_MISCELLANEOUS SUPERSTITIONS._
Glamour was a kind of witch power which certain people were supposed to
be gifted with; by the exercise of such influence they took command over
their subjects' sense of sight, and caused them to see whatever they
desired that they should see. Sir Walter Scott describes the recognised
capability of glamour power in the following lines:--
"It had much of glamour might,
Could make a lady seem a knight.
The cobwebs on a dungeon wall,
Seem tapestry in lordly hall.
A nutshell seem a gilded barge,
A sheeling seem a palace large,
And youth seem age, and age seem youth,
All was delusion, nought was truth."
Gipsies were believed to possess this power, and for their own ends to
exercise it over people. In the ballad of "Johnny Faa," Johnny is
represented as exercising this power over the Countess of Cassillis--
"And she came tripping down the stairs,
With a' her maids before her,
And soon as he saw her weel faured face,
He coost the glamour o'er her."
To possess a four-leaved clover completely protected any one from this
power. I remember a story which I heard when a boy, and the narrator of
it I recollect spoke as if he were quite familiar with the fact. A
certain man came to the village to exhibit the strength of a wonderful
cock, which could draw, when attached to its leg by a rope, a large log
of wood. Many people went and paid to see this wonderful performance,
which was exhibited in the back yard of a public house. One of the
spectators present on one occasion had in his possession a four-leaved
clover, and while others saw, as they supposed, a log of wood drawn
through the yard, this person saw only a straw attached to the cock's
leg by a small thread. I may mention here that the four-leaved clover
was reputed to be a preventative against madness, and against being
drafted for military service.
One very ancient and persistent superstition had regard to the direction
of movement either of persons or things. This direction should always be
with the course of the sun. To move against the sun was improper and
productive of evil consequences, and the name given to this direction of
movement was _withershins_. Witches in their dances and other pranks,
always, it was said, went _withershins_. Mr. Simpson in his work,
_Meeting the Sun_, says, "The Llama monk whirls his praying cylinder in
the way of the sun, and fears lest a stranger should get at it and turn
it contrary, which would take from it all the virtue it had acquired.
They also build piles of stone, and always pass them on one side, and
return on the other, so as to make a circuit with the sun. Mahommedans
make the circuit of the Caaba in the same way. The ancient dagobas of
India and Ceylon were also traversed round in the same way, and the old
Irish and Scotch custom is to make all movements _Deisual_, or sunwise,
round houses and graves, and to turn their bodies in this way at the
beginning and end of a journey for luck, as well as at weddings and
other ceremonies."
To go _withershins_ and to read prayers or the creed backwards were
great evils, and pointed to connection with the devil. The author of
_Olrig Grange_, in an early poem, sketches this superstition very
graphically:--
"Hech! sirs, but we had grand fun
Wi' the meikle black deil in the chair,
And the muckle Bible upside doon
A' ganging withershins roun and roun,
And backwards saying the prayer
About the warlock's grave,
Withershins ganging roun;
And kimmer and carline had for licht
The fat o' a bairn they buried that nicht,
Unchristen'd, beneath the moon."
If a tree or plant grew with a twist contrary to the direction of the
sun's movement, that portion was considered to possess certain powers,
which are referred to in the following verse of an old song:--
"I'll gar my ain Tammy gae doun to the Howe
And cut me a rock of the widdershins grow,
Of good rantree for to carry my tow,
And a spindle of the same for the twining o't."
Pennant refers to some other practices in Scotland in his day, that were
no doubt survivals of ancient heathen worship. Such as on certain
occasions kindling a fire, and the people joining hands and dancing
three times round it south-ways, or according to the course of the sun.
At baptisms and marriages they walked three times round the church
sun-ways. The Highlanders, in going to bathe or drink in a consecrated
fountain, approach it by going round the place from east to west on the
south side. When the dead are laid in their grave, the grave is
approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is conducted to
the spouse in presence of the minister round the company in the same
direction; indeed, all public matters were done according to certain
fixed ideas in relation to the sun, all pointing to a lingering ray of
sun worship.
If a fire were slow or _dour_ to kindle, the poker was taken and placed
in front of the grate, one end resting on the fender, the other on the
front bar of the grate, and this, it was believed, would cause the fire
to kindle quickly. This practice is still followed by many, but being
compelled now to give an apparently scientific reason for their conduct,
they say that it is so placed to produce a draught. But this it does not
do. The practice originated in the belief that the slow or dour fire was
spell-bound by witchcraft, and the poker was so placed that it would
form the shape of a cross with the front bar of the grate, and thus the
witch power be destroyed. In early times when the poker was placed in
this position, the person who placed it repeated an _Ave Marie_ or
_Paternoster_, but this feature of the ceremony died out, and with it
the reason for the practice was forgotten. I have seen it done in
private houses, and very frequently in the public rooms of country inns.
Indeed, in such public rooms it was the common practice when the servant
put on a fire, that after sweeping up the dust she placed the poker in
this position, and left the room. Probably she had no idea why she did
it, but merely followed the custom.
In a general chapter, such as this, I can find room for some things
which could not properly find a place in other chapters. The subject of
omens has by no means been exhausted. The late George Smith, in his work
upon the Chaldean Account of Genesis, says that in ancient Babylonia,
1600 B.C., everything in nature was supposed to portend some coming
event. Without much exaggeration, the same might be said of the people
of this country during the earlier part of this century.
On seeing the first plough in the season, it was lucky if it were seen
coming towards the observer, and he or she, in whatever undertaking then
engaged, might be certain of success in it; but, if seen going from the
observer, the omen was reversed.
If a farmer's cows became restive without any apparent cause, it
foreboded trouble to either master or mistress.
On going on any business, if the first person met with was plain-soled,
the journey might be given up, for, if proceeded with, the business to
be transacted would prove a failure; but, by turning and entering the
house again, with the right foot first, and then partaking of food
before resuming the journey, it might be undertaken without misgiving.
It was unlucky to walk under a ladder set up against a wall, but if
passing under it could not be avoided, then, if before doing so, you
wished for anything, your wish would be fulfilled.
It was unlucky to eat twin nuts found in one shell.
If the eye or nose itched, it was a sign that the person so affected
would be vexed in some way that day. If the foot itched, it was a sign
that the owner of the foot was about to undertake a strange journey. If
the elbow itched, it betokened the coming of a strange bedfellow. If the
right hand itched, it signified that money would shortly be received by
it; and, if the left hand itched, that money would shortly have to be
paid away.
If the ear tingled, it was a sign that some one was speaking of the
person so affected. If it were the right ear which did so, then the
speech was favourable; if the left ear, the reverse. In this latter
case, if the persons whose ears tingled were to bite their little
fingers, this would cause the persons speaking evil of them to bite
their tongues.
To break a looking-glass, hanging against a wall, was a sign that death
would shortly occur in the family.
If a daughter's petticoat was longer than her frock, it shewed that her
father loved her better than her mother did.
If you desired luck with any article of dress, it should be worn first
at church.
If a person unwittingly put on an article of dress outside in, it was an
omen that he or she would succeed in what they undertook that day; but
it was requisite that this portion of dress should remain with the wrong
side out until night, for, if reversed earlier, the luck was reversed
also.
To weigh children was considered an objectionable practice, as it was
believed to injure their health, and cause them to grow up weakly.
If a child cut the upper teeth before the lower, it was very unlucky for
the child.
If a cradle were rocked when the child was not in it, it was said to
give the child a headache; but if it so happened that the child was too
old to be rocked in a cradle, but its baby clothes were still in the
house, then this incident portended that its mother would have another
baby.
To make a present of a knife or a pair of scissors, and refuse to accept
anything in return, was said to cut or sever friendship between giver
and receiver.
If, at a social gathering, a bachelor or maid were placed inadvertently
betwixt a man and his wife, the person so seated would be married within
a year.
If a person in rising from table overturned his chair, this shewed that
he had been speaking untruths.
To feel a cold tremor along the spine was a sign that some one was
treading on the spot of earth in which the person so affected would be
buried.
If a person spoke aloud to himself, it was a sign that he would meet
with a violent death.
If a girl married a man the initial letter of whose name was the same as
her own, it was held that the union would not be a happy one. This
notion was formulated into this proverb--
"To change the name and not the letter.
Is a change for the worse, and not for the better."
If thirteen people sat down to dinner, the first who rose from table
would, it was said, either die or meet with some terrible calamity
within a year's time.
When burning caking coal it often happens that a small piece of fused
matter is projected from the fire. When this took place the piece was
searched for and examined, and from its shape certain events were
prognosticated concerning the person in whose direction it had fallen.
If shaped like a coffin it presaged death, if like a cradle it foretold
a birth. I have seen such an incident produce a considerable sensation
among a group sitting round a fire.
To find the shoe of a horse and hang it behind the house door was
considered to bring good luck to the household, and protection from
witchcraft or evil eye. I have seen this charm in large beer shops in
London, and I was present in the parlour of one of these beer shops when
an animated discussion arose as to whether it was most effective to have
the shoe nailed behind the door, or upon the first step of the door.
Each position had its advocates, and instances of extraordinary luck
were recounted as having attended each position.
If a youth sat musing and intently looking into the fire, it was a sign
that some one was throwing an evil spell over him, or fascinating him
for evil. When this was observed, if any one without speaking were to
take the tongs and turn the centre coal or piece of wood in the grate
right over, and while doing so say, "_Gude preserve us frae a' skaith_,"
it would break the spell, and cause the intended evil to revert on the
evil-disposed person who was working the spell. I have not only seen the
operation performed many times, but have had it performed in my own
favour by my worthy grandmother, whose belief in such things could never
be shaken.
If the nails of a child were cut before it was a year old, the chances
were that it would grow up a thief.
To spill salt while handing it to any one was unlucky, a sign of an
impending quarrel between the parties; but if the person who spilled
the salt carefully lifted it up with the blade of a knife, and cast it
over his or her shoulder, all evil consequences were prevented. In
Leonardo de Vinci's celebrated painting of the Last Supper, the painter
has indicated the enmity of Judas by representing him in the act of
upsetting the salt dish, with the right hand resting on the table,
grasping the bag.
If a double ear of corn were put over the looking glass, it prevented
the house from being struck by lightning. I have seen corn stalks hung
over a looking glass, and was told that it brought luck.
It was customary for farmers to leave a portion of their fields
uncropped, which was a dedication to the evil spirit, and called good
man's croft. The Church exerted itself for a long time to abolish this
practice, but farmers, who are generally very superstitious, were afraid
to discontinue the practice for fear of ill luck. I remember a farmer as
late as 1825 always leaving a small piece of a field uncropped, but then
did not know why. At length he gave the right of working these bits to a
poor labourer, who did well with it, and in a few years the farmer
cultivated the whole himself.
Water that had been used in baptism was believed to have virtue to cure
many distempers. It was a preventive against witchcraft, and eyes bathed
with it would never see a ghost.
To see a dot of soot hanging on the bars of the grate indicated a visit
from a stranger. By clapping the hands close to it, if the current
produced by this, blew it off at the first clap, the stranger would
visit that day. Every clap indicated the day before the visit would be
made. This is still a common practice, of which the following lines
taken from _Glasgow Weekly Herald_, 1877, is a graphic illustration:--
"_Rab_--
Eh! Willie, come your wa's, and peace be wi' ye;
Wi' a' my heart, I'm truly glad to see ye.
Wee Geordie, wha sat gazing in the fire,
In that prophetic mood I oft admire,
Declar'd he saw a stranger on the grate--
And Geordie's auguries are true as fate.
He gied his hands a dap wi' a' his micht,
And said that stranger's coming here the nicht,
Wi' the first clap it's off. Ye see how true
Appears the future on wee Geordie's view.
What's in the wind, or what may be the news,
That brings ye here, in heedless waste o' shoes?"
An eclipse of the sun was looked on as an omen of coming calamity. This
is a very ancient superstition, and remained with us to a very late
date, if it is even yet extinct. In 1597, during an eclipse of the sun,
it is stated by Calderwood that men and women thought the day of
judgment was come. Many women swooned, the streets of Edinburgh was full
of crying, and in fear some ran to the kirk to pray. I remember an
eclipse about 1818, when about three parts of the sun was covered. The
alarm in the village was very great, indoor work was suspended for the
time, and in several families prayers were offered for protection,
believing that it portended some awful calamity; but when it passed off
there was a general feeling of relief.
Fishers on the West Coast believe that were they to set their nets so
that in any way it would encroach upon the Sabbath, the herrings would
leave the district. Two years ago I was told that herrings were very
plentiful at one time at Lamlash, but some thoughtless person set his
net on a Sabbath evening. He caught none, and the herrings left and
never returned.
I know several persons who refuse to have their likeness taken lest it
prove unlucky; and give as instances the cases of several of their
friends who never had a day's health after being photographed.
In addition to the many forms of superstition which we have been
recalling, there were, and still are a great many superstitions
connected with the phenomenon of dreaming, but as the notions in this
series were very varied, differing very much in different localities,
and everywhere subject less or more to the fancy of the interpreter, and
as I believe that the notions and practices now in vogue in this
connection are of comparatively recent origin, I will not enter upon the
subject.
APPENDIX.
YULE, BELTANE, & HALLOWE'EN FESTIVALS:
_Survivals of Ancient Sun and Fire Worship._
History and prehistoric investigations have shown quite clearly that
prehistoric man worshipped the Sun, the giver and vivifier of all life,
as the supreme God. To the sun they offered sacrifices, and at stated
periods celebrated festivals in his honour; and at these festivals bread
and wine and meat were partaken of, with observances very similar in
many respects to the practices of the Jews during their religious
feasts. But although the sun was the supreme deity, other objects were
also worshipped as subordinate deities. These objects, however, were
generally in some manner representative of sun attributes; for example,
the Moon was worshipped as the spouse of the Sun, Venus as his page. The
pleiades and other constellations, and single stars were also deified;
the rainbow and the lightning were sun servants, the elements, the sun's
offspring. Many animals and trees were reverenced as representatives of
sun attributes. Above all, fire was worshipped as the truest symbol of
the sun upon earth, and all offerings and sacrifices in honour of the
sun were presented through fire; thus sun and fire worship became
identified.
In Britain sun-worship appears to have been purer in prehistoric than it
afterwards was in historic times, purer also than the sun-cult of
historic Egypt, Greece, or Rome; that is, there appears to have been in
British sun-worship less of polytheism than prevailed in Egypt, Greece,
or Rome. But during the historic period, the numerous invasions and the
colonizations of different portions of this country by the Romans and
other nations, who brought with them their special religious beliefs and
formulæ of worship, caused the increase of polytheism by the commingling
of the foreign and native elements of belief, and later on, these were
mixed with Christianity, and in these mixings all the elements became
modified, so that now it is very difficult to separate with certainty
the aboriginal, invasional, and Christian elements.
From many indications it seems more than probable that the sun-cult in
prehistoric Britain was very similar, even in many minor points, to the
solar worship of the ancient Peruvians. At the same time, there is not
the slightest probability that these two widely separated sun-cults ever
had a common point of historical connection, nor, in order to explain
their similarities, is such an historical explanation necessary. Quite
sufficient is the explanation that both possessed in common a human
nature, emotional and intellectual, moving on the same plane of
childlike intelligence, and that both from this common standpoint had
regard to the same striking and regularly recurring scenes of natural
phenomena. Prescott thus describes the worship of these ancient
Peruvians:--"The Sun was their primary God; to it was built a vast
temple in the capital, more radiant with gold than that of Solomon's;
and every city had a temple dedicated to the sun, and blasphemy against
the sun was punished with death. The principal festivals of the year
were at the equinoxes and solstices. That at midsummer was the grandest.
It was preceded by a three days' fast; then every one who had time and
money visited the city. Great fires were kindled from the sun's rays or
by friction, from which sacred fires people kindled their hearth;" all
household fires having previously been extinguished. Poor countries and
districts, where the arts were in a backward condition, instead of
having temples like the Peruvians, dedicated mountains and stone circles
to the great luminary. It is the all but universal opinion that in this
country, centuries before the Christian era, the religion of the people
was Druidism; but this is merely the name of a system, and is equivalent
to our saying that the present religion of our country is
Presbyterianism, a statement which conveys no idea of the nature of our
religious worship. The Druids were a priestly order who governed the
country, and directed the worship of the people, the principal objects
of worship being, as we have already said, the sun and fire. "The
Druids," says the late Rev. James Rust, "formed an ecclesiastico-political
association, and professed to explain the deep mysteries respecting God
and man, and were the sacerdotal rulers, and called in consequence
Druids or mystery-keepers. They were not allowed to commit anything to
writing respecting their mysteries, and no one was allowed to enter
their order till after a prolonged probation, terminating in swearing
most solemnly to keep their mysteries secret for ever; and by this means
they obtained great power and influence over all classes of the people."
Concerning the name Druid, the writer in the _Encyclopedia
Metropolitana_ says, "The name Druid is derived from _deru_, an oak."
The Druids were an order of priests; they were divided into three
classes, resembling the Persian magi. The first class were the Druids
proper; they were the highest nobility, to whom was entrusted all
religious rites and education. The second class were the bards; they
were principally employed in public instruction, which was given in
verse. The third class was called _Euvates_; whose office it was to
deliver the responses of the oracles, and to attend the people who
consulted them. The knowledge of astronomy and computation of time
possessed by the Druids was of a high order, and, no doubt, was the form
of worship imported from Chaldea.
It is known that the Phoenicians had colonized Britain at least 1000
years B.C., and doubtless they would bring with them their form of
worship, their gods being the sun, the moon, and fire. We may here find
a very early source for the institution of sun-worship in these islands,
if we can believe that such a very partial colonization as was effected
by the Phoenicians could work a religious similarity throughout the
entire island. I think it probable that sun-worship existed before the
Phoenicians came to the island, but they may have elevated its practice.
Following the writer in the _Encyclopedia Metropolitana_, we are told
that in addition to their worship of the sun, the Druids "held sacred
the spirits of their ancestors, paid great honour to mountains, lakes,
and groves. Groves of oak were their temples, and their places of
worship were open to heaven, such as stone circles. They had also a
ceremony of baptism, dipping in the sacred lake, as an initiatory rite,
and had also a sacrament of bread and wine. They paid great reverence to
the egg of the serpent, the seed of the oak, and above all, the
mistletoe that grew upon the oak; and they offered in sacrifice to the
sun and fire, men and animals."
Many of the localities where their worship was observed in this country
can still be identified through the names which these places still bear.
One or two are here given, because they refer to sun-worship:--
Grenach (in Perthshire), means _Field of the Sun_.
Greenan (a stream in Perthshire), means _River of the Sun_.
Balgreen (a town in Perthshire and other counties), means _Town of the
Sun_.
Grian chnox (Greenock), means _Knoll of the Sun_.
Granton, means _Sun's Fire_.
Premising, therefore, that sun-worship and Druidical customs form the
original base of all our old national festivals, we will now direct
attention to the great festival of
_YULE._
The term _Yule_ was the name given to the festival of the winter
solstice by our northern invaders, and means _the Festival of the Sun_.
One of the names by which the Scandinavians designated the sun was
_Julvatter_, meaning _Yule-father_ or _Sun-father_. In Saxon the
festival was called _Gehul_, meaning _Sun-feast_. In Danish it is
_Juul_; in Swedish _Oel_. Chambers supposes that the name is from a root
word meaning _wheel_. We have no trace of the name by which the Druids
knew this feast. The Rev. Mr. Smiddy in his book on _Druidism in
Ireland_, says, "Their great feast was that called in the Irish tongue
_Nuadhulig_, meaning _new all heal_, or new mistletoe. When the day came
the priests assembled outside the town, and the people gathered shouting
_all heal_. Then began a solemn procession into the forests in search of
the mistletoe growing on the favourite oak. When found, the priests
ascended the tree, and cut down the divine plant with a golden knife,
which was secured below upon a linen cloth of spotless white; two white
bulls were then conducted to the spot for the occasion, and there
sacrificed to the sun god. The plant was then brought home with shouts
of joy, mingled with prayers and hymns, and then followed a general
religious feast, and afterwards scenes of boisterous merriment, to which
all were admitted."
From other accounts of this sun feast at the winter solstice in this
country, we are given to understand that besides white bulls there were
also human victims offered in sacrifice. The mistletoe gathered was
divided among the people, who hung the sprays over their doorways as a
protection from evil influences, and as a propitiation to the sylvan
deities, and to form sheltering places for those fairy beings during the
frosts. The day after the sacrifices was kept as a day of rejoicing,
neighbours visited each other with gifts, and with expressions of good
will.
From all I have been able to gather respecting this great sun feast at
the winter solstice as it was celebrated in this country in prehistoric
times, I am of opinion that the sacrifices were offered to the sun on
the shortest day, to propitiate his return, and that that day was a day
of great solemnity, but that the day following when the mistletoe was
distributed and hung up, was a day of rejoicing and thanksgiving on this
account, that the sacrifices had proved acceptable and efficacious, the
sun having returned again to begin his course for another year, and this
day was the first day of the year.
I am aware that the Romans appointed the first of January as the first
day of the year as early as B.C. 600, and dedicated it to the goddess
_Stranoe_. This, however, could not affect the inhabitants of Britain,
at least not until the Roman invasion, and this influence did not reach
our northern counties. There can be little doubt, I think, that the
great festival of the Romans, the Saturnalia, held in honour of
_Saturn_, the father of the gods, and which lasting seven days,
including the winter solstice, was introduced into this country, and in
course of time became identified with the Druidical festival of the
natives. Other elements conspired to modify the ancient druidical
festival. After the Romans withdrew their armies from the island at the
commencement of the fifth century, other invaders took their place.
Saxons, Jutes, Angles, and Normans occupied large tracts of the country;
but as these were mostly all sun-worshippers, their festivals and
ceremonies would, for the most part, coincide with the native usages,
and whatever peculiarities they might bring with them in the matter of
formulas, would take root in the localities where they were settled, and
eventually the indigenous and introduced formulas would coalesce.
Another element which materially influenced and, _vice versa_, was
materially influenced by Pagan formulæ, was Christianity. Introduced
into Rome at a very early period, it was for a long time opposed as
subversive of the established religion of the empire. Now, during the
festival of the Saturnalia, the Romans decorated their houses, both
inside and out, with evergreens, the Christian converts refraining from
this were easily discovered and set upon by the people, were brought
before the judges and condemned, in many cases, to death, for their
infidelity to the national gods. But as a result of this severity the
Christians learned to be politic, and during the Saturnalia, hung
evergreens round their houses, while they kept festival within doors in
commemoration of the birth of Christ. This Christian festival, with its
heathen attachments, soon spread throughout the Roman empire, and thus
became introduced into Britain also. It appears however, that the day on
which this feast was kept differed in different localities, until
towards the middle of the fourth century Julius I., Bishop of Rome,
appointed the 25th December as the festival day for the whole Church, an
edict which was universally obeyed. As was to be expected, many of the
ceremonies and superstitious beliefs emanating from the Saturnalia were
merged in the customs of the Christian feast, and do still survive in
modified forms till the present day. In many of our Christmas customs we
can thus perceive the influence of the self-preservation policy of the
early Roman Christians, and in the survival of many other pagan customs
in this and other of our festivals, we can trace the influence of
another policy, the worldly-wise policy of the Roman Church.
At the close of the sixth century, Pope Gregory sent St. Augustine, or
Austin, to this country as a missionary, and by his preaching, many
thousands of the people were converted to Christianity. This Pope's
instructions to Augustine concerning his treatment of heathen festivals,
were that "the heathen temples were not to be destroyed, but turned
into Christian churches; that the oxen killed in sacrifice should still
be killed with rejoicing, but their bodies given to the poor, and that
the refreshment booths round the heathen temples should be allowed to
remain as places of jollity and amusement for the people on Christian
festivals, for it is impossible to cut abruptly from hard and rough
minds all their old habits and customs. He who wishes to reach the
highest place must rise by steps, and not by jumps."
From the enunciation of this policy, we can readily understand how the
festive observances connected with heathen worship remained in the
Christian observance. I have stated what is supposed to have been the
Druidical manner of keeping this festival of the winter solstice, but I
have not seen any account of how the festival was observed in this
country when Augustine arrived as missionary. I have no information
concerning the manner in which the oxen were sacrificed, nor the
character of the refreshment booths round the temples. We know that
there were booths in connection with heathen temples where women were
kept, but whether this practice was indigenous in Britain, or was
imported into this country by the Romans, or whether Pope Gregory may
have written without any special knowledge of the customs here, but
merely from his knowledge of heathen customs in general, we do not know.
Nothing is said in these instructions about changing the day of keeping
the festival from the solstice to the 25th of December. It is probable
that no change of date was made at this time, at all events we may, from
the following circumstance, infer that the change, if made, did not
reach the northern portion of the island. Haco, King of Norway, in the
the tenth century fixed the 25th December as the day for keeping the
feast of Yule. King Haco's fixing on this particular date would be a
resultant from the Romish edict, for the Norwegians were at this time
Christians, although their Christianity was a conglomerate of heathen
superstition and church dogma.
According to Jamieson, the eve of Yule was termed by the Northmen
_Hoggunott_, meaning Slaughter night, probably because then the cattle
for the coming feast were killed. During the feast, one of the leading
toasts was called _minnie_, meaning the cup of remembrance, and Dr.
Jamieson thinks that the popular cry which has come down to our times as
_Hogmany, trol-lol-lay_, was originally _Hogminne, thor loe loe_,
meaning the feast of Thor. After the Reformation, the Scotch transferred
Hogmanay to the last day of December, as a preparation day for the New
Year. The practice of children going from door to door in little bands,
singing the following rhyme, was in vogue at the beginning of this
century in country places in the West of Scotland:--
"Rise up, gudewife, and shake your feathers,
Dinna think that we are beggars,
We're girls and boys come out to-day,
For to get our Hogmanay,
Hogmanay, trol-lol-lay.
"Give us of your white bread, and not of your gray,
Or else we'll knock at your door a' day."
This rhyme has a stronger reference to Yule or Christmas than to the New
Year, and is doubtless a relic of pre-Reformation times.
At the Reformation, the Scottish Church, probably following the dictum
of Calvin, who condemned Yule as a pagan festival, forbade the people to
observe it because of its heathen origin; but probably the more potent
reason was that it was a Romish feast, for no objection was made against
keeping the New Year or _hansell Monday_, on which occasion practices
similar to those of Yule were observed, and I believe it was the
non-condemnation of these later festivals which enabled the Scottish
Church to abolish Yule. In fact, it would appear that the Yule practices
were simply transferred from a few days earlier to a few days later, and
thereby retained their original connection with the close of the year.
Prior to the Church interference there is no evidence that the first of
January was observed by the people as a general feast, but even with
this safety valve of a popular and yearly festival, the Church
encountered great difficulty in abolishing Yule. A few instances of the
opposition of the people will suffice.
The Glasgow Kirk Session, on the 26th December, 1583, had five persons
before them who were ordered to make public repentance, because they
kept the superstitious day called Yule. The _baxters_ were required to
give the names of those for whom they had baked Yule bread, so that they
might be dealt with by the Church. Ten years after this, in 1593, an Act
was again passed by the Glasgow Session against the keeping of Yule, and
therein it was ordained that the keepers of this feast were to be
debarred from the privileges of the Church, and also punished by the
magistrates.
Notwithstanding these measures, the people still inclined to observe
Yule, for fifty-six years after, in 1649, the General Assembly appointed
a commission to make report of the public practices, among others, "The
druidical customs observed at the fires of _Beltane_, _Midsummer_,
_Hallowe'en_, and _Yule_." In the same year appears the following minute
in the session-book of the Parish of Slains.--(See Rust's _Druidism
Exhumed_.)
26th Nov., 1649.--"The said day, the minister and elders being convened
in session, and after invocation of the name of God, intimate that Yule
be not kept, but that they yoke their oxen and horse, and employ their
servants in their service that day as well as on other work days."
Dr. Jamieson quotes the opinion of an English clergyman in reference to
such proceedings of the Scotch Church:--"The ministers of Scotland, in
contempt of the holy-day observed by England, cause their wives and
servants to spin in open sight of the people upon Yule day, and their
affectionate auditors constrain their servants to yoke their plough on
Yule day, in contempt of Christ's nativity. Which our Lord has not left
unpunished, for their oxen ran wud, and brak their necks and lamed some
ploughmen, which is notoriously known in some parts of Scotland." By
going back to the time of the Reformation, and finding what then were
the practices of the people in the celebration of the Yule festival, and
then by comparing these with the practices in vogue at the commencement
of this century during the New Year festivities, we shall be led to
conclude that the principal change effected by the Church was only
respecting the time of the feasts, and we can thus perceive that the
veto was not directed against the practices _per se_, but only against
the conjunction of these practices, Pagan in their origin, with a feast
commemorative of the birth of Christ. As they could not hold Christmas
without retaining the Yule practices along with it, they resolved to
abolish both.
Let us then pursue this retrospect and comparison. About the time of the
Reformation the day preceding Yule was a day of general preparation.
Houses were cleaned out and borrowed articles were returned to their
owners. Work of all kind was stopped, and a general appearance of
completion of work was established; yarn was reeled off, no lint was
allowed to remain on the rock of the wheel, and all work implements were
laid aside. In the evening cakes were baked, one for each person, and
duly marked, and great care was taken that none should break in the
firing, as such an accident was a bad omen for the person whose cake met
with the mishap. These cakes were eaten at the Yule breakfast. A large
piece of wood was placed upon the fire in such time that it would be
kindled before twelve p.m., and extreme care was taken that the fire
should not go out, for not only was it unlucky, but no one would oblige
a neighbour, with a kindling on Yule.
On Yule eve those possessing cattle went to the byre and stable and
repeated an _Ave Marie_, and a _Paternoster_, to protect their cattle
from an evil eye.
On Yule morning, attention was paid to the first person who entered the
house, as it was important to know whether such a person were lucky or
otherwise. It was an unfriendly act to enter a house on Yule day without
bringing a present of some kind. Nothing was permitted to be taken out
of the house on that day; this prohibition of course, did not extend to
such things as were taken for presents. Servants or members of the
family who had gone out in the morning, when they returned to the house
brought in with them something, although it might only be some trivial
article, say for instance, garden stuff. This was done that they might
bring, or, at least, not cause bad luck to the household. Masters or
parents gave gifts to their servants and children, and owners of cattle
gave their beasts, with their own hand their first food on Yule morning.
After mass in church, a table was spread in the house with meat and
drink, and all who entered were invited to partake. On this day
neighbours and relations visited each other, bearing with them meat and
drink warmed with condiments, and as they drank they expressed mutual
wishes for each other's welfare. If not a Christian day, it was at least
a day of good will to men. In the evening, the great family feast was
held. In the more northern parts, where the Scandinavian national
element was principally settled, a boar's head was the correct dish at
this feast, and, by the better class, was always provided; but the
common people were content with venison, beef, and poultry, beginning
their feast with a dish of plum porridge. A large candle, prepared for
the occasion, was lighted at the commencement, and it was intended to
keep in light till twelve p.m., and if it went out before it was
regarded as a bad omen for the next year; and what of it was left
unconsumed at twelve o'clock was carefully laid past, to be used at the
dead wake of the heads of the family.
Now, let us compare with this the practices current at Hogmanay (31st
December), and New Year's Day, about the commencement of this century.
In doing so, I will pass over without notice many superstitious
observances which, though curious and interesting, belong rather to the
general fund of superstitious belief than to the special festival at New
Year, and confine myself to those which were peculiar to the time. In my
grandfather's house, between sixty and seventy years ago, on the 31st
December (_Hogmanay_), all household work was stopped, rock emptied,
yarn reeled and _hanked_, and wheel and reel put into an outhouse. The
house itself was white-washed and cleaned. A block of wood or large
piece of coal was put on the fire about ten p.m., so that it would be
burning briskly before the household retired to bed. The last thing done
by those who possessed a cow or horse was to visit the byre or stable,
and I have been told that it was the practice with some, twenty years
before my recollection, to say the Lord's Prayer during this visit.
After rising on New Year's Day, the first care of those who possessed
cattle was to visit the byre or stable, and with their own hands give
the animals a feed. Burns followed this habit, and refers to it in one
of his poems:--
"A gude New Year I wish thee, Maggy,
Hae, there's a rip to thy auld baggie."
The following was the practice in my father's house in Partick, between
fifty and sixty years ago, on New Year's day:--On _Hogmanay_ evening,
children were all washed before going to bed. An oat bannock was baked
for each child: it was nipped round the edge, had a hole in the centre,
and was flavoured with carvey (carroway) seed. Great care was taken that
none of these bannocks should break in the firing, as such an occurrence
was regarded as a very unlucky omen for the child whose bannock was
thus damaged. It denoted illness or death during the year. Parents sat
up till about half-past eleven, when the fire was covered, and every
particle of ash swept up and carried out of the house. All retired to
bed before twelve o'clock, as it was unlucky not to be in bed as the New
Year came in. A watchful eye was kept on the fire lest it should go out,
for such an event was regarded as very unlucky, and they would neither
give nor receive a light from any one on New Year's day. Neither fire,
ashes, nor anything belonging to the house was taken out of it on that
day. In the morning we children got our bannocks to breakfast. They were
small, and it was unlucky to leave any portion of them, although this
was frequently done. The first-foot was an important episode. To visit
empty-handed on this day was tantamount to wishing a curse on the
family. A plane-soled person was an unlucky first-foot; a pious
sanctimonious person was not good, and a hearty ranting merry fellow was
considered the best sort of first-foot. It was necessary for luck that
what was poured out of the first-foot's gift, be it whiskey or other
drink, should be drunk to the dregs by each recipient, and it was
requisite that he should do the same by their's. It was against rule for
any portion to be left, but if there did happen to be an unconsumed
remnant, it was cast out. With any subsequent visitor these particulars
were not observed. I remember that one year our first-foot was a man who
had fallen and broken his bottle, and cut and bleeding was assisted into
our house. My mother made up her mind that this was a most unfortunate
first-foot, and that something serious would occur in the family during
that year. I believe had the whole family been cut off, she would not
have been surprised. However, it was a prosperous year, and a bleeding
first-foot was not afterwards considered bad. If anything extraordinary
did occur throughout the year, it was remembered and referred to
afterwards. One New Year's day something was stolen out of our house;
that year father and mother were confined to bed for weeks; the cause
and effect were quite clear. During the day neighbours visited each
other with bottle and bun, every one overflowing with good wishes. In
the evening the family, old and young, were gathered together, those who
during the year were out at service, the married with their families,
and at this meal the best the family could afford was produced. It was a
happy time, long looked forward to, and long remembered by all.
_BELTANE._
Beltane or Beilteine means _Baals fire_, Baal (Lord) was the name under
which the Phoenicians recognized their primary male god, the Sun: fire
was his earthly symbol and the medium through which sacrifices to him
were offered. Hence sun and fire-worship were identical. I am of opinion
that originally the Beltane festival was held at the Spring equinox but
that its original connection with the equinox, in process of time was
forgotten, and it became a festival inaugurative of summer. There is
some difference of opinion as to the particular day on which the
Beltane festival was held in this country. Dr. Jamieson, Dr. R.
Chambers, and others who have studied this subject say that the 1st May
(old style) was Beltane day. Professor Veitch; in his _History and
Poetry of the Scottish Border_, (p. 118,) says, speaking of the
Druids:--"They worshipped the sun god, the representative of the bright
side of nature--Baal, the fire-giver--and to him on the hill tops they
lit the fire on the end of May, the Beltane." And again, in his remarks
on _Peblis to the Play_, (p. 315,) he says:--"The play was not the name
for a stage play, but indicated the sports and festivals which took
place at Peebles annually at Beltane, the second of May, not the first
of May, as is usually supposed. These had in all probability come in
place of the ancient British practice of lighting fires on the hill tops
in honour of Baal, the sun god, hence the name _Baaltein_, Beltane,
i.e. Baal's fire. The Christian Church had so far modified the
ceremonial as to substitute for the original idolatrous practice that of
a day of rustic amusements. A fair or market at the same period which
lasted for eight days had also been instituted by Royal charter. But
even the practice of lighting fires on the hill tops was late in dying
out, with the usual tenacity of custom it survived for long all memory
of its original meaning."
The Professor writes very positively as to Beltane day being the second
day of May, not the first day as is supposed. The Royal Charter granted
to the Burgh of Peebles for holding a fair or market on Beltane day, is
given in the Burgh Records of Peebles, p. 85:--"As also of holding,
using, enjoying, and exercising within the foresaid Burgh weekly market
days according to the use and custom of the said Burgh, together with
three fairs, thrice in the year, the first thereof beginning yearly upon
the third day of May, called Beltane day, the same to be held and
continued for the space of forty-eight hours thereafter." The date of
the Charter is 1621, but it is evident that the third of May had been
previously kept as Beltane day. The Professor is also mistaken in
stating that the Beltane fair of Peebles was to be kept for eight days.
The third fair, held in August, continued eight days, but the fairs in
May and June were kept for two days according to the Charter. That there
were two days known as Beltane at the beginning of last century is
evident from a book of Scotch proverbs published in 1721 by James Kelly,
A.M., in which occurs the following,--
"You have skill of man and beast,
Ye was born between the Beltans."
In all probability the discrepancy as to the day originated through the
Church substituting a Christian festival for a heathen one; and although
the date was changed, yet through force of custom the name of the old
festival was retained, and in localities where the power of the Church
was comparatively weak, the older, the original day for the festival
would probably be kept as well as the newly appointed Church festival.
This view of the matter is rendered probable from the fact that the
Church did institute a great festival, to be held on the third of May,
to commemorate the finding of the cross of Christ. The legend is as
follows:--When the Empress Helena was at Jerusalem about the end of the
third century, she discovered the cross on which Christ was crucified,
and had it conveyed to the great church built by Constantine her son.
This cross was exhibited yearly to the people, and many miracles were
wrought by it. A festival, as I have said, was instituted in
commemoration of the discovery, and this was held on the third of May,
and was called _Rood_ or _rude_ day. Churches were built and dedicated
to the Holy Rood, among which was that which is now Holyrood Palace.
Where the Church was powerful, as in Edinburgh and Peebles, Rood day
would be the important festival, and Beltane would gradually become
incorporated with it, the names Beltane day and Rood day becoming
synonymous. Thus we may account for Edinburgh and Peebles keeping
Beltane on the third day of May, while in Perth and other northern
counties where the Church influence was weaker, the festival would be
kept according to the older custom on the first of May.
In Druidical times the people allowed their fires to go out on Beltane
eve, and on Beltane day the priests met on a hill dedicated to the Sun,
and obtained fire from heaven. When the fire was obtained, sacrifices
were offered, and the people danced round the fire with shoutings till
the sacrifices were consumed; after which they received portions of the
sacred fire with which to rekindle their hearths for another twelve
months. Besides mountains, there were evidently other localities where
sacrifices and the ritual of Sun-worship were observed, and which
received appropriate names in accordance with their character as sacred
places. Some of these names still survive, as for instance:--
_Ard-an-teine_--The light of the fire.
_Craig-an-teine_--The rock of the fire.
_Auch-an-teine_--The field of the fire.
_Tillie-bet-teine_--The knoll of the fire; and so through a great many
other names of places we find traces of the Baal and fire worship. So
widespread and numerous are the names which recall this ritual, that we
can see quite clearly that the spirit of their religion thoroughly
dominated the people. In Ireland, at Beltane, the Pagan Kings are said
to have convoked the people for State purposes. The last of these
heathen kings convoked a grand assembly of the nation to meet with him
on _Tara_, at the feast of Beltane, which the old chroniclers say was
the principal feast of the year.
Respecting this feast, Dr. Jamieson says, introducing a quotation from
O'Brien, "_Ignis Bei Dei Aseatica ea lineheil_, or May-day, so called
from large fires which the Druids were used to light on the summits of
the highest hills, into which they drove four-footed beasts, using
certain ceremonies to expiate for the sins of the people. The Pagan
ceremony of lighting these fires in honour of the Asiatic god Belus gave
its name to the entire month of May, which to this day is called
_Me-na-bealtine_, in the Irish, _Dor Keating_." He says again, speaking
of these fires of _Baal_, that the cattle were driven through them and
not sacrificed, the chief design being to avert contagious disorders
from them for the year. And quoting from an ancient glossary, O'Brien
says, "The Druids lighted two solemn fires every year, and drove all
four-footed beasts through them, in order to preserve them from
contagious distempers during the current year." I am inclined to think
that these notices describe a sort of modified or Christianized Beltane,
that driving the cattle through the fire was a substitute for the older
form of sacrificing cattle to the sun. Until very lately in different
parts of Ireland, it was the common practice to kindle fires in milking
yards on the first day of May, and then men, women, and children leaped
through them, and the cattle were driven through in order to avert evil
influences. They were also in the habit of quenching their fires on the
last day of April, and rekindling them on the first day of May. In
certain localities in Perthshire, so lately as 1810, (I have referred to
this before), the inhabitants collected and kindled a fire by friction,
and through the fire thus kindled they drove their cattle in order to
protect them against disease, and at the same time they held a feast of
rejoicing.
As already mentioned, the Romans held several festivals at the beginning
of summer, and many of their observances on these occasions were
introduced into this country, and became incorporated with the Beltane
practices. For example, the Romans held a festival in honour of _Pales_,
the goddess of flocks and sheepfolds. The feast was termed _Palilia_.
Lempriere states that some of the ceremonies accompanying the feast
consisted in "burning heaps of straw, and in leaping over them; no
sacrifices were offered, but purifications were made with the smoke of
horse's blood, and with the ashes of a calf that had been taken from the
belly of its mother after it had been sacrificed, and with the ashes of
beans; the purification of the flocks was also made with the smoke of
sulphur, also of the olive, the pine, the laurel, and rosemary.
Offerings of mild cheese, boiled wine, and cakes of millet were
afterwards made. Some call this festival _Palilia_, because the
sacrifices were offered to the divinity for the fecundity of their
flocks." There was also a large cake prepared for _Pales_, and a prayer
was addressed to the divinity by shepherds, as thus given by Dr.
Jamieson:--
"O let me propitious find,
And to the shepherd and his sheep be kind;
Far from my flocks drive noxious things away,
And let my flocks in wholesome pastures stray.
May I, at night, my morning's number take,
Nor mourn a theft the prowling wolf may make.
May all my rams the ewes with vigour press,
To give my flocks a yearly due increase."
The Romans held another festival in honour of the goddess _Flora_. It
began on the 28th April, and lasted three days. The people wore garlands
of flowers, and carried them about with branches of newly-budded trees.
There was much licentiousness connected with this feast.
Reference has already been made to another Roman festival which was
celebrated early in May. This was called the _Lamuralia_, and its
purport was to propitiate the favour of the ghosts or spirits of their
ancestors. I am of opinion that the English May feasts are a survival of
the _Floralia_, and, as kept during the middle ages, were not free from
some of the indecencies of the _Floralia_. In my remembrance, the first
of May, in the country west of Glasgow, was honoured by decking the
houses with tree branches and flowers. Horses were also similarly
decked. The Church did not attempt to abolish these heathen festivals,
but endeavoured to dominate them, and substitute for legends of heathen
origin connected with them legends of Church origin. In this they
partly succeeded. The following account of the Beltane festival, as it
was kept in some districts in Perthshire at the close of last century,
taken from the statistical accounts of certain parishes, will shew how
persistent these ancient customs were, and also how some other festivals
latterly became amalgamated and identified with Beltane:--
"In the Parish of Callander, upon the first day of May," says the
minister of the parish, "all the boys in the town or hamlet meet on the
moors. They cut a table on the green sod, of a round shape, to hold the
whole company. They kindle a fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk
in the consistence of a custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which is
baked at the fire upon a stone. After the custard is eaten up, they
divide the cake into as many portions, and as similar as possible, as
there are persons in the company. They blacken one of these portions
with charcoal until it is perfectly black. They put all the bits of cake
into a bonnet. Every one blindfolded draws a portion--he who holds the
bonnet is entitled to the last. Who draws the black bit is the devoted
person to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favour they mean to implore in
rendering the year productive of substance for man and beast. There is
little doubt of these human sacrifices being once offered in the
country, but the youth who has got the black bit must leap through the
flame of the fire three times." I have myself conversed with old men
who, when boys, were present at, and took part in these observances; and
they told me that in their grandfathers' time it was the men who
practised these rites, but as they were generally accompanied with much
drinking and riot, the clergy set their faces against the customs, and
subjected the parties observing them to church discipline, so that in
course of time the practices became merely the frolic of boys.
In the Parish of Logierait, Beltane is celebrated by the shepherds and
cowherds in the following manner. They assemble in the fields and dress
a dinner of milk and eggs. This dish they eat with a sort of cake baked
for the occasion, having small lumps or nipples raised all over its
surface. These knobs are not eaten, but broken off, and given as
offerings to the different supposed powers or influences that protect or
destroy their flocks, to the one as a thank-offering, to the other as a
peace-offering.
Mr. Pennant, in his _Tour through Scotland_, thus describes the Beltane
observances as they were observed at the end of last century. "The herds
of every village hold their Beltane (a rural sacrifice.) They cut a
square trench in the ground, leaving the turf in the middle. On that
they make a fire of wood, on which they dress a large caudle of eggs,
oatmeal, butter, and milk, and bring besides these plenty of beer and
whiskey. Each of the company must contribute something towards the
feast. The rites begin by pouring a little of the caudle upon the
ground, by way of a libation. Every one then takes a cake of oatmeal, on
which are raised nine square knobs, each dedicated to some particular
being who is supposed to preserve their herds, or to some animal the
destroyer of them. Each person then turns his face to the fire, breaks
off a knob, and, flinging it over his shoulder, says--'_This I give to
thee_,' naming the being whom he thanks, '_preserver of my sheep_,' &c.;
or to the destroyer, '_This I give to thee, (O fox or eagle)_,' _spare
my lambs_,' &c. When this ceremony is over they all dine on the caudle."
The shepherds in Perthshire still hold a festival on the 1st of May, but
the practices at it are now much modified.
As may readily be surmised, there were a great many superstitious
beliefs connected with Beltane, some of which still survive, and tend to
maintain its existence. Dew collected on the morning of the first day of
May is supposed to confer witch power on the gatherer, and give
protection against an evil eye. To be seen in a field at day-break that
morning, rendered the person seen an object of fear. A story is told of
a farmer who, on the first of May discovered two old women in one of his
fields, drawing a hair rope along the grass. On being seen, they fled.
The farmer secured the rope, took it home with him, and hung it in the
byre. When the cows were milked every spare dish about the farm-house
was filled with milk, and yet the udders remained full. The farmer being
alarmed, consigned the rope to the fire, and then the milk ceased to
flow.
It was believed that first of May dew preserved the skin from wrinkles
and freckles, and gave a glow of youth. To this belief Ferguson refers
in the following lines:--
"On May day in a fairy ring,
We've seen them round St. Anthon's spring,
Frae grass the caller dew to wring,
To wet their een;
And water clear as crystal spring,
To synd them clean."
_MIDSUMMER._
To sun worshippers no season would be better calculated to excite
devotional feelings towards the great luminary than the period when he
attained the zenith of his strength. It is probable, therefore, that as
his movements must have been closely observed, and his various phases
regarded by the people, in the language of Scripture, "for signs and for
seasons, for days and for years," that the turning points in the sun's
yearly course, the solstices, would naturally become periods of worship.
That the Summer solstice was an important religious period is rendered
probable from the following curious observation concerning Stonehenge,
which appeared in the Notes and Queries portion of the _Scotsman_
newspaper for July 31, 1875. The _Scotsman's_ correspondent states that
"a party of Americans went on midsummer morning this year to see the sun
rise upon Stonehenge. They found crowds of people assembled.
Stonehenge," continues the writer, "may roughly be described as
comprising seven-eighths of a circle, from the open ends of which there
runs eastward an avenue having upright stones on either side. At some
distance beyond this avenue, but in a direct line with its centre,
stands one solitary stone in a sloping position; in front of which, but
at a considerable distance, is an eminence or hill. The point of
observation chosen by the excursion party was the stone table or altar
near the head of, and within the circle, directly looking down. The
morning was unfavourable, but, fortunately, just as the sun was
beginning to appear over the top of the hill, the mist disappeared, and
then, for a few moments, the onlookers stood amazed at the spectacle
presented to their view. While it lasted, the sun, like an immense ball,
appeared actually to rest on the isolated stone of which mention has
been made. Now, in this," says a writer in the _New Quarterly Magazine_
for January, 1876, commenting upon the statement of the _Scotsman's_
correspondent, "we find strong proof that Stonehenge was really a mighty
almanack in stone; doubtless also a temple of the sun, erected by a race
which has long perished without intelligible record."
I think it is not a very fanciful supposition to suppose, from the still
existing names of places in this country bearing reference to
sun-worship, that there were other places than Stonehenge which were
used as stone almanacks "for signs and for seasons," and also for
temples. _Grenach_ in Perthshire, meaning _Field of the Sun_, where
there is a large stone circle, may have been such a place; and
_Grian-chnox_, now Greenock, meaning _Knoll of the Sun_, may have
originally marked the place where the sun's rising became visible at a
certain period of the year, from a stone circle in the neighbourhood. As
far as I have been able to discover, there remains to us little trace of
the manner in which the midsummer feast was kept in this country in
prehistoric times, but so far as traces do remain, they appear to
indicate that it was celebrated much after the same manner as the
Scottish Celts are said to have celebrated Beltane. Indeed, the Celtic
Irish hold their _Beilteme_ feast on the 21st June, and their fires are
kindled on the tops of hills, and each member of a family is, in order
to secure good luck, obliged to pass through the fire. On this occasion
also, a feast is held. A similar practice was common in West Cornwall at
midsummer. Fires were kindled, and the people danced round them, and
leaped singly through the flames to ensure good luck and protection
against witchcraft. The following passage occurs in _Traditions and
Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall_, by William Bottreill, 1873:--"Many
years ago, on Midsummer eve, when it became dusk, very old people in the
west country would hobble away to some high ground whence they obtained
a view of the most prominent high hill, such as Bartinney-Chapel,
Cambrae, Sancras Bickan, Castle-au-dinas, Cam-Gulver, St. Agnes-Bickan,
and many other beacon hills far away to the north and east which vied
with each other in their midsummer night blaze. They counted the fires,
and drew a presage from the number of them. There are now but few
bonfires to be seen on the western heights; yet we have observed that
Tregonan, Godolphin, and Carnwath hills, with others far away towards
Redruth, still retain their Baal fires. We would gladly go many miles to
see the weird-looking, yet picturesque dancers around the flames, on a
cairn or high hill top, as we have seen them some forty years ago." The
ancient Egyptians had their midsummer feasts, as also had the Greeks and
Romans. During these festivals, we are told that the people, headed by
the priests, walked in procession, carrying flowers and other emblems of
the season in honour of their gods. Such processions were continued
during the early years of the Christian Church, and the Christian
priests in their vestments went into the fields to ask a blessing on the
agricultural produce of the year. Towards the beginning of the twelfth
century the Church introduced the _Feast of God_, and fixed the 19th
June for its celebration. The eucharistic elements were declared to be
the actual presence of God, and this, the consecrated Host or God
himself was carried through the open streets by a procession of priests,
the people turning out to do it honour, kneeling and worshipping as it
passed. This feast of God may have absorbed some of the ancient
midsummer practices, but the _Feast of St. John's Day_, which is held
upon the 24th June, has in its customs a greater similarity to the
ancient sun feast. On the eve of St. John's day, people went to the
woods and brought home branches of trees, which they fixed over their
doorways. Towards night of St. John's Day, bonfires were kindled, and
round them the people danced with frantic mirth, and men and boys leaped
through the flames. Leaping through the flames is a common practice at
these survivals of sun festivals, and although done now, partly for luck
and partly for sport, there can be little doubt but that originally
human sacrifices were then offered to the sun god.
There was quite a host of curious superstitions connected with this
midsummer feast, especially in Ireland and Germany, and many of these
were similar to those connected with the feast of _Hallowe'en_ in
Scotland. In Ireland, in olden times, it was believed that the souls of
people left their sleeping bodies, and visited the place where death
would ultimately overtake them; and there were many who, in consequence,
would not sleep, but sat up all night. People also went out on St.
John's eve to gather certain plants which were held as sacred, such as
_the rose_, _the trifoil_, _St. John's wort_, and _vervain_, the
possession of which gave them influence over evil. To catch the seed of
the fern as it fell to the ground on St. John's eve, exactly at twelve
o'clock, was believed to confer upon the persons who caught it the power
of rendering themselves invisible at will.
In my opinion, the great prehistoric midsummer festival to the sun god
has diverged into the two Church feasts, Eucharist and St. John's day;
but St. John's day has absorbed the greater share of old customs and
superstitious ideas, and so numerous are they that the most meagre
description of them would yield matter for an hour's reading.
_HALLOWE'EN._
The northern nations, like the Hebrews, began their day in the evening.
Thus we have Yule Eve, and Hallow Eve (Hallowe'en), the evenings
preceding the respective feasts. The name Hallowe'en is of Christian
origin, but the origin of the feast itself is hidden in ancient
mythology. The Celtic name for the autumn festival was _Sham-in_,
meaning Baal's Fire. The Irish Celts called it _Sainhain_, or
_Sainfuin_; _Sain_, summer, and _Fuin_, end,--i.e., the end of summer.
The Hebrews and Phoenicians called this festival _Baal-Shewin_, a name
signifying the principle of order. The feast day in Britain and Ireland
is the first of November. The Druids are said on this day to have
sacrificed horses to the sun, as a thank-offering for the harvest. An
Irish king, who reigned 400 A.D., commanded sacrifices to be made to a
moon idol, which was worshipped by the people on the evening of
_Sain-hain_. Sacrifices were also offered on this night to the spirits
of the dead, who were believed to have liberty at this season to visit
their old earthly haunts and their friends,--a belief this, which was
entertained by many ancient nations, and was the origin of many of the
curious superstitious customs still extant in this country on
Hallowe'en. Dr. Smith, commenting in _Jamieson's Dictionary_ on the
solemnities of Beltane, says, "The other of these solemnities was held
upon Hallow Eve, which in Gaelic still retains the name of
_Sham-in_,--this word signifying the Fire of Peace, or the time of
kindling the fire for maintaining peace. It was at this season that the
Druids usually met in the most central places of every country to adjust
every dispute and decide every controversy. On that occasion, all the
fires in the country were extinguished on the preceding evening, in
order to be supplied next day by a portion of the holy fire which was
kindled and consecrated by the Druids. Of this, no person who had
infringed the peace, or become obnoxious by any breach of law, or guilty
of any failure in duty, was to have share, till he had first made all
the reparation and submission which the Druids required of him. Whoever
did not, with the most implicit obedience, agree to this, had the
sentence of excommunication passed against him, which was more dreaded
than death; none being allowed to give him house or fire, or shew him
the least office of humanity, under the penalty of incurring the same
sentence." The ancient Romans held a great and popular festival at the
end of February, called the _Ferralia_. At this season, they visited the
graves of their departed friends, and offered sacrifices and oblations
to the spirits of the dead; they believed that the spirits of the
departed, both the good and the bad, were released on that particular
night, and that, if they were not propitiated, these spirits would haunt
throughout the coming year their undutiful living relatives. In all
probability, though the time of celebration is different, these Roman
ceremonies and the Hallowe'en ceremonies in this country had a common
origin. In the year 610, the Bishop of Rome ordained that the heathen
Pantheon should be converted into a Christian church, and dedicated to
all the martyrs; and a festival was instituted to commemorate the event.
This was held on the first of May, and continued to be held on this day
till 834, when the time of celebration was altered to the first of
November, and it was then called _All Hallow_, from a Saxon word,
_Haligan_, meaning to keep holy. This change was doubtless made in order
to supply a Christian substitute for some heathen festival--in all
probability the festival of _Sham-in_, which, as we have seen, was an
old Druidical feast. Some time after this alteration in the time of
holding the feast in honour of the martyrs, in 993, another festival was
instituted for the purpose of offering prayers for the souls of those in
purgatory, and this feast was kept on the second of November, and was
called _All Souls_. The following legend was either invented as a
plausible reason for instituting this additional feast, or the legend,
being previously well known and accepted as truth, was really the _bona
fide_ reason for the institution:--"A pilgrim, returning from the Holy
Land, was compelled by storm to land upon a rocky island, where he found
a hermit, who told him that among the cliffs of the island was an
opening into the infernal regions, through which huge flames ascended,
and where the groans of the tormented were distinctly audible. The
pilgrim, on his return, told the Abbot of Clugny of this, and the Abbot
appointed the second day of November to be set apart for the benefit of
souls in purgatory, which was to be kept by prayers and almsgiving." It
is easy to perceive that, while in the festival of Hallowe'en we have
the survival of the old Druidical festival of thank-offering to the
sun-god for the ingathering of the fruits of the earth, we have also in
these two festivals of _All Saints_ and _All Souls_ the survival of the
ancient _Ferralia_, or festival to the dead, when offerings were made to
both good and bad spirits, to prevent them haunting the living; and thus
we can account for the prevalence of the numerous superstitions
concerning ghosts and evil spirits connected with the festival of
Hallowe'en. That these Church feasts were regarded as the substitute for
the _Ferralia_ of Pagan Rome is verified by Father Meagan in his work on
_The Mass_. We quote from Jamieson:--"Such was the devotion of the
heathen on this day by offering sacrifices for the souls in purgatory,
by praying at the graves, and performing processions round the
churchyards with lighted tapers, that they called the month the month of
pardons, indulgences, and absolutions for souls in purgatory; or, as
Plutarch calls it, the purifying month, or season of purification,
because the living and dead were supposed to be purged and purified on
these occasions from their sins by sacrifices, flagellations, and other
works of mortification." Plutarch, I think, must have referred to the
month of February as the purifying month. Father Meagan has not referred
to the change of date made by the Church. Doubtless the Christian
Church, in instituting these festivals, intended, by divesting them of
their heathen basis, to christianise the people; but, like Naaman of
old, the worshippers, while they worshipped in the buildings in
conformity with the regulations of their new teachers, yet retained many
of their old Pagan beliefs and ceremonies, and even their teachers were
not thoroughly de-Paganised,--and so the old and new commingled and
crystallized together.
In all the four festivals we have been considering, there survive relics
of fire-worship, and through all there runs a similarity of observance
and belief; but the special practices are not everywhere joined to the
same festival in all localities. In this part of the country, the
special observances connected with Hallowe'en were, in other parts of
the country, observed in connection with the summer festival. Now,
however, we are glad to say, these superstitious ceremonies and beliefs
in their old gross forms are fast passing away, or have become so
modified that we can scarcely recognise their relations to the old
fire-worship.
In 1860, I was residing near the head of Loch Tay during the season of
the Hallowe'en feast. For several days before Hallowe'en, boys and
youths collected wood and conveyed it to the most prominent places on
the hill sides in their neighbourhood. Some of the heaps were as large
as a corn-stack or hay-rick. After dark on Hallowe'en, these heaps were
kindled, and for several hours both sides of Loch Tay were illuminated
as far as the eye could see. I was told by old men that at the beginning
of this century men as well as boys took part in getting up the
bonfires, and that, when the fire was ablaze, all joined hands and
danced round the fire, and made a great noise; but that, as these
gatherings generally ended in drunkenness and rough and dangerous fun,
the ministers set their faces against the observance, and were seconded
in their efforts by the more intelligent and well-behaved in the
community; and so the practice was discontinued by adults and relegated
to school boys. In the statistical account of the parish of Callander,
the same practice is referred to. It is stated that "When the bonfire
was consumed, the ashes of the fire were carefully collected in the form
of a circle, and a stone put in near the circumference for every person
in the several families concerned in getting up the fire; and whatever
stone is moved out its place or injured before next morning, the person
represented by the stone is devoted or fey, and is supposed not to live
twelve months from that day." In all probability this devoted person was
in olden times offered as a sacrifice to the fire god on the great day
of sacrifice, which was the festival day. The belief that the spirits of
the dead were free to roam about on that night is still held by many in
this country. Indeed, where the forms of the feast have all but
disappeared, the superstitious auguries connected with it survive. Burns
particularises very fully the formulæ of Hallowe'en, as practised in
Ayrshire in his day, and as this poem is well known, it would be
superfluous to follow it in detail here; but I cannot refrain from
drawing attention to the suggestions which one of the practices which he
mentions affords in favour of the supposition that it is a relic of an
ancient form of appeal to the fire god--I refer to the practice of
burning nuts. It seems likely that in ancient times the priests, who
claimed prophetic power through the reading of auguries, used this
method of deciding the future at this particular season of the year, and
chiefly during the holding of the feast.
Although I have confined my remarks to the four feasts, Yule, Beltane,
Midsummer, and Hallowe'en, because they are the oldest and most properly
national, there were a number of other heathen feasts, emanating
principally from Roman practice, which the Church converted into
Christian feasts, notably what is now called Candlemass. On the second
day of February, the Romans perambulated their city with torches and
candles burning in honour of _Februa_; and the Greeks at this same
period held their feast of lights in honour of Ceres. Pope Innocent
explains the origin of this feast of Candlemass. He states that "The
heathens dedicated this month to the infernal gods. At its beginning
Pluto stole away Proserpine, and her mother Ceres sought for her in the
night with lighted torches. In the beginning of this month the idolaters
walked about the city with lighted candles, and as some of the holy
fathers could not extirpate such a custom, they ordained that Christians
should carry about candles in honour of the Virgin Mary." This method of
keeping the feast of Candlemass does not now prevail in this country; so
far as the laity are concerned, the festival may be said to have died
out, but according to Dr. Brewer, the festival is kept by the Roman
Catholic Church as the time for consecrating the candles used in the
Church service.
Formerly there were other public festivals, as Lammas, Michaelmass, &c.,
which the Church had substituted for heathen feasts which have ceased to
be public festivals, and I trust we may indulge the hope that the time
is not far distant when, instead of all such festive relics of
heathenism, the Church and people will substitute one daily festival of
obedience to the honour of the founder of Christianity, viz., the
festival of a righteous life.
INDEX.
Page.
Acts of Assembly against keeping Popular Festivals, 155
Acts of Sessions against keeping Yule, 155
Ague, A Cure for, 95
All Hallow's Festival, its Origin, 177
Animals in People's Stomachs, 103
Anthropomorphism, 5
Appendix, 143
Appointment of 25th December for Christmas, 152
Apple, The, Superstitions concerning, 122
Aspen, Superstitions connected with, the 124
Ash, Superstitions connected with, the 124
Astoreth, The, of the Jews, 10
Augustine's, St., or Austin's Mission, 152
Auguries connected with Funerals, 64
Aytoun on Fairyland, 21
Baal, Name of Sun-God, 10, 161
Babies Carried off by Fairies, 34, 40
Babies to be taken up a Stair first time taken out, 31
Bannocks at Yule and New-Year's Day, 160
Baptism, Early Practices at, 31
Baptismal Water, 140
Bedding at Weddings, 53
Beetles, Superstitions connected with, 116
Beilteine, Baal's Fire, 161
Belief in Fairies in this Country, 27
in Ghosts Visiting People, 176
in Witchcraft still Survives, 68
Beltane, 161
Customs in Ireland, 166
Festival in Perthshire, 168
Day, First of May, 162
Held in some Counties on 3rd May, 162
Birds Flying over a Person's Head, 114
Black Art, The, 75
Blessing the Candles to be Used in Church, 181
Bonfires at Hallowe'en, 179
Bonny Kilmeny, 22
Booths in connection with Temples, 153
Bottreill's Hearth Stories of West Cornwall, 173
Boutree, or Bourtree, Defence against Evil-Eye, 126
Breaking Looking-Glass on the Wall, 137
Bride's Cake, Practices connected with, 51
Bull of Innocent VIII. against making Compacts with the Devil, 17
Candlemas, Relation of, to Festival of Februa, 181
Casting of Calf by Cows Prevented, 84
Cats Dying in the House not Lucky, 117
Caul, Child's, its Influence, 32
Celtic Irish hold Beltane at Midsummer, 172
Celtic Names of Places indicate Sun-Worship, 149
Ceremonies on St. John's Day, 174
Changing of Babies by Fairies, 46
Charms and Counter Charms, 79
for Curing Diseases, 91, 93
Child Rowland in Elfland, 26
Children Cutting Teeth, 137
Cholera, its First Visit to this Country, 14
National Fast for, Refused, 15
Christianity consistent with Nature, 16
Christian Creeds not always consistent with Nature, 16
Christmas Fixed to be kept on the 25th December, 152
Church's, The, Enactments against Devil's Devices, 27
Church, The, Punishing Deviation from her Creed, 17
Clover, Four-Leaved, its Influence, 130
Coal Explosions, Prognostics concerning, 138
Cock Crowing with his Head to the Door, 114
Cold Tremour, foreboding Death, 138
Coral Beads, their Influence, 36
Cornwall, Beltane Fires in Midsummer, 172
Cows, Restive, foreboding Evil, 136
Cricket in the House, 114
Cure for an Evil Eye, 36
Cutting the Nails of Young Children, 139
Deaf and Dumb possessing Second Sight, 72
Death Warnings, 56
Defending the Bride against Evil Influences, 51, 54
Deid Bell, 66
Deification of Stars, 145
Devil conferring Supernatural Power, 28
Making Compacts with the, 77
Dew-Collecting on First May, 170
Different Nations modifying Customs, 151
Dirgy, or Dredgy, after Funerals, 63
Disease Transferred to the Lower Animals, 92, 96
Divining by Bible and Key, 106
by Cups, 110
by a Staff, 108
Double Ears of Corn, 139
Dousing Rod to find Springs or Mineral Veins, 109
Dress put on Wrong Side Out, 137
Druids, 147
Druidism in Ireland, 150
Druidical Customs at Beltane, 164
Duties of New-Married Wife in Old Times, 55
Ear Tingling, 137
Ecclesiastical Influence Leading to Wrong Ideas of God, 6
Eclipses Portending Evil, 141
Eggs Laid upon Good Friday, 114
Elder, or Bourtree, The, 125
English Opinions of Yule Feasts in Scotland, 156
Evil Eye, Influence of, 30, 35, 37
Exorcising Ghosts, 11
Extracts from Presbytery Records on Witchcraft, 67
Fairy Legend, A, 119
Fairies, What They Are, 26
Fairies, Brownies, and Elfs, by Rev. Mr. Kirk, 19
Fairyland, its Government, 21
Family Feasts at New-Year, 161
Fascinating Children Prevented, 139
Fasting Spittle, 98
Feast of God, 173
Feasts to Evil Spirits, 12
Ferralia Festival like Hallowe'en, 176
Ferns, Common, its Seed, 128
Festivals of Druids at Winter Solstice, 153
Fire, the Earthly Symbol of the Sun, 10
Fire-Worship in Scotland in 1810, 84
Fires Kindled on Mountains at Midsummer, 173
First of May Customs, 167
First-Footing at Yule, 156
First-Foot to Present a Gift, 160
Flora, Goddess, her Feast at Beltane, 167
Floralia, or First of May Observances, 167
Foot Itching, Sign of, 137
Formula for Exorcising Ghosts, 11
Forks, their First Use and Effects of, 15
Four-Leaved Clover, 130
Funeral Customs, 63
Old, in Highlands, 65
Guardian Angels, 59
Gems, their Significance, 102
Glamour, 132
Giants and Dwarfs of Middle Ages, 19
Girl's Petticoat Longer than Frock, Omen of, 137
Goat, Beliefs concerning, 119
Goodman's Croft, 140
Golden Rose, 129
Gods of the Babylonians, B.C. 2000, 7
Greeks in Classical Times, 8
God, Different Ideas concerning, 5
Haco Fixing 25th December for holding Christmas, 154
Hades, 11
Hallowe'en Practices, 175
Hallowe'en Practices in Perthshire, 180
Hand over Hand Divining, 110
Hand Itching, its Meaning, 137
Hansel Monday, 155
Hare Crossing Road, Seeing a, 117
Hazel, The, 125
Hen, A, Crowing like a Cock, 113
Herring-Fishing on Sabbath, its Consequences, 142
Hogmanay, 154
Hooping-Cough, Cure for the, 95
Holly, The, 123
Holy Fire, 176
Holyrood, Origin of, 163
Horse Shoe, Protection from Witchcraft, 139
Horse, A, Neighing Towards a House, 114
Human Hair in Birds' Nests, 114
Hydrophobia, How to Prevent, 101
Influence of Charms, 89
Influence of May Dew, 170
Influences, The Evil, Communicated by Dress, 39
Initial Letters of Man and Wife's Name, 138
Intermixing of Heathen with Christian Practices, 18
Intercourse held with Infernal Fiends, 17
Isabella Goudie's Confessions, 22
Itching of the Nose, 136
Jamieson, Dr. on Pales' Customs, 167
Killing Spiders, 115
Kirk, Rev. Mr., on the Nature of Fairies, 20
Knife Presented as a Gift, 138
Ladybirds, 116
Lammas Festival, 181
Lamuralia, an Ancient Festival, 167
Lee Penny, The, 95
Legend of Burd Ellen, 22
Legend of Purgatory, 177
Lily, The, 130
Like Wakes: and reasons for keeping them, 61
Love Charms, 89
Luck for new dress, How to procure, 137
Lucky Animals, 120
Lucky People to meet first, 32
as First Foot, 160
Making Effigies to Torment People, 77
Mandrake, its Influence, 90
Marriage Customs Sixty Years Ago, 46
Party meeting a Funeral, 51
Marrying in May, 43
Merlin the Wizard, 23
Metals made under certain Constellations, 93
Michælmas, 181
Midfinger free from Canker, 99
Midsummer Feast among the Ancients, 173
Festivals in this Country, 170
Milk Bewitched, 81
Milking the Tether, 75
Mistletoe Gathering, 150
its Influence, 124
Modern Superstitions, 34
Money given to Poor at Funerals, 64
Moon Worship, 98
a Female Deity, 10
Murders discovered by Bleeding of Corpse, 85
Murrain in Cattle Prevented, 84
Mutes have Supernatural Gifts, 72
Names of Places connected with Fire Worship, 164
with Sun Worship, 172
Natural Phenomena ascribed to Divinities, 9
New Year's Day, an Ancient Roman Festival, 151
Observances, 159
Festival, 154
New Moon, Prognostics, 98
New Zealand Divining, 108
Oak, a Sacred Tree, 131
Oaths to Satan, 88
O'Brien on Beltane, 165
Observances at Loch Tay on Hallowe'en, 178
at Yule, 156
Odd Numbers Lucky, 109
Old Religions mixing with Christianity, 179
Omens connected with Bees, 115
with Magpies, 115
Onion, a Disinfectant, 127
Origin of Hallowe'en, 177
of All Souls, 177
Overturning Chair on Leaving Table, 138
Pales, Goddess of Flocks, 166
Palilia, Ancient Festival, 166
Pennant's Account of Beltane in the Highlands, 169
People Selling themselves to the Devil, 27
Person first met in the Morning, 136
Peruvian Ancient Sun Worship, 146
Phoenicians in Britain 1000 B.C., 148
Photographs not Lucky, 142
Place at Dinner, 138
Plants Gathered on St. John's Eve, 174
Plough first seen in Season, 136
Portends for Good or Evil, 136
Prayers Unanswered, Cause not Sought, 14
said Backwards, 134
Prayers to the Gods, 13
Precious Stones: their Virtue, 102
Preparations made for Yule, 156
Priests, their Office and Power, 9
Professor Veitch on Beltane, 162
Providence--General and Special, 18
Purgatory, Proof for, 172
Recovering Stolen Babies, 40
Red Colour a Charm, 80
Relics in Curing Diseases, 102
Repeal of Law against Witchcraft, 68
Ringing Bells at Funerals, 66
Robin Redbreast, 111
Rocking an Empty Cradle, 137
Rood Day Changed to Beltane, 162
Roman Festivals in Spring, 166
Marriage Customs, 45
Rose, an Emblem of Silence, 129
Running the Broose, 49
Rowan Tree Protection against Witchcraft, 79
Sacred Fire Practice this Century, 83
Salamander, The, 118
Salt: its Influence, 33
to Spill: its Significance, 139
Scissors Presented as a Gift, 138
Scoreing aboon the Breath, 38
Second Sight, 71
Session: Acts against keeping Yule, 155
Seventh Son a Doctor, 90
Sheep Prevented Casting their Lambs, 84
Sham-in, Ancient Feast of Druids, 175
Shepherds keeping Beltane in Perthshire, 169
Sin Eaters, 60
Speaking Aloud to One's Self, 138
Spell to make a Fire Kindle, 135
Spider, A Legend concerning, 115
Spittle Confirming Bargain, 100
Spittle, Customs connected with, 100
Social Habits of Elfland, 26
Sorcerers, 108
Souls of the Departed, 11
Sooth Sayers, 10
Sow to Meet in the Morning, 120
St. Augustus, 152
St. John's Day Festival, 174
St. John's Wort: a Talisman, 128
Stealing Children and Youths by Fairies, 21
Star Gazers, 10
Stonehenge, 171
Strangers on the Grate, 140
Stye, Cause of, 96
Stye, Cure for, 97
Suicides, Superstition relating to, 85
Sun Worship in Ancient Times, 146
Sun, Primary God of the Ancient, 9
Survival of Sun Worship, 145
Superstitious Rites with a Corpse, 60
Superstition, Meaning of, 2
Swallows, Omens connected with, 112
Sympathetic Cures, 91
Thank-offering for Answer to Prayer, 13
Theory of Curing by Charms, 91
Touching for Disease, 91
Touching of a Corpse to Prevent Dreaming of it, 63
Twin Nuts in One Shell, 136
Visions, Seeing, 72
Visit to Stonehenge on Midsummer, 171
Warts, Cure for, 97
Weighing Children Unlucky, 137
Willow, The, 125
White Butterfly, 115
Wishes Fulfilled, 87
Wishes against Self: an Oath Fulfilled, 88
Withershins, 133
Witches, A, Account of Fairyland, 22
Witches Changing their Shape, 70
Wizards, 10
Wodrow's Opinion on Murdered Corpse Bleeding, 85
Woman Carried away by Fairies in Arran, 29
Wraiths, 58
Written Charms, 91
Yellow Hammer, The, 112
Yule: its Meaning, 149
Yule converted into Christmas, 154
Yule Observances Transferred to New Year's Day, 157