389. Darwin commented upon this aspect of Mill’s work (_Descent of
Man_, p. 98).
Footnote 6:
Malthus, _Essay on the Principle of Population_, vol. i, p. 5.
Footnote 7:
Plato, _Laws_, v. 737.
Footnote 8:
Plato, _Republic_, v. 460.
Footnote 9:
Plato, _Laws_, v. 740.
Footnote 10:
This is apparently a reference to a work by Varro.
Footnote 11:
Tertullian, _De Anima_ (Ante-Nicene Christian Library), p. 481.
Footnote 12:
The realization of the limitation of the surface of the
globe—following upon the circumnavigation of the world—had no doubt an
influence. The fact that the earth is spherical—or at least that it is
not flat—(as a matter of fact it is somewhat tetrahedral) was of
course known to Aristotle (_De Caelo_, ii. 14). It has been remarked
that this conception was always present to the minds of the authors of
all those speculations which have come down from antiquity (Bosanquet,
_Philosophical Theory of the State_, p. 330). But it was not forced
upon men’s notice until it was practically demonstrated.
Footnote 13:
Prov. xiv. 28.
Footnote 14:
Thus Montesquieu wrote: ‘Il n’y a que les grandes nations qui aient
des armées’ (_Grandeur et Décadence des Romains_, p. 130).
Footnote 15:
The literature has been several times reviewed. I am chiefly indebted
to Stangeland, ‘Pre-Malthusian Doctrines of Population’, _Studies in
History, Economics and Public Law_—Columbia University; vol. xxi, No.
3, 1901.
Footnote 16:
Thomas Aquinas, _De Regimine Principum_, Bk. IV, ch. ix. (The fourth
book is supposititious; nevertheless it probably represents the views
of St. Thomas.)
Footnote 17:
Bodin, _Six Books of a Commonweale_, Bk. V, ch. ii, p. 575.
Footnote 18:
Botero, _Delle Cause della Grandezza della Città_, p. 5.
Footnote 19:
Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 103, from the _Nouveau
Dictionnaire d’Économie Politique_, article ‘Population’. According to
Vauban (_La Dîme Royale_, p. 18) ‘La grandeur des rois se mesure par
le nombre de leurs sujets’.
Footnote 20:
Petty, ‘Treatise of Taxes and Contributions’ in _Economic Writings_,
vol. i, p. 34.
Footnote 21:
Graunt, _National and Political Observations upon the Bills of
Mortality_, ch. viii, section 14.
Footnote 22:
Davenant, _Political and Commercial Works_, vol. i, p. 16.
Footnote 23:
Child, _New Discourse upon Trade_, ch. x, p. 181.
Footnote 24:
Child, loc. cit., p. 179.
Footnote 25:
Temple, _Observations upon the United Provinces_, p. 164.
Footnote 26:
Quoted by Ferdy, _Die künstliche Beschränkung der Kinderzahl_, p. 85.
Footnote 27:
Quoted by Cannan, _History of the Theories of Production and
Distribution_, p. 124.
Footnote 28:
Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 110.
Footnote 29:
Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 234. Brückner’s work was published
in 1769.
Footnote 30:
Young, _Travels in France_, vol. i, p. 481.
Footnote 31:
Quoted by Leroy-Beaulieu, _La Question de la Population_, p. 31.
Footnote 32:
Wallace, _Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind_, p. 12.
Footnote 33:
Steuart, _Principles of Political Economy_, vol. i, p. 20.
Footnote 34:
Malthus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 3.
Footnote 35:
Mirabeau, _L’Ami des Hommes_, ch ii, p. 14.
Footnote 36:
‘There is a principle in human society by which population is
perpetually kept down to the level of the means of subsistence,’ said
Godwin in 1798 (_Political Justice_, Bk. VIII, p. 518). Many similar
remarks are to be found in the writings of the Physiocrats. See, for
instance, Turgot, _Sur le Commerce_, section 7, and Quesnay, _Analyse
du Tableau Économique_, chs. xxv and xxvi.
Footnote 37:
Raleigh, _History of the World_, in collected Works, vol. ii, p. 25.
Footnote 38:
Machiavelli, _History of Florence_, Bk. I, p. 5.
Footnote 39:
Botero, loc. cit., p. 73.
Footnote 40:
Botero, loc. cit., p. 75.
Footnote 41:
Hale, _Primitive Origination of Mankind_, ch. viii, section 2.
Footnote 42:
Petty, _Essay concerning the Increase of Mankind_, p. 21.
Footnote 43:
See Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 230. There are two valuable and
important books which appeared in the eighteenth century dealing with
population. They do not lend themselves to quotation, but deserve
mention here. Benjamin Franklin, in his _Observations concerning the
Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries_, pointed out the
differences in the marriage-rate as between Europe and the more
recently colonized countries and analysed the causes. It is
interesting to note that he was led to a more or less clear
recognition of the presence of the struggle for existence among all
living organisms (p. 21). The second book referred to above is Adam
Ferguson’s _Essay on the History of Civil Society_. The name of Ortes
should perhaps be mentioned. His book _Riflessioni sulla Popolazione_,
published in 1792, anticipated Malthus in almost every respect and yet
aroused practically no attention.
Footnote 44:
According to Leslie Stephen’s article in the _Dictionary of National
Biography_, the chief authorities for the life of Malthus are (1) a
notice by Otter, afterwards Bishop of Chichester, prefixed to the
second edition of the _Political Economy_ published in 1836 and (2) an
article by Empsen in the _Edinburgh Review_. Jan. 1837, p. 469 to p.
506. See also Bonar’s _Malthus and his Work_, to which in this and the
following sections I am indebted. For some personal reminiscences see
Martineau’s _Autobiography_, vol. i, p. 211. He is described as
possessing the ‘most pleasing manners and the most benevolent heart’
(Manning, _History and Antiquities of Surrey_, p. 578).
Footnote 45:
In the eighteenth century it was commonly supposed that the population
of England was decreasing. Arthur Young was one of the few who did not
share this view. (Mirabeau indeed thought that the population of the
whole of Europe was increasing.) All kinds of reasons were brought
forward to explain the supposed decrease. Price thought that it was
due to the enclosures; Horace Walpole suggested excessive drinking as
the cause.
Footnote 46:
It is not correct to say that ‘the essay attracted comparatively
little attention until 1803’ (_Political History of England_, vol. xi,
p. 421).
Footnote 47:
Bonar, loc. cit., p. 43.
Footnote 48:
Bonar, loc. cit., p. 363.
Footnote 49:
Mill, _Autobiography_, p. 105. It is interesting to note that one of
the reasons why Coleridge left the Utilitarians was the popularity of
the Essay among them. See Benn, _History of Rationalism_, vol. i, p.
238.
Footnote 50:
Shelley, Preface to the _Revolt of Islam_, p. xi.
Footnote 51:
It is thus curious to find that the Essay was highly praised by Joseph
de Maistre—one of the greatest of conservatives of this or of any age:
see _Du Pape_, Bk. III, ch. iii, section 3, where the Essay is called
‘un profond ouvrage’ ... ‘un des livres rares après lesquels tout le
monde est dispensé de traiter le même sujet’. Yet in 1856 the
_Dictionnaire de l’Économie Politique_ was put upon the Index because
it supported the conclusions of the Essay.
Footnote 52:
See, for instance, _Aitken’s Annual Review_, vol. ii, 1803, p. 292.
Footnote 53:
Quoted by Leslie Stephen, _English Utilitarians_, vol. ii, p. 255.
Footnote 54:
Bonar, loc. cit., p. 1.
Footnote 55:
Luden, _Handbuch der Staatsweisheit oder Politik_. Von Mohl gives a
useful review of the literature following upon the publication of the
Essay (_Die Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften_, vol.
iii, p. 480, and _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, vol. ii,
p. 955).
Footnote 56:
Sumner, _A Treatise on the Records of Creation and the Moral
Attributes of the Creator_; Chalmers, _On Political Economy in
connexion with the Moral State and Moral Prospects of Society_.
Footnote 57:
Leslie Stephen, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 180.
Footnote 58:
Greg, _Enigmas of Life_, ch. ii.
Footnote 59:
On this subject see Soetbeer, _Die Stellung der Sozialisten zur
Malthusischen Bevölkerungslehre_. Soetbeer includes in his review the
writings of Godwin, Henry George, and others who cannot properly be
regarded as socialists.
Footnote 60:
Soetbeer, loc. cit., p. 20.
Footnote 61:
Marx, _Capital_, vol. ii, p. 629.
Footnote 62:
There does not seem to be any foundation whatever for the statement
made by Place to the effect that Malthus recognized the advocacy of
Neomalthusian methods to be the logical outcome of his position but
that he shrank from their advocacy for fear of prejudice. Place,
_Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle of Population_, p. 173.
Footnote 63:
Harriet Martineau, _Illustrations to Political Economy_, No. VI, _Weal
and Woe in Graveloch_.
Footnote 64:
On this subject see Field, ‘The Early History of the Population
Movement’, _American Economic Review_, April, 1911. I am indebted to
this valuable article in what follows.
Footnote 65:
Graham Wallas, _Life of Francis Place_, p. 169.
Footnote 66:
For the later history of this movement see Hans Ferdy, loc. cit.;
Garnier, _Du Principe de la Population_; and Leroy-Beaulieu, loc. cit.
Footnote 67:
Still more recently prosecutions have taken place in the United
States. The publications of the eminent Danish economist Pierson may
be consulted for an able advocacy of Neomalthusian methods put forward
at a time when birth-control received little scientific support. See
_Principles of Economics_, vol. ii, p. 107.
Footnote 68:
_Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_, vol. i, p. 83.
Footnote 69:
Haeckel, _History of Creation_, vol. i, p. 134.
Footnote 70:
Marchant, _A. R. Wallace, Letters and Reminiscences_, vol. i, p. 136.
Footnote 71:
Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 50.
Footnote 72:
Marchant, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 116.
Footnote 73:
See _Sociological Papers_, p. 45. Galton first proposed to use the
word ‘stirpiculture’.
Footnote 74:
Among many plants and not infrequently among lower animals the sexes
are not separate—both male and female generative organs being found on
the same individual. This condition occurs in some fish, though
examples of hermaphroditism are rare in the Vertebrates. As a general
rule in such cases the two generative organs found in the same
individual ripen at different times and cross-fertilization is
effected. In such cases the description given above applies. Where
self-fertilization occurs, the above account does not apply in detail;
the occurrence of self-fertilization, however, in no way invalidates
the general conclusions that will be drawn in what follows.
Footnote 75:
‘The nucleus [of the spermatozoon] is probably enclosed within sheaths
of cytoplasm, although this is not usually readily visible’
(Doncaster, _Cytology_, p. 92).
Footnote 76:
A few bony fish, e. g. Anableps, copulate internally.
Footnote 77:
Internal copulation among the flat worms is of a very primitive
type—the penis apparently, at least at times, penetrating the female
at any point.
Footnote 78:
Letourneau, _Evolution of Marriage_, p. 8.
Footnote 79:
Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 384.
Footnote 80:
Letourneau, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 81:
Except in man—the importance of which fact is dealt with in Chapter
IV.
Footnote 82:
Jennings, _Behaviour of the Lower Organisms_, p. 277.
Footnote 83:
Hobhouse, _Development and Purpose_, p. 62. In this and the following
sections I am indebted to Professor Hobhouse’s review of the evolution
of animal behaviour.
Footnote 84:
McDougall, _Social Psychology_, p. 29.
Footnote 85:
McDougall, loc. cit., p. 25.
Footnote 86:
Lloyd Morgan, _Animal Behaviour_, p. 84.
Footnote 87:
Hobhouse, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 88:
Thomson, _Darwinism and Human Life_, p. 81.
Footnote 89:
Bridge, _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. _Fishes_, p. 412.
Footnote 90:
Thomson, loc. cit., p. 82.
Footnote 91:
Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 51.
Footnote 92:
Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 49.
Footnote 93:
Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 49.
Footnote 94:
Johnstone, _Conditions of Life in the Sea_, p. 235.
Footnote 95:
For the sake of simplicity fecundity has been spoken of as though it
was fixed at a certain strength for each species. As a matter of fact
it varies within fairly wide limits—increasing with better conditions.
In this fact lies the explanation of the increase of species under
favourable conditions which has often been observed, although, when
conditions are less favourable, there is little or no evidence of
starvation among such species.
Footnote 96:
Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 19.
Footnote 97:
Brehm, _Bird Life_, p. 285.
Footnote 98:
That the basis of the inherited qualities is wholly situated in the
chromatin cannot be considered as established beyond doubt. The
element of doubt, however, has no bearing upon the argument.
Footnote 99:
In this and the following sections I am indebted to Professor
Goodrich’s admirable treatment of these problems in his book. _The
Evolution of Living Organisms._
Footnote 100:
There is probably no actual loss—no gap in a chromosome. It may be
supposed that owing to a ‘negative variation’ a factor ceases to be
functional.
Footnote 101:
A certain amount of confusion has been introduced into the whole
question of evolution by the manner in which in recent biological
writings the function of selection has been depreciated. The followers
of Darwin undoubtedly at times exaggerated the importance of
selection. In particular selection has even been spoken of as though
it caused variation and, as it were, drew organisms along certain
paths. It is essential to remember, as has been emphasized above, that
it can only act upon what is given. But without doubt there has been
recently a tendency to under-estimate the importance of selection.
Though the process of selection is nothing more than a process of
sifting, that process is of fundamental importance; unless due weight
is given to it, evolution cannot be rendered comprehensible.
Footnote 102:
Osborn, _Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth_, p. 228. One of the most
valuable contributions to the discussion of orthogenesis has been made
by Plate, _Über die Bedeutung des Darwinischen Selectionsprinzips_.
Plate concludes that the evidence points to some kind of orthogenesis.
Footnote 103:
Except where otherwise stated, increase of skill—of power, that is to
say, to control the environment—is taken as the criterion of
‘progress’. Except, therefore, where otherwise stated, the terms
‘civilized’ and ‘higher’ races are merely intended to convey that
races so denominated have a greater power of controlling the
environment than ‘uncivilized’ and ‘lower’ races. The terms ‘higher’
and ‘lower’ are thus in this book merely convenient labels used in a
special sense. In a fuller sense the terms ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ would
take account of innate faculties, social organization, and moral
tradition, as well as of the tradition of skilled methods. It is
worthy of note, so far as the argument in this book is concerned, that
there is a correlation between the tradition of skilled methods and
the tradition of social organization and between both of these
traditions and the innate faculties. The result, therefore, of a
classification of races according to the special sense of the terms
‘higher’ and ‘lower’ as given above, does not conflict so directly as
might be thought with a classification according to the fuller meaning
of these terms. Further reference is made to the subject in the later
part of this book.
Footnote 104:
Marshall, _Phil. Trans._ B, cxcvi, 1904, p. 77.
Footnote 105:
Heape, _Q. J. M. S._, vol. xliv, p. 12.
Footnote 106:
Mayer, _Über Sterilität_, p. 401.
Footnote 107:
Kelly, _Medical Gynecology_, p. 354. See also Matthews Duncan,
_Sterility in Women_, p. 3.
Footnote 108:
See Mosnier-Clauzel, _De quelques Causes de Stérilité chez la Femme_,
for a summary of this question.
Footnote 109:
Except in the case of ‘identical’ twins.
Footnote 110:
Engelmann, _Trans. Amer. Gyn. Soc._, vol. xxvi, p. 87.
Footnote 111:
Krieger. _Die Menstruation_, p. 52. See also Ploss and Bartels, _Das
Weib_, vol. i, p. 421.
Footnote 112:
Engelmann, loc. cit., p. 98.
Footnote 113:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 17.
Footnote 114:
It is a remarkable fact that the Eskimo begin to menstruate at about
thirteen years of age—at an earlier age, that is to say, than the
average for the United States (Kelly, loc. cit., p. 83).
Footnote 115:
Marshall, _Physiology of Reproduction_, p. 672.
Footnote 116:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 21.
Footnote 117:
Ibid., p. 24.
Footnote 118:
Marshall, _Physiology of Reproduction_, p. 63. There are considerable
variations in the conditions among monkeys; the above is only
generally true.
Footnote 119:
Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 25; Ploss and Bartels,
loc. cit., vol. i, ch. xxi; Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology
of Sex_, vol. i, p. 85.
Footnote 120:
Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 121:
See Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. iii, pp. 230 ff., where this subject
is discussed at length.
Footnote 122:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 34.
Footnote 123:
It may also be observed that among certain primitive races the
menstrual flow is said only to occur at long intervals (Heape, loc.
cit., p. 30). Among Eskimo women there is said to be no menstruation
in winter (ibid., p. 29).
Footnote 124:
For further details see Croom, _Trans. Edin. Obstet. Soc._, vol. xxi,
1896; Havelock Ellis, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 90; Marshall, loc. cit.,
p. 65; and Kelly, loc. cit., ch. v.
Footnote 125:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 126:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 57.
Footnote 127:
Ibid., p. 59.
Footnote 128:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 129:
Ibid., p. 15.
Footnote 130:
This and the following examples are taken from Darwin, _Variations of
Animals and Plants under Domestication_, vol. ii, p. 90.
Footnote 131:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 596.
Footnote 132:
Ibid., p. 597.
Footnote 133:
Heape, _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._, vol. x, p. 236.
Footnote 134:
The evidence is summarized by Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i,
ch. vi.
Footnote 135:
See Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, ch. xix, and Havelock Ellis,
‘Studies in the Psychology of Sex’, _Analysis of the Sexual Impulse_,
p. 209. The fact is commented upon by Ratzel, _History of Mankind_,
vol. ii, p. 17. As examples of the evidence for particular races see,
for the Malays, Stevens, _Zeit. für Eth._, Bd. xxviii, 1896, p. 180;
for the Fuegians, Hyades et Deniker, _Mission scientifique du Cap
Horn_, Tome vii, p. 187; for the Andamanese, Portman, _J. A. I._, vol.
xxv, p. 369.
Footnote 136:
Mayer, loc. cit., p. 409.
Footnote 137:
Stopes, _Married Love_, p. 68.
Footnote 138:
Curr, _The Australian Race_, p. 70.
Footnote 139:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 52.
Footnote 140:
Ibid., p. 264.
Footnote 141:
Murdoch, _Ethnological Results of the Port Barrow Expedition_, 9th _A.
R. B. E._, p. 38.
Footnote 142:
Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 150.
Footnote 143:
Holder, _Am. Jour. Obstet._, vol. xxv, 1891, p. 44.
Footnote 144:
Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, p. 94.
Footnote 145:
Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, vol. i, p. 197.
Footnote 146:
Ibid., p. 242.
Footnote 147:
Catlin, _North American Indians_, vol. ii, p. 228.
Footnote 148:
Matthews Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility_, p. 112.
Footnote 149:
Wattal, _Population Problem in India_, p. 7.
Footnote 150:
See, for instance, Eucken, _Currents of Modern Thought_, p. 264. When
Herbert Spencer says (_Principles of Biology_, vol. ii, p. 431) that
‘advancing evolution must be accompanied by declining fertility’, he
is apparently using the term fertility as equivalent to fecundity and
is therefore misrepresenting the position. The Dean of St. Paul’s is
doubtless aware of the true state of the case: nevertheless his
reference to the subject is likely to be misleading. After remarking
upon the fact that fecundity (which he calls fertility) decreases
among animals with increasing care for the offspring, he goes on to
say that ‘man is no exception to these laws’ (_Outspoken Essays_, p.
60). As a matter of fact, man is a remarkable exception to this ‘law’;
if anything, his fecundity has increased. His position has become
assimilated to that of the animals because his fertility has
decreased—quite another matter.
Footnote 151:
Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 132.
Footnote 152:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 39. This is also the opinion of Havelock Ellis,
see ‘Studies in the Psychology of Sex’, _Analysis of the Sexual
Impulse_, p. 220.
Footnote 153:
Newsholme and Stevenson, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lix, p. 64.
Footnote 154:
Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People of Africa_, p. 348.
Footnote 155:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 43.
Footnote 156:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 400.
Footnote 157:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 74. See also Heape, loc. cit., p. 43, and
Matthews Duncan, _Sterility in Women_, p. 85.
Footnote 158:
Dunlop, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxvi, p. 266.
Footnote 159:
Ibid., p. 267.
Footnote 160:
Quoted by Wattal, loc. cit., p. 23.
Footnote 161:
Ibid., p. 15. See also Matthews Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, and
Sterility_, pp. 277 ff.
Footnote 162:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 595. The corpus luteum persists in the ovary
of fat animals and to this fact Fraenkel (_Archiv für Gynaekologie_,
Bd. lxviii, 1903) ascribes the barrenness that so often accompanies
fatness.
Footnote 163:
Jolly, _Science Progress_, 1914, No. 33, p. 41, states that there are
four methods of estimating the duration of the whole period, by
considering (1) the thickness of the sediment, (2) the mass of the
sediment, (3) the sodium contained in the sea, and (4) radioactive
transformation. (1) gives about 100 to 134 million years, (2) about 87
million years, (3) about 80 to 90 million years, and (4) a much longer
period.
Footnote 164:
Osborn, _Old Stone Age_, p. 22.
Footnote 165:
Ibid., p. 23. It is well to lay stress on the fact that all these
figures are little more than guesses founded on various observations
such as the rate of deposition of sediment by rivers. No conclusions
with regard to evolution can be drawn from the supposed length of the
whole period or from the supposed length of the subdivisions.
Nevertheless the relative length of the different subdivisions as
estimated has in all probability some approximation to fact, and thus,
whatever may be the real length of the period, the time which elapsed
between, say, the beginning of the Pleistocene and the middle of the
third genial epoch was at least twice and perhaps three times longer
than that which has elapsed since the beginning of the latter epoch to
the present day.
Footnote 166:
The extinct Lemurs of the Lower Eocene were, it may be noticed, of a
very generalized type and can only with difficulty be distinguished
from Insectivores. At this time the chief features now characteristic
of the various Mammalian classes had not yet appeared.
Footnote 167:
Sollas, ‘Presidential Address to the Geological Society’, 1910, p. 48
(_Quart Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. lxvi).
Footnote 168:
The table is based on those given by Osborn (_Old Stone Age_, pp. 18
and 41).
Footnote 169:
To show how the estimates vary it may be mentioned that Sollas
(_Ancient Hunters_, ch. xiv) only allows 27,000 years since the close
of the Chellean period.
Footnote 170:
Dubois, _Pithecanthropus erectus: eine menschenähnliche Übergangsform
aus Java_. Dubois has published several other papers and the
literature is very large. The earlier literature has been summarized
by Klaatsch (_Zoologisches Centralblatt_, vol. vi, 1899, p. 217), and
by Schwalbe (_Zeit. für Morph. und Anth._, Bd. I, 1899, p. 16). For a
concise account see Duckworth, _Morphology and Anthropology_, pp. 510
ff. The remains consist of the upper portion of a skull, a left femur,
a second left upper molar, a third right upper molar and a second left
lower pre-molar. The last tooth was not found by Dubois but by
subsequent excavators. The skull and the femur were not found together
but some fifty feet apart. The attribution of all the remains to one
individual is, however, probably justified.
Footnote 171:
Elbert (_Cent. für Min., Geol. und Pal._, Bd. 17, 1909, p. 513) holds
that the beds are on the border between the Pliocene and the
Pleistocene. Volz (_Neues Jahr. für Min., Geol. und Pal.; Festband zur
Feier des 100-jährigen Bestehens_, 1907, p. 256) places the beds in
the Middle Pleistocene. The whole problem is discussed by Selenka and
Blanckenhorn. See _Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java_.
Footnote 172:
Osborn, _Old Stone Age_, p. 83.
Footnote 173:
Schoetensack, _Der Unterkiefer des H. heidelbergensis_.
Footnote 174:
Dawson and Woodward, _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. lxix, 1913, p.
117.
Footnote 175:
The Gibraltar skull may have been discovered before the specimen from
Neanderthal; it aroused no interest, however, until after the
discovery of the latter.
Footnote 176:
Boule, _Ann. de Pal._, vol. vi, 1911, vol. vii, 1912, vol. viii, 1913.
Footnote 177:
In some cases the origin has not been clearly identified (e. g. the
Gibraltar skull). It is said that remains of Neanderthal man are
sometimes found associated with Acheulean instruments (in the case of
the Krapina remains, for example). See Boule, loc. cit., vol. vi, p.
120, and vol. vii, p. 227, and also Anthony, _Bull. et Mém. Soc.
d’Anth._, 1913, p. 189.
Footnote 178:
The remains found at the station of Raymonden, Chancelade, and
described by Testut (_Bull. Soc. d’Anth. de Lyon_, vol. viii, 1889),
are now generally classed with Cro-Magnon man. As Testut says,
Chancelade man possesses ‘tous les caractères propres aux races
supérieures’. The cranial capacity was 1,710 c.c. But there are
certain features in which it departs from the ordinary Cro-Magnon type
and certain features in which it resembles the modern Eskimo
type—particularly in the shape of the cranium, the sides of which tend
to slope up and meet at an angle. The possible significance of this
will be referred to later.
Footnote 179:
Thus Boule (loc. cit., vol. viii, p. 111), speaking of the Upper
Palaeolithic types in general, says: ‘Tous ces hommes fossiles ne sont
pas plus différents des hommes actuels que ceux-ci ne diffèrent entre
eux.’
Footnote 180:
Pottery stated to be Palaeolithic has been found in Belgium. There is
nothing surprising in the fact, if it is a fact, that Palaeolithic man
should have possessed this art, so far as his abilities are concerned.
In general, however, nomadic races (and the Palaeolithic races were,
of course, nomadic) have little use for pottery. See Déchelette,
_Manuel d’Archéologie_, vol. i, pp. 169 ff.
Footnote 181:
Reid Moir, _Pre-Palaeolithic Man_. Rostro-carinates are found in the
Red Crag which is a Pliocene formation. Mr. Reid Moir holds that they
were evolved from eoliths (p. 66).
Footnote 182:
Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, ch. iii.
Footnote 183:
Breuil, _L’Anthropologie_, vol. xx, 1910.
Footnote 184:
Professor Wood Jones, basing his conclusions on comparative anatomy,
has lately put forward a view of the course of human evolution
somewhat at variance with that outlined above. He sums up his view by
saying that ‘Homo is not descended from the anthropoid apes preceded
by a series of Primate forms represented by Old World Monkeys, New
World Monkeys, and Lemurs. For we have seen that the anatomical
characters of man demand rather a recognition of the finding that his
stock branched off from the very root of the Primates; that man has
evolved entirely by generalized development of the brain, and that he
retains the bodily simplicity only found in some such far distant
progenitor as the Tarsius stock; that no matter what may be the
relation of the New World and Old World Monkeys, the human race
combines, in some instances, a blend of their characters; that the
anthropoid apes retain a certain, and a varying, amount of the basal
simplicity that belongs to man, but that the Old World Monkeys have
specialized far away from this simplicity. Regarded in this way we may
say that the line of Homo springs from the base of the (non-Lemurine)
Primate stem and not from its systematic apex’ (‘Origin of Man’, p.
126, in _Animal Life and Human Progress_, edited by Dendy). In this
view therefore the human stock has been separate from the rest of the
primate stock since early in the Tertiary period. If this conclusion
is well founded, the argument derived from the course of evolution as
outlined above is certainly weakened.
Footnote 185:
Sollas, loc. cit., p. 72.
Footnote 186:
With reference to this subject Breuil says with great force that ‘si
la nature, _exceptionnellement_ sans doute, peut produire des objets
aussi semblables à des types industriels _parfaitement définis et
connus comme tels dans leurs milieux normaux en dehors de toute
possibilité d’erreur_, à combien plus forte raison doit-on se montrer
circonspect à l’égard des manifestations les plus élémentaires de
l’activité humaine, et se montrer exigeant avant de fonder sur leur
constatation si problématique des théories dépassant si formidablement
ce qui est acquis d’une manière définitive et en toute évidence!’
(_L’Anthropologie_, vol. xxi, p. 407). For examples of the expression
of similar views see Obermaier, _Der Mensch der Vorzeit_, p. 412, and
Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 22. The weight of expert opinion is
against the acceptance of eoliths as genuine. Among the more
distinguished supporters of the theory may be mentioned Rutot in
Belgium, Ray Lankester and Reid Moir in England, Verworn in Germany,
and de Mortillet in France. Among those who are sceptical are Boule,
Breuil, and Déchelette in France, Schmidt and Obermaier in Germany,
and Sollas in England.
Footnote 187:
Rutot, _Revue, de l’Université de Bruxelles_, 1911, p. 258.
Footnote 188:
Remains of Chellean industry are widespread and are found outside
Europe—in Africa, for example, from the Cape to the Sahara. See
Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 88.
Footnote 189:
The admiration, justly enough aroused, for these works of art has
undoubtedly led to an exaggeration of the level of social and
intellectual development reached by Upper Palaeolithic man, whose
times are sometimes referred to as though they were a kind of Golden
Age.
Footnote 190:
Azilian remains are confined to the south of Europe; Tardenoisian
remains are widely distributed in Europe. To this period also belongs
the Maglemose culture from Zeeland. Some grain found in the cave of
Mas d’Azil has been interpreted as showing that agriculture was
practised; in all probability, however, the grain has been introduced
recently—perhaps by rats. Certain curiously marked pebbles are known
from Azilian times and have been taken by some authors to be evidence
of the use of an alphabet. This interpretation cannot be accepted,
though possibly these markings may have been signs intended to assist
the memory—such as were in use in Peru, for example.
Footnote 191:
Palaeolithic man may have kept animals as pets. Many primitive races
have a passion for keeping pets though they derive no economic
advantage from so doing.
Footnote 192:
That agriculture is an art learnt but recently is not yet appreciated
by some men of science. Thus Sir A. D. Hall in a book published in
1919 says that ‘agriculture must be almost coeval with the human race’
(_Fertilizers and Manures_, p. 2).
Footnote 193:
Montelius, _C. I. A._, 1906, vol. ii, p. 32.
Footnote 194:
Pottery from the earliest Neolithic at Cnossus was well made, and
therefore this culture must have originated considerably more than
14,000 years ago.
Footnote 195:
On this subject see Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 336.
Footnote 196:
Jade was found in the first city of Hissarlik, which must have come
from the Kuen-lun (Gowland, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, 1912, p. 260).
Footnote 197:
On this subject see Gowland, loc. cit., p. 236.
Footnote 198:
_Handbook of American Indians_: articles on _Copper_ and _Iron_.
Footnote 199:
Reisner, ‘Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr’, _University of
California Publications_, 1908, p. 117.
Footnote 200:
Reisner, loc. cit., p. 127.
Footnote 201:
Ibid., p. 134.
Footnote 202:
Iron weapons are found in late Mycenean graves (Ridgeway, _Early Age
of Greece_, p. 294).
Footnote 203:
Ridgeway, _Beginnings of Iron_, p. 644.
Footnote 204:
Von Luschan supports this view (_Zeit. für Eth._, vol. xli, 1909, p.
52).
Footnote 205:
Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 254.
Footnote 206:
See on this point Breuil, ‘Les Subdivisions du Paléolithique
Supérieur,’ _C. I. A._, 1912. With regard to the Neolithic period
Déchelette says: ‘Il est permis de placer en Orient le principal
centre de diffusion des accroissements successifs de la civilisation
occidentale’ (loc. cit., vol. i, p. 313).
Footnote 207:
See Hrdlicka, ‘Early Man in South America’ (_S. I. B. E._, No. 52,
1912), ‘Skeletal Remains suggesting or attributed to Early Man in
North America’ (ibid., No. 33, 1907), and ‘Recent Discoveries
attributed to Early Man in America’ (ibid., No. 66, 1917).
Footnote 208:
It is interesting to note the cranial capacity of these races and to
compare them with the figures given above for prehistoric races:
Tasmanians, 1,225 c.c.; Australians, 1,320 c.c.; Bushmen, 1,244 c.c.;
Veddahs, 1,201 to 1,336 c.c.; American Indians, 1,300 to 1,450 c.c.
See Hoernes, _Natur und Urgeschichte der Menschen_, vol. i, p. 60.
Footnote 209:
See J. J. Atkinson, _Primal Law_ (in _Social Origins_, by Lang and
Atkinson).
Footnote 210:
Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, p. 164.
Footnote 211:
See, for example, Parker, _Euahlayi Tribe_, p. 56, and, for the tribes
of Western Victoria, Brown, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 158.
Footnote 212:
Early betrothal is also common among other races of this group; but,
unless otherwise stated, this should not be taken as meaning that
cohabitation follows until after puberty. The more careful accounts
usually state that it does not; for the Thompson Indians, for
instance, see Teit, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. i, p. 321.
Footnote 213:
Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, vol. i, p. 267. This author has dealt
at some length with the prevalence of this habit.
Footnote 214:
Nansen, _First Crossing of Greenland_, p. 320.
Footnote 215:
Murdoch, 9th _A. R. B. E._, p. 419.
Footnote 216:
Turner, 11th _A. R. B. E._, p. 188. See, for Behring Strait Eskimos,
Nelson, 18th _A. R. B. E._, p. 292.
Footnote 217:
Ross, _A. R. S. I._, 1860, p. 305.
Footnote 218:
Gibbs, _U.S. Geog. and Geol. Survey_, vol. i, p. 199.
Footnote 219:
Powers, ibid., vol. iii, p. 413.
Footnote 220:
Ibid., p. 157.
Footnote 221:
Ten Kate, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. iv, p. 129.
Footnote 222:
Hyades and Deniker, _Mission Scientifique_, p. 188.
Footnote 223:
Ibid., p. 187.
Footnote 224:
Seligman, _Veddahs_, p. 95. It is possible that this may have been
formerly forbidden (ibid., p. 96).
Footnote 225:
Ling Roth, _Aborigines of Tasmania_, p. 168, note.
Footnote 226:
Bonwick, _Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians_, p. 85.
Footnote 227:
Eyre, _Journals_, vol. ii, p. 250. See also Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 51.
Footnote 228:
Grey, _Journals_, vol. ii, p. 250.
Footnote 229:
Eylmann, _Die Eingeborenen der Kolonie Südaustralien_, p. 261.
Footnote 230:
Taplin, _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 15.
Footnote 231:
Meyer, _Aborigines of the Encounter Bay Tribe_, p. 187.
Footnote 232:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 263. See also Smyth, _Aborigines of
Victoria_, vol. i, p. 48.
Footnote 233:
R. Brown, _Geog. Journ._, vol. i, p. 39.
Footnote 234:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 415.
Footnote 235:
Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 151.
Footnote 236:
Crantz, _History of Greenland_, vol. i, p. 162.
Footnote 237:
Bessels, _Arch, für Anth._, vol. viii, p. 113.
Footnote 238:
Heriot, _Travels_, p. 339. See also Weld, _Travels_, p. 373.
Footnote 239:
J. Long, _Voyages_, p. 60.
Footnote 240:
Dall, _Alaska_, p. 196.
Footnote 241:
Ross, loc. cit., p. 305.
Footnote 242:
Krause, _Die Thinklit-Indianer_, p. 216. See also Bancroft, _Native
Races_, vol. i, p. 111.
Footnote 243:
Lord, _Naturalist in Vancouver_, vol. ii, p. 233.
Footnote 244:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 94.
Footnote 245:
Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, vol. iii, p. 212.
Footnote 246:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 197.
Footnote 247:
Ibid., p. 242.
Footnote 248:
Ibid.
Footnote 249:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 209.
Footnote 250:
Long, loc. cit., p. 60.
Footnote 251:
Guinnard, _Three Years’ Slavery among the Patagonians_, p. 146.
Footnote 252:
Dobrizhoffer, _Abipones_, vol. ii, p. 195.
Footnote 253:
Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., vol. vii, p. 195.
Footnote 254:
Man, _J. A. I._, vol. xii, p. 81.
Footnote 255:
Deniker, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. ii, p. 303.
Footnote 256:
For races of North-east Africa see King, _Journal Anthropological
Society of Bombay_, vol. ii, 1890.
Footnote 257:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 52.
Footnote 258:
W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies_, p. 179.
Footnote 259:
R. H. Mathews, _Ethnological Notes_, p. 177.
Footnote 260:
Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. ii, p. 19.
Footnote 261:
W. E. Roth, loc. cit., p. 179; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of
Central Australia_, p. 264.
Footnote 262:
Semon, _Australian Bush_, p. 234.
Footnote 263:
Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 134.
Footnote 264:
Malinowski, _Family among Australian Aborigines_, p. 134.
Footnote 265:
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 77.
Footnote 266:
Taplin, loc. cit., p. 10.
Footnote 267:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 94.
Footnote 268:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 413.
Footnote 269:
Hill Tout, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxiv, p. 319.
Footnote 270:
Sarasin, _Forschungen aus Ceylon_, vol. iii, p. 469.
Footnote 271:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158.
Footnote 272:
Hill Tout, _British North America_, p. 182.
Footnote 273:
Hill Tout, loc. cit., p. 190.
Footnote 274:
Teit, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. i, p. 190.
Footnote 275:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 591.
Footnote 276:
Ibid., p. 255.
Footnote 277:
Musters, _Patagonians_, p. 186.
Footnote 278:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 42.
Footnote 279:
See, for instance, as regards the Australians, Malinowski, loc. cit.,
p. 48; Tasmanians, Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 85; Bushmen, Theal, _Yellow-
and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 46; and Chinooks, Bancroft, loc. cit.,
vol. i, p. 241.
Footnote 280:
It is rare that the prohibition for such reasons extends over so long
a period as a year. This is the period of abstinence sometimes
enjoined upon the Thlinkeet Indians (Swanton, 26th _A. R. B. E._, p.
449). On this subject see Crawley, _Mystic Rose_, pp. 187, 215, and
342; Hubert and Mauss, _Histoire des Religions_; Frazer, _Golden
Bough_, vol. i, p. 29; and Westermarck, loc. cit., pp. 150 ff.
Footnote 281:
Cabeça de Vaca, _Narrative_, p. 62.
Footnote 282:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 97.
Footnote 283:
This has, of course, often been remarked upon. See, for instance,
Darwin, _Descent of Man_, vol. i, p. 132.
Footnote 284:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 79.
Footnote 285:
Ibid., p. 85.
Footnote 286:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 287:
Ibid., p. 85. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 387.
Footnote 288:
Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 39. The interesting estimate of
Curr has been given on p. 99. In another place he says: ‘The number of
children born, on the average, by Bangerang women I estimate at six or
perhaps eight’ (_Recollections_, p. 252).
Footnote 289:
Lumholtz, loc. cit., p. 134.
Footnote 290:
J. Mathew, _Eaglehawk and Crow_, p. 165.
Footnote 291:
Grey, _Journals_, vol. ii, p. 250. He also remarks that, although
girls are mature at twelve, ‘child-bearing does not often commence
before the age of sixteen’ (ibid., p. 323).
Footnote 292:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 264.
Footnote 293:
Ibid., p. 52.
Footnote 294:
Eyre, _Journals_, vol. ii, p. 376.
Footnote 295:
Schürmann, _Aboriginal Tribes_, p. 223.
Footnote 296:
Wilhelmi, _Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria_, vol. v, p.
180.
Footnote 297:
Stow, _Native Races_, p. 50.
Footnote 298:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 44.
Footnote 299:
Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 161.
Footnote 300:
p. 99. Hutton, however, gives a high figure for the birth-rate
(_Eskimos of Labrador_, p. 80).
Footnote 301:
p. 99.
Footnote 302:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 39. This author says further that ‘all authors
who have described Eskimos of unmixed descent agree in regard to the
generally small number of their offspring’ (ibid., p. 419).
Footnote 303:
Bessels, loc. cit., p. 112.
Footnote 304:
Turner, loc. cit., p. 189.
Footnote 305:
Armstrong, _Personal Narrative_, p. 195.
Footnote 306:
Ritter, _Zeit, für all. Erd._, vol. xiii, p. 265.
Footnote 307:
Hearne, _Journey_, p. 312.
Footnote 308:
Ross, loc. cit., p. 305.
Footnote 309:
Petroff, ‘Report of the Population of Alaska’, _10th Census of the
U.S.A._, p. 127.
Footnote 310:
p. 99.
Footnote 311:
S. H. Long, loc. cit., p. 19. See also Dorsey, 3rd _A. R. B. E._, p.
264.
Footnote 312:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 218.
Footnote 313:
Ibid., p. 156.
Footnote 314:
Keating, _Narrative_, p. 156.
Footnote 315:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 211.
Footnote 316:
Baegert, _A. R. B. E._, 1863, p. 368.
Footnote 317:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 513.
Footnote 318:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 319:
Bridges, _A Voice from South America_, vol. xiii, p. 202.
Footnote 320:
Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., vol. vii, p. 189.
Footnote 321:
Ibid., p. 188.
Footnote 322:
It may be observed that according to Keane the Botocudos form an
exception. ‘Families’, he says, ‘are said to be comparatively large,
four or five children being common enough’ (_J. A. I._, vol. xiii).
This is, however, contradicted by von Tschudi, _Reisen durch
Südamerika_, vol. ii, p. 284.
Footnote 323:
Man, loc. cit., p. 81.
Footnote 324:
Portman, _J. A. I._, vol. xxv, p. 369.
Footnote 325:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 169.
Footnote 326:
Dall, loc. cit., p. 381.
Footnote 327:
Deniker, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. ii, p. 302.
Footnote 328:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 329:
See, for example, Klemm, _Allgemeine Kultur-Geschichte der
Menschheit_, vol. i, p. 291.
Footnote 330:
Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. i, p. 76.
Footnote 331:
Quoted by a reviewer in the _Edinburgh Review_, vol. ii, 1803, p. 34.
Footnote 332:
Palmer, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 280.
Footnote 333:
Roth, loc. cit., p. 183.
Footnote 334:
Wells and Kelly, _U.S.A. Bureau of Education_, 1890, p. 19; Bessels,
loc. cit., p. 112.
Footnote 335:
See Weld, loc. cit., p. 373, and Robertson, _History of America_, vol.
i, p. 297
Footnote 336:
H. Ellis, _Voyage_, p. 198.
Footnote 337:
Mackenzie, _Voyages_, vol. i, p. 148.
Footnote 338:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.
Footnote 339:
Ibid., p. 197.
Footnote 340:
Lord, _Naturalist in Vancouver_, vol. ii, p. 231.
Footnote 341:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 94.
Footnote 342:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.
Footnote 343:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 584.
Footnote 344:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 199.
Footnote 345:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 242. It also occurred among the Omahas
but was not common (Dorsey, loc. cit., p. 263, and Long, loc. cit., p.
20).
Footnote 346:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 207. For New Mexico see Bancroft, loc. cit.,
vol. i, p. 590.
Footnote 347:
Castelnau, _Expedition_, vol. ii, p. 450. See also Azara, _Voyages_,
p. 146.
Footnote 348:
Rengger, _Reise_, p. 329.
Footnote 349:
Cooper, _S. I. B. E._, Bull. No. 63, 1917, p. 171.
Footnote 350:
Female infanticide was brought into great prominence by MacLennan.
Although he asserted that female infanticide was ‘common among savages
everywhere’ (_Studies in Ancient History_, p. 111), he did not bring
forward any considerable body of evidence.
Footnote 351:
Bonwick, loc. cit., pp. 79 and 85. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii,
p. 386.
Footnote 352:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 167. This author suggests that infanticide
may have increased owing to the disturbances due to the arrival of the
Europeans. There is no evidence that this was so, and for the reasons
given later it is most improbable that this is ever the result of
European influence.
Footnote 353:
K. L. Parker, loc. cit., p. 23.
Footnote 354:
Lumholtz, loc. cit., p. 134.
Footnote 355:
Dawson, loc. cit., p. 39.
Footnote 356:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 252.
Footnote 357:
Ibid., p. 263.
Footnote 358:
Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 180.
Footnote 359:
P. Beveridge, _Aborigines of Victoria_, p. 26.
Footnote 360:
R. H. Mathews, _Ethnological Notes_, p. 17.
Footnote 361:
Bonney, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 125.
Footnote 362:
Palmer, loc. cit., p. 280; Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_,
p. 190; Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 261; and Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p.
52.
Footnote 363:
Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 748.
Footnote 364:
Howitt, loc. cit., p. 749.
Footnote 365:
Ibid., p. 749.
Footnote 366:
Ibid., p. 750.
Footnote 367:
Ibid., p. 750.
Footnote 368:
Taplin, loc. cit., p. 13.
Footnote 369:
Ibid., p. 14.
Footnote 370:
Meyer, loc. cit., p. 186.
Footnote 371:
Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 372:
Gason, _Manners and Customs_, p. 258.
Footnote 373:
Mathew, _Two Representative Tribes_, p. 165.
Footnote 374:
Foelsche, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiv, p. 192.
Footnote 375:
Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 376. See also Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes_, p. 264.
Footnote 376:
Ibid., _Northern Tribes_, p. 608.
Footnote 377:
Grey, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 251.
Footnote 378:
Moffat, _Missionary Labours_, p. 58. See also Stow, _Native Races_, p.
51.
Footnote 379:
Reclus, _Primitive Folk_, p. 34.
Footnote 380:
Nelson, loc. cit., p. 289.
Footnote 381:
Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 580.
Footnote 382:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 416.
Footnote 383:
Ibid., p. 417.
Footnote 384:
Bessels, loc. cit., p. 112.
Footnote 385:
Nansen, _Greenland_, p. 330. See also Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 151.
Footnote 386:
C. E. Smith, _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, vol. xiii, p. 859.
Footnote 387:
Rink, loc. cit., p. 35.
Footnote 388:
Dall, loc. cit., p. 399.
Footnote 389:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 81.
Footnote 390:
Kirkby, _Church Missionary Intelligencer_, vol. xiv, p. 115; Hardisty,
_A. R. S. I._, 1866, p. 312; S. Jones, ibid., p. 327; MacKenzie,
_Voyages_, vol. i, p. 148.
Footnote 391:
Woldt, _Kapitän Jacobsen’s Reise_, p. 393.
Footnote 392:
Lord, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 231.
Footnote 393:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 242.
Footnote 394:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.
Footnote 395:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 198; Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.
Footnote 396:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.
Footnote 397:
Keating, loc. cit., p. 160.
Footnote 398:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 81.
Footnote 399:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 416; Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, pp. 390 and
413.
Footnote 400:
Ibid., p. 177.
Footnote 401:
Ibid., p. 222.
Footnote 402:
Ibid., p. 328.
Footnote 403:
Ibid., p. 382.
Footnote 404:
Cabeça de Vaca, loc. cit., p. 62. According to Ten Kate (_Rev.
d’Eth._, vol. iv) the Comanches kill one of two twins. This is not an
uncommon custom; in itself, however, it can have very little effect
upon the quantity of the population. For the Californians see
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, pp. 390 and 413.
Footnote 405:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 97.
Footnote 406:
Charlevoix, _Histoire_, vol. i, p. 405.
Footnote 407:
Keane, loc. cit., p. 206.
Footnote 408:
Church, loc. cit., p. 248.
Footnote 409:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 410:
Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 313, quoting a letter from Mr. Bridges who
in another place (loc. cit., p. 181) says that deformed children are
especially likely to be killed.
Footnote 411:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 469.
Footnote 412:
It should be remembered that elimination through war tells more upon
males than females. Out of sixty-six cases in which there was the
relevant information investigated by Professor Hobhouse and his
collaborators, men only were slain in twenty cases (Hobhouse, Wheeler,
and Ginsberg, _Simpler Peoples_, p. 232).
Footnote 413:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 83.
Footnote 414:
Wheeler, _Tribe in Australia_.
Footnote 415:
Ibid., pp. 116 ff.
Footnote 416:
Curr (_Recollections_, p. 309) says that he never heard of any one
being killed in a regular battle.
Footnote 417:
Wheeler, loc. cit., p. 151.
Footnote 418:
Ibid., p. 154.
Footnote 419:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 38. Letourneau, however, says that war was common
(_La Guerre_, p. 54).
Footnote 420:
Nelson, loc. cit., p. 327.
Footnote 421:
Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 162.
Footnote 422:
Boas, loc. cit., p. 465.
Footnote 423:
Nelson, loc. cit., p. 237.
Footnote 424:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 120.
Footnote 425:
Hall, loc. cit., p. 598.
Footnote 426:
Ellis, loc. cit., p. 182.
Footnote 427:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 91.
Footnote 428:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 57. See also ibid., vol. iii, p.
64.
Footnote 429:
Carver, _Travels_, p. 229. For accounts of early military training see
Domenech, _Seven Years’ Residence_, vol. ii, p. 229, and Dodge,
_Hunting Grounds of the Great West_, p. 256.
Footnote 430:
Harmon, _Journal_, p. 306. He is speaking in particular of the Carrier
tribe; a good account of the methods of fighting is given.
Footnote 431:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 248; Swanton, 26th _A. R. B. E._, p. 449.
Footnote 432:
Niblack, _A. R. S. I._, 1888, p. 340; Swanton, _Jesup North Pacific
Expedition_, vol. v, pp. 55 ff.
Footnote 433:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 59.
Footnote 434:
Boas, _A. R. B. E._, 1895, p. 425.
Footnote 435:
MacKenzie, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 123–30.
Footnote 436:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 236.
Footnote 437:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 268.
Footnote 438:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 540 ff.
Footnote 439:
Ibid., p. 234.
Footnote 440:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 263.
Footnote 441:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 53.
Footnote 442:
MacKenzie, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 171.
Footnote 443:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 190.
Footnote 444:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 379.
Footnote 445:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 562.
Footnote 446:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 359.
Footnote 447:
MacGee, 17th _A. R. B. E._, pp. 157 and 273. He speaks of a ‘frequent
decimation of the warriors’ (p. 273).
Footnote 448:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 499.
Footnote 449:
Cabeça de Vaca, loc. cit., p. 54.
Footnote 450:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 125.
Footnote 451:
Azara, vol. ii, p. 146.
Footnote 452:
Ibid., p. 7.
Footnote 453:
King and Fitzroy, _Narrative_, vol. ii, p. 183. See also Featherman,
_Social History_, vol. iii, p. 508.
Footnote 454:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 45. To show the length to
which this belief is carried, the following story may be quoted. ‘A
woman, while clearing out a well, was bitten in the thumb by a black
snake. It began to swell immediately, and in the short space of
twenty-four hours the woman was a corpse. Still it was asserted that
it was not an accident, but that the deceased had pointed out a
certain aborigine as her murderer’ (Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 191). In
this case no killing actually followed, though it nearly did so.
Footnote 455:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 84.
Footnote 456:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, vol. ii, p. 45.
Footnote 457:
Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. i, p. 86.
Footnote 458:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 477. Wheeler (loc. cit., p.
149) says that ‘warfare only arises as a result of a blood feud, due
to the killing of a member of one local group by a member of another
local group, nearly always by magical means. But even this ground of
offence is most generally settled by one of the methods of regular
procedure above described.’ Since, as we have seen, the regular
procedure seldom ends in the shedding of blood, many deaths thus pass
unavenged.
Footnote 459:
Thomas, _Natives of Australia_, p. 47; Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p.
379.
Footnote 460:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 317.
Footnote 461:
Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 582. Similar accounts are given by other
authors: see Nelson, loc. cit., p. 293; Rink, loc. cit., p. 35;
Klutschak, _Als Eskimo unter den Eskimos_, p. 228.
Footnote 462:
For instance, the Lillooet (Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 236) and the
Shastika (Powers, loc. cit., p. 29).
Footnote 463:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 348.
Footnote 464:
Niblack, loc. cit., p. 348. A somewhat similar account is given of the
Zaporos (Simson, _J. A. I._, vol. vii, p. 506).
Footnote 465:
It is not only among these races that the aged are thought to be in
the way. Bonnard, in an article in the _Figaro_ on the Prince de
Beauvais’ travels in Canada, mentions that the latter saw an
enterprising Canadian township recommended by the announcement that
there were ‘no old inhabitants to hinder progress’ (_Figaro_, March
28, 1914). The evidence for the existence of this custom has been
reviewed by Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, pp. 386 ff.
Footnote 466:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 73.
Footnote 467:
Sartori, _Globus_, vol. lxvii, p. 108.
Footnote 468:
See, for instance, Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes_, p. 32, and
_Natives Tribes_, p. 51.
Footnote 469:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 19.
Footnote 470:
Turner, loc. cit., p. 186.
Footnote 471:
Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 165.
Footnote 472:
Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 151.
Footnote 473:
Woldt, loc. cit., p. 57.
Footnote 474:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 205.
Footnote 475:
Willoughby, _A. R. S. I._, 1886, p. 274.
Footnote 476:
Long, loc. cit., p. 74.
Footnote 477:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 390.
Footnote 478:
MacGee, loc. cit., p. 157. Conditions are similar among the Yguazas:
see Cabeça de Vaca, loc. cit., p. 80.
Footnote 479:
Featherman, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 503.
Footnote 480:
Simson, loc. cit., p. 507.
Footnote 481:
It is impossible to estimate the amount of elimination from this
source. It is, as a rule, no doubt small. In India, although a higher
degree of skill has been reached, elimination from this source is not
inconsiderable owing to the prevalence of poisonous snakes. ‘In 1910,
55 persons were killed by elephants, 25 by hyenas, 109 by bears, 319
by wolves, 853 by tigers, and 688 by other animals, including wild
pigs. No less than 22,478 died from the bite of poisonous snakes. The
grand total of mortality is 24,878’ (Lull, _Organic Evolution_, p.
105). The amount of elimination will vary according to the nature of
the fauna, the geographical surroundings, habits, and other factors.
Thus among the Eskimo the use of the ‘kayak’ is responsible for a
considerable number of deaths. See Crantz, loc. cit., p. 166; Nansen,
loc. cit., p. 55; Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 433.
Footnote 482:
Cohen, _Physiological Therapeutics_, vol. v, p. 158.
Footnote 483:
Davidson, _Geographical Pathology_, vol. ii, p. 565.
Footnote 484:
Hrdlicka, _S. I. B. E._, Bull. 42.
Footnote 485:
Hrdlicka, _S. I. B. E._, Bull. 34. See also Adami, _Medical
Contributions_, pp. 15–22.
Footnote 486:
Among many races in this group—especially in tropical
countries—certain non-lethal diseases are prevalent which are of great
importance from another point of view. They will be referred to again
in Chapter XV.
Footnote 487:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 87.
Footnote 488:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 282.
Footnote 489:
Mathew, loc. cit., p. 92. See also Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 377,
and Curr, _Recollections_, p. 297.
Footnote 490:
Burchell, _Travels_, vol. ii, p. 57.
Footnote 491:
Smith, loc. cit., p. 859.
Footnote 492:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 39.
Footnote 493:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 166.
Footnote 494:
Heriot, loc. cit., p. 350.
Footnote 495:
Harmon, loc. cit., p. 271.
Footnote 496:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 148.
Footnote 497:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 618.
Footnote 498:
Hill Tout, _British North America_, p. 252.
Footnote 499:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 284.
Footnote 500:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 416.
Footnote 501:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 385.
Footnote 502:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 219.
Footnote 503:
Hardt, _Geography of Brazil_, p. 598.
Footnote 504:
King and Fitzroy, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 155.
Footnote 505:
Bonwick, loc. cit., pp. 78 and 85.
Footnote 506:
Turner, loc. cit., p. 189. See also Armstrong, loc. cit., p. 197, and
Hutton, loc. cit., p. 80.
Footnote 507:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 162; Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 415.
Footnote 508:
_Handbook of American Indians_: Article, _Child Life_.
Footnote 509:
The absence of care and the resulting mortality is emphasized by
Gerland (_Über das Aussterben der Naturvölker_, p. 24 to p. 39).
Footnote 510:
_Handbook of American Indians_: Article, _Child Life_. It may be
noticed that, among the older authors, Robertson (loc. cit., vol. 1,
p. 297) has very similar remarks on the same subject.
Footnote 511:
Heriot, loc. cit. p. 344.
Footnote 512:
Domenech, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 295.
Footnote 513:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 217. Of these people Bancroft (loc. cit., vol.
i, p. 111) says that ‘when the child is able to leave its cradle, it
is bathed in the ocean every day without regard to season’.
Footnote 514:
Ross, loc. cit., p. 305.
Footnote 515:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121.
Footnote 516:
Ibid., p. 201.
Footnote 517:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 178.
Footnote 518:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 368.
Footnote 519:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 43.
Footnote 520:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 147.
Footnote 521:
Bridges, loc. cit., p. 202.
Footnote 522:
Man, loc. cit., p. 79.
Footnote 523:
Ibid., p. 81.
Footnote 524:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 469.
Footnote 525:
Deniker, loc. cit., p. 303.
Footnote 526:
Czaplicka, _Aboriginal Siberia_, p. 137. For a general sketch of the
treatment of children by parents see Steinmetz, _Entwicklung der
Strafe_, vol. i, pp. 179 ff.
Footnote 527:
Reference has been made in Chapter V to the use of metals in America.
Mr. Joyce, however, says that in spite of progress in this direction
the Central American races ‘were living at the discovery practically
in an age of stone’ (_Mexican Archaeology_, p. 304).
Footnote 528:
The importance of the plough in agriculture has been emphasized by
many authors. See, for instance, Hahn, _Die Entstehung der
Pflugkultur_.
Footnote 529:
The influence of different phases of Eur-Asiatic culture upon the
races of Africa must be borne in mind. Early Egyptian civilization
exerted great influence and so at a later date did the
Semitic—especially on the east coast; since the time of Mohammed the
influence of Eur-Asiatic culture has been marked among the more
northern of the negroid races. The inhabitants of Bornu were, for
instance, converted to Islam in the eleventh century.
Footnote 530:
They may have had a knowledge of iron before the migration (see
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 11).
Footnote 531:
The Samoyeds formerly worked iron but have now lost the art—obtaining
what they want from the Russians.
Footnote 532:
Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, vol. i, p. 272.
Footnote 533:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 702.
Footnote 534:
Stephen, _Am. Anth._, vol. vi, p. 356.
Footnote 535:
Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. v, pp. 5 and 38. For the Creeks see
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. v, p. 272.
Footnote 536:
Pöppig, _Reise in Chile_, vol. ii, p. 128; von Martius, _Ethnographie
Amerikas_, vol. i, p. 112; Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 104.