Of late years, with that revival of craftsmanship, according to the
gospel of Ruskin and William Morris, already dwelt upon, there has been
a rush into all the departments of manual dexterity needing for
successful achievement the guidance of artistic feeling. The result of
this has been that there is a tendency to exaggerate the importance of
the ornamental and the decorated, to the exclusion of not only
simplicity but, let us say frankly, of plainness and the undecorated
surface of flawless material. The over-elaboration of the decorative
arts must inevitably produce a reaction sooner or later, very quickly
for those who prefer restraint, more slowly for the majority of the
public, to whom ornament is always synonymous with art. For such as
these fashion counts for much; and it is in the hope that those who lead
taste in the matter of edition bindings may find a scope for their
enterprise on somewhat new lines that I ask consideration for this
chapter.
[Illustration: 49. BOUND BY CHAMBOLLE.]
[Illustration: 50. BOUND BY CHAMBOLLE.]
After all, the costly bindings achieved for wealthy amateurs must always
constitute but a small portion of the output of bound work. There will
remain the cloth or leather-covered book in greater or smaller editions,
for which covers are made in quantities by machinery, separately from
the book, and for decorating which metal dies are cut and stamped by
means of an embossing press, either with or without the addition of
colours or gold leaf. It is of this class of work that I propose to
treat, giving first a brief account of the stages through which it has
passed in modern times, then showing how it was dealt with, though on a
much smaller scale, in the early days of printing, and finally offering
some suggestions for its more varied and, as I think, more artistic
treatment in the future. This treatment would necessitate the employment
of leather; but there is no reason why the less expensive kinds of skins
should not be used, not perhaps for books issued in large numbers, but
for small editions where a little extra outlay could be easily recovered
on the published price of the work. Roans made from the best sheepskins,
which are the hides of Scotch sheep, would not be a costly material, and
would give good results in the embossing press. Pigskin is a very
suitable material for the better class of bindings on which stamps are
to be used, and is both strong and comparatively inexpensive,
considering the size of the skins. Vellum, again, might be occasionally
used for small editions; it blocks well, and is most effective with but
little ornament. At one time much in demand for bindings, it ceased for
many years to be used at all in England, except in account-book
manufacture, when it was generally stained green. It has lately come
into fashion again, chiefly for limp work, through the initiative of
William Morris, who introduced it on most of the works issued by him
from the Kelmscott Press; and both the Doves Press and the Ashendene
Press have continued to employ it. To observe its suitability for
blocking, either when used limp or on boards, we have only to turn to
the coats-of-arms which frequently decorated it on the books of the
great collectors of past times. There was a very fine specimen of
vellum, ornamented in black, shown at the Burlington Fine Arts
Exhibition in 1891. But before considering in detail how edition
bindings were treated in the days when, comparatively speaking, books
were few in number, we will get some idea of their treatment in more
recent times, starting with the last century.
[Illustration: 51. BOUND BY CANAPE.]
Up to, roughly speaking, about 1825, books of the type of dictionaries,
classics, school books, and books of reference were mostly bound in roan
or sprinkled sheep; while books of history, poetry, and novels were
issued in drab or olive-coloured paper boards, with a printed label
pasted on the back, or the full title printed on the back and sides, as
in the case of Walker’s _British Classics_ (1818). It was very rarely
that anything but a dull colour was used, though Whittingham’s _British
Poets_ (1816) had a dark Venetian red paper, and the class of literature
known in those days as gift-books or annuals occasionally appeared in
vellum-coloured paper, stamped with gold. The more valuable of these,
however, filled with choice steel engravings and prepared for the
Christmas market, were bound in morocco and silk, and issued under such
titles as _The Keepsake_, _The Bijou_, _Friendship’s Offering_, _The
Book of Beauty_, _The Landscape Annual_, and so on. Such books commanded
a large sale, even in those days; and a writer on the subject, in the
first volume of _The Bookbinder_, mentions Finden’s _Tableaux_, two
thousand imperial quarto volumes, full bound in best morocco, gilt. The
paper-covered boards, which clothed the larger number of the books of
that time, had a way of cracking at the hinge, and so becoming
disconnected, a difficulty which was got over about 1822 by covering the
back with calico or cloth. As an illustration of this step we may take
Scott’s _Waverley Novels_. The _Novels and Tales_, in twelve volumes,
appeared in 1819 in pink paper, with white labels; the _Historical
Romances_, in six volumes, followed in 1822, in blue paper, with pink
cloth back and white paper labels; and _Novels and Romances_ in 1824 in
the same fashion. The next step was that of covering books entirely with
cloth, introduced by Mr. Archibald Leighton, one of the most
enterprising and successful of modern binders, whose business capacity
and energy secured for him the patronage of the chief publishers of the
day. He bound for Murray, Pickering, Colbourn, Tilt, Charles Knight,
Moon, Boys, Graves, and many others, and died prematurely in 1841,
leaving to his family a well-established business which, under a
somewhat varying character, has remained in their hands up to the
present time.
In the _Bookseller_ of July 4, 1881, there is an interesting account, by
Mr. Robert Leighton, of the invention of bookbinders’ cloth by his
father, and of how the subsequent embossing of it came about. The exact
date of cloth binding he is not able to state, but says that he has in
his library a volume, presented to his father by the author, bound in
smooth, red cloth, with a paper label. The publishers’ names are
Lackington, Hughes, Harding and Lepard, and the date on the title-page
is 1822. There is every reason to believe that it is one of a number
similarly bound in that year. In those days the white calico was bought
in London, sent to the dyers to be dyed, and thence to Mr. John
Southgate, of 3 Crown Court, Old Change, to be stiffened and calendered.
The embossing of bookbinders’ cloth was suggested by Mr. Archibald
Leighton to the late Mr. de la Rue, and was carried out so admirably by
him, with the appliances he possessed for embossing paper, that his
process remains still comparatively unaltered. The desired pattern was
engraved on a gun-metal cylinder, and transferred in reverse to one made
of compressed paper, strung upon an iron spindle and turned in the lathe
to the exact circumference of the gun-metal one, and these two being
worked together in a machine, and the pattern transferred from one to
the other, the cloth was passed between them and received the impress of
the pattern engraved on the metal cylinder.
[Illustration: 52. BOUND BY CANAPE.]
In this way the whole of the cloth used by Messrs. Leighton was for many
years embossed upon their own premises. The cylinders were only fourteen
or fifteen inches wide, and the machine was turned by manual labour and
heated by red-hot irons, which were placed in the gun-metal cylinder and
replaced by others when cold. In those days it was customary to engrave
special cylinders for books of importance, and you may still
occasionally meet with stray volumes of _The Penny Cyclopædia_ or
Knight’s _Pictorial England_, and such like popular works, with embossed
cloth covers so prepared. Mr. Pickering was the first person for whom
Mr. Leighton bound books in cloth, and either his ‘Aldine Poets’ or the
‘Diamond Classics’ were the first books on which it was put. The first
person to undertake the embossing of bookbinders’ cloth on cylinders a
yard wide was Mr. Law, of Monkwell Street, and for years he embossed all
the cloth sold by Mr. James Leonard Wilson, of St. John Street, who had
followed Mr. Leighton’s methods in the preparation and sale of the
cloth. Mr. Wilson sold his business to Messrs. Duffield, who established
a manufactory of bookbinders’ cloth at Hoxton, and so improved it that
for years he held practically a monopoly of its output. The exact period
when gold-stamping was first applied to cloth is clearly marked by the
publication of Lord Byron’s life and works, in seventeen volumes, by Mr.
John Murray, of Albemarle Street. The volumes were published monthly,
and had a sale of about 20,000. They were bound in green cloth, and the
first volume was issued in 1832, with a green paper label on the back,
matching the cloth in colour, on which was printed in bronze the title
and a coronet; on the second and succeeding volumes the paper label was
dispensed with, and the coronet and title were stamped in gold upon the
cloth itself. Mr. Henry George Bohn, in a letter addressed to the _Art
Journal_, says that his father, John Henry Bohn, a German bookbinder,
established about 1795 in Frith Street, Soho, had a special reputation
for gilding on the silk linings of books, as well as calf-graining,
tree-marbling, and other special processes, all of which he himself made
acquaintance with when a boy. ‘In later life,’ he continues, ‘the
knowledge of the peculiar dressing used for gilding on silk enabled me
to communicate to Mr. Leighton the means of getting cloth prepared so as
to take gilding by heated machinery at the rolling or stamping press,
which a leading trade firm said was impracticable. The process, however,
after a few weeks’ experiments conducted by the late Mr. James Leonard
Wilson, was successfully accomplished; and Mr. Leighton thereupon wrote
to me triumphantly announcing the fact, and undertaking in consequence
to bind in gilt cloth several thousand volumes at half the price I
should previously have had to pay, on account of the necessity of having
to add leather backs for taking the gold by hand tooling. The book was
Martin and Westall’s _Bible Points_, which I brought out in 1832. What
to me at the time seemed an accomplishment of little moment has now
become of such importance to cloth binders that, could the discovery
have been patented, it would have yielded a considerable income.’
[Illustration: 53. BOUND BY CANAPE.]
This Mr. Robert Leighton, who thus wrote of his father’s invention, was
himself the pioneer in the use of steam machinery in bookbinding, and he
adopted in his own business nearly all the machinery which has since
become indispensable to the wholesale binder. He was also the first to
use steam power for blocking in gold; the first to use aluminium, and
black and coloured inks for cloth cases, examples of which he showed in
the exhibition of 1851. He had a great reputation for the designs of his
cloth bindings, which he devised in conjunction with his artist cousin,
John Leighton, known as Luke Limner, a good instance being the pleasant
and appropriate covers for Mrs. Jameson’s _Legends of the Madonna_ and
_Legends of the Monastic Orders_. The two Leightons, father and son,
thus inaugurated and furthered the great revolution in the art of
edition binding associated with the employment for the purpose of
specially prepared cloth, and its decoration by means of steam-blocking
in gold and colours. It was natural that such an invention should lead
to abuse; and in a short time, unfortunately, there was so much gilt
ornament that a strong reaction took place, and, while cloth as a
material for the cover continued to be used, it was either left plain or
had a single bordering line in gold, with or without the title likewise
in gold upon the sides. More recently colour printing upon cloth has
been revived with excellent results in many cases, especially where an
artist who understands the power and limitations of the blocking process
has been employed upon the designs. Many of these are entirely without
gold, and give representations of scenes taken from the books with
excellent impressionist effect. One may mention as instances in England
the novels published by Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton, such as _In Our
Town_, _Her Majesty’s Minister_, _Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch_, _The
Hebrew_, and many others of the same firm, one of whose members gives
special attention to the successful production of cloth covers. The
bindings of books issued by Mr. John Lane are also frequently very
successful, though it is not so easy to keep in touch with the output of
American work on similar lines. Messrs. Puttenham have produced some
excellent examples of taste in colour printing, notably _The Romance of
the Colorado River_, _Puerto Rican_, _Lights of Childhood_, and _The
Romance of the Renaissance Chateaux_, in which the castle of Langeais is
shown in black on a grey cloth. The same house publish likewise one or
two books bound in plain cloth, with a photographic print on the cover,
which seemed a pleasant variation not in use over here; while
_Twenty-Six Historic Ships_, also issued by them, is a most satisfactory
example of blocking with white foil on a blue ground. At Messrs.
Appleton’s are to be found several specimens of bookbinders’ cloth which
do not come over here at all. We have but little variety in the nature
and preparation of our cloth; while in America it is treated in many
different ways, which naturally give very varied results in the
blocking-press.
Messrs. Gay and Bird issue some effective colour printing on _In South
Africa with Buller_, and an attractive example of a loch and mountain
scene in four sombre colours on _The Story of Gösta Berling_. There is
little doubt that the most artistic effects are got by using very few
colours in harmony rather than in contrast with the cloth. Gold is much
more sparingly used for cloth work than formerly, and with far better
taste. _Paris in its Splendour_, published by the last-named firm, is an
interesting example of the different effects that can be obtained from
the gold by varieties of matted ground in the block; while in _Walden_,
issued by Messrs. Houghton and Mifflin, the cloth of the cover
represents the design, the gold being confined to suggesting the
background, with a decidedly original result.
This, then, is the position of cloth binding at the present time as
shown by the leading publishers’ work. The technical processes are
probably as perfect as such things can be, the drawings are frequently
the work of artists, there is far more restraint than formerly both in
the matter of design and the employment of colour, while the taste in
colour schemes is often as good as possible, and a great advance on that
shown a decade or two ago. We do not think that in that special branch
of edition bindings there is any great advance to be made or novelty to
be assumed, though no doubt we may expect a wider diffusion of the taste
that we have noted in the best work and an increasingly small number of
book covers inferior in design, colour, and general effect.
In what direction, then, can we hope for any new departure? In order to
answer the question, and complete the scope of this chapter, it is
necessary to spend a short time in studying the bindings in which books
were clothed when they were less numerous, and during a period when they
reached what many think the high-water mark of successful decoration.
[Illustration: 54. BOUND BY CANAPE.]
[Illustration: 55. BOUND BY CANAPE.]
The work of the early printers was issued in trade bindings just as
publishers’ work is now sent out, but in those days stationers combined
the craft of binding with the business of bookselling. The earliest of
all were decorated by building up designs from dies, these being
arranged in pattern schemes which Mr. W. H. James Weale was the first to
analyze and set forth in the catalogue of the fine collection of
rubbings of bindings which he presented to the National Art Library of
South Kensington in 1894. These schemes were taken from the covers of
manuscripts from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, but the same
kind of arrangement, though not so elaborate, may be seen on the
earliest printed books; also witness the illustrations to the monographs
on early Oxford and Cambridge bindings issued by the Bibliographical
Society. Small books were stamped with a panel on the sides, and these
often had the initials or mark of the binder, which have led in many
instances to the ascription of particular bindings to the stationers who
issued them, though a still greater number still remain to be
identified. The blocks were generally small, and were used sometimes one
on each side between a bordering of roughly drawn lines; sometimes two
together were placed upon one side, and connected with lines or some
simple device; and occasionally on large books four panels were arranged
in rows of two. The material of the binding was ass’s-skin, pigskin,
calfskin,—though not the fragile kind now associated with the name—and
vellum, but chiefly the three first. The stamps or blocks used were cut
in intaglio, either on hard wood or on metal, producing the impression
in cameo; the design was often both strong and delicate in treatment,
the impression after all these years showing great artistic vigour and
inventiveness. Indeed, nothing can be more excellent than the dragons,
gryphons, and other mythical animals in the pear-shaped, triangular,
circular, or square dies arranged within the pattern schemes of the very
early bindings. It is known exactly how these stamps were used upon the
bindings; it is probable that, when panel stamps were used, the leather
was thoroughly wetted and the book then placed in a screw press, under a
block of wood or metal, for the length of time needed to obtain a clear
impression. In _Marques Typographiques_ by Silvestre, there is a
printers’ mark, used by Petrus Cesar Gaudanus, otherwise Pierre de
Keyser, of Ghent, between 1516 and 1547, which represents a book
undergoing pressure in a printers’ press; and Josse Bade, likewise a
stationer and printer of Paris, who died in 1535, used a somewhat
similar one. Though there is obviously a book in the press, the picture
may relate to a process not connected with binding; but in any case it
probably represents what must have been the procedure used in impressing
the stamps. These dies passed from one workshop to another, and none of
them are extant to my knowledge in England, though the heraldic blocks
used on books in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. were decidedly
numerous and of great artistic merit. In the Netherlands these designs
were the binders’ property and protected as such, but in England, where
the binders were not organized into separate guilds, this was not the
case, and piracy was everywhere prevalent.
[Illustration: 56. BOUND BY KIEFFER.]
On many of the blocks there appear two indentations or holes about a
quarter of an inch in diameter, situated within the border at the top
and bottom of the panel. The precise purport of these is unknown, and
many plausible theories have been invented to account for them. One such
suggests that they were stop buttons to prevent the stamp from sinking
too far into the leather, but it is more probable that they indicate the
heads of nails or pegs which fastened the carved block or metal stamp to
another piece of wood. Sometimes the impressions made by them are almost
imperceptible, at others there has been an attempt at concealment by
carrying the ornament across. Many of the subjects pictured on these
stamps were of a religious character: thus the Baptism of Christ, Saint
John the Baptist, the Crucifixion, Our Lady of Pity, the Ara Cœli, and
the different saints and apostles, are all represented upon these early
book covers. For an account of them, and for a general history of early
stamped bindings, which contains also a certain amount of illustration,
the interested reader cannot do better than procure the two volumes,
published at half a crown by the Department of Science and Art, at South
Kensington, entitled _Bookbindings and Rubbings of Bindings in the
National Art Library of South Kensington Museum_, by W. H. James Weale.
This class of binding has given rise to much dispute of an archæological
kind, with which, happily, we are not concerned at the moment. Whether
the stamps were of wood or metal, in what country they originated, their
authorship as indicated by initials incorporated in the design, their
_provenance_ as apart from the country in which they were in use, who
was the inventor of the pattern roller,—all such questions we may leave
aside, the point of interest being the fact of the stamp and its
astonishing variety of character, for many styles were represented by
it, all, with but few exceptions, of great merit and suitability to
their end. For the present purpose, and as far as ornament is concerned,
they may be classified somewhat as follows:—
1. Small Gothic dies with palmated leaves, animals, and so on, combined
in design according to certain fixed patterns, such as those on the
Bible written and bound in the monastery at Durham for Hugh Pudsey,
bishop of that diocese from 1153 to 1195, and other books in the same
cathedral library.
2. Interlaced ornament of several distinct types, some Celtic in
character, on the earliest books in leather that have come down to us,
executed in the north of England in the twelfth century, others
recalling the designs on Roman mosaic pavement; others, again, Eastern
in character. Perhaps the most beautiful interlaced patterns of all
belong to the latter class, and are the cablework designs found on
Italian books of the last half of the fifteenth century, no doubt copied
from Arabian examples.
The Spanish bindings of the first half of the sixteenth century have
interlaced ornament of as fine a kind, but often lacking in the
comparative simplicity of the Italian.
3. The Gothic stamps of mythical animals, enclosed in circles or
scrollwork, bordered with Gothic foliage, and frequently containing a
legend. These were mostly of German origin, and were no doubt inspired
by the work of Albert Dürer and his contemporaries.
4. The heraldic panels decorated with royal badges, used in England
during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII.
5. The panel stamps of a purely decorative kind, such as those with the
religious subjects above mentioned; others like the well-known two used
by Moulin, of a miller with his sacks, in punning allusion to his name;
and those in use by Norins, in which the acorn figures largely as an
ornament.
6. Lastly, the panel stamps with two profile busts in medallion within a
framework of Renaissance ornament, thoroughly debased in character, and
marking the complete decline of the binder’s stamp.
I would sum up, in conclusion, the points I have desired to emphasize,
and which are as follows:—
That the flat blocking of cloth work in gold and colours by no means
exhausts the treatment possible for edition or publishers’ bindings. It
has undoubtedly been largely overdone, for lavish ornament is distinctly
out of place as applied to cheap material, such as cloths and linens.
Indeed, as decoration for the ordinary novel of a few shillings nothing
is in better taste than a single design carried out in two or three
colour printings without gold, such as some of those mentioned.
[Illustration: 57. BOUND BY KIEFFER.]
[Illustration: 58. BOUND BY KIEFFER.]
That there is room for a totally distinct class of bindings for small
editions of more important publications, which should be in leather and
blocked with a stamp of fine design without gold, which will give a
raised impression. For this purpose zincographic blocks are of no use,
but brass, as a material which admits of modelling, would be imperative.
That the designing of such stamps should be put in the hands of the few
artists having a genius for the work, which is quite special in
character, and belongs more to the art of the medallist than to that of
the maker of patterns. We in no way want their undue multiplication, but
would rather, indeed, that they should be reserved for a limited number
of publications, for which the subject-matter, paper and type constitute
together a whole, worthy of a dignified cover that will stand the lapse
of time. In these days of book lovers and collectors of every sort, it
is certainly not unlikely that there are many who would welcome a new
venture of this kind, in which they would associate the binding with the
book, and have no desire to separate the one from the other. In the
little Bibelot series, Messrs. Gay and Bird have already made a slight
attempt on the lines I am suggesting.
Lastly, we have tried to show that there is no dearth of material from
which the designer of such work may glean the principles on which it
should be based, in order to secure satisfactory results. Apart from the
bindings still extant, which may be studied for the purpose, such
sources as the _Book of Kells_ and _Early Christian Art in Ireland_, by
Margaret Stokes, are full of illustrations in a field strangely little
explored by the pattern maker of to-day.
While only a limited number of early examples have been instanced, they
are suggestive of what was done in edition binding in the past, and may
be done again in the future. Such a departure needs, no doubt, the
initiative of a printer-publisher who does the best kind of work, and in
a field that commands the interested support of the genuine book lover.
Surely, however, to find such an one ought not to be difficult with the
widespread interest now shown in every detail of book production.
-----
Footnote 1:
For the benefit of those who are interested in the technicality of
what is known as ‘tooling,’ we will briefly describe in what it
consists. ‘Finishing tools’ are stamps of metal that have a pattern
cut on the face, and the shanks of which are held in wooden handles.
Such patterns can be complete in themselves, or the single ‘tools’ may
have only the elements of a pattern that needs to be built up, for the
‘tools’ must not be too large, or they cannot be worked with sureness
of result. The design is composed of these ‘tools’ in combination with
gouges which are curved lines. The drawing is first made accurately on
paper by means of blackening the tools in a candle or lightly
impressing them on an ink-pad. This paper is then placed on the book
and slightly attached with paste at each corner. The tools are next
gently heated and reworked on the drawing, leaving an impression in
‘blind,’ as it is called, on the leather sufficient to be seen through
the gold leaf when this is applied ready for the next operation. The
cover is now damped with water and the impressions left by the tools
pencilled over with a preparation of white of egg known as glaire,
applied with a camel-hair brush. When this is sufficiently dry, but
not too dry, the gold leaf is put on, and the individual ‘tools,’
taken at just the right heat, are reworked in the impressions seen
faintly beneath the gold. Fresh gold may have to be applied and the
pattern reworked several times if the tools are solid or the leather
for any reason presents special difficulties. These are, roughly
speaking, the processes necessary to the working of a design, though
many small ones have been omitted. It will be seen at once, however,
from this brief account: firstly, that there are no freehand
possibilities about the operation; and secondly, that to be a good
finisher a workman should know something of drawing, for he cannot
make a correct pattern, much less one that has any organic meaning,
unless he understands how to combine small tools with taste and
judgment. He must know what to leave out as well as what to put in; if
there is inlaying, he must have a sense of colour-harmony and
contrast, and he must understand enough of styles not to mix up those
of different periods, nor to select one that is unsuitable to the
special character of the book.
Footnote 2:
The technical schools, it may be noted, with the exceptions perhaps of
the Borough Polytechnic, are not looked on with favour by the trade,
who are ever adverse to any alteration in the traditional habits of a
craft; but it is difficult to see, without some experiments of the
kind, how the learner is to get the advantages of intelligent
training, which he did under the old system of apprenticeship. Now
that Trades Unions have a tendency to deteriorate the quality and
limit the output of the adult worker, it is well that there should be
some influences brought to bear upon him in the earlier stages of his
career that make for appreciative insight into the meaning of his work
and cultivate his taste in its more artistic possibilities.
Footnote 3:
With tooled edges the leaves of the book are gilt as usual, and while
still in the press, the head, tail and foredge are worked over with
‘tools’ that are open in character, the finer ones being preferable.
These tools must be slightly warmed, so that the impression may be
firm. Sometimes the edge is tooled on the gold before burnishing, when
the impressed pattern will naturally be of a different colour to the
burnished part, as the burnisher will glide over the indentations. At
others a different-coloured gold is laid on the top of the first and
tooled upon, when the pattern will be left in the new gold on the
original colour.
Footnote 4:
This painting can be with or without gold. In any case, it is
necessary that the leaves should be fanned out and tied slightly
between boards. While in this position the colour is applied, which
can be either a stain or water-colour moistened with size. When dry,
the leaves are released, and may be left as they are or gilt in the
ordinary way, when the colour will show through the gold, gaining a
lustre and richness it would not otherwise have.
Footnote 5:
The process of leather cutting and embossing is briefly as follows.
The design is first drawn on paper, then transferred to tracing paper
and traced through from this on to the leather, which is shoe-calf
prepared for the purpose as to quality and thickness. The process is
very much like beaten and chased silver work, except that the soft
leather has to be reinforced at the back with a cement, and while this
cement is hardening the front has to be modelled. It is a mistake to
suppose that this work is of a delicate nature. If the design is
fairly evenly distributed over the decorated space, handling and the
slight friction a well-bound book is subject to in the course of time
enhance its appearance. Again, by tracing and cutting the design
without embossing it a different surface is obtained, while the
application of gold tooling and that of various colour tints are
additions of treatment that give considerable scope to the finisher.
Footnote 6:
The author wishes to acknowledge permission, which she has received
from _The Printing Art_, to print in this country this last chapter,
which first appeared in that periodical.
Printed by T. AND A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty at the Edinburgh
University Press
------------------------------------------------------------------------