pressing).--The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as soon
as the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by the
retention of the heat applied before renneting and by the secondary
heating or cooking used in making certain groups of cheeses. In many
varieties special apparatus is provided in the form of draining boards,
draining racks or bags to hasten the removal of the whey as fast as it
separates. The draining process continues until the cheese has reached
its final form and weight. The intervening process of matting in the
Cheddar group involves a combination of a souring process with the
removal of whey, during which the cubes of curd become fused into
semi-solid masses. If such masses are formed, they must be ground up
before the cheese can be given its final form in the hoop. The draining
process, therefore, may take any one of many forms varying from the
direct transfer of freshly formed curd into hoops in which the entire
draining process is completed, to an elaborate series of operations
which end in pressing curd drained to approximately its final condition
before it is placed in the hoop.
+103. Application to cheese.+--From the discussion of these factors, it
is evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with the
differences in manipulation. If one considers essential constituent
substances separately, the water-content of the finished product is
found to vary from 30 per cent in Parmesan to 75 per cent in cottage
cheese. The fat-content runs from a trace in some varieties to 60 per
cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of the casein, which gives
character to the product, varies from the tough or glue-like consistency
of freshly made Swiss to the buttery condition of a cream or Neufchâtel
cheese. Inside such limits the tastes of different peoples have led to
the manufacture of many kinds of cheese. Each of these varieties
represents some particular combination of curd-making factors and
ripening conditions which produces a cheese suited to the taste of the
maker and consumer of that country or community.
CHAPTER VI
_CLASSIFICATION_
The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500
names for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily into
great groups or families in which there are variations in unessential
detail without modifying the characteristic texture and flavor of the
product. Many varietal names are attached to the product of single
factories or factory groups. Such varieties frequently differ only
slightly in size or shape, or in stage of drainage or of ripening, from
widely known varieties or other similar local forms. The descriptions
recorded for such varieties commonly emphasize minor differences in
manipulation without showing differences in essential factors. Vessels
of particular size are prescribed to be made of wood, earthenware, or of
a special metal. These details specify the exact size and shape of
hoops, the use of particular styles of cutting or breaking instruments
and of certain stirring tools, the material and construction of mats and
draining racks.
The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The variable
factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity,
temperature of setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling and
the method of draining the curd. The differences in practice lie, with
few exceptions, in the amount or intensity of particular factors, not
differences in kind or quality of treatment. Such contrasts are
quantitative, not qualitative. A great number of combinations is
possible by small variations of these factors.
Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in
character, but comparison of large numbers of forms shows that almost
every gradation from group to group can actually be found. Within groups
frequently the same physical results in texture and flavor can be
obtained by combinations or adjustments of factors for the purpose of
offsetting or counteracting the effects of one change in practice by the
manipulation of other factors. In ripening, an equally large range of
practices makes possible the development of very different qualities in
mature cheeses from the same lot.
Only a few of the large number of described varieties have obtained even
national importance; fewer still are known outside the country of
origin. In spite of the success of special products when properly
advertised, the largest place in the market is clearly accorded to the
standard forms which are widely known.
+104. Basis of classification.+--A series of these widely known forms
has been chosen as typical of groups in a system of classification
adapted from the French of Pouriau. No completely satisfactory scheme of
classifying all of these varieties has been devised. The grouping
proposed here is based on the principles of curd-making already
discussed together with consideration of the ripening processes to be
discussed with each group. The factors that actually influence the
quality of the final product are separated as completely as possible
from non-essential operative details.
The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on the
single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese may be
conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated families
which are intermediate in texture between such soft forms as Neufchâtel
or Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or Parmesan. Although
these terms are not made the main basis of the proposed grouping, their
application to sections is indicated. Classification based on the
essential facts of manufacture is, however, really helpful.
ANALYTICAL TABULATION OF GROUPS
Section I. Cheeses with sour milk flavor only (Eaten fresh).
(Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) PAGE
1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its
allies in America, many related varieties
in Europe 90
2. Curdled by souring and rennet--the Neufchâtel group 95
a. Skim--Skim-milk Neufchâtel 105
b. Part skim to whole milk--American or
Domestic Neufchâtel 106
c. With fat added--the cream cheeses of
the Neufchâtel group (both American
and European)--such as Cream, Gervais,
Malakoffs, etc. 108
Section II. Cheeses ripened.
Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water).
1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened.
Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese,
Harz, etc. 112
2. Curdling by souring and rennet, ripened
Ripened (French) Neufchâtel 114
3. Curdled primarily by rennet.
a. Ripened by mold--Camembert, Brie
and their allies 117
b. Ripened by bacteria.
* Made from soft or friable
curd--d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134
** Made from firm or tough
curds--Limburger and allies 139
Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained
(38 to 45% water)
a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds.
* Made from friable curd--Roquefort 150
** Made from firm or tough
curd--Gorgonzola, Stilton and
such French forms as Gex,
Septmoncel 158
b. Curd cooked and ripened by
bacteria,--brick, Munster, Port
du Salut (Oka) 164
Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30 to
40% water).
a. Ripened without gas holes.
1. Dutch--Edam, Gouda 173
2. Danish.
3. The Cheddar group.
* English--Cheddar and numerous
related forms known principally
in Great Britain 184
** American--the factory Cheddar of
United States and Canada 184
b. Ripened with the development of
gas holes.
* Holes large--Swiss-Emmenthal,
Gruyère, American Swiss 276
** Holes small--Parmesan and related
varieties 288
Such a classification brings together series of products in which there
is essential similarity in the final output, however great the
differences in manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and
specialties. Some of these groups are important enough to demand special
mention.
+105. Processed cheeses.+--Cheese of any group may be run through mixing
and molding machines and repackaged in very different form from that
characteristic of the variety. In such treatment, the texture and
appearance may be so changed as to give the effect of a new product.
Substances (such as pimiento) are added to change the flavor. Or the
product may be canned and sterilized with equally great change of
flavor and texture. One thus finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento
from Cream, Neufchâtel or Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other
combinations are made. The possible variations are numerous.
+106. Whey cheeses.+--Several products bearing cheese names are made
from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the albumin and
casein separately or in a single product, and the recovery of the
milk-sugar either alone or with the albumin. Whey cheeses have been
especially developed by the Scandinavian people, although some of them
have their origin in the south of Europe. Certain of these varieties are
produced on a limited scale in America.
There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to
place in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap Sago.
+107. Soft and hard cheeses.+--Another commonly used classification
makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses. In such a
classification the semi-hard group presented here is included with the
soft cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft in texture. This is
correlated with high water-content, high fat-content or both together.
+108. Relation of moisture to classes.+--In this classification the
water-content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first
place. To carry the analysis somewhat further by showing the correlation
between water-content and certain factors, a tabulation of well-known
varieties of typical groups is presented (Table III). In this table the
series of typical dairy products are first arranged according to
water-content of the final product. Approximate limits of percentages of
milk-fat are also given, because milk-fat frequently affects texture to
a degree almost equal to water. Column 4 gives the period within which
the more quickly perishable cheeses are usable, and the length of the
ripening for the more solid forms. The correlation between
water-content, texture and the time of keeping is clearly shown for most
varieties.
TABLE III
CORRELATION WATER- AND FAT-CONTENT WITH RIPENING
------------------+--------+--------+-------------+--------------
| PER | PER | |
VARITY OF | CENT | CENT | PERIOD | RIPENING
| WATER | FAT | REQUIRED | AGENT
------------------+--------+--------+-------------+--------------
Cheese: Soft, | | | |
Cottage | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria
Skim Neufchâtel | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria
Neufchâtel | 50-60 | 12-28 | a few days | Bacteria
Camembert | 50 | 22-30 | 3-5 weeks | Molds
Cream cheese | 40-50 | 35-45 | a few days | Primarily
| | | | bacteria
| | | |
Semi-hard: | | | |
Limburger | 40-45 | 24-30 | 3-6 months | Bacteria
Roquefort | 38-40 | 31-34 | 3-6 months | Mold
Brick | 37-42 | 31-35 | 3-6 months | Bacteria
| | | |
Hard: | | | |
Cheddar | 30-39 | 32-36 | 6-12 months | Bacteria
Swiss | 31-34 | 28-31 | 9-18 months | Bacteria
| | | | and yeasts
Parmesan | 30-33 | | 2-3 years | Bacteria
------------------+--------+--------+-------------+--------------
The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds
find favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per cent
of water. If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow quickly
with resultant changes in appearance, texture, odor and taste.
Refrigeration is necessary to transport such cheeses to the consumer,
if properly ripened. Trade in these forms may continue throughout the
year in cool climates and in places where adequate refrigeration is
available. Practically, however, outside the large cities this trade in
America is at present limited to the cold months; inside the large
cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue to be handled
through the year.
In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into
two series: (1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft
cheeses. Those eaten fresh have a making process which commonly involves
the development of a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no ripening is
contemplated after the product leaves the maker's hands. In the ripened
series, after the making process is completed, the essential flavors and
textures are developed by the activity of micro-organisms during
ripening periods varying in length but fairly well-defined for each
variety.
In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in
water-content, ripen more slowly and may be kept through much longer
periods. They retain their form through a wider range of climatic
conditions. They develop flavor slowly and correspondingly deteriorate
much more slowly. Such cheeses are in marketable condition over longer
periods. In their manufacture the cooking of the curd takes a prominent
place.
+109. Relation of heat to classes.+--The close relation between the heat
applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking series of
graphs (Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by hour in the
heat relation during the making process of a series of widely known
forms, each of which is chosen as typical. In some of these forms, heat
is applied but once to bring the milk to the renneting temperature
typical for the variety. Subsequent manipulations are accompanied by a
steady fall in temperature. In other forms, the curd when solid is
specially heated or "cooked" to bring about the changes characteristic
of the variety. These contrasts are clearly brought out by the graphs
which represent practices well recognized for the varieties. The
detailed process for these groups is considered in succeeding chapters.
CHAPTER VII
CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR
The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used than
any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at present,
they are farm cheeses.[31] No estimate of volume of such production in
the household has ever been made. The utilization of surplus milk in
this way is of ancient origin.
With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the
manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped. The
rise in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation of the
food value of milk products have made the recovery of all surplus milk
in some form very necessary. The manufacture of cottage, Neufchâtel and
cream cheese is one of the best forms of such recovery which may be
adapted to utilize any grade from skimmed-milk to cream. Large
quantities of skimmed-milk have frequently been lost from the total of
human food by the manufacture of casein for industrial uses, and by use
as stock feed.
+110. Skim series.+--The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in common a
very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally lactic acid.
The group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the cheeses made from
milk curdled by souring; (2) those for which the milk is curdled by
souring and rennet. In the latter group both agencies are necessary to
the resulting product. The time required to curdle by souring alone is
longer than when rennet is used; this period is usually longer than
necessary for the cream to rise by gravity; hence the cream is either
skimmed off or removed with the separator beforehand. The curd,
therefore, is essentially a skimmed-milk curd. Casein curdled in this
way tends to become granular or "rough," to feel "sandy" when rubbed
between the fingers. Heating is commonly necessary to lower the
water-content of the mass even to 75 per cent. Such curd tends to become
hard or rubbery when heat is applied. In this group, the best known form
is variously called "cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese, schmierkäse.
+111. Cottage cheese+ is made from skimmed-milk, soured by lactic
bacteria until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20° C.
(70° F.), because at this temperature the purely lactic type of organism
has been found to outgrow competing forms which may be present. Starter
containing the desired culture, if properly used, saves much time in the
curdling period. Such curdling requires at least twelve to twenty-four
hours, frequently much longer unless abundant starter is introduced.
+112. Household practice.+--The details of cottage cheese making in the
home differ widely in separate sections and even in different families
in the same part of the country. The essentials of the practice, common
to all, include: (1) curdling the whole milk by natural souring; (2)
removing the sour cream which is usually used for butter-making; (3)
scalding the curdled skimmed-milk either by slowly heating it in the
original vessel surrounded by hot water or by actually pouring an
approximately equal volume of boiling water into the curdled mass; (4)
bagging and draining the mass until it reaches the desired texture; (5)
the kneading of the mass with the addition of salt and cream. The
resulting product varies greatly in quality. Unfavorable fermentations
frequently affect the flavor.[32] The "scalding" varies from a
temperature of 90° F. almost to boiling with a resultant texture varying
from almost the smooth buttery consistency of Neufchâtel to hard coarse
granular lumps. The best practice, using clean well-cared-for milk and
draining at low temperature, produces a very attractive cheese. Such
cheese is heated to 90° to 100° F. on the maker's judgment, drained
carefully, kneaded well by hand or by machine with the addition of cream
to give it an attractive texture and flavor.
+113. Factory practice.+--When cottage cheese is made in the
factory,[33] separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then
soured by a lactic starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use of
a starter, which may be added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of the
skimmed-milk used, depending on the amount of starter that can be made.
Generally, the more starter added, the more rapid will be the
coagulation and the better will be the flavor of the cheese. As soon as
the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to be broken up and separated
from the whey. This separation is hastened by the application of heat.
Usually the temperature of the curd is raised slightly before it is
broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there will be a smaller
loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be cut with coarse
Cheddar cheese knives or broken with a rake. The temperature of the curd
should be raised very slowly, at least thirty minutes being taken to
reach the desired final temperature. No set rule can be given as to the
exact temperature to which the curd should be heated. The temperature
should be raised until a point is reached at which the curd, when
pressed between the thumb and the fingers, will stick together and not
go back to the milky state. This temperature is usually from 94° to 100°
F., but the cheese-maker must use his own judgment in this respect. If
the curd is heated too much, it will be hard and dry; on the other hand,
if it is not heated sufficiently, the whey will not separate from the
curd and the latter will be very soft and mushy.
When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed in the
whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done either by
letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the upper end, or
by dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing the whey to drain,
which it does very rapidly. No treatment can prevent the "roughness" of
an acid curd (this is a fine gritty feeling when rubbed between the
fingers), but the coarse hard grainy texture and lumps characteristic of
the highly heated curd do not develop. Experimental workers have agreed
that to have the proper texture, such curd should contain when finished
about 70 to 75 per cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid
flavor. Such a cheese will carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without
an objectionably salty taste. This cheese is commonly sold by measure,
sometimes in molds or cartons. The manufacture of all forms of cottage
cheese has been largely superseded by the making of skimmed-milk
Neufchâtel or Baker's cheese.
The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to fourteen to
nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from pasteurized milk.
The yield varies with the moisture-content of the cheese, being greater
for cheese with a high content. Too much moisture or whey should not be
left in the curd, however, as this will render it too soft to be
handled.
Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a quickly
perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at first, the
high percentage of water favors the growth of molds which tolerate
acidity, especially _Oidium (Oospora) lactis_ and the Mucors or black
molds. These molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the bacteria
of decay to develop and to produce objectionable taste and odors.
Spoilage in these products is accelerated by the kneading process which
distributes air throughout the mass and with it all forms of microbial
contamination.
+114. Buttermilk cheese.+--A cheese closely resembling cottage may be
made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream which was
churned before it became sour, the process is the same as that already
described for the making of cottage cheese from skimmed-milk. If the
buttermilk came from sour cream the process of manufacture is much more
difficult. The casein of sour cream has already been coagulated with
acid and broken during churning into very minute rather hard particles.
These fine particles are difficult to recover. They are so fine that
they pass through the draining cloth or at other times clog it and
prevent drainage. They do not stick together at ordinary temperatures.
They cannot be collected by the use of acid because they have already
been coagulated with acid. After casein has been coagulated with acid,
rennet extract will not recoagulate the particles. The buttermilk may be
mixed with sweet skimmed-milk; then as the latter coagulates, it locks
in the casein of the buttermilk so that it can be collected. If
buttermilk from soured cream is used alone, the casein may be
collected[34] by neutralizing and heating to 130 to 150° F., and holding
until the casein gathers together. The whey can then be drawn off. Often
there is further difficulty in getting the casein to collect, since the
pieces remain so small that they go through the strainer.
Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often not
palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with
skimmed-milk, it makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage.
+115. Neufchâtel group.+[35]--The Neufchâtel process originated in
northern France where a number of varieties are included under this as a
group name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse, Petit Carré.
The name designates a general process of curd-making which is applied to
skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the resultant cheeses are
ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchâtel cheeses of France gained
such wide recognition for quality that the process of making has become
widely known. In America the manipulations of the French process were
early dropped. The essentials were made the basis of a successful
factory practice which has been widely adopted. The American factory
practice is discussed here and the French process briefly considered
under the heading Ripened Neufchâtel. (See Chapter VIII.)
+116. Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses+ are soft, have clean sour
milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all but the
coldest weather, they require refrigeration to reduce deterioration and
loss. They range in fat-content from traces only to 50 per cent and
more; in water from 40 to 75 per cent, according to the milk used. In
texture Neufchâtel is smooth, free from gas, free from lumps or
roughness when rubbed between the fingers. This flavor and texture is
obtained by a combination of slow rennet curdling with developing
acidity. No further ripening is permitted.
+117. The factory.+--Neufchâtel factories require the standard dairy
equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating,
pasteurizing and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce several
products, the same general dairy equipment may serve for all. In
addition to such equipment, Neufchâtel requires a curdling apparatus
which can be held at 70-75° F. This may be a room properly controlled,
or a tank where temperature control is obtained by water and steam. For
draining, a room kept at 60° F. gives nearly the ideal temperature,
which must be supplemented by relative humidity high enough to prevent
the exposed surface of curd from drying during periods of twelve to
twenty-four hours. This requires almost a saturated atmosphere. A room
with special molding machinery is required and tables for wrapping,
labeling and boxing the product are necessary. Box-making machinery is
usually an economic necessity for work on a large scale. Adequate
refrigeration is requisite both to chill the curd before molding and to
preserve it after packaging.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Neufchâtel draining racks.]
+118. Cans.+--For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in
diameter and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty to
forty pounds of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore, on the
number of units installed, not on changes in the units themselves.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Detail of a Neufchâtel draining rack.]
+119. Draining racks.+--A draining rack is required for each can of
curd. These racks also are standardized units whose number limits the
capacity of the factory. The design of these racks (Figs. 13, 14) and
their arrangement in the draining room are taken from Bulletin 78 of the
Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station: "The racks are rectangular,
thirteen inches wide, thirty-six inches long and ten inches deep. The
corner posts extend one and one-half inches beyond the strips at top and
bottom with the tops rounded as a rule as seen in the photograph. The
bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence are removable for washing
purposes. The materials required are four corner posts one and one-half
by one and one-half inches; nine strips one by three-eighths by
thirty-six inches; six strips one by three-eighths by thirteen inches,
two strips one by three-eighths by twelve and a quarter inches, notched
to receive the bottom slats; all made from pine."
+120. Cloths.+--For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and one
and one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is satisfactory for
the purpose; "even-count, round-thread, unmercerized voile" is suggested
by Dahlberg.[36]
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Neufchâtel and cream cheese molds.]
+121. Molding machinery.+--For work on a large scale, special power
machines[37] are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and worm
delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size and
shape of delivery tube. This curd stream is cut by an automatic device
into the proper lengths to form the standard cheese. In this way a
uniform size of cheeses is obtained. Experimental work with hand
apparatus showed that a worm six inches in diameter is required to
deliver curd in a smooth column one and one-half inches square. If the
pressure is not sufficient, the column will frill at the edges. Such
irregular surfaces cannot be wrapped smoothly enough to delay spoilage.
On a small scale, a fair grade of product can be molded through a tin
tube (see Fig. 15) one and three-quarters inches in diameter and ten
inches long in which the curd is compressed by a close fitting plunger
operated by hand.
+122. Milk for Neufchâtel+ should be clean, free from gas and taint.
Such milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when
received and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid by
titration. Milk testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a higher
quality of product than lower grade milk, although every grade from
skimmed-milk to cream is used in producing some form of Neufchâtel. This
milk should be pasteurized unless shown to be free from tuberculosis by
proper test of the cattle. Evidence[38] that the organism of
tuberculosis will withstand the regular handling process for cheeses of
this group and retain its ability to cause disease in experimental
animals makes the introduction of pasteurization necessary in this whole
group of cheeses. Any effective pasteurization may be used, but
temperatures of 140-145° F. for thirty minutes have been effective with
less changes in the milk than higher temperatures for shorter periods.
The milk should be cooled to curdling temperature and the starter and
rennet added and stirred into the milk in bulk. The milk may then be
quickly distributed into the curdling cans with a hose or from the gate
valve of the mixing vat.
+123. Starter.+--To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a
small amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use
depends on the quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for each
thirty-pound can is recommended by Matheson and Cammack[39] and by
Dahlberg. (See page 98.) For whole-milk Neufchâtel, 2 c.c. to a
thirty-pound can of milk commonly gives good results. On this basis 2
ounces of starter would be sufficient if properly stirred into about
1000 pounds of milk. Too slow development of acid is preferable to
over-rapid souring.
+124. Renneting or setting.+--The milk should be cooled after
pasteurizing to between 70° and 75° F. Rennet is added at the rate of
1/3 c.c. to a thirty-pound can (roughly 1/3 ounce to 1000 pounds). This
will thicken the milk sufficiently in the first few hours to reduce the
separation of the cream. For completion of the curdling and souring
process, twelve to eighteen hours are required. Usually the cans stand
overnight at uniform temperature. When ready to drain, the curd should
be firm, smooth and mildly acid. Whey separating from it should not
titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as lactic acid.
+125. Draining.+--A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the
contents of one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little
breaking as possible. In this way a large surface is exposed. The room
must be kept wet to prevent the surface of the curd drying to form
crusts which stop draining. A temperature of 60° F. is favorable to the
maintenance of proper texture and humidity without the development of
objectionable organisms, especially _Oidium lactis_, which tends to
cover every exposed surface in such rooms. Draining may be hastened by
turning the curd or changing the position of the cloth. In factory
practice, the large draining surface reduces the necessity of handling
the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About twelve hours are required
upon the draining racks.
On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of
draining rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the
corners of the cloth may be brought together, tied and the mass hung up.
The curd must be turned by pulling up the corners of the cloth to
prevent drying at the edges and stoppage of draining from the center of
the mass. Such treatment produces much more rapid drainage than the
factory practice and involves proportionately more labor and larger fat
losses.
+126. Cooling Neufchâtel.+--When whey ceases to separate readily, the
corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally or
tied, and the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When thoroughly
chilled the bags of curd are put into presses, where light but
increasing pressure forces more whey out of the mass. Tests at this time
should show about 0.60 per cent acid in the whey. With low-fat curd
every step of the process may be hastened, but with high-fat care must
be exercised to prevent loss of fat during pressing especially. Any
pressing device permitting continuous pressure with ease of manipulation
may be used.
+127. Pressing.+--The ideals of the maker must determine the extent of
pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If
immediate consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory, but
if the cheese is to be held some days the extra whey carrying more
milk-sugar favors increased acid development. This produces very sour
cheese with much more danger of other fermentations which cause
objectionable flavor. Too much water favors more active bacterial growth
as well as produces cheese too soft for the necessary handling in the
market.
In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press
should be released and the bags turned from time to time to insure even
drainage. Several hours of pressing are usually required. The danger of
insufficient pressing is due to the difference of texture between the
worked and unworked curd. Before working, curd carrying 10 per cent
excess moisture resembles the finished product sufficiently to deceive
any but the experienced maker. But if this curd is transferred to the
worker and to the molding machine, it is found to become soft, pasty and
sticky, to lack "body," hence to make very unsatisfactory packages and
to spoil very quickly. The masses of curd should come out of the press
as dry and hard flat cakes.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Working Neufchâtel.]
+128. Working and salting Neufchâtel.+--The cakes of curd go from the
press to the working table. Here they are broken by hand or by a
butter-worker or kneading machine (Fig. 16). Salt at the rate of one
and one-half pounds to 100 pounds of curd is added. If the curd is not
sufficiently pressed, the masses become mushy or pasty during the
working process. The working is continued until the whole mass is
uniformly smooth and buttery.
+129. Storage.+--The draining and working processes permit the
contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the
apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also worked
thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly. Distributing
houses find the Neufchâtel trade uncertain in volume from day to day,
hence many of them store the cheese in bulk and package only fast enough
to fill orders. This minimizes the loss due to spoilage. Such curd may
be packed into tubs and kept for considerable time in cold storage. If
molded for the retail trade, it is more quickly perishable. When packed
solidly in mass, curd is largely protected from spoilage by the
exclusion of air and perhaps the quick exhaustion of free oxygen through
the respiration of the micro-organisms present and by its acidity. This
must be supplemented by low temperature to reduce the loss to a minimum.
Even when spoilage begins, it is easily confined to the slight growth of
_Oidium lactis_ or green mold and bacteria on exposed areas. These can
be removed with minimum loss and damage to the mass. On the other hand,
such curd molded into the commercial package of 3 to 6 ounces and
wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for protection, still presents
enormously increased surface for the growth of aerobic forms--especially
_Oidium lactis_, green mold (Roquefort mold is the usual green species)
and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may be kept some days; in
commercial packages lowering of quality (flavor) begins almost at once.
+130. Molding.+--When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is
provided, curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the machine.
If permitted to become warm, the mass becomes sticky; when cold it is
more readily handled. The machine is fitted with the special delivery
tube for the variety to be handled, cylindrical for Neufchâtel in its
various forms, rectangular in section for cream. Enough workers should
be provided to wrap and label the cheese without leaving it exposed to
contamination or heat. Parchment paper and tin-foil cut the proper size
for each variety and bearing printed labels are readily obtainable. Each
cheese should be wrapped with paper and tin-foil and put directly into a
flat box which holds a standard number (usually 12 or 24) of the special
product.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Molding Neufchâtel.]
In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is
required. Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the
plunger. It is removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size of
the variety.
All forms when molded go directly into the boxes and then back to the
refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the process
differ according to the form made.
+131. Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel.+--Separator skimmed-milk is frequently
made into curd by the Neufchâtel process. The absence of fat eliminates
the largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage of the making
process, therefore, may be shortened. The demand that the curd shall be
smooth and buttery in texture rather than rough or gritty requires the
exercise of care in curdling of milk. The draining and pressing of the
curd may be accomplished much more rapidly than in the fatty cheeses.
The final product should differ from cottage cheese in smoother texture,
milder acidity and, as a rule, cleaner flavor. In composition, the
absence of fat must be largely compensated by leaving more water in the
cheese. Such a product reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of
water and perhaps 1.25 per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent
of the mass.
These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high
water-content. The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the
interior of the cheese and upon its surface is rapid.
Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage cheese,
Neufchâtel style, and as Neufchâtel made from skimmed-milk; skimmed-milk
Neufchâtel would be a strictly proper labeling.
+132. Baker's cheese.+--There is considerable market for skimmed-milk
curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk
Neufchâtel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery is
near by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet
condition and sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the
distance is such as to require considerable time for transportation,
the same care is frequently given as for Neufchâtel curd packed in bulk
for storage and transportation.
Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type of
product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a large
scale. Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the details
of flavor and texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two men are
able to make a ton of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans each day.
The resulting product, although very deficient in flavor and texture,
goes into manufactured specialties which conceal its deficiencies if
considered as cheese.
+133. Domestic Neufchâtel.+--The name Neufchâtel, unless limited clearly
by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh whole milk.
Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of well-equipped
factories scattered widely through the dairy states of the North and
Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade names for its product.
The same product is frequently relabeled by the distributor who uses his
own trade name instead of that of the maker.
The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1¾ inches in diameter
and 2½ inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2½ by 1½ by 1½
inches. The cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment paper closely
surrounded by tin-foil. These packages vary from 2½ to 4 ounces. In
some cases screw-topped glass jars are substituted for the tin-foil
package. They are objectionable, first, because of cost and, second,
because they are so commonly associated with less perishable products as
to mislead either dealer or consumer into holding the product for too
long a time. The paper or tin-foil package can be kept only at
refrigerator temperature, hence automatically keeps its possessor
reminded of the perishable nature of its contents.
Neufchâtel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4 per
cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;[40] many
grades contain more water than this at the expense of flavor and keeping
quality:
Water 50-55 per cent
Fat 23-28 per cent
Casein 18-21 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent
Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk.
+134. Partially skim Neufchâtel.+--Brands of Neufchâtel made from milk
that would test every gradation from whole milk to separator
skimmed-milk may be found. The quality of the product varies with the
skill of the maker from brands no better than cottage cheese to products
scarcely distinguishable from the best whole-milk Neufchâtel. Many
factories that produce more than one quality of Neufchâtel use labels of
different color, different design or both to separate them; for example,
blue labels usually stand for whole milk, red labels represent lower
grades. Sometimes the difference in material is indicated by a clear cut
grade mark. Frequently color, a design of label or both are the only
definite marks upon the cheese. The consumer unfamiliar with the trade
practice commonly has no means of knowing the quality of the product
offered. Such cheeses vary in water-content from 55 to 70 per cent; in
fat from 10 to 25 per cent; in casein from 18 to 25 per cent.
+135. Cream cheese.+--The Neufchâtel process is also used to make cream
cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been called double
cream. This is produced by separating about half of a given volume of
milk and running the cream into the other half. Usually cream cheese is
made in the same factory as various grades of Neufchâtel. No material is
lost. In some instances, cream cheese is prepared by working thick cream
into the Neufchâtel type of curd from practically skimmed-milk. In
working with high percentages of fat in curd, care must be taken to
avoid loss of fat in draining and pressing. The curd is carefully
chilled before pressing to reduce this loss. This may be done under
refrigeration or upon cracked ice. Otherwise the manipulations of the
process are unchanged. The cheeses are commonly molded in the Neufchâtel
machine into square cakes weighing about 4 ounces and measuring
approximately 3 by 2¼ by 7/8 inches. These are wrapped in paper and
tin-foil and handled exactly as Neufchâtel.
Cream cheese of high quality made from reënforced milk testing 7 to 9
per cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:[41]
Water 38-43 per cent
Fat 43-48 per cent
Protein 13-16 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent
Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream.
Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but usually
associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture, and in
more rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60 per cent of
fat but their increased cost of manufacture and sale restricts them to
the rôle of specialties with closely limited distribution. Trade names
such as Philadelphia Cream, Cow Brand, Eagle Brand, Square Cream, Blue
Label and many other factory brands are on the market.
+136. Neufchâtel specialties.+--Neufchâtel or cream cheese curd is
frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento
(pickled Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses, such
as Roquefort. These bear appropriate trade names and form a very
attractive addition to our varieties of cheese. Among the names found
are Pimiento, Olive, Nut, and Pim-olive or Olimento.
+137. Gervais+ is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold widely
in France and even in other continental countries. It occasionally comes
to America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are flat cakes containing
approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per cent fat. It clearly
differs only in detail from the square cream cheeses made in America.
The name Gervais is the property of a particular company. Since the
cheese differs in no essential feature from other cream cheeses, this
name should not be applied to a domestic cream brand.
+138. European forms occasionally imported.+--Among the cheeses related
to Neufchâtel as they reach the market are the "White" cheeses of
southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality according to their
source and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's milk or some
combination of these. This texture and flavor link them with unripened
Neufchâtel. The time required for importation puts a minimum possible
period of ten to fifteen days between production and consumption with a
probable period of at least one month for most samples. As they come to
America, these forms usually show fermentive changes beyond those
tolerated in the domestic product. This may take either of several
forms: (1) intensification of acid flavor with the intensification of
the characteristic flavors of the particular brand; (2) the development
of old or rancid flavors; (3) the development of Oidium and partial
softening of the mass through its agency; (4) the growth of Roquefort
mold and development of the flavor associated with that organism. This
last form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse which showed about
40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent water.
CHAPTER VIII
_SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD_
The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties which,
in addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special ripening
processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in texture and
mostly have high flavors. The varieties in each group have in common
some essential principles of manufacture together with a ripening
process dominated by a characteristic group of organisms. In certain
groups, the ripening is dominated by a yellowish or orange viscid
surface slime containing _Oidium lactis_ and bacteria; in another
series, the characteristic organism is a mold of the genus Penicillium
(_P. Camemberti_). Referring to the analysis of groups (page 83), the
ripened soft cheeses are found to fall into three well-marked groups,
one of which may perhaps be subdivided as indicated. The series curdled
by souring alone begins with approximately cottage cheese curd and
develops high flavors by ripening, as in "hand" cheese. Ripened
Neufchâtel curdled by souring and rennet together finds its basis in
Neufchâtel curd also but modifies the final product until the familiar
flavor and texture of the unripened form are no longer recognizable.
Among the forms curdled by rennet alone the Camembert series contains
one form, Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe, but represents
in general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms. The series of
soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly designated the
Limburger group.
+139. Hand cheese and its allies.+--Among skim cheeses, there is a
series of forms largely German in origin in which curd not far removed
from cottage cheese is the basis of the product. Harz cheese is one of
the best-known of these forms as studied by Eckles and Rahn.[42] One of
these forms, hand cheese,[43] is manufactured on a commercial basis in
farm dairies among families of German descent principally in
Pennsylvania, and on a factory basis in a few places in New York,
northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the small scale, curd is made by
natural souring or by use of starter, heated to expel water, cooled and
molded by hand into cakes two to three inches in diameter and one-half
to three-quarters inch in thickness. The freshly formed cakes are placed
upon a shelf to dry. There they are turned daily until fairly firm, then
packed in rolls into wooden boxes and ripened in a cool damp room. In
this ripening there is a prompt development of a heavy viscous slime,
which consists of Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming loose cottony
mycelium are brushed off if they appear. The proper consistency of this
slimy covering depends on a close adjustment of water-content in the
cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening room. If
conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry they
are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the slimy
covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered with loose
shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should proceed slowly
and occupy a period of six to eight weeks.
+140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.+--A form of "pot" cheese is made in
certain counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use. Production
of this cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted. The steps in
manufacture are about as follows:[44] (1) The home-made type of cottage
cheese curd is prepared, put into a crock or pot and covered carefully;
(2) kept in a warm place (in kitchen usually); (3) stirred from time to
time, until it has ripened to a semi-liquid condition. This occurs very
rapidly under the attack of _Oidium lactis_ accompanied by bacteria.
Within a period of three to seven days, according to the temperature and
to the water-content of the mass, the granules of curd become covered
with a wrinkled gelatinous almost viscid mass of mold mycelium beneath
which is a layer of semi-liquid curd with a strong characteristic odor
and taste. This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches about half the total
mass in four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4) The vessel is
then placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire with
constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5) Butter
or cream, and salt or other flavor is finally added, stirred in and the
liquid cheese poured into molds or jelly glasses to cool. If properly
made and cooked, the resultant cheese has a soft buttery consistency
with an agreeable flavor, which frequently resembles that of Camembert
cheese.
+141. Appetitost (Appetite cheese).+--A Danish buttermilk cheese is made
under this name. Sour buttermilk is heated, by some to boiling
temperature but others (Monrad[45]) prefer 120° F., stirred thoroughly
and allowed to settle. The whey is removed as far as possible. The
semi-liquid mass is covered and set in a warm place. Fermentation
becomes active. This tends to make the curd more viscous or sticky. It
is then kneaded and allowed to ferment again. This process is repeated
until the mass is yellowish and soft but tough or viscous. When
thoroughly fermented, the mass is again heated to 120° F., and 6 per
cent salt is added together with spice; both are worked in and the
cheese is formed into fancy shapes for sale.
+142. Ripened Neufchâtel, French process.+--Neufchâtel as a ripened
cheese is made rather widely in France but it is produced on an
especially large scale in Seine-Inferieure.[46] Some factories use whole
milk, or milk with added cream, others skimmed-milk.[47] The whole-milk
brands of Neufchâtel are those which have the widest reputation. For
making this cheese, the working room is held as closely as possible at
15-16° C. (58-60° F.). The milk is strained into earthen vessels holding
twenty liters. Rennet is added to the freshly drawn milk at about 30° C.
(86° F.) in amount sufficient to produce coagulation in about
twenty-four hours. Draining racks of various forms are covered with
cloth. The vessels of curd are dumped upon the racks. The whey separates
slowly and drains off through the cloth. About twelve hours are allowed
for this process. The corners of the cloth are then brought together
and folded in or tied and the mass pressed to complete the drainage. The
finished curd is worked or kneaded to produce a smooth and uniform
texture. This process of curd-making is essentially the same as the
American factory process of making Neufchâtel. The ripening process has
been entirely dropped in America. The curd is finally molded in metal
forms 5 cm. (2 inches) in diameter and about 6.7 cm. (about 3 inches)
high, open at both ends. These molds are filled, the freshly formed
cheeses are pressed out with a plunger or piston and their surfaces
smoothed with a wooden knife.
After molding is completed, the cheeses are salted by sprinkling the
entire surface with fine dry salt as the cheese is held in the hand. In
this way each cheese receives and absorbs 3 to 4 per cent salt. After
salting, the cheeses are arranged upon boards and allowed to drain
twenty-four hours. They are then removed to the first or drying room.
The frames of the drying room (secherie) are covered with straw and the
cheeses are placed carefully upon the straw to avoid contact with each
other. They are turned each day to present a fresh surface to the straw
during a period of two to three weeks in the drying room (secherie).
Mold begins to show as white cottony mycelium after five to six days,
and slowly turns to "blue" (bluish green). When the cheeses are well
covered with this moldy rind, they are removed to the ripening cellar.
In the ripening cellar also the cheeses stand upon straw. They are
turned over every three or four days at first, then allowed to stand for
a longer period.
When ripe, a Neufchâtel cheese so made weighs about 125 grams. One
liter of milk makes 225 grams of such cheese. The ripening of Neufchâtel
has never been fully studied, but a series of these cheeses were
obtained by one of the authors; cultures were made and examined.[48] The
salt-content in the first place was found to be so high that _Oidium
lactis_ was eliminated as an active factor in the ripening. The mold
proved to be on some cheeses _Penicillium Camemberti_, the typical mold
of Camembert as it is made in Normandy, on others _P. Camemberti_ var.
_Rogeri_, the pure white form as used under the patents of M. Georges
Roger in the region of Seine-et-Marne to the eastward of Paris and
called by him and by Mazé _P. candidum_. The physical condition of the
ripened curd and the flavors encountered were those associated with
these two species by many hundreds of experiments during the Camembert
investigation in Connecticut.[49] These facts justify the conclusion
that ripened Neufchâtel is first soured by lactic organisms, then so
salted as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the characteristic
activities of _Oidium lactis_, while the proteolytic action and the
physical changes are closely similar to those of Camembert which is
ripened primarily by the same molds.
+143. The Camembert group.+--The soft cheeses ripened by molds are
French in origin. Their manufacture has spread into Germany, Italy and
America. Of the series, the most widely known is Camembert, which will
be described as typical for the group. Brie, Coulommiers, Robbiola and
Ripened Neufchâtel belong to this series.
+144. Camembert cheese.+--The origin of Camembert is given by French
authorities as 1791 in the Commune of Camembert near Vimoutiers in Orne,
France. From a very restricted production at first, Camembert-making has
spread through the region from Caen in the west to Havre, Rouen and a
considerable area east of Paris. In America Camembert began to be made
in one factory about 1900. Several other factories followed by 1906. The
difficulties and losses encountered led to the abandonment of these
undertakings, until at the outbreak of the European war in 1914 but one
factory was making Camembert and that only on an experimental scale.
Meanwhile the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs
Experiment Station had taken up and solved, on an experimental basis,
most of the problems arising in these commercial failures. A shortage of
product at the outbreak of the war brought about the re-establishment of
a series of factories. The product as put on the market indicates that a
permanent establishment of Camembert-making is entirely practicable.
Camembert cheese is made from cow's milk either whole or very slightly
skimmed; the removal of about 0.5 per cent of fat has been found to be
desirable if not actually necessary.
+145. Description of Camembert.+[50]--These cheeses are made in sizes
2½ to 4½ inches in diameter and 1¼ to 1½ inches in thickness. They are
ripened by the agency of molds and bacteria which form a felt-like rind
over their whole surface, 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch in thickness. This rind
may be dry and gray or grayish-green, consisting of a felt-like surface
of mold on the outside, below which a harder portion consists of mold
embedded in partially dried cheese, or the moldy part may be more or
less completely overgrown or displaced by yellowish or reddish slime
composed mainly of bacteria. Good cheeses may have either appearance.
Inside the rind, the cheese is softened progressively from the rind
toward the center from all sides, so that a fully ripe cheese has no
hard sour curd in the center, but is completely softened. No mold should
be visible inside the rind, but the moldy rind itself is necessary
because the ripening is caused by the enzymes secreted by the organisms
of the rind into the cheese. As the curd ripens, the changed portion
assumes a slightly deeper color than the unripe curd as a result of
chemical changes. Well-ripened cheeses vary from nearly a fluid texture
to the consistency of moderately soft butter. The ripening of Camembert
is finished in wooden boxes which protect the cheeses from breaking
after they become soft and during the market period.
+146. Conditions of making and ripening.+--These processes depend on a
very close adjustment between the composition of the freshly made cheese
and the temperature and humidity of the rooms in which the cheeses are
made and ripened. Very slight failures in control bring loss in ultimate
results. The room for making Camembert should be maintained between 60°
and 70° F. and should be wet enough to reduce drying to a minimum. The
essentials of apparatus are comparatively inexpensive. Work on a factory
basis calls, however, for the installation of special tables and other
apparatus to utilize space and labor to advantage. Rooms are protected
from change of weather by double sash in the windows. Flies must be
excluded by close-meshed screens for all doors and windows with movable
sash. The equipment installed in such a room is shown in Fig. 18.
Curdling cans are ranged on a shelf a few inches above the floor along
one side of the room below an open tin trough with side branches. This
open trough brings the milk from the mixing vat to the curdling cans.
(The open tin trough offers no lodgment for dirt.) The cans hold about
200 pounds of milk, are about 12 inches in diameter at bottom, and 20 to
24 inches at top. They are heavily tinned. Iron trucks as high as the
shelf and with tops the same diameter as the bottoms of the cans form a
convenient method of bringing cans of curd to the very edge of the
draining tables.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Camembert cheese-making room in an American
factory.]
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Draining mat for Camembert cheese.]
The wooden draining tables are placed about 32 inches above the floor;
they are usually made of 2-inch lumber, have raised edges and slope
slightly toward the wall. Whey and wash water are thus carried to a
draining trough along the wall. For cheese-making, each is covered with
a strip of matting consisting of wooden strips held together by thread
(Fig. 19). The strip of matting should be exactly the width and length
of the table. The hoops used are heavy tin, with edges turned and
soldered, about 5 inches high, 4-5/8 inches in diameter with three rows
of holes about 1/12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row.
These hoops are placed as thickly as possible upon the mats.
+147. Outline of making process.+--The making process[51] is summarized
as follows (Thom, 1909):
_Starter._--From 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of active starter is added to milk
kept overnight below 60°F.
_Acidity at renneting._--Milk titrated to phenolphthalein should test
0.20 to 0.23 per cent calculated as lactic acid.
_Temperance of renneting._--84°-86° F. is used for Camembert.
_Rennet._--From 3 to 5 oz. of standard rennet extract to 1000 lb. milk
(10-15 c.c. per 100 lb. milk) produces a curd of proper texture.
_Curdling time._--To reach the proper condition for handling, 1¼ to
1½ hours or longer is required. This is indicated by the onset of
"sweating" or the separation of large drops of whey on the surface of
the solid curd.
_Dipping._--A long-handled dipper is used to transfer curd from cans to
hoops. This can be lowered into the hoop. This transfer is to be done
with the least possible breaking. One dipperful is transferred at a time
to each of a series of hoops. By the time the series is covered, some
drainage has occurred and a second dipperful is added to the contents of
the hoop. In this way the hoop is filled within a period of two to four
hours.
_Draining._--Hoops when properly filled have taken in approximately 2
quarts of milk each. No pressure is used. Cheeses drain by gravity. They
stand unturned until the following morning when they should be firm
enough to permit turning without removing the hoops. The cheeses when
firm enough to handle (usually on the third morning) are salted by
dusting the entire surface with coarse salt and permitting all that
adheres to remain. The cheeses should then be removed to a room at about
58°F. to prevent too rapid leakage of water and salt from their
surfaces. Ripe cheeses of good quality show a total salt-content varying
from 2.25 to 3 per cent with an average of about 2.5 per cent. When so
handled there is slight, if any, loss of water and salt in the salting
period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. At the end of the salting
period such cheeses should carry 55 to 57 per cent water or slightly
more.
+148. Acidity.+--The essential biological factor in the making period of
Camembert is proper souring. The milk should be free from gassy
organisms. The lactic starter required should introduce the typical
lactic organism (_Streptococcus lacticus_) in numbers sufficient to
suppress all other forms during the next twenty-four hours. The amount
of acid starter introduced, however, plus the acid resulting from growth
during the curdling period, should not produce a grainy acid curd. The
temperatures of handling are such as to favor this group of organisms if
properly introduced and permit the development of nearly 1 per cent of
acid (estimated as lactic) by the second morning. Cheeses with such acid
are fairly free from further danger from bacterial activity. Members of
the high-acid group (_B. Bulgaricus_ and allies) may be found in these
cheeses but do not appear to develop in numbers sufficient to affect the
cheese to any marked degree.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Halloir, the first ripening room for Camembert
in an American factory.]
CAMEMBERT CHEESE RECORD
Date_______________ Set__________ No._____
Amt. milk___________ No. cheese_____ Milk per cheese________
Producer of milk_______________
Apparent cleanliness of milk_______________
+Acidity:+
Before adding starter____________________
After adding starter____________________
After acidity period____________________
Whey at dipping_______________
+Starter:+
Kind_______________ Age_____ Amt_____
+Color:+
Amount_______________
+Curdling:+
Temperature used__________
Amount of rennet__________
Time at which rennet is added__________
Time at which milk is curdled__________
Time of curdling__________
Quality of curd____________________
+Dipping:+
Cut or uncut_______________
Amt. of cutting_______________
+Draining:+
Temperature of room during__________
Condition of cheese after____________________
+Salting:+
Time of_____ Total amt. of salt used_____ Kind of salt_____
Amt. of salt per cheese_____
+Mold inoculation:+
Form of culture used_______________
Method of inoculation______________
Time of inoculation__________
+Remarks on making:+
+Curing:+
Transfer of curing rooms_________________________
Condition of cheese______________________________
Rooms____________________________________________
Dates____________________________________________
+Mold growth:+
Date of first appearance____________________
Purity and vigor____________________________
Date of changing color______________________
+Surface of slimy growth:+
Extent of___________________________________
General character of________________________
+Surface contamination:+
Mold________________________________________
Oidium______________________________________
Yeast_______________________________________
Bacterial___________________________________
+Wrapping:+
Date_______________ Material____________________
Condition of cheese_________________________
+Ripening:+
Rapidity of_________________________________
Texture_____________________________________
+Flavor:+
Ripened curd________________________________
Unripened curd______________________________
+Special treatment and reasons for same:+
Record of treatment by days____________________
Room__________ Date__________ Observations.____________________
1 D_____ 16 D_____
2 D_____ 17 D_____
3 D_____ 18 D_____
4 D_____ 19 D_____
5 D_____ 20 D_____
6 D_____ 21 D_____
7 D_____ 22 D_____
8 D_____ 23 D_____
9 D_____ 24 D_____
10 D_____ 25 D_____
11 D_____ 26 D_____
12 D_____ 27 D_____
13 D_____ 28 D_____
14 D_____ 29 D_____
15 D_____ 30 D_____
31 D_____
+149. Ripening the cheese.+--The cheese is now ready for the ripening
rooms (Fig. 20). For this process temperatures between 52° and 58°F. are
desirable; lower temperatures only delay the process; higher
temperatures favor undesirable fermentations. The cheeses rest upon
coarse matting (Fr. clayons) consisting of round wooden rods about the
size of a pencil separated 1-1¼ inches and held in position by wire
strands. Assuming cheeses of optimum composition as indicated above, the
relative humidity of the ripening rooms should be 86 to 88 per cent.
Higher humidities produce too rapid development of slimy coatings; too
low humidity is indicated by drying, shrinkage and the growth of green
molds on the surface. A slight and very slow evaporation is demanded; by
this the water-content of the cheeses is reduced 3 to 6 per cent in two
weeks. During the first two weeks of ripening, the cheeses commonly show
some growth of yeast and _Oidium lactis_ first, followed by cottony
white areas of Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_). This mold must
be introduced by inoculation in new factories but once firmly
established in the factory will propagate itself if conditions are kept
favorable. Climatic conditions in most dairy sections of America have
been sufficiently unfavorable to make more or less continuous use of
pure cultures desirable. At the end of two weeks, Camembert cheeses
should show a well-established rind, consisting of a well-matted felt
work of mold hyphæ through the outer 2 mm. (1/12 inch) of the whole
surface of the cheese. More or less of the pale gray-green fruit of the
characteristic _Penicillium Camemberti_ can usually be seen. Beginning
at about twelve to fourteen days,[52] a softening of the curd is first
directly detectable under the rind. This is preceded by the
disappearance of the acidity of the curd, which progresses inward. The
softening of the curd follows closely the lowering of the acidity. Thus
a litmus test taken along the cut face of a Camembert cheese at any
stage of softening will always show a sharp acid reaction in the solid
sour portion which changes to alkaline just before the softening due to
proteolytic action becomes noticeable. These two changes appear to be
due to enzymes secreted by the mycelium of the _Penicillium Camemberti_
and _Oidium lactis_ which constitute the most active factors in the
ripening. Some accessory bacterial action is indicated but of minor
importance in the changes found.
To avoid loss from breaking, after the softening of the curd has fairly
begun, the cheeses must be removed from the coarse matting to smooth
boards where they are watched and turned repeatedly, or as in the more
common practice, wrapped at once in parchment paper and boxed. The
ripening may be completed in either way. The conditions necessary are
such as to favor the extension of slimy areas of bacteria over part or
all of the rind to the exclusion of further development of gray-green
fruiting areas of mold.
Complete softening may occur in three weeks in cheeses in which
evaporation has gone on too slowly. Such cheeses are found to contain 51
to 55 per cent of water when ripe and decay very quickly. If handled
properly, the water-content should fall from about 57 per cent at the
beginning of ripening to 48 per cent at its completion which should
require a minimum period of about four weeks. It is more desirable that
a cheese four weeks old show a thin core of sour curd in the center than
that it be entirely liquid at that age.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Very soft Camembert cheese.]
+150. Composition.+--Properly ripe Camembert shows about the following
range of composition: Water 47 to 49 per cent; fat 25 to 28 per cent;
protein 18 to 21 per cent; salt 2.2 per cent to 2.8 per cent. Variations
outside these limits are usually associated with less desirable
qualities. The approximate limits and characters outlined for Camembert
still leave a considerable latitude for variations in practice which
characterize the output of particular factories in a producing group. At
one extreme are brands of Camembert cheese which are very soft (Fig.
21), some of them actually liquid when ripe, and which have very strong
odor and taste; one such brand has held first place in the trade of
certain American cities for years. Another popular brand when fully ripe
is well covered with yellow-orange viscid slime[53] but is fairly firm
in texture with high flavor; still others show dry moldy surfaces and
mild flavors. The product of certain factories is always characterized
by the presence and characteristic ammoniacal odor of _Penicillium
brevicaule_.
Each of these forms seems to appeal to some classes of consumers, so
that in handling imported Camembert the trade comes to assign the
product to specific groups of purchasers according to the conditions
observed at its arrival from Europe.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Camembert cheese factory at Lisieux, France.
The square windows are seen in the second-floor rooms.]
+151. Factory.+--The type of factory to be used in making and ripening
Camembert must be adjusted to the climate. This product originated in
the Normandy section of France which is but a few feet above sea level,
is swept by winds from the Gulf Stream, and has a narrow range of
temperature, with highly humid conditions. In that region, every effort
must be made to secure ventilation to carry off the necessary amount of
evaporation water. In contrast, most of the dairy sections of America
have land instead of sea breezes, much higher altitudes, much greater
extremes of temperature and a lower range of relative humidities. The
conditions of an upstairs room full of windows in Normandy (Fig. 22) are
most readily reproduced in rooms partly or completely below ground in
this country. The industry calls for the production and maintenance of a
specific set of working conditions. These are furnished by nature in
northern France, probably also in certain Pacific coast areas, but must
be artificially obtained where the climate is unfavorable.
+152. Economic factors.+--Camembert cheeses show a yield of about 13
pounds to 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat. At roughly one-half
pound each, the number of cheeses will be approximately twenty-six.
Assuming no losses and a wholesale price of 15 cents each, the wholesale
value of 100 pounds of milk would be $3.90. The labor cost of production
is high, the package represents (box, wrapping and label) at least 1½
cents a cheese. The time between the purchase and the consumption of the
cheese will average about one month. Few cheeses actually remain this
length of time in the possession of the maker. This short investment
period, therefore, is a distinct advantage of Camembert. Among
disadvantages, however, the extremely perishable character of the fully
ripe cheese makes provision of an adequate and constant market
essential. Losses due to failures in manufacturing or ripening
conditions are also frequent. Excessive heat in summer and very cold
periods in winter are both unfavorable. The Camembert-maker cannot,
therefore, use the cheapest milk of the summer months at all and the
losses entailed by failure of control in winter fall on the most costly
milk of the year. Camembert requires, therefore, careful selection of
the location for manufacture and ripening, effective control of
conditions throughout the period and adequate marketing facilities.
Camembert at its best is one of the finest of all cheeses; when bad, it
becomes quickly inedible and is a total loss.
+153. French Brie.+[54]--Brie cheese has its center of production in
Seine-et-Marne, east of Paris in northern France. The apparatus,
arrangement of the factories and details of manipulation differ from
those described for Camembert, but the final product is in flavor and
texture closely related to Camembert. Brie cheeses are the same
thickness as Camembert, 1 to 1¼ inches; in diameter, however, there
are three or more sizes varying from 8 to 16 inches, or even greater.
The largest cheeses weigh 5 to 6 pounds. As in Camembert, practices of
making and ripening vary to such a degree as to produce various
qualities of product. These run from whole milk through all shades of
skimming. Perhaps the best established practice puts the cheese-making
room next to the stalls of the cows. The milk is drawn, strained
directly into the curdling cans and renneted while still warm,--86-92°
F. (30-33° C.). No lactic starter is added and no ripening period is
given to the milk. The other manipulations differ only in detail from
Camembert. Ripening of Brie follows the same course with the same
organic agents, namely, Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_) and
_Oidium lactis_ with the accompaniment of a mixture of slimy organisms
upon the surface of the cheese. The process admits of many minor
modifications each capable of affecting the product in a characteristic
way. The judgment and skill of the maker is given a wide opportunity to
establish and work toward a particular ideal of appearance and texture
and flavor. Brands with characteristic qualities, therefore, command
their own market.
Brie as known in France must not be confused with the American
"d'Isigny," or with the particular sizes of that type which have been
called Brie on account of diameter only. Very little Brie as known in
France has been made in America and only a limited amount has been
imported for very restricted trade.
+154. Coulommiers.+--Another member of the Camembert group is called,
from its place of origin, Coulommiers. This form is made at the same
thickness as Camembert and about 5¼ inches in diameter. It appears as
either a ripened or unripe cheese. As a ripened cheese, Coulommiers is
not essentially different from Camembert except that some brands are
made without salting. As a cheese eaten unripe, it has certain
advantages over the other cheeses with the flavor of sour milk only. The
cottage and (American) Neufchâtel group of cheeses comprises the best
known forms with the acid flavor. These cheeses are very perishable in
nature. On the other hand, Coulommiers as eaten fresh can be held and
used over a much longer time without loss. Coulommiers[55] in this sense
is simply a fresh Camembert. Such a cheese, when ready for the salting
process, is a firm sour mass, close textured, almost impervious to air
and but slowly permeable to liquids. Spoilage in such a cheese begins
only on the outside, and not throughout the mass as in cottage cheese or
Neufchâtel. Successive portions of such a cheese can be removed daily
over a considerable period with no loss of substance aside from slight
scraping at times and little or no change in flavor. This product has
very tangible merit for manufacture and use on the farm in many sections
of America.
CHAPTER IX
_SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA_
A bacterially-ripened series of cheeses parallels the mold-ripened group
as typified by Camembert. Although the varieties overlap, these may be
roughly grouped as: (1) those made from friable or soft curd; (2) those
made from firm or rubbery curd. In the first group, the curd is set at
86° F., or below; in the second, the rennet is added at 90° F. or above.
In the first, the lower temperature and long curdling time with ripened
milk gives a soft friable curd which may be toughened somewhat by
cutting and stirring in the whey. This section is typified by d'Isigny,
American Brie, Liederkranz. In the second, curdling of unripened milk at
temperatures of 90° F. or above insures a smooth elastic curd which
fuses more or less completely into the firm rubbery mass typified by
freshly made Limburger.
+155. The Isigny group.+--A series of names, d'Isigny, Brie, Brie
d'Isigny, combined with trade names, are used for a domestic cheese,
made in a small number of factories distributed over New York,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and California. The
cheeses sold under the separate varietal names differ only in diameter;
their thickness is fairly uniform; the process of manufacture and
ripening with resultant textures and flavors furnishes no fundamental
varietal characters, although the products of the several factories show
noticeable differences in market quality. D'Isigny, while the name of a
French town famous for butter production, is not used to designate a
cheese in France. It may, therefore, be accepted as a French name
arbitrarily applied to a domestic product. Brie as used in France is a
markedly different cheese (p. 131), and the name should be dropped from
this form as made in America. As used for a member of this series made
in America, it merely means cheese 7 to 15 inches in diameter. The
cheese partakes of the characters of French Livarot, and of Pont
l'Eveque without exactly reproducing either form.
The milk varies from separator skim to whole milk, with resultant
differences in quality. Freedom from gas is essential to the best
results. The milk is curdled at 85° to 86° F. with sufficient rennet to
produce a very firm curd within a period of one and one-half hours. Curd
is then cut in two directions, allowed to stand a few minutes or gently
agitated to produce a very slight toughness or "worked" condition, then
scooped into hoops 4½ to 5 inches in height and varying in diameter
from 2½ to 15 inches according to the size selected for manufacture.
To aid in the escape of whey, three rows of holes 1/12 inch in diameter
and 2 inches apart in the row are made in each hoop. The hoops are
arranged upon draining tables with more or less corrugated surface,
which for best drainage should be covered with matting. The cheeses are
allowed to drain without pressure. They are commonly turned the second
morning, although they are sometimes solid enough to turn within the
first day. When fully drained, the cheeses are salted by rubbing coarse
salt on the surface, after which they stand an extra day. They are then
arranged upon shelves in a ripening room held between 50° and 60° F.
with humidity so high that evaporation is kept at a minimum. In this
room, a surface slime develops quickly. This consists of bacteria of
several forms, yeasts, _Oidium lactis_ and accidental species of other
molds. During this ripening, the cheeses are turned, rubbed with the
hands, washed with salt water and scraped if infected with molds which
produce colored colonies. In the course of ripening, the slimy surface
layer acquires a yellowish orange color with the strong odor and taste
characteristic of the series.
Brands of d'Isigny are made from every grade between separator skim and
whole milk. They reach the market in condition all the way from "Kosher"
forms[56] which are eaten entirely unripe, to brands which approximate
the qualities of Limburger and others which approach Port du Salut.
The biology and chemistry of the ripening of this type of cheese have
not been completely followed. An initial souring process always takes
place quickly. _Oidium lactis_ is always present in some degree on the
surface, but the organisms in the yellowish to orange slime on the
surface of the cheese appear to produce the characteristic odor and
taste. These appear to be due to the development of volatile fatty
acids, such as valerianic and caproic, which diffuse throughout the
cheese, even penetrating the unripened sour portions. The same odor and
taste in varying intensity are present in Limburger, Brick, and a long
series of German varieties not handled in America.
High-flavored cheeses such as these, form an acceptable part of the meal
in cases in which the intensity of other flavors is such as to mask
entirely the milder flavors of Camembert or cream cheese.
In composition, a characteristic whole-milk brand of this group showed
the following analysis:[57] water, 45.5 per cent; fat, 25.28 per cent;
protein, 18.22 per cent.
+156. Raffiné.+[58]--This cheese is made in the French settlement of the
Isle of Orleans in the St. Lawrence River. The practice seems to have
been brought from France and represents an intermediate product between
Camembert and perhaps Livarot, a cheese on the borderline between
Camembert and Isigny as made in America. The outline of the making
process as given follows: Milk freshly drawn is curdled without cooling,
at approximately 90° F. The rennet is prepared on the farm. About
one-half hour is required for curdling. The curd is cut into 2-inch
cubes. Whey is removed as fast as it separates. About two hours are
required for draining. The curd then goes into the hoops. The metal
hoops, which are closed at one end, are 6 inches high, 4½ inches in
diameter, with holes about 1/16 inch at intervals of about ½ inch, and
stand upon three legs about 1 inch in height. When filled, the cheeses
are left on a draining table. Some salt is put on top while draining.
When the volume is reduced to one-half, the cheese is turned. The
draining room is kept at about 70° F. After they are firm enough to
handle, drainage is completed on racks covered with rush matting. These
are arranged on special racks. The cheeses are turned twice a day, and
washed in slightly salted water every two days. After each washing, they
are drained for two hours on cloth, and placed on clean matting. This
treatment continues about fifteen days.
After fifteen days on the matting, the cheeses are ready for ripening.
They are first covered with cold brine and let stand twenty-four hours.
The cheeses are packed in rolls or tiers in boxes, covered with cloth
and ripened at 45° F. They must be kept moist; if signs of drying
appear, moisture must be added. If the cheeses develop yellow slime,
they are washed with clear water and rinsed in water with salt added.
After a ripening period of three weeks, the cheeses should begin to be
soft when pressed with the finger. The growth of molds must be prevented
by washing the boxes, cloths, and washing and scraping the cheeses if
necessary. When the cheeses are ready for the market, they are scraped
clean and white, wrapped separately in cheese-cloth or parchment paper
and packed into the boxes. Ripe cheeses are about 5 inches in diameter,
1 inch thick and weigh a little over 5 ounces.
The outline of the Raffiné process follows:
coagulation by rennet 30 minutes
cutting and draining curd 2 hours
draining in hoops 10 hours
stand on mats 15 days
ripening in boxes 21 days
Total period 36 days
The treatment described closely resembles the handling of Livarot cheese
in the department of Calvados, France.
+157. Liederkranz cheese.+--Among the specialties in the bacterial group
is Liederkranz, made from curd with the soft friable texture of a
Camembert, molded in rectangular blocks of about 4 ounces in weight and
ripened very completely. Although this name is the private brand of a
single factory, it has become widely known with the effect of creating a
type name in the American market. Analysis of this brand of cheese
gives about 55 per cent water, 25 per cent fat, 17 per cent protein,
which indicates a whole milk cheese.
+158. Limburger cheese+[59] derives its name from the town of Limburg in
Belgium. The manufacture of this cheese is now widely practiced in
Europe and in certain parts of the United States, especially in New York
and Wisconsin. Practically no cheese of this name is at present
imported, and the practices described are limited to those in American
factories.
+159. The milk.+--Limburger cheese is probably best known on account of
its pronounced odor. Because of this characteristic pungent smell, it is
often thought that the cheese is made in dirty or unsanitary places. On
the contrary, Limburger cheese is usually made in small factories which
are clean and sanitary. Because of the constant attention required, a
cheese-maker can handle only about 2000-2500 pounds of milk a day, and
then some help is necessary to care for the cheeses in the curing
room.[60] The discussion of the milk given in Chapter II applies to that
to be made into Limburger cheese; however, Limburger requires sweeter
milk than do some of the other types. To be sure of obtaining very sweet
milk, it is the usual practice for the milk to be delivered without
cooling morning and evening at the cheese factory. The cheese is made
twice a day. Because the milk must be delivered twice daily, it is
obtained from only a few producers near the factory. A factory usually
does not have more than eight to twelve patrons. Because of the small
number of patrons, it is comparatively easy to obtain a supply of fresh
clean milk.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A common type of Limburger cheese factory.]
The factories are variously built. A common type takes advantage of
sloping ground so that the floor at one end may be on the ground level
and run backward into a hillside until the other end is a cellar with
small windows at the ceiling opening at the ground level (Fig. 23). The
family of the cheese-maker often lives in the same building above the
factory.
+160. Making the cheese.+--Limburger cheese is made from the whole milk.
When the milk is received at the factory, it is placed in the cheese
vat. As the milk is delivered both morning and evening without cooling,
it reaches the factory at a temperature of 90 to 96° F. In some cases
the night's and morning's milk is mixed and then warmed to about 94° F.
This practice is not recommended but is frequently adopted, when the
supply of milk becomes too small to work in two lots. As soon as all of
the milk has been delivered, the cheese-making process begins. No
starter is used. The milk is not ripened because no acid development
during the making process is desired. The milk is set or curdled at the
temperature at which it is received at the factory, usually from 90 to
96° F. Sufficient rennet extract is used to give a firm coagulation in
twenty to thirty minutes. This usually requires 2½ to 3 ounces of
rennet extract for each 1000 pounds of milk: This is diluted in about
forty times its own volume of cold water and added to the milk. (For
method of adding rennet extract to milk, see Chapter V.) When the
coagulum has become firm so that it will split clean over the finger,
the curd is ready to cut. Coarse Cheddar cheese knives are used.
Sometimes only the perpendicular knife is employed, and the curd is
broken up while being stirred with the hands and rake. This usually
causes a large fat loss. After cutting, the curd is stirred first by
hand and later with an ordinary wooden hay rake. Usually the curd is not
"cooked" or heated after setting, though occasionally it is brought up
as high as 96° F. to 98° F. If the curd does not firm up, the
temperature may be raised to 98° to 100° F. to aid in expelling the
moisture.
When ready to dip, the curd should still be in large soft shiny pieces.
It requires from one hour to an hour and thirty minutes from the time
the rennet extract is added until the curd is ready to dip. When, in the
judgment of the cheese-maker, the curd has become sufficiently firmed in
the whey, the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd. The curd is
then dipped into the Limburger molds. These molds are 5 inches square by
8 inches deep without top or bottom. Usually there are five or six of
these molds built together into a section. These molds are placed on a
draining table beside the vat and the curd is ladled into them with a
large tin ladle. The draining table has strips on both sides and one end
and slants toward the other end so that the whey will drain from the
curd and yet not go on the floor except at the one end. This makes it
easy to save and catch the whey for stock feed.
+161. Draining and salting Limburger.+--In some factories, a clean piece
of burlap is put on the draining table and the molds and curd placed on
the burlap. This aids in the rapid draining of the whey from the curd
and prevents the loss of curd particles. The curd should be turned
frequently in the mold to obtain uniform draining. The molds are
transferred to the salting room as soon as well drained, usually in
about twelve hours, but sometimes they are left until the following
morning. Here they are placed on another draining table, which has
strips about 5 inches high on the sides and one end. The cheeses are
placed along this board, each cheese being separated by a piece of board
4 inches high and 5 inches wide. When the row is filled, a long strip
the length of the table is placed against the row. Another row is laid
down against this strip in the same manner as the first, and so on until
several rows are on the table. The last long strip is held firmly in
place by sticks wedged between it and the opposite side of the table.
These strips and pieces form a mold for each cheese while draining.
Usually the cheeses are turned several times in this period to obtain a
uniform expulsion of whey. In about twenty-four hours the cheeses are
ready to be salted. This is done by applying the salt to the outside of
the cheese. The edges are rolled in a box of salt and the salt then
rubbed on the two broad surfaces. Any excess salt is brushed from the
cheese with the hand. The cheeses are then laid on a draining table in
single layers. The second day, they are salted again in the same way and
piled two deep; they are salted again the third day and piled three or
four layers deep. The salting room or cellar should have a temperature
of 60° F. and be fairly damp. The amount of salt used is very important.
The tendency is to use too much salt. This retards the ripening process
and in extreme cases gives the cheese a salty taste. If not enough salt
is used, the cheese will deteriorate very rapidly on account of the
development of undesirable types of fermentation. The cheeses when
salted are then placed in the curing room, which is a cellar, usually
beyond the salting room. This cellar should have a temperature of 58° to
64° F. and a relative humidity of 95 per cent of saturation. In winter
it is necessary to have a fire to keep the rooms warm, otherwise the
cheese would cure very slowly or not at all. In some factories the
curing and salting cellars are a single room.
+162. Ripening Limburger.+--When first placed in the curing cellar, the
cheeses are put on edge close together, and as they cure are gradually
separated. While in the curing cellar, the cheese must be rubbed
frequently by hand and washed, usually with salt water. The object of
the rubbing is to keep the surface of the cheese moist and prevent the
growth of molds. The drier the cheese and the more mold, the oftener the
cheeses must be rubbed. The drying or the evaporation from the cheese
can be retarded by sprinkling the floor of the cellar with water. When
first placed in the curing cellar, they are usually rubbed daily; after
a few days they are rubbed every other day and finally as often as the
cheese-maker can find time to work at them. The more the cheeses are
rubbed, the better the rind.
In the curing of Limburger cheese, protein compounds are attacked by the
micro-organisms. Certain highly-flavored fatty acids are commonly
produced.[61] This change works most rapidly near the outside and more
slowly toward the center of the cheese. The stage of ripening can be
determined by examining the cheese. When first made, a cheese is harsh
and hard and the outside is more or less white: as the curing changes
take place, the cheese becomes soft and pasty or buttery. The outside
color changes from a whitish to a yellowish and finally even a reddish
brown. It requires considerable time for the ripening agents to work
from the outside to the center of the cheese. As ripening progresses,
Limburger cheeses tend to become soft enough to break in handling. If
such cheeses are wrapped in manila paper after three to four weeks of
ripening and packed in boxes, losses from handling are eliminated. One
loose board is left on each box and the boxes remain in the ripening
cellar until the cheese-maker decides by removal and examination of
cheeses from time to time that they are ready for shipment. When fully
ripe, the cheese spoils very quickly. Unless handled very carefully, the
outer part may actually rot before the interior is fully ripe. The
cheeses are shipped from the factory when they are eight to ten weeks
old. They are then placed in cold storage, which checks the action of
the ripening agents and so lengthens the commercial life of the cheese.
+163. Marketing and qualities of Limburger.+--As shipped from the
factory, each cheese is wrapped in heavy manila paper and frequently
also in tin-foil. The cheeses are packed in boxes which hold
forty-eight. Each cheese weighs about two pounds.
Limburger cheese should be regular in shape. The rind should not be
cracked or broken nor the sides bulged, nor should it be lopsided. It
should have the pronounced characteristic flavor, without other
objectionable flavors due to undesirable fermentations. The body should
be uniform throughout. It is common to find cheeses that have not a
uniform body, due to lack of curing; a small part of the interior at the
center will be hard and not cured, while the remainder of the cheese
will be soft and buttery. The color should be uniform. When not entirely
cured, the uncured part at the center is usually of a lighter color.
The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt. The most common
defect is in the flavor. If the milk is not free from bad odors and
flavors, these are apt to be more pronounced in the cheese than in the
milk. (For care of milk see Chapter II.) Gas-forming fermentations are
very bad in this variety of cheese as they cannot be controlled and give
the cheese a bad flavor and a "gassy body." When a cheese is gassy, the
sides are most liable to be bulged and the body is full of gas holes or
pockets. Another defect is a sour cheese. This is caused by the
development of too much acid in the milk or during the manufacturing
process. A sour cheese usually cures slowly and has a pronounced sour
taste. The body is hard and bitter.
If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will cure rapidly and the
body will be very soft and pasty. In extreme cases it will be so soft
that it will run when the rind is broken. On the other hand if the
cheese does not contain sufficient moisture, it will cure very slowly
and the body will be hard and dry and sometimes crumbly. There is no
standard score-card for judging Limburger cheese. The Wisconsin
Cheese-makers Association[62] uses the following score-card for
Limburger:
Flavor 40
Texture 40
Color 10
Salt 5
Style 5
---
Total 100
+164. Yield and composition of Limburger.+--The yield of cheese depends
on: (1) the amount of fat and other solids in the milk from which it is
made; (2) the amount of moisture incorporated into cheese; (3) the loss
of solids during the manufacturing process.
The yield varies from 12 to 14 pounds of cheese from 100 pounds of milk.
The more fat and other solids in the milk, the more cheese can be made
from 100 pounds of the milk. The more moisture incorporated into the
cheese, the larger the yield. The quality of the cheese and the amount
of solids determine the amount of moisture that can be incorporated into
the cheese. The greater the losses during the manufacturing process, the
less is the yield. The composition of Limburger cheese is affected by
the same factors as the yield. The average cheese probably carries from
40 to 42 per cent of moisture. Limburger cheeses will vary in
composition from this analysis about as follows: water 38 to 44 percent,
protein 21 to 25 percent, fat 25 to 30 percent. The differences in
practice in factory groups are considerable. Certain markets call for
more solid brands, others for the very soft forms.
+165. Münster cheese+ originated in Germany near the city whose name it
bears. There is a limited demand for this variety in America; therefore
it is not extensively made. It is usually manufactured from whole milk
in a Limburger or Brick cheese factory. The process of manufacture is
between that of these two varieties in temperatures used, firmness of
curd and amount of moisture in the curd and cheese. The process is
probably more like that of Limburger. The curd is firmed more in the
whey than for Limburger, and more acid is developed. The cheeses are
pressed or drained in round forms 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches
high. The hoops are lined with cloth to prevent the loss of curd
particles while draining. When the cheeses are sufficiently drained,
until they are firm enough to hold their shape, the cloths are removed.
The cheese is salted by rubbing dry salt on the surface or soaking the
cheese in brine. The product is handled in the curing room very much the
same as Limburger or Brick cheese. When sufficiently ripe, each cheese
is wrapped in parchment paper and placed in a separate wooden box. This
cheese, when cured, has a characteristic flavor which is between that of
Limburger and Brick. The body is more or less open. The essential factor
in the manufacture of Münster cheese is clean milk. Bad fermentations,
such as produce gas and bad flavors, seriously interfere with the
manufacture and sale of the product. The cheese is usually made in the
late fall and winter, when it is difficult to manufacture Limburger.
CHAPTER X
SEMI-HARD CHEESES
Between the quickly perishable soft cheeses and the typical hard group,
are two series of varieties, one ripened by green mold and best known by
Roquefort, the other ripened by bacteria and typified by Brick cheese.
These cheeses are fairly firm, hold their shape well, ripen over a
period varying from a few weeks to several months and their marketable
period is comparatively long. In texture they are intermediate between
the conditions known as "soft" and "hard." In water-content, they range
at their best from 37 to 45 percent. Outside these limits, the cheeses
are often marketable but they lose in quality[63] and trueness to type.
+166. The green mold group.+--There are three well-known semi-hard
cheeses ripened by green or blue-green mold.[64] The mold is an
incidental factor in certain other forms but none of these forms has won
larger than local or purely national recognition. French Roquefort, on
the contrary, is probably the most widely known of all cheeses. Stilton,
to a small degree at least, has followed the English to the many lands
they inhabit. Gorgonzola, although made in Italy alone, has a large
market in other parts of Europe and in America. In the manipulations of
manufacture, these forms are not closely related but they resemble each
other in that each becomes streaked or marbled by the growth of green
mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) through open spaces within the cheese.
The "blue-veined" or marbled cheeses have a characteristic taste which
is developed in its most typical form in Roquefort.
+167. Roquefort cheese.+--This is a rennet cheese made from sheep's milk
(with occasional and minor admixture of goat's and cow's milk) in the
section of southern France centering about Roquefort in Aveyron. The
practices are standardized and controlled by a few companies, thus
reaching exceptional uniformity. Roquefort is uncolored, open, made from
firm but brittle or crumbly, not tough or waxy curd. Each cheese is
about 7¼ inches (20 cm.) in diameter and 3¼ inches (9 cm.) in
thickness without a definite rind, and when ripe enough for market is
scraped carefully, closely covered with tin-foil and kept in
refrigerators. The cut cheese shows extensive open spaces which are
lined with green mold. This cheese, in addition to a strong cheesy odor
and taste, has a peppery or burning quality which according to
Currie[65] is due to the formation of volatile fatty acids such as
caproic, caprylic and capric from the butter-fat of the sheep's milk
used. A series for Roquefort cheeses selected for excellent quality was
found by Dox[66] to show the following composition:
TABLE IV
COMPOSITION OF ROQUEFORT CHEESE
=========================================================
| WATER | FAT | PROTEIN | ASH | SALT
| PER | PER | PER | PER | PER
| CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT
--------------+--------+-------+---------+------+--------
Average | 38.69 | 32.31 | 21.39 | 6.14 | 4.14
Minimum | 37.49 | 31.50 | 19.14 | 5.18 | 3.64
Maximum | 40.10 | 33.53 | 23.06 | 6.81 | 4.88
=========================================================
The composition of the sheep's milk of the Roquefort producing region is
reported by Marre:[67]
TABLE V
COMPOSITION OF SHEEP'S MILK
=============================================================
| WATER | CASEIN | FAT | LACTOSE | ASH
| PER | PER | PER | PER | PER
| CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT
-------------+-------+--------+----------+---------+---------
Range | 76-83 | 5-8 | 5.5-10.5 | 4 to 5 | 0.8-1.2
Average | 79.5 | 6.5 | 8.0 | 4.5 | 1.0
=============================================================
The cheeses when properly made in the local factories are transported to
Roquefort for ripening in the famous caves which have made possible the
development of a great industry.
The Roquefort caves were originally natural openings leading back into
the face of a cliff until they reached a deep, narrow fault or crack in
the rock leading to the plains above. The cooler air from the plains
came down this crack over moist and dripping rocks and issued through
these clefts in a cold moisture-laden current which kept the caves about
50 to 55° F. and moist enough to ripen the cheeses without shrinkage. As
the business outgrew the natural caves, great cellars, some of them five
or six floors deep, were excavated and tunnels were dug back to the
crack so that the strong ventilating current reaches every part of the
cellars and keeps both temperature and relative humidity favorable to
the ripening of the cheeses.
+168. Cow's milk or Façons Roquefort.+--The supply of Roquefort is
automatically limited by the supply of sheep's milk. The sheep gives
milk only about five months in the year and at best a scant average of
about a pint a day to a sheep. Sheep's milk for cheese-making is not
produced, therefore, outside of very limited regions. Some cow's and
goat's milk unavoidably finds its way regularly into the industry
itself. Attempts were naturally made to substitute cow's milk. Outside
the controlled area, factories were established for this purpose. The
quality of the product did not equal that of the Roquefort factories,
and French courts decreed that the name Roquefort should not be used for
such products. Although some local success was obtained, not much
progress was made against the intrenched Roquefort industry. Similar
attempts to make such a product in Germany[68] were tried on an
extensive scale but failed. More recently, under the inspiration of
Conn, the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs
Experiment Station have studied the possibilities of such an industry.
Although the work is not completed, the preliminary reports[69] have
indicated the fundamental principles which must underlie such
development.
+169. Outline of making Roquefort.+--Some of the results of these
experiments are summarized in the following paragraphs:
_Milk._--Clean-flavored fresh milk testing 4-4.2 per cent fat and up to
2.8 per cent casein gives the best results. The milk with a high
percentage of cheese-making solids forms a firmer curd, hence works up
better in the process than milk of lower quality.
_Acidity._--The milk is ripened by lactic starter up to an acidity of
0.23 per cent titrated as lactic acid at the time rennet is added. This
gives a firm curd, which drains to the desired water-content but is low
enough to prevent the toughening effect of too high acid. A very slight
increase in initial acid--1 to 2 hundredths per cent--combined with the
rate at which acidity is developing introduces such physical changes in
texture as to make the final texture of Roquefort impossible.
_Temperature._--Rennet is added at or below 84° F. Every degree of heat
adds definitely to the efficiency of rennet. Below 82° F., curdling
becomes slower and the coagulum softer and more difficult to drain. The
sheep's milk curd is made from 76° to 84° F. but sheep's milk has about
twice the cheese solids found in cow's milk. It was found necessary to
raise the temperature as high as texture would permit. However, at 86°
F. the physical character of the curd tends to become tough or waxy in
handling. At 84° F. the curd remains brittle and crumbly. It was,
therefore, necessary to keep the curdling temperature down to 84° F.
_Renneting or setting._--Rennet at a rate of 3 to 4 ounces of standard
liquid rennet to 1000 pounds (10 to 12 c.c. to 100 pounds) was found to
give the best curd under experimental conditions.
_Curdling time._--One and one-half to two hours gave most satisfactory
results in forming curd. This should be very firm and stand until it
begins to "sweat," until beads of whey have begun to collect upon its
surface.
_Cutting._--The cow's milk curd gave best results when cut in two
directions with the half-inch curd knife. The resulting columns, a half
inch square in cross-section, may be handled without excessive losses.
_Draining._--The cut curd is dipped to a draining rack covered with
cloth with as little breaking as possible. During the draining process,
a certain amount of turning is necessary to facilitate the separation
and escape of the whey. If handled too much, losses of fat are increased
and the curd becomes tough or waxy instead of remaining brittle or
crumbly. When properly handled, not over 0.35 per cent of fat is lost.
Under favorable conditions, four-ninths to two-thirds of the original
weight of curd will separate and run off as whey in twenty to thirty
minutes. The curd meanwhile is exposed to the air of the room and cools
toward room temperature. If cooling goes too far, further drainage is
interfered with. Hence the curd is put into the hoop and the drainage
completed while the cheese is reaching its final form.
_Hoop._--Hoops for cow's milk Roquefort must be 7½ inches in diameter
and about 5¾ inches high to hold curd enough to produce a cheese the
size of the standard Roquefort when completely drained. Sheep's milk
with its higher percentage of solids does not require such high hoops.
The curd as it goes into the hoop should be a soft, pulpy mass with no
suggestion of toughness.
_Inoculation with mold._--The mold for Roquefort cheese (_Penicillium
Roqueforti_[70]) is readily grown in pure culture in ordinary loaves of
bread. For this purpose loaves hot from the oven are quickly drenched
with or immersed in hot paraffine to form an impervious crust to retain
moisture as well as to keep out contaminations. It is then allowed to
cool. The interior of each loaf is inoculated by drawing a suspension of
_P. Roqueforti_ spores in water into a sterile pipette (10 c.c.) which
is then thrust through the paraffined crust to the center of the loaf of
bread and allowed to empty there. The hole is sealed up with paraffine.
These loaves are incubated for about a month at room temperature. When
cut, every open space should be found lined with the green spores of the
mold. When dry enough, the mass may be powdered, and put into an
ordinary pepper box. When the curd is ready to go into the hoop, this
mold powder is sprinkled upon it from the pepper box.
_Handling._--Freshly made cheeses are turned within the first hour to
insure the proper smoothness of both sides. Further draining is best
accomplished in a room at about 64° F. with a relative humidity of 85 to
90 per cent. If the surface of the cheese becomes too dry, a rind is
formed. No real rind is permitted on Roquefort. If the temperature is
too high, slime forms quickly and unfavorable fermentation may occur.
Slime (bacteria and _Oidium lactis_ usually) must be scraped when it
becomes too heavy.
_Salting._[71]--Experimental cheeses were found to give the best results
when at the end of about three days' drainage they contained about 50
per cent water. Such cheeses were salted by sprinkling the entire
surface lightly, replaced upon the drain boards for one day, salted
again and piled in two's. After another day they received the third
salting and were piled in three's for two days longer. A total of about
10 per cent by weight of salt was used to secure an absorption of 4 per
cent. At the same time the water-content dropped to 40 to 43 per cent.
After salting is completed, the cheeses are brushed and punched with
holes to permit oxygen to enter.[72] They are then ready for ripening.
+170. Ripening of Roquefort.+--The ripening of experimental Roquefort
has required four to six months at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per
cent. This relative humidity is just below the equilibrium relative
humidity of the cheese, hence permits a shrinkage of 2 to 4 per cent in
the water-content of the cheese. This makes it possible to control the
amount of surface slime developed.
If the relative humidity goes too high, the surface slime of bacteria
and yeasts becomes very heavy, soft and almost liquid, and follows the
openings into the cheese with resultant damage to appearance and flavor.
Even under the conditions at Roquefort, this slime must be removed by
rubbing or scraping several times to avoid injury to the cheeses,
together with the production of bad odor and taste. If the humidity
becomes too low, the surface becomes dry, hard and cracks open, the
friable crumbly texture is injured, and there is considerable loss in
weight. Salt forms about 4 per cent of the cheese. This is in solution
in the water present, which is about 40 per cent, and makes a brine of
about 10 per cent strength. This strength of brine does not prevent the
growth of the Roquefort mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) but does hinder
the development of _Oidium lactis_ in the open spaces within the cheese.
Accurate adjustment of temperature and relative humidity in the ripening
rooms to salt and water-content in the cheese is essential to proper
ripening. These conditions are furnished by the unique natural
conditions of the caves of Roquefort. The production of such cheeses
elsewhere depends either on the discovery of another locality with
closely similar conditions or on the artificial production and control
of the necessary temperature and relative humidity. This has been done
on an experimental basis by the use of cold storage apparatus combined
with proper humidifiers.
The differences between working with sheep's and with cow's milk lie in
the making process rather than in the ripening. Sheep's milk freshly
drawn shows a higher acidity than cow's milk, probably on account of the
acid reaction of its greater casein content. With nearly double the
total solids of cow's milk, the yield to one hundred pounds is much
greater, consequently the drainage of the curd is much more easily
handled.
Once made and salted, the cheeses require very nearly the same
conditions of ripening. The resultant products are alike in appearance
and texture. In flavor, cow's milk Roquefort differs in character from
sheep's milk cheese to such a degree as to be recognized by taste. The
difference was found by Currie[73] to be due to an actual difference in
the combination of fatty acids present.
Although these differences in character are recognizable by the expert
in testing the cheese, as well as by chemical analysis, cow's milk
Roquefort would satisfy that large proportion of consumers who use such
cheese only in connection with other fairly high flavored foods. The
demands for technical skill and factory equipment are not naturally
greater than for many other lines of cheese-making. The gradual
development of a cow's milk Roquefort may be anticipated.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Gorgonzola ripening establishment in valley
near Lecco.]
+171. Gorgonzola+[74] is a rennet cheese made from fresh whole cow's
milk, in northern Italy. It takes its name from the village of
Gorgonzola, a few miles from Milan, but the manufacture of the cheese
has spread over a wide area. The cheeses are made on farms and in
factories from which they are transported for ripening to cool valleys
of the Alps, principally near Lecco (Fig. 24). Boeggild introduced the
making of a cheese after the Gorgonzola process into Denmark about 1885.
This industry has been successful on a small scale since that time.
Gorgonzola cheeses are about 30 cm. (12 inches) in diameter and 18 cm.
(7 inches) thick and weigh 15 to 20 pounds. As exported they are usually
heavily coated[75] with a mixture usually barite, tallow and lard
colored with annatto or other cheese color. This coating prevents
shrinkage or mold on the surface of the cheese in transit. When cut
these cheeses vary greatly. All show marbling with mold (Roquefort
mold). During their ripening they become very slimy at the surface. To
open up air spaces for mold growth, this slime is scraped off and holes
are punched into the cheeses. These holes are readily seen in the final
product. Some show crumbly texture, well distributed mold, as in
Roquefort, with flavor approaching that cheese; in others the texture is
waxy rather than crumbly, a condition correlated regularly with
different character in the flavor. Frequently in whole areas or in small
pockets, slime consisting of bacteria and Oidium has followed the
openings into the cheese and affects its odor and taste.
Experimental Gorgonzola cheeses comparable with the Italian product were
made with cow's milk ripened as for Roquefort or higher, to 0.25-0.30
per cent (titrated as lactic acid), curdled at 86° F. (30° C.), cut into
cubes and slightly stirred, then dipped to a draining board for about
one-half hour, and put into the hoop. The cheeses drained quickly to
about 50 percent water and developed a surface rind as in the harder
cheeses. Cut surfaces showed a fairly open cheese in which mold grew
readily. These cheeses were salted to taste, not to a specified
percentage. They ripened with the same irregular results and the
characteristic range of flavors found in Gorgonzola. To avoid the
rotting of the cheese by surface growths, they were exposed to low
humidities for a time and cracks opened at the surfaces, as seen in the
ripening rooms at Lecco (Fig. 24). The texture was more or less waxy or
tough, which was correlated with the slightly higher heat at renneting
together with the stirring or "working" of the curd. Comparative
analyses of a series of imported cheeses confirm the interpretation that
the salt-content of Roquefort, 4 per cent approximately, prevents the
invasion of the interior of the cheese by Oidium. No complete study of
the ripening of Gorgonzola has been made. As far as followed, it
consists in an initial souring process followed by ripening by molds and
slime organisms. At its best, Gorgonzola is nearly equal to Roquefort
but the percentage of such quality is low. In spite of its irregular
quality, England has used larger amounts of Gorgonzola than of
Roquefort. Considerable quantities have been imported for the Italian
trade in the United States.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Gorgonzola cheese curing-room.]
+172. Stilton cheese+ bears the name of an English village[76] in which
it was first sold. It is made from cow's milk and is typically a whole
milk cheese, although part skim cheeses are regularly made and sold as
lower grades. In the Stilton-making counties, the milk from Shorthorn
cattle testing about 3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat is preferred to richer or
poorer grades. Such milk is curdled with rennet at about 86° F. in about
one hour; the curd is cut, dipped to a draining table covered with cloth
and drained slowly over a period of several hours, commonly overnight.
During this period considerable acidity is developed. The curd is then
milled or broken by hand, salted, packed into hoops 15 to 16 inches high
and 7 inches in diameter. These hoops are made from heavy tin (Fig. 26)
with four rows of holes about 3/10 inch in diameter. The freshly filled
hoops are allowed to stand and drain without pressure in a room at about
70° F. (Fig. 26). Such cheeses are turned every day for several days.
When solid enough to stand the hoops are removed, the cheeses are
scraped or rubbed with a knife until the surface is smooth, and commonly
wrapped with a cloth bandage to maintain the shape, if the cheese is
still too soft to stand firmly. In the factories, several rooms are used
with varying temperature and relative humidities, which makes it
possible to place each cheese under the condition best suited to its
texture and condition of ripeness. In general, the dairy sections of
England are much more humid than those of America and there are less
violent changes in temperature. Stilton cheese-making has grown up to
take advantage of this climatic factor in handling the product.
Transplantation of such an industry necessitates a mastery not only of
the manipulations but a grasp of the fundamental principles underlying
the process and a readjustment of practices to preserve those
principles.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Stilton cheeses in hoops, draining.]