James, First and Second John, and Jude, opinion long remained undecided.
Concerning them an earnest discussion was carried on for the next two
centuries. By certain leaders in the Church they were regarded as
authoritative, while elsewhere and at different periods, other books,
like the Gospel to the Hebrews, the Epistle of Barnabas, Clement's
Epistle to the Corinthians, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Apocalypse
of Peter, were included in the canon and even given the priority over
the disputed books later included in our New Testament.
[Sidenote: _Final completion of the New Testament canon_]
The final decision represents the result of an open and prolonged and
yet quiet consideration of the merits of each book and of its claims to
apostolic authority. The ablest scholars of the early Christian Church
devoted their best energies to the problem. Gradually, thoughtfully,
prayerfully, and by testing them in the laboratory of experience, the
Christian world separated the twenty-seven books which we find to-day
in our New Testament from the much larger heritage of kindred writings
which come from the early Christian centuries. Time and later
consideration have fully approved the selection and confirmed the belief
that through the minds of consecrated men God was realizing his purpose
for mankind. As is well known, at the Council of Carthage, in 397 A.D.,
the Western world at last formally accepted them, although the Syrian
churches continued for centuries to retain a somewhat different canon.
[Sidenote: _Conclusions from this study of the influences that produced
the New Testament_]
This brief historical study of the origin of our New Testament has
demonstrated twelve significant facts: (1) That the original authors of
the different books never suspected that their writings would have the
universal value and authority which they now rightfully enjoy. (2) That
they at first regarded them as merely an imperfect substitute for verbal
teaching and personal testimony. (3) That in each case they had definite
individuals and conditions in mind. (4) That the needs of the rapidly
growing Church and the varied and trying experiences through which it
passed were all potent factors in influencing the authors of the New
Testament to write. (5) That certain books, especially the historical,
like Luke and Matthew, are composite, consisting of material taken
bodily from older documents, like Matthew's _Sayings of Jesus_ and the
original narrative of Mark. (6) That our New Testament books are only
a part of a much larger early Christian literature. (7) That they are
unquestionably, however, the most valuable and representative writings
of that larger literature. (8) That they were only gradually selected
and ascribed a value and authority equal to that of the Old Testament
writings. (9) That there were three distinct stages in the formation
of the New Testament canon: the gospels were first recognized as
authorative; then Acts, the Apostolic Epistles, and the Apocalypse; and
last of all, the complete canon. (10) That the canon was formed as a
result of the need felt by later generations, in connection with their
study and worship, for reliable records of the history and teachings of
Christianity. (11) That the principles of selection depended ultimately
upon the intrinsic character of the books themselves and the authority
ascribed to their reputed authors. (12) That the process of selection
continued for fully three centuries, and that the results represent the
thoughtful, enlightened judgment of thousands of devoted Christians.
Thus through definite historical forces and the minds and wills of
men, the Eternal Father gradually perfected the record of his supreme
revelation, to humanity.
VI
THE GROWTH OF THE OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETIC HISTORIES
[Sidenote: _Analogies between the influences that produced the two
Testaments_]
Very similar influences were at work in producing and shaping both the
Old and the New Testaments; only in the history of the older Scriptures
still other forces can be distinguished. Moreover, the Old Testament
contains a much greater variety of literature. It is also significant
that, while some of the New Testament books began to be canonized less
than a century after they were written, there is clear evidence that
many of the Old Testament writings were in existence several centuries
before they were gathered together into a canon and thus crystallized
into their final form. The inevitable result is that they bear the marks
of much more elaborate editorial revision than those of the New. It is,
however, not the aim of the present work to trace this complex process
of revision in detail, nor to give the cumulative evidence and the many
data and reasons that lead to each conclusion. These can be studied in
any modern Old Testament introduction or in the volumes of the present
writer's _Student's Old Testament_.
[Sidenote: _The present classification of the Old Testament books_]
In their present form, the books of the Old Testament, like those of the
New, fall into three classes. The first includes the historical books.
In the Old, corresponding to the four Gospels and Acts of the New, are
found the books from Genesis through Esther. Next in order, in the Old,
stand the poetical books, from Job through the Song of Songs, with which
the New Testament has no analogy except the liturgical hymns connected
with the nativity, preserved in the opening chapters of Matthew and
Luke. The third group in the Old Testament includes the prophecies from
Isaiah through Malachi.
[Sidenote: _Close correspondence between the Old Testament prophecies and
the New Testament apocalypses and epistles_]
One book in this group, Daniel, and portions of Ezekiel and Joel, are
analogous to the New Testament Apocalypse, but otherwise the prophetic
books correspond closely in character and contents to the epistles of
the New. Both are direct messages to contemporaries of the prophets and
apostles, and both deal with then existing conditions. Both consist of
practical warnings, exhortations, advice, and encouragement. The form is
simply incidental. The prophets of Jehovah preached, and then they or
their disciples wrote down the words which they had addressed to their
countrymen. When they could not reach with their voices all in whom
they were interested, the prophets, like the apostles, committed their
teachings to writing and sent them forth as tracts (_cf_. Jer. xxxvi.).
At other times, when they could not go in person, they wrote letters.
Thus, for example, the twenty-ninth chapter of the prophecy of Jeremiah
opens with the interesting superscription:
Now these are the words of the letter that Jeremiah the prophet sent
from Jerusalem unto the residue of the elders of the captivity, and
to the priests, and to the prophets, and to all the people, whom
Nebuchadrezzar had carried away captive from Jerusalem to Babylon; by
the hand of Elasah the son of Shaphan, and Gemariah the son of Hilkiah,
whom Zedekiah king of Judah sent unto Babylon to Nebuchadrezzar.
If it were not for this superscription, no one would suspect from the
nature of the letter which follows that it was anything other than a
regular spoken or written prophecy. Its contents and spirit are exactly
parallel to those of Paul's epistles. Undoubtedly many prophecies were
never delivered orally, but were originally written like Paul's Epistle
to the Ephesians, and sent out as circular letters. The Babylonian
exile scattered the Jews so widely that the exilic and post-exilic
prophets depended almost entirely upon this method of reaching their
countrymen and thus became writers of epistles.
[Sidenote: _The oldest literature poetry_]
Like the Epistles in the New, certain of the prophecies,--as, for
example, those of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah,--are among the earliest
writings of the Old Testament. But in the light of modern biblical
study, it has become apparent that prose was not the earliest form of
expression among the Hebrews, In this respect their literary history
is parallel with that of other early peoples; for first they treasured
their thought in heroic song and ballad. While they were nomads,
wandering in the desert, and also while they were struggling for the
possession of Canaan, they had little time or motive for cultivating the
literary art. The popular songs which were sung beside the camp-fires,
at the recurring festivals, and as the Hebrews advanced in battle
against their foes, were the earliest records of their past. There is
evidence that many of the primitive narratives now found in the opening
chapters of Genesis were also once current in poetical form. In some
cases the poetic structure has been preserved.
[Sidenote: _Israel's early song-books_]
The earliest collections of writings referred to in the Old Testament
bear the suggestive titles, _The Book of the Upright_ (i.e., Israel),
and, _The Book of the Wars of Jehovah_. From the quotations which we
have from them it is clear that they consisted of collections of songs,
recounting the exploits of Israel's heroes and the signal victories of
the race.
[Sidenote: _The Song of Deborah_]
That stirring paean of victory known as the Song of Deborah was perhaps
once found in the Book of the Wars of Jehovah. It is one of the oldest
pieces of literature in the Old Testament, and breathes the heroic
spirit of the primitive age from which it comes. Through the eyes of the
poet one views the different scenes in the mighty conflict. [Footnote:
The translation is from "The Student's Old Testament," Vol. I., pp.
320-323.]
[Sidenote: _Exordium_]
That the leaders took the lead in Israel,
That the people volunteered readily,
Bless Jehovah!
Hear, O kings,
Give ear, O rulers.
I myself will sing to Jehovah,
I will sing praise to Jehovah, the God of Israel.
[Sidenote: _Advent of Jehovah_]
Jehovah, when thou wentest forth from Seir,
When thou marchest from the land of Edom,
The earth trembled, the heavens also dripped,
Yea, the clouds dropped water.
The mountains quaked before Jehovah,
Yon Sinai before Jehovah, the God of Israel.
[Sidenote: _Conditions before the war_]
In the days of Shamgar the son of Anath,
In the days of Jael, the highways ceased to be used,
And travellers walked by round-about paths.
The rulers ceased in Israel, they ceased,
Until than didst arise, Deborah,
Until thou didst arise a mother in Israel.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: _The rally about Deborah and Barak_]
Then the people of Jehovah went down to the gates, crying,
"Arise, arise, Deborah,
Arise, arise, strike up the song!
Arise Barak, and take thy captives, thou son of Abinoam!"
So a remnant went down against the powerful,
The people of Jehovah went down against the mighty,
From Ephraim they rushed forth into the valley,
Thy brother Benjamin among thy peoples,
From Machir went down, commanders,
And from Zebulun those who carry the marshal's staff.
And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah;
And Napthali was even so with Barak,
Into the valley they rushed forth at his back.
[Sidenote: _The cowards who remained at home_]
By the brooks of Reuben great were the resolves!
Why didst they sit among the sheepfolds,
Listening to the pipings for the flocks?
By the brooks of Reuben there were great questionings!
Gilead remained beyond the Jordan;
And Dan, why does he stay by the ships as an alien?
Asher sits still by the shore of the sea,
And remains by its landings.
[Sidenote: _The battle and defeat of the Canaanites_]
Zebulun was a people who exposed their lives to deadly peril,
And Napthali on the heights of the open field.
Bless Jehovah!
Kings came, they fought;
Then fought the kings of Canaan,
At Taanach by the waters of Megiddo;
They took no booty of silver.
From heaven fought the stars,
From their courses fought against Sisera.
The river Kishon swept them away,
The ancient river, the river Kishon.
O my soul, march on with strength!
Then did the horse-hoofs resound
With the galloping, galloping of the powerful steeds.
[Sidenote: _David's dirge over Saul and Jonathan_]
In the Book of the Upright is included that
touching elegy which David sang after the
death of Saul and Jonathan, and which stands
next to the Song of Deborah as one of the
earliest surviving examples of Old Testament
literature.
[Footnote: "Student's Old Testament," Vol. II., pp. 113,114.]
[Sidenote: _The greatness of the calamity_]
Weep, O Judah!
Grieve, O Israel!
On thy heights are the slain!
How have the mighty fallen!
Tell it not in Gath,
Declare it not in the streets of Askelon;
Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice,
Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised exult.
Ye mountains of Gilboa, may no dew descend,
Nor rain upon you, O ye fields of death!
For there was the shield of the mighty cast away,
The shield of Saul, not anointed with oil.
[Sidenote: _Bravery and attractiveness of the fallen_]
From the blood of the slain,
From the fat of the mighty,
The bow of Jonathan turned not back,
The sword of Saul returned not empty.
Saul and Jonathan, the beloved and the lovely!
In life and in death they were not parted;
They were swifter than eagles,
They were stronger than lions.
[Sidenote: _Saul's services to Israel_]
Daughters of Israel, weep over Saul,
Who clothed you daintily in fine linen,
Who put golden ornaments on your garments, [and say:]
"How have the mighty fallen in the midst of battle!"
[Sidenote: _David's love for Jonathan_]
Jonathan, in thy death hast thou wounded me!
I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan!
Thou wert surpassingly dear to me,
Thy love to me was far more than the love of woman!
How have the mighty fallen,
And the weapons of war perished!
[Sidenote: _The blessing of Jacob_]
The so-called _Blessing of Jacob_ (Gen. xlix, 2-27) is a poetical
delineation of the strength and weakness of the different tribes of
Israel with references to specific events in their history. These
historical allusions suggest that it probably comes from the reigns of
David and Solomon, when the tribes were for the first time all united
under a common rule and had passed through certain of the experiences
alluded to in the poem.
[Sidenote: _Israel's heritage of oral traditions_]
The Israelitish race was supremely rich in possessing not only many
ancient songs, but also a large body of oral traditions which had
long been handed down from father to son or else treasured by the
story-tellers and by the priests of the ancient sanctuaries. Many of
these traditions were inherited from their Semitic ancestors, and, in
the light of recently discovered Babylonian literature, can be traced
back far beyond the days of Abraham and Moses. Some were originally
the possessions of certain nomadic tribes; others recorded the early
experiences of their ancestors or told of the achievements of early
heroes. In the process of continuous retelling, all unnecessary details
had been eliminated and the really dramatic and essential elements
emphasized, until they attained their present simple, graphic form,
which fascinates young and old alike.
[Sidenote: _Value of these oral traditions_]
The superlative value of these varied traditions is apparent. They were
the links which bound later generations to their prehistoric past.
Incidentally, in the characteristic language of Semitic tradition, they
preserved the memory of many important events in their early tribal
history. They are also the illuminating record of the primitive beliefs,
customs, and aspirations of their Semitic ancestors. Subject as they
inevitably were to the idealizing tendency, they became in time the
concrete embodiment of the noblest ideals of later generations. Thus
they presented before the kindled imagination of each succeeding age,
in the character and achievements of their traditional ancestors, those
ideals of courage, perseverance, and piety which contributed much toward
making the Israelites the chosen people that they were.
[Sidenote: _Influences that led to the writing of history_]
In time this growing heritage of traditions became too great for even
the remarkable Oriental memory to retain. Meantime the Hebrews had also
acquired that system of writing which they learned from their more
civilized neighbors the Canaanites and Phoenicians. From, the days of
Solomon, scribes were to be found in court and temple, and probably
among the prophetic guilds; although the common people, as in the same
land to-day, doubtless had little knowledge of the literary art. While
the nation was struggling for the soil of Canaan, or enjoying the full
tide of victory and achievement that came under the leadership of David,
there was no time or incentive to write history. But with the
quieter days of Solomon's reign, and the contrasting period of national
decline that followed his death, the incentive to take up the pen and
record the departed glories became strong. With a large body of definite
oral traditions dealing with all the important men and events of the
earlier periods, the task of the historian was chiefly that of writing
down and coordinating what was already at hand.
[Sidenote: _The early Judean prophetic history_]
The oldest Hebrew history that has been preserved in the Old Testament
was the work of an unknown Judean prophet or group of prophets who lived
and labored probably during the latter part of the ninth century before
Christ. This history corresponds closely in relative age and aim to
Mark's graphic narrative of the chief facts in the life of Jesus. The
motive which influenced the earliest historians both of the Old and New
Testaments to write was primarily the religious significance of the
events which they thus recorded. This early Judean prophetic history
(technically known as J) begins with the account of the creation of man
from the dust by the hand of Jehovah, and tells of the first sin and its
dire consequences (Gen. ii. 4 to iii. 24); then it gives an ancient list
of those who stood as the fathers of nomads, of musicians and workers in
metal (Gen. iv. 1, l6b-26). This is followed by the primitive stories
of the sons of God and the daughters of men (Gen. vi. 1-4), of Noah the
first vineyard-keeper (ix. 20-27), and of the tower of Babel and the
origin of different languages (xi. 1-9). In a series of more or less
closely connected narratives the character and experiences of the
patriarchs, the life of the Hebrews in Egypt and the wilderness, and the
settlement in Canaan are presented. Its basis for the history of the
united kingdom was for the most part the wonderfully graphic group of
Saul and David stories which occupy the bulk of the books of Samuel.
Thus this remarkable early Judean prophetic history begins with the
creation of the universe and man and concludes with the creation of the
Hebrew empire.
[Sidenote: _Its unity and characteristics_]
In its present Old Testament form it has been closely combined with
other histories, just as Mark's narrative is largely reproduced in
Matthew and Luke; but when, it is separated from the later narratives
its unity and completeness are astounding. Almost without a break it
presents the chief characters and events of Israel's history in their
relations to each other. The same peculiar vocabulary, the use of
Jehovah as the designation of the Deity, the same vivid, flowing
narrative style, the same simple, naïve, primitive conception of
Jehovah, the same patriotic interest in the history of the race, and the
same emphasis upon the vital religious significance of men and facts,
characterize every section of this narrative and make comparatively easy
the task of separating it from the other histories with which it has
been joined.
[Sidenote: _The early Ephraimite prophetic history_]
A little later, sometime about the middle of the eighth century before
Christ, a prophet or group of prophets in Northern Israel devoted
themselves to the similar task of writing the history of Israel from
the point of view of the northern kingdom. Since this state is called
_Ephraim_ by Hosea and other writers of the North, its history may be
designated as _the early Ephraimite prophetic_ (technically known as E).
Naturally its author or authors utilized as the basis of their work
the oral traditions current in the North. Sometimes these are closely
parallel, and sometimes they vary widely in order and representation
from the Judean versions. In general the variations are similar,
although somewhat greater than those between the parallel narratives of
Matthew and Luke.
[Sidenote: _Its characteristics_]
Marked peculiarities in vocabulary and literary style distinguish
this northern history from the Judean. Since _Elohim_ or _God_ is
consistently used to describe the Deity, it has sometimes been called
the _Elohistic_ history. Interest inclines to the sanctuaries and heroes
and events prominent in the life of the North. In that land which
produced a Samuel, an Elijah, an Elisha, and an Hosea, it was natural
that especial emphasis should be placed on the role of the prophet.
Throughout these narratives he is portrayed as the dominant figure,
moulding the history as God's representative. Abraham and Moses are here
conceived of as prophets, and the Ephraimite history of their age is
largely devoted to a portrayal of their prophetic activity.
[Sidenote: _Its scope_]
The interests of later editors who combined these early prophetic
histories, as we now find them in the Old Testament, were centred in the
Judean, and hence they have introduced citations from the Ephraimite
narratives chiefly to supplement the older history. Possibly it never
was as complete as that of the South. At present it begins with Abraham
and traces the parallel history of the patriarchs and the life of the
Hebrews in Egypt and the wilderness. Its account of the conquest, is
somewhat fuller, probably because Joshua was a northern leader. It also
preserves many of the stories of the heroes in the book of Judges. With
these the citations from the early Ephraimite prophetic history seem to
disappear, but the opening stories in the book of Samuel, regarding the
great prophet whose name was given to the book, apparently come from the
pen of later disciples of this same Ephraimite group of prophets.
[Sidenote: _Later editorial supplementing and combination of the two
histories_]
The eighth and seventh centuries before Christ were periods of intense
prophetic activity both in the North and the South. It was natural,
therefore, that these early prophetic histories should be supplemented
by the disciples of the original historians. Traditions that possessed a
permanent historical or religious value, as, for example, the familiar
story of Cain and Abel (Gen. iv. 2-16), and the earlier of the two
accounts of the flood, were thus added. Also when in 722 B.C. the
northern kingdom fell and its literary heritage passed to Judah, it was
most natural that a prophetic editor, recognizing the valuable elements
in each, and the difficulties presented by the existence of the two
variant versions of the same events, should combine the two, and
furthermore that, in the days of few manuscripts, the older originals
should be lost and only the combined history survive. To-day we find
this in turn incorporated in the still later composite history extending
from Genesis through Samuel.
[Sidenote: _Method of combining_]