Aliquid de loco Paradisi terrestris per auditum.
A Finibus Imperij Indiæ recta linea in orientem nihil est habitatum vel
habitabile, propter rupium, et montium altitudinem, et asperitatem, et
propter aeris inter Alpes diuersitatem: nam in multis locis, licet
quandoque aer sit serenus, nunc fit spissus nunc fumosus, vel venenosus, et
frequenter die medio tenebrosus. Durantque aut potius aggrauescunt
huiusmodi difficultates, vsque ad illum amænissimum Paradisi locum, quem
protoplausti per inobedientiam sibi et posteris perdidisse noscuntur, quod
spacium si metiri posset, est multarum vtique diætarum. Quia iam non
vlterius processi, nec procedere quiui, pauca duntaxat de illo loco referam
verisimilia, quæ didici per auditum.
[Sidenote: Descriptio Paradisi.] Paradisus terrestris dicitur locus
spaciosus ad amplitudinem quasi quinque Insularum nostrarum, Angliæ,
Normanniæ, Hiberniæ, Scotiæ, et Noruegiæ, aut forsan satis plurium. Cuius
situs est pertingens in altitudine ad aeris supremam superficiem, eò quod
illic terra vel terræ orbis sit multum spissior quàm alibi per modum
excentricum à vero centro mundi, nec valet hoc deinde ab aliquo experto
refelli, scriptura veritatis clamante, quòd ibi sit fons irrigans vniuersam
superficiem terrae: aquae enim est natura semper fluere ad Ima.
Exeunt autem ab illo fonte versus nostri partes hemispherij, hoc est nobis
de illo loco in occidentem quatuor flumina, Pyson, Gyon, Tygris, et
Euphrates, ab ista dimidia parte terrae circa Æquatoris circulum terrae
influentes, quapropter et merito credendum videtur, exire de eodem fonte et
alia quatuor flumina irrigantia terram oppositam, quae est circa alteram
dimidiam partem circuli Æquatoris, quamuis nos eorum fluminum loca,
virtutes, et nomina ignoramus, quòd homines habitant ab alia parte
Æquinoctij.
[Sidenote: Gentes ad austrum Aequatoris.] Hoc tamen volo sciri pro vero et
audiui, illic terræ faciem inhabitatam in maxima multitudine ciuitatum,
vrbium, et regionum, quoniam et eorum institores Indiam frequentant, et
nunciant sibi inuicem gentes et principes per literas, ac alijs modis
destinare sunt visi.
[Sidenote: Ganges fluuius.] Vnus nostrorum fluuiorum Pyson currit per
Indiam, et per eius deserta quandoque sub terra, sed saepiùs supra, qui et
Ganges illic appellatus est, ab illo vltimo Paganitatis rege, quem Dux
Ogerus deuictum cùm baptizari renueret in ipso flumine proiectum submersit.
Ad littus huius reperiuntur multi lapides praeciositatis immensæ et metalli
grani carissimi, nec non et auri mineriæ, multumque descendit in eo natans
lignum Aloes ex Paradiso, quod rebus miræ virtutis inserit Salomon in
Canticis.
Hinc secundus fluuius Gyon, currit per Aethiopiam, vnde dum venit in
Ægyptum, accipit nomen Nilus. Tertius Tygris veniens per Assyriam influit
maiorem Armeniam et Persiam: tandemque fluuij singuli per loca singula se
iactant in mare per quod defluunt vsque ad Nador, id est, ad oppositum
diametrum paradisi: Ideoque merito æstimantur omnes vniuerso orbe aquæ
dulces originem capere, à supradicto paradisi fonte, quamuis secundum
distantiam maiorem vel minorem, et secundum naturas rerum per quas meant
diuersos habere inueniuntur sapores, atque virtutes.
Porrò ipsum Paradisi locum audiui à tribus plagis, orientali, meridionali,
et septentrionali, inaccessibilem tam hominibus quàm bestijs, eo quòd
apparet ripis perpendiculariter abscissa, tanquam inestimabilis
altitudinis. Et ab occidente id est nostra parte tanquam super omnium
humanorum intuitum rogus ardens, qui in scripturis rumphea flammea
appellator, vt nulli creaturæ terrenæ ascensus in eum credatur nisi
quibusdam volatilibus, prout decreuit iusti iudicij Deus.
Ambulantibus enim illuc siue repentibus hominibus obstarent tenebræ imo
rupes, aer infestus, bestiæ, serpentes, frigus, et camua. Nauigare autem
contra ictum fluminis nitentes impediret intrinsecus recursus, ac
impetuosus et quandoque subterraneus aquæ cursus descendentis cum
vehementia ab euectissimo, vt dictum est, loco, qui suo quoque strepitu,
per petras atque strictos aliosque diuersos cadens gurgites, efficeret
surdos, et aeris mutatio caecos, vnde et multi tam nobiles quàm ignobiles,
fatua sese audacia in isto ponentes periculo perierunt, alijs excoecatis,
alijs absurdatis, et nonnullis in ipso accessu subitanea morte peremptis.
Ex quo nimirum credi habetur isto Deum displicere conatum.
Quapropter et ego ex illo loco statui animum ad repatriandum, quatenus Deo
propitio, Anglia quæ me produxit seculo viuentem, usciperet morientem.
Of the Godenesse of the folk of the Yle of Bragman. Of Kyng Alisandre: and
wherfore the Emperour of Ynde is clept Prestre John.
[Sidenote: Cap. XXIX.] And bezonde that yle, is another yle, gret and gode,
and, plentyfous, where that ben gode folk and trewe, and of gode lyvynge,
aftre hire beleve, and of gode feythe. And alle be it that thei ben not
cristned, ne have no perfyt lawe, zit natheles of kyndely lawe, thei ben
fulle of alle vertue, and thei eschewen alle vices and alle malices and
alle synnes. For thei ben not proude ne coveytous ne envyous ne wrathefulle
ne glotouns ne leccherous; ne thei don to no man other wise than thei wolde
that other men diden to hem: and in this poynt, thei fullefillen the 10
commandementes of God: and thei zive no charge of aveer ne of ricchesse:
and thei lye not, ne thei swere not, for non occasioun; but thei seyn
symply, ze and nay. For thei seyn, He that swerethe, wil disceyve his
neyghbore: and therfore alle that thei don, thei don it with outen othe.
And men clepen that yle, the Yle of Bragman: and somme men clepen it the
Lond of Feythe. And thorgh that lond runnethe a gret ryvere, that is clept
Thebe. And in generalle, alle the men of tho yles and of alle the marches
there abouten, ben more trewe than in ony othere contrees there abouten,
and more righte fulle than othere, in alle thinges. In that yle is no
thief, ne mordrere, ne comoun woman, ne pore beggere, ne nevere was man
slayn in that contree. And thei ben so chast, and leden so gode lif, as tho
thei weren religious men: and thei fasten alle dayes. And because thei ben
so trewe and so rightfulle and so fulle of alle gode condiciouns, thei
weren nevere greved with tempestes ne with thondre ne with leyt ne with
hayl ne with pestylence ne with werre ne with hungre ne with non other
tribulaccioun, as wee ben many tymes amonges us, for our synnes. Wherfore
it semethe wel, that God lovethe hem and is plesed with hire creance, for
hire gode dedes. Thei beleven wel in God, that made alle thinges; and him
thei worschipen. And thei preysen non erthely ricchesse; and so thei ben
alle right fulle. And thei lyven fulle ordynatly, and so sobrely in met and
drynk, that thei lyven right longe. And the most part of hem dyen with
outen syknesse, whan nature faylethe hem for elde. And it befelle in Kyng
Alisandres tyme, that he purposed him to conquere that yle, and to maken
hem to holden of him. And whan thei of the contree herden it, thei senten
messangeres to him with lettres, that seyden thus: What may ben y now to
that man, to whom alle the world is insuffisant: thou schalt fynde no thing
in us, that may cause the to warren azenst us: for wee have no ricchesse,
ne none wee coveyten: and alle the godes of our contree ben in comoun. Oure
mete, that we susteyne with alle oure bodyes, is our richesse: and in stede
of tresoure of gold and sylver, wee maken oure tresoure of accord and pees,
and for to love every man other. And for to apparaylle with oure bodyes,
wee usen a sely litylle clout, for to wrappen in oure carcynes. Oure wyfes
ne ben not arrayed for to make no man plesance, but only connable array,
for to eschewe folye. Whan men peynen hem to arraye the body, for to make
it semen fayrere than God made it, thei don gret synne. For man scholde not
devise no aske grettre beautee, than God hathe ordeyned man to ben at his
birthe. The erthe mynystrethe to us 2 thynges; our liflode, that comethe of
the erthe that wee lyve by, and oure sepulture aftre oure dethe. Wee have
ben in perpetuelle pees tille now, that thou come to disherite us; and also
wee have a kyng, nought for to do justice to every man, for he schalle
fynde no forfete amonge us; but for to kepe noblesse, and for to schewe
that wee ben obeyssant, wee have a kyng. For justice ne hathe not among us
no place: for wee don no man otherwise than wee desiren that man don to us;
so that rightwisnesse ne vengeance han nought to don amonges us; so that no
thing thou may take fro us, but oure god pes, that alle weys hath dured
amonge us. And whan Kyng Alisandre had rad theise lettres, he thoughte that
he scholde do gret synne, for to trouble hem: and thanne he sente hem
surteez, that thei scholde not ben aferd of him, and that thei scholde
kepen hire gode maneres and hire gode pees, as thei hadden used before of
custom; and so he let hem allone.
Another yle there is, that men clepen Oxidrate; and another yle, that men
clepen Gynosophe, where there is also gode folk, and fulle of gode feythe:
and thei holden for the most partye the gode condiciouns and customs and
gode maneres, as men of the contree above seyd: but thei gon alle naked. In
to that yle entred Kyng Alisandre, to see the manere. And when he saughe
hire gret feythe and hire trouthe, that was amonges hem, he seyde that he
wolde not greven hem: and bad hem aske of him, what that they wolde have of
hym, ricchesse or ony thing elles; and thei scholde have it with gode
wille. And thei answerden, that he was riche y now, that hadde mete and
drynke to susteyne the body with. For the ricchesse of this world, that is
transitorie, is not worthe: but zif it were in his power to make hem
immortalle, there of wolde thei preyen him, and thanken him. And Alisandre
answerde hem, that it was not in his powere to don it, because he was
mortelle, as thei were. And thanne thei asked him, whi he was so proud and
so fierce and so besy, for to putten alle the world undre his subieccioun,
righte as thou were a god; and hast no terme of this lif, neither day ne
hour; and wylnest to have alle the world at thi commandement, that schalle
leve the with outen fayle, or thou leve it. And righte as it hathe ben to
other men before the, right so it schalle ben to othere aftre the: and from
hens schal thou bere no thyng; but as thou were born naked, righte so alle
naked schalle thi body ben turned in to erthe, that thou were made of.
Wherfore thou scholdest thenke and impresse it in thi mynde, that nothing
is immortalle, but only God, that made alle thing. Be the whiche answere,
Alisandre was gretly astoneyed and abayst; and alle confuse departe from
hem. And alle be it that theyse folk han not the articles of oure feythe,
as wee han, natheles for hire gode feythe naturelle, and for hire gode
entent, I trowe fulle, that God lovethe hem, and that God take hire servyse
to gree, right as he did of Job, that was a Paynem, and held him for his
trewe servaunt. And therfore alle be it that there ben many dyverse lawes
in the world, zit I trowe, that God lovethe alweys hem that loven him, and
serven him mekely in trouthe; and namely, hem that dispysen the veyn glorie
of this world; as this folk don, and as Job did also: and therfore seyde
oure Lorde, be the mouthe of Ozee the prophete, _Ponam eis multiplices
leges meas_. And also in another place, _Qui totum orbem subdit suis
legibus_. And also our Lord seythe in the Gospelle, _Alias oves habeo, que
non sunt ex hoc ovili_; that is to seyne, that he hadde othere servauntes,
than tho that ben undre Cristene lawe. And to that acordethe the avisioun,
that Seynt Petir saughe at Jaffe, how the aungel cam from Hevene, and
broughte before him diverse bestes, as serpentes and other crepynge bestes
of the erthe, and of other also gret plentee, and bad him take and ete. And
Seynt Petir answerde; I ete never, quoth he, of unclene bestes. And thanne
seyde the aungelle, _Non dices immunda, que Deus mundavit_. And that was in
tokene, that no man scholde have in despite non erthely man, for here
diverse lawes: for wee knowe not whom God lovethe, ne whom God hatethe. And
for that ensample, whan men seyn _De profundis_, thei seyn it in comoun and
in generalle, with the Cristene, _pro animabus omnium defunctorum, pro
quibus sit orandum_. And therfore seye I of this folk, that ben so trewe
and so feythefulle, that God lovethe hem. For he hathe amonges hem many of
the prophetes, and alle weye hathe had. And in tho yles, thei prophecyed
the incarnacioun of oure Lord Jesu Crist, how he scholde ben born of a
mayden; 3000 zeer or more or oure Lord was born of the Virgyne Marie. And
thei beleeven wel in the incarnacioun, and that fulle perfitely: but thei
knowe not the manere, how be suffred his passioun and dethe for us.
And bezonde theise yles, there is another yle, that is clept Pytan. The
folk of that contree ne tyle not, ne laboure not the erthe: for thei eten
no manere thing: and thei ben of gode colour, and of faire schap, aftre
hire gretnesse: but the smalle ben as dwerghes: but not so litylle, as ben
the pigmeyes. Theise men lyven be the smelle of wylde apples, and whan thei
gon ony fer weye, thei beren the apples with hem. For zif the hadde lost
the savour of the apples, thei scholde dyen anon. Thei ne ben not fulle
resonable: but thei ben symple and bestyalle.
Aftre that, is another yle, where the folk ben alle skynned, roughe heer,
as a rough best, saf only the face and the pawme of the hond. Theise folk
gon als wel undir the watir of the see, as thei don above the lond, alle
drye. And thei eten bothe flessche and fissche alle raughe. In this yle is
a great ryvere, that is wel a 2 myle and an half of brede, that is clept
Beumare. And fro that rivere a 15 journeyes in lengthe, goynge be the
desertes of the tother syde of the ryvere, (whoso myght gon it, for I was
not there: but it was told us of hem of the contree, that with inne tho
desertes) weren the trees of the sonne, and of the mone, that spaken to
Kyng Alisandre, and warned him of his dethe. And men seyn, that the folk
that kepen tho trees, and eten of the frute and of the bawme that growethe
there, lyven wel 400 zeere or 500 zere, be vertue of the frut and of the
bawme. For men seyn, that bawme growethe there in gret plentee, and no
where elles, saf only at Babyloyne, as I have told zou before. Wee wolde
han gon toward the trees fulle gladly, zif wee had myght: but I trowe, that
100000 men of armes myghte not passen the desertes safly, for the gret
multytude of wylde bestes, and of grete dragouns, and of grete multytude
serpentes, that there ben, that slen and devouren alle that comen aneyntes
hem. In that contre ben manye white olifantes with outen nombre, and of
unycornes, and of lyouns of many maneres, and many of suche bestes, that I
have told before, and of many other hydouse bestes with outen nombre.
Many other yles there ben in the lond of Prestre John, and many grete
marveyles, that weren to long to tellen alle, bothe of his ricchesse and of
his noblesse, and of the gret plentee also of precious stones, that he
hathe. I trow that zee knowe wel y now, and have herd seye, wherefore the
Emperour is clept Prestre John. But nathales for hem that knowen not, I
schalle seye zou the cause. It was somtyme an Emperour there, that was a
worthi and a fulle noble prynce, that hadde Cristene knyghtes in his
companye, as he hathe that is how. So it befelle, that he hadde gret list
for to see the service in the chirche, among Cristen men. And than dured
Cristendom bezonde the zee, alle Turkye, Surrye, Tartarie, Jerusalem,
Palestyne, Arabye, Halappee, and alle the lond of Egypte. So it befelle,
that this emperour cam, with a Cristene knyght with him, into a chirche in
Egypt: and it was the Saterday in Wyttson woke. And the bishop made ordres.
And he beheld and listend the servyse fulle tentyfly: and he askede the
Cristene knight, what men of degree thei scholden ben prestes. And than the
emperour seyde, that he wolde no longer ben clept kyng ne emperour, but
preest; and that he wolde have the name of the first preest, that went out
of the chirche: and his name was John. And so evere more sithens, he is
cleped Prestre John.
In his lond ben manye Cristene men of gode feythe and of gode lawe; and
namely of hem of the same contree; and han comounly hire prestes, that
syngen the messe, and maken the sacrement of the awtier of bred, right as
the Grekes don: but thei seyn not so many thinges as the messe, as men don
here. For thei seye not but only that, that the apostles seyden, as oure
Lord taughte hem: righte as seynt Peter and seynt Thomas and the other
apostles songen the messe, seyenge the Pater-noster, and the wordes of the
sacrement. But wee have many mo addiciouns, that dyverse popes han made,
that thei ne knowe not offe;
Of the Hilles of Gold, that Pissemyres kepen: and of the 4 Flodes, that
comen fro Paradys terrestre.
[Sidenote: Cap. XXX.] Toward the est partye of Prestre Johnes lond, is an
yle gode an gret, that men clepen Taprobane, that is fulle noble and fulle
fructuous: and the kyng thereof is fulle ryche, and is undre the obeyssance
of Prestre John. And alle weys there thei make hire king be eleccyoun. In
that ile ben 2 someres and 2 wyntres; and men harvesten the corn twyes a
zeer. And in alle the cesouns of the zeer ben the gardynes florisht. There
dwellen gode folke and resonable, and manye Cristene men amonges hem, that
ben so riche, that thei wyte not what to done with hire godes. Of olde
tyme, whan men passed from the lond of Prestre John unto that yle, men
maden ordynance for to passe by schippe, 23 dayes or more: but now men
passen by schippe in 7 dayes. And men may see the botme of the see in many
places: for it is not fulle depe.
Besyde that yle, toward the est, ben 2 other yles: and men clepen that on
Orille, and that other Argyte; of the whiche alle the lond is myne of gold
and sylver. And tho yles ben right where that the Rede See departethe fro
the see occean. And in tho yles men seen ther no sterres so clerly as in
other places: for there apperen no sterres, but only o clere sterre, that
men clepen Canapos. And there is not the mone seyn in alle the lunacioun,
saf only the seconde quarteroun. In the yle also of this Taprobane ben gret
hilles of gold, that Pissemyres kepen fulle diligently. And thei fynen the
pured gold, and casten away the unpured. And theise Pissemyres ben gret as
houndes: so that no man dar come to tho hilles: for the Pissemyres wolde
assaylen hem and devouren hem anon; so that no man may gete of that gold,
but be gret sleighte. And therfore whan it is gret hete, the Pissemyres
resten hem in the erthe, from pryme of the day in to noon: and than the
folk of the con tree taken camayles, dromedaries and hors and other bestes
and gon thidre, and chargen hem in alle haste that thei may. And aftre that
thei fleen away, in alle haste that the bestes may go, or the Pissemyres
comen out of the erthe. And in other tymes, whan it is not so hote, and
that he Pissemyres ne resten hem not in the erthe, than thei geten gold be
this sotyltee: thei taken mares, that han zonge coltes or foles, and leyn
upon the mares voyde vesselles made therfore; and thei ben alle open
aboven, and hangynge lowe to the erthe: and thanne thei sende forth tho
mares for to pasturen aboute the hilles, and with holden the foles with hem
at home. And whan the Pissemyres sen tho vesselles, thei lepen in anon, and
thei han this kynde, that thei lete no thing ben empty among hem, but anon
thei fillen it, be it what maner of thing that it be: and so thei fillen
tho vesselles with gold. And whan that the folk supposen, that the vesselle
ben fulle, thei putten forthe anon the zonge foles, and maken hem to nyzen
aftre hire dames; and than anon the mares retornen towardes hire foles,
with hire charges of gold; and than men dischargen hem, and geten gold y
now be this sotyltee. For the Pissemyres wole suffren bestes to gon and
pasturen amonges hem; but no man in no wyse.
And bezonde the lond and the yles and the desertes of Prestre Johnes
lordschipe, in goynge streyght toward the est, men fynde nothing but
mountaynes and roches fulle grete: and there is the derke regyoun, where no
man may see, nouther be day ne be nyght, as thei of the contree seyn. And
that desert, and that place of derknesse, duren fro this cost unto Paradys
terrestre; where that Adam oure foremost fader, and Eve weren putt, that
dwelleden there but lytylle while; and that is towards the est, at the
begynnynge of the erthe. But that is not that est, that wee clep oure est,
on this half, where the sonne risethe to us: for whenne the sonne is est in
tho partyes, toward Paradys terrestre, it is thanne mydnyght in oure
parties o this half, for the rowndenesse of the erthe, of the whiche I have
towched to zou before. For oure Lord God made the erthe alle round, in the
mydde place of the firmament. And there as mountaynes and hilles ben, and
valeyes, that is not but only of Noes flode, that wasted the softe ground
and the tendre, and felle doun into valeyes: and the harde erthe, and the
roche abyden mountaynes, whan the soft erthe and tendre wax nessche,
throghe the water, and felle and becamen valeyes.
Of Paradys, ne can not I speken propurly: for I was not there. It is fer
bezonde; and that forthinkethe me: and also I was not worthi. But as I have
herd seye of wyse men bezonde, I schalle telle zou with gode wille. Paradys
terrestre, as wise men seyn, is the highest place of erthe, that is in alle
the world: and it is so highe, that it touchethe nyghe to the cercle of the
mone, there as the mone makethe hire torn. For sche is so highe, that the
flode of Noe ne myght not come to hire, that wolde have covered alle the
erthe of the world alle aboute, and aboven and benethen, saf Paradys only
allone. And this Paradys is enclosed alle aboute with a walle; and men wyte
not wherof it is. For the walles ben covered alle over with mosse; as it
semethe. And it semethe not that the walle is ston of nature. And that
walle strecchethe fro the southe to the northe; and it hathe not but on
entree, that is closed with fyre brennynge; so that no man, that is
mortalle, ne dar not entren. And in the moste highe place of Paradys, evene
in the myddel place, is a welle, that castethe out the 4 flodes, that
rennen be dyverse londes: of the whiche, the first is clept Phison or
Ganges, that is alle on: and it rennethe thorghe out Ynde or Emlak: in the
whiche ryvere ben manye preciouse stones, and mochel of lignum aloes, and
moche gravelle of gold. And that other ryvere is clept Nilus or Gyson, that
gothe be Ethiope, and aftre be Egypt. And that other is clept Tigris, that
rennethe be Assirye and be Armenye the grete. And that other is clept
Eufrate, that rennethe also be Medee and be Armonye and be Persye. And men
there bezonde seyn, that alle the swete watres of the world aboven and
benethen, taken hire begynnynge of the welle of Paradys: and out of that
welle, alle watres comen and gon. The firste ryvere is clept Phison, that
is to seyne in hire langage, Assemblee: for many other ryveres meten hem
there, and gon in to that ryvere. And sum men clepen it Ganges; for a kyng
that was in Ynde, that highte Gangeres, and that it ran thorge out his
lond. And that water is in sum place clere, and in sum place trouble: in
sum place hoot, and in sum place cole. The seconde ryvere is clept Nilus or
Gyson: for it is alle weye trouble: and Gyson, in the langage of Ethiope,
is to seye trouble: and in the langage of Egipt also. The thridde ryvere,
that is clept Tigris, is as moche for to seye as faste rennynge: for he
rennethe more faste than ony of the tother. And also there is a best, that
is cleped Tigris, that is faste rennynge. The fourthe ryvere is clept
Eufrates, that is to seyne, wel berynge: for there growen manye godes upon
that ryvere, as cornes, frutes, and othere godes y nowe plentee.
And zee schulle undirstonde, that no man that is mortelle, ne may not
approchen to that paradys. For be londe no man may go for wylde bestes,
that ben in the desertes, and for the highe mountaynes and gret huge
roches, that no man may passe by, for the derke places that ben there, and
that manye: and be the ryveres may no man go; for the water rennethe so
rudely and so scharply, because that it comethe doun so outrageously from
the highe places aboven, that it rennethe in so grete wawes, that no schipp
may not rowe ne seyle azenes it: and the watre rorethe so, and makethe so
huge noyse, and so gret tempest, that no man may here other in the schipp,
thoughe he cryede with alle the craft that he cowde, in the hyeste voys
that he myghte. Many grete lordes han assayed with gret wille many tymes
for to passen be tho ryveres toward paradys, with fulle grete companyes:
but thei myghte not speden in hire viage; and manye dyeden for werynesse of
rowynge azenst tho stronge wawes; and many of hem becamen blynde, and many
deve, for the noyse of the water: and summe weren perisscht and loste, with
inne the wawes: so that no mortelle man may approche to that place, with
outen specyalle grace of God: so that of that place I can seye zou no more.
And therfore I schall holde me stille, and retornen to that that I have
seen.