interesting, and is analogous in many ways to the methods followed
in the citations in Matthew and Luke from their common sources, the
original Mark and Matthew's _Sayings of Jesus_. Where the two versions
were closely parallel, as in the account of Jacob's deception of
his father Isaac, or the story of the spies, the two are completely
amalgamated; short passages, verses, and parts of verses are taken in
turn from each. In other cases the editor introduced the different
versions--as, for example, the two accounts of the flight of Hagar--into
different settings. From subsequent allusions to two versions, of which
only one survives in the Old Testament, it is to be inferred that
sometimes he simply preserved the fuller, usually the Judean. As a rule,
however, there is clear evidence that he made every effort to retain
all that he found in his original sources, even though the resulting
composite narrative contained many inconsistencies.
[Sidenote: _Practical value of the rediscovery of the original histories_]
To the careful student, seeking to recover the original narratives in
their primal unity, these inconsistencies are guides as valuable as the
fossils and stratification of the earth are to the geologist intent upon
tracing the earth's past history. Guided by these variations and the
distinctive peculiarities in vocabulary, literary style, point of view,
religious conceptions, and purpose of each of the groups of narratives,
Old Testament scholars have rediscovered these two original histories;
and with their recovery the great majority of seeming inconsistencies
and many perplexing problems fade into insignificance. Supplementing
each other, as do the earliest Gospels, these two independent histories
present with new definiteness and authority the essential facts in
Israel's early political, social and religious life. Like eye-witnesses,
they testify to the still more significant fact that from the first God
was revealing his character and will through a unique race.
[Sidenote: _The brief late prophetic history_]
A third survey of the period beginning with the sojourn in Egypt and
concluding with the conquest of the east-Jordan land is found in the
introduction to the book of Deuteronomy. It is the prologue to the laws
that follow, appropriately and effectively placed in the mouth of the
pioneer prophet Moses. A comparison quickly demonstrates that it is in
reality a brief summary of the older histories, and especially of the
early Ephraimite prophetic. Like the Gospel of Matthew, its aim is not
merely to present historical facts, but to illustrate and establish a
thesis. The thesis is that Jehovah has personally led his people, and
that when they have been faithful to him they have prospered, but
when they have disobeyed calamity has overtaken, them. The message is
distinctly prophetic; and to distinguish this third history, which was
probably written near the close of the seventh century before Christ,
from the earlier, it may be designated as the late prophetic or
_Deuteronomic history_ (technically represented by D).
[Sidenote: _Comparison of the Old with the New Testament histories_]
These three prophetic histories correspond strikingly to the three
synoptic Gospels: Mark, Luke and Matthew. The essential differences in
their literary history are that they come, not from a single limited
group of writers and a brief quarter century, but represent the work
of many hands and at least two hundred and fifty years of literary
activity. Two, at least, of these histories, are no longer extant in
their original form, but only as they have been quoted verbatim by
later historians and closely amalgamated. Similarly, as is well
known, Tatian, the pupil of Justin Martyr, in the middle of the second
Christian century, did for the four Gospels precisely what an Old
Testament editor did for the two early prophetic histories,--he combined
them into one composite, continuous narrative. By joining passages
and verses and parts of verses taken from the different Gospels,
by omitting verbal duplicates, by rearranging in some cases and by
occasionally adding a word or phrase to join dissimilar parts, Tatian
produced a marvellous mosaic gospel, known as the _Diatessaron_. All of
the Fourth Gospel is thus preserved, and most of the first three.
So successfully was the work done that the volume was widely used
throughout the Eastern Church. If, as once seemed possible, it had
completely supplanted the original four Gospels, the literary history of
these would have been a repetition of that of the earliest Old Testament
records.
[Sidenote: _The dominant motive of the prophetic historians_.]
It is very important to note that the motive which led the prophetic
historians to commit to writing the earlier traditions of their race was
not primarily historical. Like the author of the Fourth Gospel, they
selected their material chiefly with a view to enforcing certain
important religious truths. If an ancient Semitic tradition illustrated
their point, they divested it of its heathen clothing and, irrespective
of its origin, pressed it into service. For example, it seems clear that
the elements which enter into the story of the Garden of Eden and man's
fall were current, with variations, among the ancient Babylonians
centuries before the Hebrews inherited them from their Semitic
ancestors. The early prophet who wrote the second and third chapters
of Genesis appreciated their value as illustrations, and made them the
medium for imparting some of the most important spiritual truths ever
conveyed to mankind. Like the preachers or moral teachers of to-day, the
first question the prophets asked about a popular story was not, Is it
absolutely historical or scientifically exact? but, Does it illustrate
the vital point to be impressed? Undoubtedly Israel's heritage of oral
traditions was far greater than is suggested by the narratives of the
Old Testament; but only those which individually and collectively
enforced some important religious truth, were utilized. Just as Jesus
drew his illustrations from nature and human life about him, so these
earlier spiritual teachers, with equal tact, took their illustrations
from the familiar atmosphere of song and story and national tradition in
which their readers lived. A secondary purpose, which they obviously
had in view, was also to remove from certain of the popular tales the
immoral implications which still clung to them from their heathen past,
and to reconsecrate them to a diviner end.
[Sidenote: _The permanent and vital value of these narratives_]
Questions of relative date and historical accuracy concern the
historian, but they should not obscure the greater value of these
narratives. To the majority of us, who turn to the Old Testament simply
as the record of divine revelation and as a guide to life, the essential
thing is to put ourselves into touch with these ancient prophets, who
taught by illustration as well as by direct address, and ask, What was
the ethical or spiritual truth that illumined their souls and finds
concrete expression and illustration through these primitive stories? To
discuss the literal historicity of the story of the Garden of Eden is as
absurd as to seek to discover who was the sower who went forth to sow
or the Samaritan who went down to Jericho. Even, if no member of
the despised Samaritan race ever followed in the footsteps of an
hypocritical Levite along the rocky road to Jericho and succored a needy
human being, the vital truth abides. Not until we cease to focus
our gaze on the comparatively unimportant, can we discern the great
spiritual messages of these early narratives.
[Sidenote: _The sequel to the early prophetic histories_]
The sequel to the great prophetic histories which underlie the Old
Testament books, from Genesis through Samuel, is in the books of Kings.
These carry the record of Israel's life down to the Babylonian exile.
The opening chapters of First Kings contain the conclusion of the Judean
prophetic David stories. Fortunately the rest of the biblical history to
the exile was largely compiled from much earlier sources. As in most of
the historical writings, the later editors, also, quoted _verbatim_ from
these earlier records and histories, so that in many cases we have the
testimony of almost contemporary witnesses. The titles of certain of
these earlier books are given: _The Book of the Acts of Solomon_, _The
Chronicles of the Kings of Israel_, and _The Chronicles of the Kings of
Judah_.
[Sidenote: _Earlier sources quoted by the editor of Kings_]
A careful study of the books of Kings suggests many other ancient
sources. For the reign of Solomon, state annals, temple records, and
popular Solomon traditions appear to have been utilized. The graphic
account of the division of the Hebrew empire was probably drawn from
an early Jeroboam history. In the latter part of First Kings appear
citations from an early Ahab history and a group of Ephraimite Elijah
stories. The political data throughout First and Second Kings were
probably drawn from the annals of the northern and southern kingdoms.
Furthermore, in II Kings ii.-viii. appear long quotations from two
cycles of Elisha stories, centring, respectively, about the ancient
northern sanctuary of Gilgal, near Shiloh, and about Samaria. The rest
of the book includes citations from sources which may be designated as a
prophetic Jehu history, temple records, a Hezekiah history, and a group
of Isaiah stories.
[Sidenote: _Influences that produced this later prophetic history_]
These valuable quotations the late prophetic editor of Kings has
arranged in chronological order and fitted into a framework which gives
the length of each reign and the date of accession of the different
kings, according to the chronology of the other Hebrew kingdom. To this
data he adds a personal judgment upon the policy of each ruler, thereby
revealing his prophetic spirit. History is to him, as to every true
prophet, a supreme illustration of fundamental spiritual principles.
Clearly the influence that led him to compile and edit his great work
was his recognition of the fact that the record of Israel's national
experience as a whole was of deep religious import. The same motive
undoubtedly guided him in the selection of material from his great
variety of sources. Only that which was essential was presented. Thus
he, or a later editor of his book, traced Israel's remarkable
history down to the middle of the Babylonian exile (560 B.C.), and
completed that wonderful chain of prophetic narratives which record
and interpret the first great chapter of divine revelation through the
chosen race.
VII
THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND APOCALYPSES
[Sidenote: _Real character and aims of the prophets_]
To understand and rightly interpret the prophetic writings of the Old
Testament it is necessary to cast aside a false impression as to the
character of the prophets which is widely prevalent. They were not
foretellers, but forth-tellers. Instead of being vague dreamers,
in imagination living far in the distant future, they were most
emphatically men of their own times, enlightened and devoted
patriots, social and ethical reformers, and spiritual teachers. Their
characteristic note of conviction and authority was due to the fact
that, on the one hand, they knew personally and distinctly the evils
and needs of their nation, and that, on the other hand, their minds and
hearts, ever open to receive the truth, were in vital touch with the
Infinite. Thus, just as Aaron became Moses' prophet to the people,
publicly proclaiming what the great leader imparted to him in private
(Ex. vii. 1, 2), so the Hebrew prophets became Jehovah's heralds and
ambassadors, announcing by word and life and act the divine will.
[Sidenote: _Influences that led the prophets to write down their
sermons_]
While the historians were perfecting their histories certain prophets
also were beginning to commit their sermons to writing. The oldest
recorded address in the Old Testament is probably that of Amos at
Bethel. His banishment from the northern kingdom under strict injunction
not to prophesy there (Am. vii. 10-17) may well explain why he resorted
to writing to give currency to his prophetic message, though, like Paul
in later days, he undoubtedly regarded writing as an inferior substitute
for the spoken word. Jeremiah appears to have preached twenty years
before he dictated a line to his scribe Baruch, and then it was because
he could not personally speak in the temple (xxxvi. 1-5). Sometimes
complete sermons of the prophets are preserved, but more often we seem
to have only extracts and epitomes. In some of the prophetic books, like
that of Jeremiah, there are also popular reports of a prophetic address,
and narrative sections, telling of the prophet's experience.
[Sidenote: _The editing of the earlier prophecies_]
Evidences of editing are very apparent in the earlier prophecies. Sudden
interruptions, and verses or clauses, in which appear ideas and literary
style very different from that of the immediate context, indicate that
many of the prophecies have been supplemented by later notes, some
explanatory and some hortatory. Other longer passages are intended to
adjust the earlier teaching to later conditions and beliefs and so to
adapt them to universal human needs that they are not limited to the
hour and occasion of their first delivery. Some of these passages come
from the hands of disciples of the prophets and often contain valuable
additional data; others are from later prophetic editors and scribes. A
detailed comparison, for example, of the Hebrew and Greek versions of
Jeremiah quickly discloses wide variations of words, verses, and even
long passages, added in one or the other text by later hands. All these
additions testify to the deep interest felt by later generations in the
earlier writings, even before they were assigned a final place in
the canon. It is one of the important tasks of biblical scholars to
distinguish the original from the additions and thus determine what were
the teachings of each prophet and what are the contributions of later
generations.
[Sidenote: _The background of Isaiah xl.-lv._]
Many of the later additions possess a value and authority entirely
independent of that possessed by the prophet with whose writings they
have been joined by their original authors or later editors. Thus the
sublime chapters appended to the original sermons of Isaiah contain some
of the noblest teachings in the Old Testament. The different themes
and literary style; the frequent references to the Babylonians, not as
distant allies, as in the days of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but as the
hated oppressors of the Jews; the evidence that the prophet's readers
are not exiles far from Judah; the many allusions to the conquests of
Cyrus,--all these leave little doubt that chapters xl.-lv. were written
in the latter part of the Babylonian or the first of the Persian period.
Interpreted in the light of this background, their thought and teachings
become clear and luminous. Similarly, the varied evidence within the
chapters themselves seems to indicate that Isaiah lvi.-lxvi. contain
sermons directed to the struggling Jewish community in Palestine during
the days following the rebuilding of the temple in 520 B.C.
[Sidenote: _The order and date of the prophetic books_]
The prophetic sermons, epistles, and apocalypses fall naturally into
five great groups. The books prophets of the Assyrian period were Amos
and Hosea, who between 750 and 734 B.C. preached to Northern Israel;
also Isaiah and Micah, whose work lies between 740 and 680 B.C. Nahum's
little prophecy, although much later, echoes the death-knell of the
great Assyrian kingdom, which for two or three centuries dominated
southwestern Asia. The prophets of Judah's decline were Zephaniah (about
628 B.C.), Jeremiah (628-690), and Habakkuk (609-605). To the same
period belong Ezekiel's earlier sermons, delivered between 592 and 586,
just before the final destruction of Jerusalem. The prophets of the
Babylonian exile were Obadiah, whose original oracle belongs to its
opening years; Ezekiel (xxv.-xlviii.), who continued to preach until 572
B.C., and the great prophet whose deathless messages ring through Isaiah
xl.-lv. The prophets of the Persian period were Haggai and Zechariah,
whose inspiring sermons kept alive the flagging zeal of those who
rebuilt the second temple; the authors of Isaiah lvi.-lxvi.; the author
of the little book of Malachi; and Joel. To this list we may perhaps
add the prophet who has given us that noble protest, found in the much
misunderstood book of Jonah, against the narrow and intolerant attitude
of later Judaism toward foreigners.
[Sidenote: _Growth of anonymous and apocalyptic literature_]
With the exception of Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Joel, all the
prophecies which come from the centuries following the fall of Jerusalem
in 586 B.C. are anonymous. The worship of the authority of the past had
begun, and there is evidence that the belief was gaining currency that
the days of the prophets were past. Hence the natural tendency to resort
to anonymous authorship or else to append a later message to an earlier
prophecy. Chapters ix.-xiv. of the book of Zechariah illustrate this
custom,--chapters which apparently come from the last Old Testament
period, the Greek or Maccabean. The habit of presenting prophetic truth
in the highly figurative, symbolic form, of the apocalypse also became
prominent in later Judaism. This has already been noted in the study of
the growth of the New Testament, and is illustrated by the book of
Revelation. It was especially adapted to periods of religious
persecution, for it enabled the prophet to convey his message of
encouragement and consolation in language impressive and clear to his
people, yet unintelligible to their foreign masters.
[Sidenote: _The historical background of the book of Daniel_]
To the mind of one who has carefully studied the book of Daniel in the
light of the great crisis that came to the Jews as a result of the
relentless persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, between the years 169
and 165 B.C., there remains little doubt that it is in this period the
wonderful apocalypse finds its true setting and interpretation. The
familiar examples of the heroic fidelity of Daniel and his friends to
the demands of their religion and ritual were supremely well adapted
to arouse a similar resistance toward the demands of a tyrant who was
attempting to stamp out the Jewish, religion and transform the chosen
people into a race of apostates. The visions found in the book trace
rapidly, in succession, the history of the Babylonian, Median, Persian,
and, last of all, the Greek kingdoms. The culmination is a minute
description of the character and reign, of the tyrant Antiochus
Epiphanes (xi. 21-45). He is clearly the little horn of chapter viii.
But suddenly, in the midst of the account of the persecutions, the
descriptions become vague and general. Nor is there any reference to the
success of the Maccabean uprising; instead, the prediction is made that
Jehovah himself will soon come to establish his Messiah's kingdom.
[Sidenote: _Date of the book_]
The inference is, therefore, that the prophecy was written a short time
before the rededication of the temple in 165 B.C. This conclusion is
confirmed by many other indications. For example the language, in part
Aramaic, is that of the Greek period. The mistakes regarding the final
overthrow of the Babylonian empire, which was by Cyrus, not Darius,
and brought about not by strategy, but as a result of the voluntary
submission of the Babylonians, are identical with the errors current
in Greek tradition of the same late period. Here, as in the early
narratives of Genesis, a true prophet has utilized earlier stories as
effective illustrations. He has also given in the common apocalyptic
form an interpretation of the preceding four centuries of human history,
and showed how through it all God's purpose was being realized, The book
concludes with the firm assurance that those who now prove faithful are
to be richly rewarded and to have a part in Ms coming Messianic kingdom.
[Sidenote: _The common motive actuating the prophets and the authors of
the New Testament_]
Thus, from the minds of the prophets come the earliest writings of the
Old Testament. They consist of exhortations, warnings, messages of
encouragement, or else stories intended to illustrate a religious
principle or to present, in concrete form, a prophetic ideal. The
fundamental motive which produced them all was identical with that which
led the disciples and apostles to write the Gospels and Epistles of the
New. In the case of the historico-prophetic writings, like Samuel and
Kings, the desire to inspire and mould the minds and wills of their
readers was combined with the desire to preserve in permanent form a
record of the events which, in their national history, revealed most
clearly Jehovah's character and purpose. In this respect they correspond
perfectly to the Gospels and Acts of the New Testament. It is easy to
see, therefore, that kindred aims and ideals actuated these unknown
prophetic writers and their later successors, Matthew, Mark, and Luke.
Their literary products differ only because their subject-matter is
different. The one group records Jehovah's revelation of himself through
the life of the Messianic nation, the other through the life of the
perfect Messiah.
[Sidenote: _The New Testament the sequel of the prophetic writings_]
It is interesting to note, in conclusion, that from the point of view of
the Old, all the literature of the New may be designated as prophetic.
The three distinct groups of writings found in the New, namely, the
Gospels and Acts, the Epistles, and the Apocalypse, correspond exactly
to the three types of prophetic literature found in the Old: the
historico-prophetical writings, direct written prophecies, and
apocalypses. If the final canon of the Old Testament had been completed
before the days of Josiah, there is every reason to believe that it
also would have contained little beside prophetic writings. In divine
providence it was not closed until seven centuries later, so that, as it
has come to us, it is a comprehensive library, representing every stage
and every side of Israel's development. It is, however, in perfect
keeping with the spirit of the Master that the New Testament should
contain significant facts and broad principles rather than detailed laws
or even the songs of worship. He whose ideals, teachings, and methods
were in closest harmony with those of the Hebrew prophets, naturally
begat, through his immediate followers, a group of distinctively
prophetic writings.
VIII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS
[Sidenote: _First the principle, and then the detailed laws_]
If the canon of the New Testament had remained open as long as did that
of the Old, there is little doubt that it also would have contained many
laws, legal precedents, and ecclesiastical histories. From the writings
of the Church Fathers and the records of the Catholic Church it is
possible to conjecture what these in general would have been. The early
history of Christianity illustrates the universal fact that the broad
principles are first enunciated by a great prophetic leader or leaders,
and that in succeeding centuries these new principles are gradually
embodied in detailed laws and ceremonials. Also the principles must be
accepted, partially at least, by the majority of the people before the
enactments based upon them can be enforced. This important fact, stated
in Old Testament terms, is that the prophet must and always does precede
the lawgiver.
[Sidenote: _Meaning of the Hebrew word for law_]
_Torah_, the common Hebrew word for law, comes from a Hebrew word
meaning to _point out_ or _direct_. It is probably also connected
with the older root signifying, to cast the sacred lot. The _torah_,
therefore, was originally the decision, rendered in connection with
specific questions of dispute, and referred to Jehovah by means of the
sacred lot. Thus the early priests were also judges because they were
the custodians of the divine oracle.
[Sidenote: _Origin of this Hebrew belief in the divine origin of law_]