeling its

agents had gone too far, made a conciliatory reply. Mr Shaw was

released, and given an indemnity of £1000. In the meantime the Queen

of Madagascar died, and was succeeded by another Queen, Ranaválona

III. Admiral Pierre also fell ill, and died just as he reached

Marseilles. His successor, Admiral Galiber, did much to restore

cordial relations between the British and French officials by his

courteous manner. In 1884 an Englishman named Digby Willoughby, who

had been a volunteer in the Zulu war, succeeded in running a cargo

of arms and ammunition across to the south coast of Madagascar, and

in reward for his energy was taken into the service of the Malagasy

Government, made an officer in their army, and finally rose to be

their Commander-in-Chief. The war dragged on through 1885, causing

some dissatisfaction and lassitude in France. It is probable that

the French Government would not have insisted on the protectorate

but for German action on the adjoining coast of Africa, which caused

the French to feel that in the African scramble they should be

fairly represented. At last a treaty of peace was negotiated, and

finally concluded in January, 1886. General Willoughby represented

the Malagasy Government at Tamatave, and concluded a treaty in their

name. This agreement gave France a virtual protectorate over

Madagascar—at any rate, a control over her foreign relations—an

establishment at Diego Suarez Bay, and an indemnity of £,400,000.

A few months later, in June 1886, France declared her protectorate

over all the Komoro Islands, of which she had already annexed

Mayotta in 1840.

In 1890, England, in return for the waiving of French opposition to

a British protectorate over Zanzibar, recognized a French

protectorate over Madagascar. But the Malagasy themselves had been

sullenly refusing their recognition of any such protectorate and

endeavouring to shake themselves free of the trammels of the 1886

treaty. It was believed in England and in France that the conquest

of Madagascar would be an extremely difficult undertaking, that the

opposition of the Hovas would be a determined one, and that their

warlike energy combined with the terribly unhealthy climate would

make success doubtful or dearly purchased. For some nine years,

therefore, the French Government put up with many a rebuff from the

powerful Prime Minister of Madagascar. But at last the French were

obliged either to let their protectorate become a dead letter or

enforce their right to a predominant influence at the Malagasy

court. Their ultimatum in 1895 was rejected. A powerful French

expedition was sent—over 10,000 French soldiers, and an equal number

of Senegalese. The idea of landing at Tamatave and forcing a way up

to the capital through dense forests and across steep mountain

terraces was wisely abandoned, and in preference the forces entered

Bembatoka Bay (Mojanga), on the west coast, and were transported up

the Ikopa river. From the point where its navigability came to an

end they started overland for Tanánarivo, which was captured after

the feeblest resistance on the part of the Hovas[223].

At first an attempt was made to continue the government of the Queen

of Madagascar under French protection, but this only led to

treachery and intrigue on the part of the Hovas. The Prime Minister

was exiled, the Queen was deposed, and exiled first to Réunion and

subsequently to Algiers. In 1896 the island was annexed to France,

and became a French colony. At the same time, and by this act of

annexation, the commercial treaties of other nations with Madagascar

were annulled; the coasting trade was confined to vessels flying the

French flag; and the fiscal policy adopted was that of the severest

Protectionist type, the commerce and enterprise of other nations

being practically excluded from Madagascar. These actions gradually

came to be apprehended and resented in England, where in the

previous recognition of the French protectorate no intention

whatever had existed of abandoning British commercial rights.

The Hova rule was bloody and barbarous, and more recent by quite a

hundred years than the first establishment of European influence.

But it at least established freedom of religion[224], and complete

freedom of commerce and enterprise for all civilized nations. By

pursuing this retrograde policy in commerce and religion France has

somewhat alienated the sympathy and interest with which one might

otherwise have watched her resolute intention to civilize

Madagascar. But from all accounts—British and French—the persistent

efforts of the first great administrator of Madagascar (General

Galliéni) to restore law and order and to open up this island of

228,000 square miles to cultivation and civilization produced

favourable results between 1897 and 1905[225]. The slaves have been

emancipated (in 1896); Tanánarive (the French, as it was the Hova

capital) has been transformed into a fine town of European aspect.

Roads are being rapidly made, canals have been dug to connect the

coast lagoons with the sea and the mouths of rivers, and railways

into the interior are in course of construction[226]. Already the

connection of Tamatave, the principal port on the East coast, by

railway with Tanánarivo the capital is nearly complete. Gold, iron,

copper, lead, silver, zinc, and many other metals and minerals are

being worked. Agriculture has not been neglected, and of late

Madagascar has begun to export rice. Rubber, wild and cultivated, is

entering into the list of exported products, of which the principal

are gold, cattle, hides, coffee, vanilla, cloves, and silks. The

land has not been taken from the natives, and the native population,

said to have at first decreased under French rule, has of late shown

a distinct increase. In 1911 it was found by census to number

3,054,658; of whom only 13,539 were of European race (7606 being

French). Forced labour in the public service was abolished in 1901.

The natives are a good deal governed by their own elected chiefs and

notables, and of late years very little local legislation has been

enacted without taking the leading native authorities into

consultation.

The mass of the Malagasy people are growing in contentment and

well-being under the paternal rule of a French governor-general, but

the volume of trade has not markedly increased and remains at about

an annual value of £3,000,000. And nearly the entirety (£2,300,000)

of this is done with France or French possessions, differential

duties and other forms of protection having greatly hampered foreign

trade with Madagascar since 1896.

As already mentioned, France had annexed the Mascarene Islands of

Mauritius (Ile de France) in 1715 and Réunion (called Bourbon from

1649 to 1848) in 1643. Both were taken from her by Britain in the

Napoleonic wars; but, though Mauritius was kept by the British,

Réunion was restored to France in 1815. (Both islands had been held

by the French East India Company till 1767, when they became

appanages of the Crown.) Réunion has an area of 965 square miles and

a population—nearly all white—of about 174,000.

The Komoro Islands to the north-west of Madagascar (area, about 760

square miles, population of Muhammadan negroids about 100,000) were

finally annexed to France in 1910 and are now under the Madagascar

government.

-----

Footnote 211:

There is stronger evidence to show that Menouthias was a little

island—Zanzibar, probably—close to the African coast. Menouthias

is repeated in the Arab name _Manutia_, and Al-phil means

“ivory”—the ivory island or market.

Footnote 212:

Almost certainly this was an egg of the gigantic _Æpyornis_. The

Æpyornis, a ratite bird as large as, or larger than, an ostrich

and distantly allied to both ostriches and cassowaries, lived on

in Madagascar to the human period—say two thousand years ago or

even later. It was quite possibly seen alive by the earliest Arab

visitors to the island.

Footnote 213:

But by the natives as Andrian Potsy, i.e. “White King.”

Footnote 214:

Already famous for his discoveries in India; a beautiful jungle

fowl is named after him.

Footnote 215:

The Malay immigration into the Komoro Islands was relatively

slight. The bulk of the population here is composed of East Coast

negroes, speaking a Bantu dialect allied to the tongues spoken on

the Zanzibar coast. There was a large influx of Arabs, however;

and this mingling with the negroes produced the present race of

the Komoro Islanders, a very fine type of the successful results

that attend the mixture of the Semite and the negro.

Footnote 216:

The Hovas, or Merina, as they are properly called, of Central

Madagascar bear a strong physical resemblance to the Javanese.

They seem to have reached east Madagascar much later than the

ancestors of the Sakalava and Betsi-misáraka, and subsequently to

the Arabs. The Merina ruling caste is very “Malay” or Mongoloid in

appearance.

Footnote 217:

A post a little to the north of Tamatave on the east coast.

Footnote 218:

Further confirmed by the treaty of the 13th of November, 1815.

Footnote 219:

The tribes of the western half of Madagascar, a finer race

physically than the Hovas owing to their greater intermixture with

negroes. They now number about 156,000.

Footnote 220:

In 1840 Jesuit priests had again endeavoured to establish

themselves in Madagascar, on the north-west coast, but they all

died from fever.

Footnote 221:

This law was completely abrogated by the French in 1896, and

foreigners can now acquire land as easily as natives.

Footnote 222:

Who had made themselves ill by appropriating and drinking his

claret—that was all.

Footnote 223:

Whether the Hovas had overlooked the Mojanga route and had decided

to concentrate all their resistance on the approach from Tamatave

is not known; but after their repeated boasts as to the determined

resistance they would make to an invader, the collapse of their

defence and the feebleness of the resistance they offered to the

French are matters of considerable astonishment. It must have been

mainly due to the fact that the Hova rule over the bulk of the

island was hated, and that the other tribes were not inclined to

fight for its maintenance.

Footnote 224:

Since the annexation to France, and the consequent dominating

influence of the Roman Catholic missionaries, many natives have

been constrained to exchange their Protestant faith for Roman

Catholic Christianity.

Footnote 225:

Particulars as to General Galliéni’s reforms and the resulting

condition of Madagascar are given in an article “French Policy in

Madagascar,” in the October _Journal_ of the African Society,

London, 1904.

Footnote 226:

The French occupation of Madagascar has resulted in great gains to

science. Noteworthy are the investigations in palæontology of the

two Grandidiers and of M. A. Jully, which have revealed a

marvellous extinct fauna of lemurs, hippopotami, carnivores,

birds, and giant reptiles.

CHAPTER XVIII

CONCLUSIONS AND FORECASTS

We have now seen the result of these race movements during three or

four thousand years, which have caused nations superior in physical

or mental development to the Negro, the Negroid, and the Hamite to

move down on Africa as a field for their colonization, cultivation,

and commerce. The great rush, however, has only been made since

1881, and may be said to have begun with the French invasion of

Tunis. Now there remain but two small portions of the map of Africa

which are uncoloured, that is, attributed to the independent

possession of a native state. These tracts, theoretically

independent, or the overlordship of which is international, are the

Negro Republic of Liberia on the West coast and the Ethiopian Empire

in North-east Africa. The whole remainder of the continent is now

allotted to the dominion, overlordship or exclusive political

direction of some one European, Christian power: Britain, France,

Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, or Spain. Morocco, on the extreme

north-west of the continent, the bulk of whose trade was formerly

with England, and whose principal seaport was once in English hands,

has now France for a protector, educator and disciplinarian, and

Spain for recolonizer. There is Egypt, in the occupation and under

the control of Britain, though still nominally a tributary state of

the Turkish Empire. Since this book was first published in 1898, the

truculent Muhammadan state of Wadai has been annexed and conquered

by France, together with Baghirmi and Kanem, Aïr and the Saharan

oases. Darfur is under Anglo-Egyptian suzerainty; Tripoli,

Cyrenaica, and Fezzan are annexed to Italy as the future “Colony” of

Libya; and British rule has been made very real over the eastern

Fula States of Nigeria and Bornu. The South African Republic and

Orange Free State are part of the Union of South Africa. Even

Liberia has recently entrusted its finances to the indirect control

of its original parent, the United States. Only Abyssinia—now the

Empire of Ethiopia in very fact, since 1900—remains theoretically

independent; and even Abyssinia is aware that three European

powers—Britain, France, and Italy—while guaranteeing her

independence, have in a sense agreed to take joint action if she

should abuse that independence to the commercial or political injury

of their interests. Abyssinia, for many reasons connected with her

history, her religion, and her sturdy assertion of independence

deserves more than any other state of Africa to preserve her

national self-respect and her sovereign status, provided she will

abstain from offence, and recognize her geographical and racial

limitations. But if through ambition she should attempt to arm and

to lead the peoples of the Sudan against the new order of things

which is being patiently introduced by Great Britain, she will find

herself restricted once more to the African Switzerland which has

been the nucleus and the last refuge of this Semitico-Hamitic

people. Liberia by studiously following American advice and

educating herself on the right lines to be an African Negro State

and not an African parody on a tiny scale of the vast United States

of North America, may play an important part some day in the

political development of West Africa.

What is Europe going to do with Africa? It seems as though there

were three courses to be pursued, corresponding with the three

classes of territory into which Africa falls when considered

geographically. There is, to begin with, that much restricted

healthy area lying outside the tropics (or in rare instances, at

great altitudes inside the tropics), where the climate is salubrious

and Europeans can support existence under much the same conditions

as in their native lands. Here they can freely rear children to form

in time a native European race; and in these regions (except in

parts of South Africa) there is no dense native population to

dispute by force or by an appeal to common fairness the possession

of the soil. These lands of the first category are of relatively

small extent compared to the mass of Africa. They are confined to

the districts south of the Zambezi and the Kunene (with the

exception of the neighbourhood of the Zambezi and the eastern

coast-belt); to the fifty thousand square miles on the mountain

plateaus of Northern Rhodesia, and about a hundred and thirty

thousand on the highlands of Nyasaland, Katanga, South and Central

Angola, Uganda and British East Africa; to the northern half of

Tunisia, a few districts of north-east and north-west Algeria and

the Cyrenaica (northern projection of Barka); and to parts of the

northern projection of Morocco. The second category consists of

countries like much of Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunis, and

Tripoli; Barka, Egypt, Abyssinia and parts of Somaliland; where

climatic conditions and soil are not wholly opposed[227] to the

healthful settlement of Europeans, but where the competition or

numerical strength or martial spirit of the natives already in

possession are factors opposed to the substitution of a large

European population for the present owners of the soil. The third

category consists of the remainder of Africa, mainly tropical, where

the climatic conditions make it impossible for Europeans to

cultivate the soil with their own hands, to settle for many years,

or to bring up healthy families. Countries lying under the first

category I should characterize as being suitable for European

colonies, a conclusion somewhat belated, since they have nearly all

become such. The second description of territory I should qualify as

“tributary states,” countries where good and settled government

cannot be maintained by the natives without the control of a

European power, the European power retaining in return for the

expense and trouble of such control the gratification of performing

a good and interesting work, and a field of employment and

profitable enterprise for a few of her choicer sons and daughters.

The third category consists of “plantation colonies”—vast

territories to be governed as India is governed, autocratically but

wisely and as far as possible through native chiefs and councils,

with the first aim of securing good government and a reasonable

degree of civilization to a large population of races at present

inferior in culture and mentality to the European. Here, however,

the European may come, in small numbers, with his capital, his

energy, and his knowledge to develop a most lucrative commerce, and

obtain products necessary to the use of his advanced civilization.

It is possible that these distinctions may be rudely set aside by

the pressure of natural laws one hundred, two hundred years hence,

if the other healthy quarters of the globe become over-populated,

and science is able to annul the unhealthy effects of a tropical

climate. A rush may then be made by Europeans for settlement on the

lands of tropical Africa, which in its violence may sweep away

contemptuously the pre-existing rights of inferior races. But until

such a contingency comes about, and whilst there is so much healthy

land still unoccupied in America and temperate Africa, it is safer

to direct our efforts along the lines laid down in these three

categories I have quoted. Until Frenchmen have peopled the north of

Tunis and the Aures Mountains of Algeria, it would be foolish for

their Government to lure French emigrants to make their homes in

Senegambia or on the Congo; until Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange

Free State, the Transvaal, and Rhodesia south and north of the

Zambezi are as thickly populated with whites as the resources of the

country permit, it would be most unwise to force on the peopling by

Europeans of Sokoto or the coast lands of British East Africa. On

the other hand, however healthy the climate of Egypt may be, it is a

country for the Egyptians, and not for Englishmen, except as

administrators, instructors, capitalists, or winter tourists. Since

we have begun to control the political affairs of parts of West

Africa and the Niger basin our annual trade with those countries,

rendered secure, has risen from a few hundred thousand pounds a year

to about £10,000,000. This is sufficient justification for our

continued government of these regions and their occasional cost to

us in men and money.

In the north of Africa the white Berber race will tend in course of

time to weaken in its Muhammadan fanaticism, and to mingle with the

European immigrants as it mingled with them in ancient times and in

the middle ages, when it invaded Spain and southern Europe. The Arab

will gradually draw aloof, and side with those darker Berbers, who

will long range the Sahara wastes unenvied; or else he will betake

himself to the Sudan, and lead a life there freer from European

restrictions, even though it be under a loose form of European rule.

The Egyptians will probably continue to remain the Egyptians they

have been for untold centuries, no matter what waves of Syrian,

Libyan, Hittite, Persian, Greek, Roman, Arab, Turkish, French or

English invaders swept over the land; but they will probably come

within that circle of confederated nations which will form the

future British Empire—nations of every origin, colour, race,

religion, united only by one supreme ruler, and the one supreme bond

of peace, mutual defence, and unfettered interchanging commerce. The

Negro or Negroid races of all Africa between the Sahara Desert, the

Red Sea, and the Zambezi will remain negro or negroid, even though

here and there they are slightly lightened with European blood, and

on the east are raised to a finer human type by the immigration of

the Hamites, the interbreeding of Arabs, and the settlement of

Indians. It is possible that there may be a considerable overflow of

India into those insufficiently inhabited, uncultivated parts of

East Africa now ruled by Britain and Germany. Indians will make

their way as traders into British Central Africa, but these

territories north of the Zambezi will be governed also in the

interests of an abundant and powerful negro population, which before

many years have elapsed will be as civilized and educated as are at

least a million of the negro inhabitants south of the Zambezi at the

present day. South of the Zambezi great changes will take place. The

black man may continue to increase and multiply and live at peace

with the white man, content to perform for the latter many services

which his bodily strength and indifference to health permit him to

render advantageously. But as the white population increases from

one to twenty millions it will tend to reserve to itself all the

healthy country in the south of Africa, and inland on that great

central plateau which stretches up to and beyond the Zambezi; and

the black man will be pushed by degrees into the low-lying, tropical

coast regions of the south-east and of the Zambezi valley—regions

which with much of Bechuanaland and Nyasaland must for an indefinite

period be regarded as a Black Man’s Reserve.

The European nations or national types which will predominate in the

New Africa are the British (with whom perhaps Dutch will fuse), the

French and the French-speaking Belgian, the German, the Italian, the

Greek, and the Portuguese. The Spaniard may be met with on the

North-west coast and in Morocco and Western Algeria; the Portuguese

may have in Angola a second Brazil, but this dream will dissolve

disenchantingly unless this nation can soon recover national energy

and divert her thousands of emigrants annually to Portuguese Africa

rather than to Portuguese- or English-speaking America. Portugal

itself requires colonists and ought to be able to support not a

discontented six but a prosperous fifteen millions of people.

Italy’s share of colonizable territory may be comparatively small

under her own flag, and Greece may have none at all, but the north,

the north-east, and north-central parts of Africa will teem with

busy, thrifty, enterprising Italian and Greek settlers, colonists,

merchants and employés[229].

The great languages of New Africa will be English, French, Italian,

Portuguese, Arabic, Hausa, Swahili, and Zulu. It is doubtful whether

German will ever become implanted as an African language any more

than Dutch has taken root in the Malay Archipelago. It is true that

Dutch in a corrupted jargon has become a second language to the

Hottentots and a few Bantu tribes. But Dutch is simpler in

construction, and easier of pronunciation to a negro than German. I

have observed that in the Cameroons the Germans make use of the

“pigeon” English of the coast as a means of communication with the

people when they do not speak in the easily acquired Duala tongue.

In East Africa, on the other hand, they use Swahili universally,

just as the Dutch use Malay throughout their Asiatic possessions.

English may not become the dominant language in all countries under

British influence in Africa. It will certainly become the universal

tongue of Africa south of the Zambezi, and possibly, but not so

certainly, in British Central Africa, where, however, it will have

the influence of Swahili to contend with. In British East Africa, in

Zanzibar, and in Uganda the prevailing speech will be the easy,

simple, expressive, harmonious Swahili language, a happy compromise

between Arabic and Bantu. In Somaliland, Egypt, the Sahara, and the

Sudan Arabic will be the dominating language; but Italian, French,

and English will be much used in Lower Egypt. Italian, Arabic, and

French will remain coequal in use in Barka, Tripoli, Tunis, and

Eastern Algeria; French and Arabic (French perhaps prevailing) in

Algeria; and French will make its influence felt in Morocco (though

it will contend there with Arabic and Spanish), and right across the

Western Sahara to Senegambia and the upper Niger. English will be,

as it is now—either in jargon or correctly spoken—the language of

intercommunication on the West coast of Africa from the Gambia to

the Gaboon. French, Swahili and Portuguese will prevail in the Congo

basin; Portuguese in Angola; and Hausa in Nigeria and around Lake

Chad. In Madagascar French will predominate, mingling in the Komoro

Islands with Swahili.

Paganism will disappear. The continent will soon be divided between

nominal Christians and nominal Muhammadans, with a strong tendency

on the part of the Muhammadans towards an easy-going rationalism,

such as is fast making way in Algeria, where the townspeople and the

cultivators in the more settled districts, constantly coming into

contact with Europeans, are becoming indifferent to the more

inconvenient among their Muhammadan observances, and are content to

live with little more religion than an observance of the laws, and a

desire to get on well with their neighbours. Yet before

Muhammadanism loses its savour, there will probably be many

uprisings against Christian rule among Muhammadan peoples who have

been newly subjected to control. The Arab and the Hamite for

religious reasons may strive again and again to shake off the

Christian yoke, but I strongly doubt whether there will be any

universal mutiny of the black man against the white. The negro has

no idea of racial affinity. He will equally ally himself to the

white or to the yellow races in order to subdue his fellow black, or

to regain his freedom from the domination of another negro tribe.

There may be, here and there, a revolt against the white rule in

such and such a state; but the diverse civilizations under which the

African will be trained, and the different languages he will be

taught to talk, will be sufficient to make him as dissimilar in each

national development as the white man has become in Europe. And just

as it would need some amazing and stupendous event to cause all Asia

to rise as one man against the invasion of Europe, so it is

difficult to conceive that the black man will eventually form one

united negro people demanding autonomy, and putting an end to the

control of the white man, and to the immigration, settlement, and

intercourse of superior races from Europe and Asia. Difficult, this

conception may be, in the light of past history, and because

language counts for so much, but not impossible. Any repetition of

Leopoldian tactics on a large scale, any gross oppression of the

negro in South, East, West or Central Africa might fuse all culture

differences, blend black and yellow men of diverse religious beliefs

and superstitions in one blazing rebellion against the white race

which might avail to wreck the new and the growing European

civilization now spreading so fast over Africa. But otherwise the

indigenous races of Africa will grow up into being black or brown

British subjects (unless we deny them all suffrage), Frenchmen,

Portuguese or Germans. Great white nations will populate in course

of time South Africa, North Africa, and Egypt; and rills of

Caucasian blood will continue, as in the recent and the remote past,

to circulate through Negro Africa, leavening the many millions of

black men with that element of the white-skinned sub-species which

alone has evolved beauty of facial features and originality of

invention in thought and deed. But the black—or, as it will be in

the future, the brown—race will, through bowing to many an influence

and submerged by many an invasion, in the long run hold its own

within limits, and secure for itself a large proportion of the soil

of Africa. All predictions as to the future of the Dark Continent

seem futile in face of the unexpected, the strange, the unlooked-for

which arises in Africa itself. A new disease may break out which

destroys the negro and leaves the white man standing; or

unconquerable maladies may be evolved which sweep the white man away

or make it too dangerous and unprofitable for him to settle on the

soil of tropical Africa. On the other hand, remedies for all African

diseases may be found, and it may be no more dangerous to the white

man’s health to reside at Sierra Leone or on the Upper Congo than it

is for the indigenous black man. No doubt, as in Asia and South

America, the eventual outcome of the colonization of Africa by alien

peoples will be a compromise—a dark-skinned race with a white man’s

features and a white man’s brain.

APPENDIX I

NOTABLE EVENTS AND DATES IN THE MODERN HISTORY OF AFRICAN COLONIZATION

B.C.

Foundation of the colony of Utica (Atiqa) on the N.

African (Tunisian) coast by the Phœnicians about 1100

Foundation of the colony of Carthage by the Phœnicians about 822

Expedition of Dorians founds first Greek colony in

Cyrenaica (modern Barka) about 631

Pharaoh Niku II of Egypt (son of Psammetik) sends out

Phœnician Expedition from Red Sea which is said to

have circumnavigated Africa in three years about 600

Conquest of Egypt by the Persians under Cambyses about 525

Hanno the Carthaginian explores the West Coast of

Africa as far south as Sierra Leone and brings back

chimpanzees about 520

Alexander of Macedon conquers Egypt from the Persians;

and founds the city of Alexandria 332

The Romans take Egypt under their protection 168

The Romans definitely conquer and destroy Carthage and

found the Roman province of Africa (consisting

eventually of modern Tunis and part of Tripoli) 146-5

Numidia (Algeria) annexed to the Roman Empire 46

Egypt annexed to the Roman Empire 30

Romans invade Fezzan (Phazania) 19

A.C.

Mauretania (Morocco) annexed to the Roman Empire 42

Jewish massacre of Greek inhabitants of Cyrenaica 117

North Africa torn from the Roman Empire by the Vandals 429

Recovered partially by the Byzantines 531-4

Persian armies occupy Egypt 616

Herodius recovers Egypt from the Persians 626

The Muhammadan Invasion of Africa:

Amr-bin-al Asi conquers Egypt 640-2

The Arabs invade Tripoli and Tunis, defeat the

patrician Gregory and partially destroy

Byzantine rule 647-8

Oqba-bin-Nafa is appointed by the Khalif “governor

of Ifrikiyah” (669), overruns Fezzan and South

Tunis, and founds there the Muhammadan capital

of Kairwan 673

Oqba traverses N. Africa till he reaches the

Atlantic Ocean 681

Carthage taken by the Arabs (698); Tunisia finally

conquered from the Berbers (705); Morocco and

Algeria conquered about 708; Spain invaded by

Arabs and Berbers 711

First Islamic settlements founded on E. African

coast about 720; Kilwa Sultanate founded 960

Aghlabite (Berber) dynasty begins in Tunis in 800

(Morocco contemporaneously ruled by the

Idrisites) and comes to an end 909

Rise of the Fatimite dynasty over Tunis, Tripoli,

and Egypt (909), by whom Cairo (Al Kahira) is

founded 969

Great Arab invasion of North Africa (especially

Tunis) about 1045

About 1050 commences the invasion of N. Africa

from the Niger and the Moroccan Sahara by the

Berber sect of the Murabitin (Al-moravides), who

have conquered all N. Africa and Spain by 1087

Timbuktu founded by the Tawareq about 1100

The Third Great Berber dynasty of the Muahadim

(Al-Mohade) arises in W. Algeria about 1150,

conquers Morocco, Spain and Algeria, and finally

Tunis (from which the Normans are driven away) 1160

French and German Crusaders occupy eastern part of

Nile Delta and garrison Cairo before they are

driven out by “Saladin” 1163-70

Hafs dynasty founded in Tunis 1236

King Louis IX of France (“Saint Louis”) invades Egypt

in 1248; is disastrously repulsed, captured and

ransomed. Twenty-two years later he invades Tunis,

where he dies of fever 1270

Roman Carthage finally destroyed by the Moors, and

Tunis made the capital of “Ifriqiyah” about 1271

The Portuguese take Ceuta from the Moors 1415

The river Senegal reached by Portuguese exploring

vessels sent out by Prince Henry 1446

Diego Gomez reaches and names Sierra Leone 1460

The Canary Islands, discovered by a Norman adventurer

and ultimately sold to Portugal, are transferred by

that power to Spain 1479

Gold Coast, Niger Delta, Fernando Pô, Cameroons and

Gaboon discovered by the Portuguese 1471-80

River Congo discovered by the Portuguese 1482-5

Bartolomeu Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope 1488

Melilla (N. Morocco) captured by the Spaniards 1490

Christianity introduced into the kingdom of Congo by

the Portuguese 1491

Vasco da Gama passing round the Cape of Good Hope

discovers and names Natal (Christmas, 1497), reaches

Sofala and Malindi (East Africa) 1498

Sofala occupied and Portuguese East African Empire

begun 1505

Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese 1500-6

The Emperor Charles V grants a charter to a Flemish

merchant for the exclusive importation of negro

slaves into Spanish America; Slave Trade thus

definitely founded 1517

The Turks conquer Egypt 1517

Charles V intervenes in the affairs of Tunis (to

restore Arab Hafside Sultan and drive out the Turkish

corsair Khaïreddin Barbarossa) 1535

Charles V sustains disastrous repulse at Algiers (from

which dates gradual decay of Spanish power over North

Africa) 1541

Delagoa Bay first explored and temporarily settled by

the Portuguese 1544

First British trading ships leave London for the West

African coast 1553

Sir John Hawkins conveys the first cargo of negro

slaves to America under the British flag 1562

The Turks (having through corsairs founded the Regency

of Algiers in 1519, that of Tripoli in 1551) once

more take Tunis and make it a Turkish Pashalik 1573

Portugal founds the colony of Angola 1574

Dom Sebastião, King of Portugal, defeated and slain at

the battle of Kasr-al-Kabir; and the Portuguese

Empire over Morocco thenceforth crumbles 1578

Turkey attempts to wrest from Portugal the Zanzibar Coast,

but is utterly defeated by the Portuguese Admiral

Thomé de Sousa Coutinho 1584

Abu al Abbas al Mansur, the first “Sharifian” Emperor

of Morocco, who was the victor over Dom Sebastião,

sends an army across the Sahara and annexes Timbuktu

and the Upper Niger to the Moorish dominions 1590

The first Dutch trading ships appear on the West

African Coast 1595

The Dutch replace the Portuguese at Arguin (N. W. Coast

of Africa) and Goree (Dakar) in 1621; and at Elmina

(Gold Coast) 1637

French traders from Dieppe found the Fort of St Louis

at the mouth of the Senegal 1637

Foundation of the French Compagnie de L’Orient for the

purpose of colonizing Madagascar 1642

The British East India Company takes the Island of St

Helena from the Dutch 1651

The Dutch take possession of the Cape of Good Hope 1652

The dynasty of the Filali Sharifs acquires the

possession of the whole Empire of Morocco and Upper

Nigeria 1658

A British African Company chartered by Charles II

builds a fort at James Island, at the mouth of the

Gambia 1662

This same Company (afterwards the Royal African

Company), taking advantage of the war declared

against Holland, seizes and retains several Dutch

forts on the Gold Coast 1665-72

Denmark establishes forts on the Gold Coast about 1672

Brandenburg (Prussia) builds the Fort of

Grossfriedrichsburg on the Gold Coast 1683

England, to whom Tangier had been ceded by Portugal in

1662, abandons it to the Sharifian Empire of Morocco 1684

The rising Arab power of ’Oman had driven Portugal out

of all her possessions north of Moçambique by 1698

The present Husseinite dynasty of Beys (from 1706 to

1881 practically independent sovereigns) is founded

in Tunis by a Turkish Agha—Hussein bin Ali Bey 1706

Sieur André de Brüe, who went out to St Louis in 1697

as the Governor of the French Senegal Company, founds

during the next 18 years the French colony of Senegal

and returns to France 1715

The French occupy the Island of Mauritius (Bourbon or

“Réunion” not being occupied until 1764) 1721

The Portuguese (having finally lost Mombasa in 1730)

recognize the Maskat Imamate on the Zanzibar coast

and decree the Bay of Lourenço Marquez on the south

and Cape Delgado on the north to be the limits of

their East African possessions 1752

The Portuguese lose Mazagão, their last foothold in

Morocco 1769

Spain acquires Fernando Pô in the Gulf of Guinea 1778

Sierra Leone ceded to the British by the natives 1787

Spain loses Oran by a terrible earthquake, and with it

her last hold over Algeria 1791

Denmark forbids the Slave Trade to her subjects 1792

Britain first seizes the Cape of Good Hope 1795

Mungo Park discovers the river Niger at Segu 1796

The London Missionary Society’s Agents land in Cape

Colony and commence work amongst the Kafirs and

Bushmen 1799

Napoleon Buonaparte conquers Egypt, 1798; Nelson

destroys French fleet at Abukir Bay same year; French

evacuate Egypt 1801

Britain finally occupies the Cape of Good Hope 1806

Sierra Leone and Gambia organized as Crown Colonies 1807

An Act of Parliament is passed abolishing the Slave

Trade in the British dominions 1807

British capture from the French Seychelles (1794),

Mauritius and Réunion in 1810, and Tamatave and

Island of St Marie (Madagascar) in 1811

Muhammad Ali destroys the Mamluks in Egypt 1811

First Kafir war in South Africa 1811-12

Cape Colony definitely ceded by Holland to Great

Britain 1814

Island of Réunion (Bourbon) restored to France 1814

Holland abolishes the Slave Trade in her dominions 1814

France and Sweden abolish the Slave Trade 1815

France reoccupies Island of St Marie de Madagascar

(first taken in 1750) 1817

Invasion of the Egyptian Sudan by Muhammad Ali’s forces

(1820-22) and foundation of Khartum as its capital 1823

A British Government Expedition under Oudney,

Clapperton, and Denham discovers Lake Chad 1823

Vice-Admiral W. F. W. Owen completes his great coast

survey of Africa, in which for the first time in

history the outline of the African Continent was

correctly delineated 1822-9

Governor Sir Charles Macarthy defeated and killed by

the Ashanti in 1824; consequent first British war

with Ashanti terminates victoriously 1827

The Brothers Lander sent out by British Government

trace the Niger from Busa to the sea and establish

its outlet in the Gulf of Guinea 1830

A French Expedition conquers Algiers 1830

Portugal abolishes the Slave Trade 1830

First British steamers (Macgregor Laird’s Expedition)

navigate the Lower Niger (1832) and discover the

Benué River 1833

Slavery abolished in all British African possessions,

including Cape Colony, by 1834

Third Kafir War in South Africa 1834

Turkey sends expedition to Tripoli to restore her

direct authority 1835

First “trekking” of the Boers away from British rule 1836

Boer emigrants treacherously massacred by Dingane, King

of the Zulus 1837

The Sakalava of N.-West Madagascar place themselves

under French protection, and France occupies the

islands of Nossi Bé and Mayotta 1840

Second Niger Expedition despatched from England 1841

Muhammad Ali the Macedonian (once a Turkish officer of

Bashi-bazuks) confirmed in the hereditary sovereignty

of Egypt as Pasha and Wali 1841

The last of the quasi-independent Karamanli Pashas of

Tripoli seizes and garrisons the important Saharan

towns of Ghadames and Ghat in 1840-41; but is himself

removed by the Turks, who annex definitely to the

Turkish Empire Tripoli and Barka 1842

Natal becomes a British Colony 1843

Gold Coast finally organized as a Crown Colony 1843

French war with Morocco 1844

Waghorn’s Overland Route finally established across

Egypt 1845

Independence of the Freed-slave State of Liberia

recognized 1847

Abd-al-Kader surrenders; Constantine (East Algeria)

taken by the French 1847

Foundation of the French Freed-slave settlement of

Libreville in the Gaboon 1848

Krapf and Rebmann discover the snowy Mountains of Kenya

and Kilima-njaro 1848

Slavery had been abolished throughout all the French

possessions in Africa by 1849

Denmark cedes her Gold Coast forts to England 1850

Livingstone and Oswell discover the Central Zambezi 1851

Independence of the Transvaal Republic recognized by

Great Britain 1852

Representative Government established in Cape Colony 1853

General Faidherbe appointed Governor of Senegal in

1854; he breaks the Fula power in Senegal and greatly

extends the French possessions by 1856

A British Expedition is sent out in 1849 under

Richardson, Oberweg, Vogel and Barth to explore North

Central Africa: Oberweg navigates Lake Chad, ascends

the river Shari and is killed in Wadai; Barth visits

the Upper Benué, Timbuktu, etc., and returns to

England 1855

Livingstone makes his famous journey from Cape Colony

to Angola and from Angola to the Indian Ocean,

exploring the Zambezi from source to mouth, and

returns to England 1856

Burton and Speke discover Lake Tanganyika, and Speke

reaches south end of the Victoria Nyanza 1858

Livingstone and Kirk discover Lake Nyasa 1859

Spanish War with Morocco 1859-60

Zanzibar separated as an independent State from the

Imamate of ’Oman 1861

Lagos becomes a British Crown Colony 1863

Speke and Grant establish the Victoria Nyanza Lake as

the main source of the Nile, visit Uganda, and follow

the Nile down to Cairo 1860-4

(Sir) Samuel Baker discovers Lake Albert Nyanza 1864

Second Government Expedition under Dr Baikie sent out

to explore rivers Niger and Benué (1854); Dr Baikie

made Consul for the Niger, founds Lokoja at

Niger-Benué confluence and explores Benué (1857) and

greatly extends British influence; but dies in 1863;

Consulate abolished 1866

Discovery of a diamond near the Orange River in Cape

Colony 1867

Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and the Upper Luapula (Congo)

R. discovered by Livingstone in 1867 and 1868

Basutoland placed under British protection 1868

British Army enters Abyssinia to release captives of

King Theodore and wins victory of Magdala 1868

Establishment of Triple Control over Tunisian finances 1869

Opening of Suez Canal 1869

Sir Samuel Baker appointed Governor of the Equatorial

province, Egyptian Sudan 1869

Dr Schweinfurth discovers the R. Wele-Mubangi, the

great northern affluent of the Congo 1870

Livingstone discovers the Lualaba or Upper Congo at

Nyangwe; is met at Ujiji and relieved by Stanley 1871

Insurrection against French in Eastern Algeria

suppressed 1871

Responsible Government introduced into Cape Colony 1872

Sultan of Zanzibar signs treaty forced on him by

England for abolition of the Slave Trade 1873

Second Ashanti War: Sir Garnet Wolseley takes and burns

Kumasi 1873-4

Dr Livingstone dies 1873

Cameron crosses Africa from Zanzibar to Benguela,

mapping Tanganyika correctly for the first time 1873-5

Stanley circumnavigates the Victoria Nyanza and traces

the river Congo from Nyangwe to the Atlantic

Ocean—the greatest journey in African Exploration 1874-7

Transvaal annexed by Great Britain 1877

The Dual Control of France and England imposed on

Egyptian Government (1876); Ismail Pasha deposed 1879

War between Great Britain and the Zulus 1879

The International Association founded by the King of

the Belgians, having developed a special branch, the

“Comité d’Études du Haut Congo,” sends out H. M.

Stanley to found what becomes six years later the

“Congo Independent State” 1879

De Brazza secures part of the Upper Congo for France 1880

The Transvaal revolts against Great Britain and obtains

recognition of its independence under British

suzerainty 1881

French force enters Tunis and imposes French protection

on that country 1881

French conquests reach the Upper Niger 1881-2

Arabi’s revolt in Egypt (1881), abolition of Dual

Control, bombardment of Alexandria and defeat of

Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir by Lord Wolseley; British

occupation of Egypt begins 1882

Italy occupies Assab Bay on Red Sea coast and commences

creation of colony of Eritrea 1882

Occupation of Obok by France 1883

The commencement of the African Scramble: Germany

establishes her protectorate over South-West Africa,

and over Togoland and the Cameroons in West Africa,

France occupies Grand Bassam and Porto Novo (Ivory

and Slave Coasts); Gordon is despatched to the Sudan

(which revolted from Egypt in 1883); and the Berlin

Conference on African questions is summoned 1884

Death of General Gordon at Khartum and temporary loss

of Egyptian Sudan 1885

Recognition by all the powers of Congo Independent

State 1885

Bechuanaland taken under British protection 1885

Germany founds her East African possessions in the

interior of the Zanzibar Sultanate 1885

Great Britain declares protectorate over Niger Coast

and river Niger and grants Charter to Royal Niger

Company: Joseph Thomson makes a Treaty for latter

Company with the Sultan of Sokoto 1885

Portugal extends her territory to the south bank of the

Congo and to Kabinda 1884-5

France concludes treaty with Madagascar which gives her

predominant influence over that island (declares

protectorate over Komoro Islands 1886) 1885

The Anglo-Egyptian forces sustain severe defeats near

Suakin at the hands of the Sudanese under Osman

Digna: Suakin is retained, but Egyptian rule in the

Nile valley is restricted to Wady Haifa. Italy

occupies Masawa 1885

Great discoveries of reef gold in the Transvaal;

founding of Johannesburg 1886

War breaks out in N. Nyasaland between British settlers

and Arab slave traders 1887

In Oil rivers (Niger Delta) Jaja, King of Opobo, is

arrested and banished; access to interior markets is

then obtained 1887

French Senegambian possessions definitely extended to

the Upper Niger 1887

Imperial British East Africa Company receives Charter 1888

Serious rebellion against the Germans breaks out in

East Africa (is not finally subdued by von Wissmann

till 1890) 1888

British protectorate over N. Somaliland first organized 1889

Italian protectorate established over East Somaliland:

and treaty concluded with Menelik of Ethiopia by

which Italy claimed to control foreign relations of

Abyssinia 1889

Charter given to British South African Company 1889

British Central Africa declared to be under British

protection: British flag hoisted on Lakes Tanganyika

and Nyasa 1889

In 1887 Stanley conducts an expedition by way of the

Congo to relieve Emin Pasha. He discovers the Edward

Lake and Ruwenzori Mountains and reaches Zanzibar 1889

Anglo-German Agreement concluded relative to East

Africa: Zanzibar taken under British protection;

Great Britain recognizes French protectorate over

Madagascar and French Sphere of Influence between

Algeria, the Niger, and Lake Chad; and France

recognizes the British Control over Sokoto and the

Lower Niger 1890

Cecil Rhodes, managing director of the British South

Africa Company, becomes premier of Cape Colony 1890

French expeditions reach the river Shari from the Congo

Basin and secure that river to French influence 1890-1

Captain (afterwards Colonel Sir Frederick) Lugard

establishes British predominance ever Uganda 1891

A German force annihilated by Wa-hehe in south central

part of German East Africa 1891

Paul Crampel, the first explorer crossing from the

Congo basin to, the Shari river, is killed by a

subordinate chief under Rabah Zobeir on the borders

of Dar Banda 1891

Belgians establish posts in Schweinfurth’s Wele 1892

Natal receives responsible government 1893

France conquers and annexes Dahomé 1893

Rabah Zobeir becomes Sultan of Bornu by conquest 1893

First Matebele war; death of Lobengula; Buluwayo

becomes the capital of Rhodesia 1893

French occupy Jenne and Timbuktu on the Upper Niger 1893-4

The Belgian forces under Baron Dhanis capture all the

Arab towns on the Lualaba (Upper Congo) and destroy

the Arab power in Congoland 1892-4

Witboo Hottentot outbreak against Germans in Southwest

Africa 1894

Uganda declared a British protectorate; Charter of

British East Africa Company withdrawn and British

East Africa henceforth administered under British

Commissioner 1894-5

Arabs finally defeated and expelled from Nyasaland

Protectorate 1895

Major Mouzinho de Albuquerque captures the Zulu king

Gungunyana and firmly establishes Portuguese dominion

in South-east Africa 1895

Captain Bottego establishes Italian post at Lugh on the

Jub river 1895

France conquers and annexes Madagascar 1894-6

Jameson raid into Transvaal; Matebele revolt and second

Matebele war 1896

Italy sustains terrible defeat in North Abyssinia. Her

protectorate over Abyssinia withdrawn and that

country’s independence recognized 1896

Anglo-Egyptian army reconquers Dongola 1896

Conquest of Nupe by the Royal Niger Company 1897

Zululand incorporated with Natal 1897

Railway completed to Buluwayo 1897

Emile Gentil reaches Shari river and Lake Chad from

Congo, and establishes French protectorate over

Bagirmi 1897

Benin city and kingdom conquered by a British Naval

Expedition (after a massacre of a pacific expedition

under J. R. Phillips) 1897

German East Africa declared a German colony 1897

Revolt of Sudanese soldiers temporarily imperils

British position in Uganda. Col. Sir J. R. L.

Macdonald’s expedition reveals geography of region

between Lake Rudolf and Nile; Sir Harry Johnston

reorganizes the administration of Uganda protectorate

and concludes a new treaty with kingdom of Buganda 1897-98-1900

Anglo-French agreement signed with regard to Niger 1898

Anglo-German agreement relative to Delagoa Bay and

Other Portuguese possessions in Africa signed in 1898

Samori, the last great warrior chief of Senegal-Niger,

defeated and captured by the French 1898

Serious rising against the British Sierra Leone

protectorate 1898

Railway opened from Lower Congo to Stanley pool 1898

Khartum captured by Sir H. (since Viscount) Kitchener

and Anglo-Egyptian influence established over the

Sudan; Wadi Halfa-Dongola railway continued towards

Khartum 1898

Major Marchand, who is sent to Fashoda by French

Government, is withdrawn thence on British protests 1898

The British and French Governments conclude an appendix

to the Niger Convention of 1898 which determines

approximately the boundaries of British and French

influence in the Eastern Sudan 1899

Ashanti rising and final conquest of Ashanti 1900

Northern Nigeria taken over for administration by the

British Government 1900

The Khalifa and nearly all his remaining generals

perish in the battle of Omdubreikat (Kordofan) in

November, 1899, and Osman Digna is captured near

Suakin in January. Sir Reginald Wingate becomes

Governor-General of Sudan 1900

Rabah Zobeir, the Sudanese conqueror of Bornu, etc.,

dies in battle with the French 1900

The Sadd or obstructive water vegetation of Mountain

Nile is cut through by Major Malcolm Peake and

navigation opened up between Khartum and Gondokoro

(Uganda) 1900-1

Railway from Wadi Halfa reaches Khartum 1901

Sleeping sickness begins in Uganda in the autumn of 1901

War breaks out in South Africa between Boer Republics

and Great Britain (October 1899); Bloemfontein and

Pretoria taken, 1900; Orange Free State and Transvaal

annexed to British Empire, 1900; peace concluded 1902

Fadl-Allah, son and successor of Rabah, dies after his

defeat by the French on the frontiers of Bornu 1902

Right Hon. Cecil Rhodes dies at Muizenburg near Cape

Town, March 1902

German occupation of Lake Chad districts 1902

The final conquest of Northern Nigeria begins 1902.

(Yola, Bauchi, Bornu) and finishes (Kano and Sokoto) 1903

Uganda railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza open for

through service in 1903

Mr E. D. Morel commences his public denunciations of

King Leopold’s misgovernment of the Congo State in

1902; (Sir) Roger Casement sent out to investigate

and report 1903-4

British-Somali War 1902-4

Anglo-French Agreement, allotting Morocco to a French

and Egypt to a British Sphere of Influence 1904

King Leopold sends an international commission to the

Congo basin to investigate truth of charges brought

against his administration (1904); the commission

reports 1905

Mauretania (land between Senegal and Moroccan Sahara)

taken under French administration 1904-5

Lagos and Niger coast united as “Southern Nigeria” 1904

Rhodesian “Cape to Cairo” railway reaches and bridges

Zambezi at Victoria Falls 1905

French conquest of Wadai, the great slave-raiding state

of the Central Sudan, begins 1904

Italian government takes on direct management of

Italian Somaliland 1905

German Emperor decides to pay state visit to Morocco at

Tangiers and thereby calls in question the allotment

of Morocco to France as a sphere of influence 1905

The Congress of Algeciras meets in southern Spain to

discuss the future of Morocco 1906

Railway from Khartum-Berber to Port Sudan (Red Sea)

opened 1906

Grant of responsible.government to the Transvaal 1906

In 1903 the Hottentots rebel against German authority

in South-west Africa. In 1904 the Ova-herero

(Damaras) join the rebellion, which is not finally

crushed until 1906-7

Responsible government granted to Orange River Colony

(Orange Free State) 1907

Diamonds found in German South-west Africa 1908

Belgium annexes the Congo Independent State 1908-9

In 1908 serious troubles break out in Western Morocco

(Shawia country) obliging France to land a large

force and occupy Casa Blanca and the neighbourhood;

Mulai Hafid defeats his brother (Abd-el-Aziz) and

becomes Sultan in his place; France and Germany come

to a temporary arrangement which recognizes France’s

“political interests” in Morocco 1909

Union of South Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal,

and Orange State) proclaimed 1909

Spaniards send an army of 50,000 men to conquer and

occupy Rif country (North-east Morocco) 1909-10

France conquers the Arab and Berber nomad tribes of

Adrar (Mauretania) 1909-10

France finally conquers Wadai 1910

Rhodesian “Cape to Cairo” railway opened as far as

Congolese frontier in Katanga 1910

Viscount Kitchener becomes British Agent in Egypt 1911

“Cape to Cairo” railway extended from Khartum to El

Obeid (Kordofan) 1911

The “Panther,” sent to Agadir on the south-west coast

of Morocco by Germany, reopens the Morocco question;

but the incident ends in a German recognition of a

French protectorate over Morocco 1911

Italy lands 80,000 men at Tripoli and eventually

annexes all Tripoli and Barka 1911-12

France cedes to Germany important territories which

connect the Kamerun colony with the Mubangi river and

the main Congo, making Germany a “Congo” power 1911-12

Railway from Lagos to Kano (Hausaland) finished 1912

Liberian Republic entrusts the management of its

finances and interior police to officials appointed

by United States President 1911-12

France and Spain definitely settle their partition of

Morocco; and France occupies all important Moroccan

towns except Tangier 1912

APPENDIX II

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE HISTORY OF COLONIZATION OF AFRICA. BOOKS SPECIALLY

USEFUL

ALL BLUE BOOKS published by Foreign Office and Colonial Office DEALING

WITH AFRICA and the SLAVE TRADE from 1830 to the present

day—especially for the years between 1876 and 1898, and 1903-11.

A HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY; by (Sir) E. H. Bunbury. 2 vols. 2nd

edition. John Murray. 1883.̓

THE GOLD OF OPHIR; by Professor A. H. Keane. Edward Stanford. 1901.̓

LES CIVILISATIONS DE L'AFRIQUE DU NORD (Berbères, Arabes, Turcs); par

Victor Piquet. Paris: Armand Colin. 1909.̓

HISTOIRE DE L'AFRIQUE SEPTENTRIONALE (Berbérie); par Ernest Mercier. 3

vols. Paris: Ernest Leroux. 1891.̓

(An excellent and trustworthy compilation.)

HISTOIRE DE L'ÉTABLISSEMENT DES ARABES DANS L'AFRIQUE SEPTENTRIONALE

selon les auteurs Arabes. By the same author. 1 vol.

Paris: Challamel. 1875.

THE DAWN OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Vols. II. and III.; by C. Raymond Beazley.

Oxford. 1906.

PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR; by Professor C. Raymond Beazley.

Putnam. 1895.

Also by same author:

PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL, ETC. (Gives much interesting detail as to

early Portuguese colonizing work.) American Historical Review. Vol.

XVII. 1912.

THE CHRONICLE OF THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF GUINEA. G. de Azurara.

Translated from the Portuguese by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage.

Hakluyt Society. 2 vols. 1899.

HISTORY OF THE KINGDOM OF CONGO; by Duarte Lopes—rendered into Italian

by Filippo Pigafetta. English translation: John Murray. 1881.̓

HISTORIA DA AFRICA ORIENTAL PORTUGUEZA; por José Joaquim Lopes de Lima.

Lisbon. 1862.

TRAVELS OF THE JESUITS IN ETHIOPIA; by B. Tellez. 8 London. 1710.̓

THE BARBARY CORSAIRS (Story of the Nations); by Stanley Lane Poole.

T. Fisher Unwin. 1890.

DOCUMENTS SUR L'HISTOIRE, ETC., DE L'AFRIQUE ORIENTALE; par le Capitaine

M. Guillain. 3 vols. Paris. 1856.̓

THE EARLY CHARTERED COMPANIES: by George Cawston and A. H. Keane.

Edward Arnold. 1896.

MUNGO PARK AND THE NIGER; by Joseph Thomson. George Phillips. 1890.̓

PIONEERS IN WEST AFRICA; by Sir Harry Johnston. 9 Blackie. 1911.̓

THE LANDS OF CAZEMBE (Lacerda’s journey to Cazembe in 1798); a

compilation by Captain R. F. Burton. Royal Geographical Society.

1873.̓

ZANZIBAR; by the same author. London. 1871.̓

THE MAPS OF AFRICA BY TREATY; by Sir Edward Hertslet, K.C.B. 2 vols.

Harrison & Sons. 1894-5.

EGYPT IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; by D. A. Cameron.

Smith, Elder & Co. 1898.

ENGLAND IN EGYPT; by Viscount Milner, G.C.B.

London: Arnold. 1892-1910.

UGANDA AND THE EGYPTIAN SUDAN; by Dr R. W. Felkin and C. T. Wilson. 2

vols. Sampson Low. 1882.̓

MARTYRDOM OF MAN; by Winwood Reade. Kegan Paul. (Ed. of 1910.)̓

SAVAGE AFRICA; same author. Smith, Elder & Co. 1864.̓

THE HEART OF AFRICA; by Dr Georg Schweinfurth. Sampson Low. 1873.̓

OUR SUDAN; its pyramids and progress; by John Ward. John Murray. 1905.̓

A HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN AFRICA; by Sir Harry

Johnston. National Society. 1911.̓

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES. Vol. IV. Parts 1 & 2

(dealing with South and East Africa); by Sir C. P. Lucas, B.A.

Clarendon Press. 1897.

Do. Do. Vol. III. WEST AFRICA. Clarendon Press. 1894.̓

HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA; by G. M^cCall Theal. 5 vols.

Juta & Co., Cape Town. 1888-93.

ANGOLA AND THE RIVER CONGO; by J. J. Monteiro. 2 vols.

Macmillan & Co. 1875.

AFRICA. 2 vols. By Professor A. H. Keane. Edward Stanford. 1902.̓

TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES IN NORTH AND CENTRAL AFRICA; by Dr Henry Barth.

5 vols. Longman, Brown, Green. 1857.̓

THE STORY OF AFRICA; by Dr Robert Brown. 4 vols.

Cassell and Company. 1894-5.

(A most valuable book of reference.)

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA; by (Dr) J. Scott Keltie. 2nd Edition.

Edward Stanford. 1895.

HOW I FOUND LIVINGSTONE. THROUGH THE DARK CONTINENT. 2 vols. THE CONGO:

AND THE FOUNDING OF ITS FREE STATE. 2 vols. IN DARKEST AFRICA. 2

vols. By H. M. Stanley. Sampson Low.̓

DU NIGER AU GOLFE DE GUINÉE; par le Capitaine Binger. Paris 1892.̓

THE FALL OF THE CONGO ARABS; by Captain S. L. Hinde. Methuen. 1897.̓

BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA; by Sir H. H. Johnston. 2nd Edition.

Methuen. 1899.

FIGHTING THE SLAVE HUNTERS IN CENTRAL AFRICA; by Alfred J. Swann.

Seeley & Co. 1910.

ADVENTURES IN NYASALAND; by Low Monteith Fotheringham.

Sampson Low. 1891.

TIMBUCTOO THE MYSTERIOUS; by Félix Dubois. William Heinemann. 1897.̓

THE RISE OF OUR EAST AFRICAN EMPIRE; by Captain F. D. Lugard, D.S.O. 2

vols. Blackwood, Edinburgh. 1893.̓

BRITISH EAST AFRICA; by P. M^cDermott. Chapman & Hall. 1895.̓

FIRE AND SWORD IN THE SUDAN; by Sir Rudolf Slatin Pasha.

Edward Arnold. 1896.

L'OMO: VIAGGIO DI ESPLORAZIONE NELL' AFRICA ORIENTALE; da Vannutelli e

Citerni. Milan. 1899.̓

(Deals with Italian Somaliland, Galaland, etc.)

À TRAVERS L'AFRIQUE CENTRALE: DU CONGO AU NIGER; by C. Maistre.

Paris. 1895.

THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE; by Sir H. H. Johnston. 2 vols. 2nd Edition.

Hutchinson. 1904.

MADAGASCAR; by Captain S. Pasfield Oliver. 2 vols. Macmillan. 1886.̓

THE RISE OF OUR WEST AFRICAN EMPIRE (Sierra Leone); by Captain C.

Braithwaite Wallis. London. 1903.̓

THE HISTORY OF SIERRA LEONE; by Major J. J. Crooks.

Simpkin Marshall. 1903.

_TIMES_ HISTORY OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 5 vols.

_Times Office._ 1903-5.

CIVILIZATION IN CONGOLAND; by H. R. Fox-Bourne. London. 1903.̓

KING LEOPOLD’S RULE IN AFRICA; by E. D. Morel. Heinemann. 1904.̓

BRITISH NIGERIA; by Lieut.-Colonel A. F. Mockler-Ferryman.

London. 1902.

LIBERIA. 2 vols. By Sir H. H. Johnston. Hutchinson. 1906.̓

MADAGASCAR: Essai de Géographie Physique (gives much history, also); par

E. F. Gautier. Paris. 1902.̓

THE NEGRO IN THE NEW WORLD (gives history of Slave Trade); by Sir H. H.

Johnston. 44 Methuen. 1910.̓

NYASALAND UNDER THE FOREIGN OFFICE; by H. L. Duff. George Bell. 1903.̓

A TROPICAL DEPENDENCY; by Lady Lugard. London. 1904.̓

UGANDA AND ITS PEOPLES; by J. F. Cunningham. Hutchinson. 1904.̓

SEVENTEEN TRIPS THROUGH SOMALILAND, ETC.; by Colonel H. G. C. Swayne.

R.E. 3rd Edition. Rowland Ward. 1903.̓

THE NILE QUEST; by Sir H. H. Johnston. Lawrence & Butler. 1904.̓

GEORGE GRENFELL AND THE CONGO; by Sir H. H. Johnston. 2 vols.

Hutchinson. 1908.

THE GARDEN COLONY: the Story of Natal and its neighbours; by Robert

Russell. J. M. Dent. 1903.̓

THE GREAT PLATEAU OF NORTHERN RHODESIA; by C. Gouldsbury and H. Streane.

Edward Arnold. 1911.

A HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH

CENTURIES (treats of early history of South Africa); by Edward

Heawood, M.A. Cambridge University Press, 1912.̓

DAWN IN DARKEST AFRICA; by John H. Harris. Smith, Elder & Co., 1912.̓

MOROCCO IN DIPLOMACY; by E. D. Morel. Smith, Elder & Co., 1912.̓

THE STATESMAN’S YEAR-BOOK; by Dr J. Scott Keltie.

(Annual publication.) Macmillan.

COLONIAL OFFICE LIST; by W. H. Mercer and A. E. Collins.

Harrison & Sons. 1898-1912.

Also the works of LIVINGSTONE, W. FLINDERS PETRIE, SIR RICHARD BURTON,

CAPT. J. H. SPEKE, SIR SAMUEL BAKER; JOURNALS OF CHARLES GEORGE

GORDON, and 11th Edition, ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.

INDEX

Abatetwa clan, 281

Abbadie, Antoine and Arnaud, 226, 317

Abbas bin Tusūn, 360

Abbas Hilmi, 367

Abbasid Khalifs, 67, 69, 71, 72

Abd-al-aziz, 223

Abd-al-Hamid, 366

Abd-al-Kader, 214, 218

Abd-al-Mumin, 64

Abd-al-Wadite kings of Tlemsan, 64

Abdallah-al-Taaisha, 363

Abdallah-bin-Abu-Sarh, 56

Abdallah-bin-Zubeir, 56

Abd-ar-rahman bin Mūawiya, 59

Abo, 192

Abraham of Beja, 81, 82

Abreu, Gomez d', 424

Abruzzi, Duke of the, 340

Abu Muhammad Hafsi, 64

Abu-AbdAllah, 60

Abukir Bay, 212

Abu’l Abbas Ahmad-al-Mansur, 66 _et seq._

Abyssinia, 7, 10, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 43, 51, 52, 62, 82 _et seq._,

152, 212, 226, 227, 241, 242, 245, 253, 300, 301, 303, 308, 316,

317, 319, 320, 326, 363, 393 _et seq._, 443

Abyssinian explorers, 45, 317

Accra, 124, 177, 178, 196

Aχdar mountains, 42

Acila, 66

Açores Islands, 92, 116, 390

Acre, 212

Acunha, Tristan d' (Conquistador), 83

— — Island, 268

Adamawa, 194

Aden, 18, 19, 73, 83, 226, 227, 235, 335, 337, 372

Adis Ababa, 227, 396

Adonis, 39

Adrar, 12, 121, 321

Adrar Temmur, 209

Adua, 396

Adulis, 43

Aelius Gallus, 298

_Aepyornis_, 424

Afar-Danakil-Somali language group, 21

Afarik, 37

Affonso (of Kongo), 86

Africa, prehistoric race movements in, 1 _et seq._;

negroes of modern Africa, 5, 6;

indebted to Egypt for domestic animals and cultivated plants, 19,

20;

Mediterranean colonization of, 32 _et seq._;

derivation of name, 37;

Arab conquest of, 52 _et seq._

“Africa” (the Roman province of), 47, 49 _et seq._, 59, 219

African Association, 304, 305, 318

— Lakes Company, 248, 277, 284

“Afrikander Bond,” 276

Afrikanders, 129, 140, 276

Agades, 13, 19, 49, 209

Agadir, 224, 225, 399

Agau-Bilin, 21

Aghlab, Aghlabite dynasty, 59, 60

Agisymba, 48

Agulhas, Cape, 81

Ahaggar, 337

Ahmad bin Tulūn,70

Ahmadu Abdulei, 203

Ahmadu Ahmadu, 202

Ahmadu bin Tidiani, 202, 204

Ahmadu Lobo, 202

Ahmadu, the Fula King, 309

Air, country of, 327, 337, 443

Air and Asben, oasis, 209

Akaba, Gulf of, 366

Akko, 32

Al-Araish, 77

Al-'Askar, 60

Albanians, 19, 70

Albany, 256, 258

Albargoa, 423

Albert Nyanza, _see_ Nyanza

Albreda, 171

Albu, Sir G., 146, 274

Albuquerque, Major Mouzinho de, 114

Aldabra, 29, 295

Aleppo, 71

Alexander, Lieut. Boyd, 338, 339

Alexander, Sir J. E., 307

Alexander the Great, 43

Alexandria, 44, 45, 52, 71, 212, 214, 238, 298, 359, 360, 362, 366,

393

Al-Fasi, 391

Alfonso I, 76

Alfonso III, 77

Alfonso V, 76

Alfonso VI, 76

Al Fostat, 60

Alfred, county of, 270

Algarve, 77

Algeciras Conference, 223, 225

Algeria, 5, 8, 12, 22, 35, 38, 47, 49, 50, 53, 56, 59 _et seq._,

116, 119, 120, 160, 207, 213 _et seq._, 245, 252, 253, 301, 321,

337, 444, 445

Algiers, 117, 118, 195, 213, 214, 230, 235, 400

Algoa Bay, 81, 126, 259

Alhucemas, Is., 119

Ali, 56, 59, 60, 66, 69

Ali bin Hamūd, 382

Al Jof, 237

Al Kahirah, 60

Al-Kaïm bi Amr Allah, 60

Al Kasr-al-Kabīr, 77

Al-Katai, 60

Allah, 55

Allat, 55

Al-Mahdi Senussi II, 236

Al-Mansur, 67, 69

Al-Masr, 60

Almeida, Francisco de, 424

Almirante Islands, 28, 29, 295

Almoravide, Almohade, _see_ Marabut and Muāhadim

Al Mu’izz, 60

Al-Obeid, 363

Alsace-Lorraine settlers in Algeria, 216

Alula, Ras, 394

Alvares, Dom, 86 _et seq._

Alvarez, 83

Al Wardani, 367

Amalfi, 390

Amamfengu, 267

Amaro José, 307

Amatola Mountains, 263

Amatongaland, 281, 283

Ama-zulu, 281

Ambas Bay, 184, 244, 415

Ambriz, 94

America, 88, 92, 124, 154

American Colonization Society, 158, 164

American Missionaries, 36, 96, 175, 228, 252, 261

American slave-trade, 153, 154, 156

American War of Independence, 173

Amerindian type, 4

Amhara, 395

Amiens, Peace of, 254

Amina, Princess, 360

Amir-al-Mumenin, 63

Amorites, 22

Amr-bin-al-As, 55

Amsterdam, 127

Anamabu, 176

Andalucia, 50, 120, 202

Andaman Islands, 3

Anderson, Benjamin, 166

Andersson, C. J., 317, 327

Angas, G. F., 308

Angles, 50

Anglo-French Conventions, 210, 225, 230, 366, 368

Anglo-German Convention of 1890, 364, 411

Angola, 87, 89 _et seq._, 96, 97, 104, 106, 108, 124, 128, 154, 184,

245, 250, 251, 258, 291, 301, 316 _et seq._, 325, 338, 444

Angoni-Zulus, 24, 103, 160, 279

Angora goats, 265, 274, 419

Angoshe, 103, 109, 110

Angra Pequena, 99, 406, 420

Anhaya, Pedro de, 83

Ankobra, 124

Ankole, 381

Annesley Bay, 43

Anno Bom Island, 121

Anti-Atlas Mountains, 120, 224

Antilles, 117

Antonelli, 329

Anuaks, 370

Apollonia, 42, 124

Arābi, Ahmed, 360, 362

Arabia, 1, 4, 17, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 33, 39, 43, 51, 52, 54 _et

seq._, 62, 84, 103, 152, 156, 159, 160, 326

Arabic language, 40, 61, 70, 75, 217, 253, 448, 449

Arabs, 13, 14, 19, 22 _et seq._, 29, 30, 42, 44, 45, 52 _et seq._,

70 _et seq._, 134, 146, 152, 160, 161, 213, 215, 217, 241, 279,

285, 291, 294, 344 _et seq._, 446 _etc._

Aragon, 116

Aramaic, 21, 40

Archinard, Col., 204, 206

Argonauts, 41

Arguin, 79, 123, 198, 403

Arizona, 153

Armenia, 20

Armenians, 19, 21, 22

Arnaud (explorer), 338

Arnold, Sir Edwin, 364

Arnot, F. S., 330

Arõ tribe, 187

Aruwimi, R., 329, 332

Arvad, 32

Aryan tongues, 21

Aryan type, 22

Arzila, 66

Ascension Island, 99, 268

Ashanti, 10, 12, 14, 48, 124, 146, 154, 161, 176 _et seq._, 204, 309

Ashmun, 39

Ashmun, Rev. Jehudi, 164

Asia, probable birth-place of the negro, 4;

modern negroes of, 5 _etc._

Asia Minor, 69

Asiatics in S. Africa, 291, 294

Asil, 237

Asiut, 303

Asjer, 37

Asmara, 393

Ass, the, 75

Assab Bay, 393

As-Sanusi, 236

Assini, 205

Assuan, 368

Assyria, Assyrians, 19, 21, 33, 37

Astarte, 39

Atbara, 46, 365

Atiqa, 32, 33

Atlantic Ocean reached by Arabs, 57

Atlas Mountains, 2, 47, 49, 64, 223, 224, 324, 331, 336

“Atrocities,” 349

Augustus Caesar, 298

Aures Mountains, 445

Aurigha, 53

Austen, Capt. H. H., 339

Australia, 264, 293

Australoids, 2

Austria, 59, 245

Austrian attempt on Delagoa Bay, 111

Austrian Catholic Mission on Nile, 319

Austrian missionaries, 245

Author.

His experience of slave traffic, 155, 156;

administers Ambas Bay, 184;

removes Jaja, 185;

explores the Benin river, 186;

administers British Central Africa, 278, 284;

with Dr Cross discovers south end of Lake Rukwa, 328;

other African explorations, 330, 331;

and Kili-ma-njaro, 376, 409;

appointed Special Commissioner, 380, 381;

on the East African Protectorate, 387

Avis, House of, 66, 88

Awarigha, 37

Awuraghen, 37

Axim, 124

Axum, 43, 300

Ayeaye, the, 427

Ayubite kings of Egypt, 71

Baal-hammana, 38

Baal Milkkart, 39

Bab-al-Mandib, Straits of, 4, 393, 397

Babel or Babylon, 60

Baboons, 43

Badagri, 311, 312

Baert, Capt., 330

Baetica, 50

Baganda, 380

Baghdad, 58, 59, 67, 69 _et seq._

Bagirmi, 13, 14, 194, 230, 235 _et seq._, 324, 443

Bagradas, 38

Bahr-al-Ghazal, 12, 16, 19, 43, 46, 319, 321, 326, 327, 336, 363,

369

Baikie, Dr W. B., 188

Bailundo, 96

Baines, Thomas, 283

— William, 327

Ba-jok, 87, 301

Baker, Sir Samuel and Lady, 315, 318, 326, 362

Bakhunu, 204

Ba-kioko, 87

Bakka, 54

Ba-kongo, 240

Balboa, 153

Baldissera, General, 396

Baldwin, 327

Ball, Mr John, 324

Bamaku, 202, 203, 305

Bambotus, 49

Bambuk, 199, 304

Banana (tree), 27, 75, 92, 93

Bandiagara, 202

Bangweulu, Lake, 322, 330, 334

Bani, 14

Banks, Sir Joseph, 304

Bantu Africa, 26, 308, 335

Bantu border-line, 230, 332

— language, 10, 11, 16, 134

— negroes, 26, 30, 45, 51, 97, 122, 126, 134, 232, 415, 418

— — migrations of, 134, 135, 255

Baptist Mission (Cameroons and Congo), 184, 244, 325, 329, 415

Baptista (explorer), 307

Baratieri, General, 396

Barbarossas, the, 118

Barbary, 54, 59, 61, 62, 66, 298, 302

Barbary States, 118, 169, 195, 303;

_see also_ Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli

Barclay, Hon. Arthur, 167

Bardera, 398

Bardo Museum, 35

Barghash, Sultan, 375

Bari people, 245, 326

Baring, Sir E., _see_ Cromer

Baringo, Lake, 331, 335

Barka, 41, 57, 61, 69, 314, 444

Barke, 42

Barotse, 249, 278, 325, 339

Barrakonda Rapids, 302

Barreto, Francisco, 101, 102, 300

Barth, Dr Heinrich, 195, 314, 315

Bary, Dr E. von, 327

Basel Mission, 248

“Bastards,” the, 139, 142, 418

Bastian, Dr, 322

“Bastion de France,” 211

Basuto, Basutoland, 134, 140 _et seq._, 249, 250, 263, 264, 270,

273, 275, 281, 291 _et seq._

Batavia, 126, 127, 135, 136

Bateke country, 90

Batenstein, Fort, 124

Bates, G. L., 339

Batetela, 346

Bathurst, 170, 171

Batoka country, 240, 247

Battel, Andrew, 301

Bauchi, 194

Bauer, F., 338

Baumann, Dr, 333, 336

Baya country, 234

Ba-yaka, 87

Bayoñ, 415

Beaconsfield, Lord, 406

Beaufort, de, 200, 319

Bechuana, Bechuanaland, 134, 140, 143, 145, 249, 255, 269 _et seq._,

291, 292, 307, 308, 317

Beechey, Admiral, 314

Beecroft, Capt. John, 183, 188, 313

Behanzin, 206

Beira, 82, 100, 113 _et seq._, 279, 285, 286

Beirūt, 32

Beit, Alfred, 146, 274

Beja, 21, 81

Beke, Dr C. T., 317

Belgian Africa, 342 _et seq._

Belgian Congo, 87, 96, 233, 235, 272, 291

Belgians, King of the, 229 _et seq._, 328, 329, 342 _et seq._