EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS
Minucius Felix, about 160 A. D.—Tertullian, about 160 to about
230 A. D.—St. Cyprian, about 200-258 A. D.—Commodianus 249 A.
D.—Arnobius, about 290 A. D.—Lactantius, about 300 A. D.
[Sidenote: The beginning of Christian literature in Latin.] The
Christians are mentioned by Tacitus, the younger Pliny, and Suetonius,
but in such a way as to show that their religion was misunderstood
and their growing importance little appreciated. But as time went
on, Christianity and the Christians became more and more important.
Various means were tried to suppress them, for their belief and their
practises were opposed to the state religion and seemed inimical to the
state itself. Yet the new religion continued to gain in the number and
influence of its converts, and in the second century Christian writings
begin to appear in Latin. The new religion had been founded in the
eastern part of the empire, and its first literary productions were in
Greek, a language which continued for many years to be the chief medium
of expression for Christian thought. No sketch of the development of
Christianity, even in the western part of the empire, could be given
without more than a mere mention of the early Greek Christian writings;
but the development of Christianity is a subject quite outside of the
scope of this book, which is concerned with Christian literature only
in so far as it was written in Latin. Nor is it possible in a book of
this kind to do more than mention briefly the chief Christian writers
and their works, leaving all discussion of their doctrines to the
historians of the church.
[Sidenote: Minucius Felix.] The first Christian writer of Latin is
Marcus Minucius Felix, of whose life nothing is known except that
he was a barrister (_causidicus_) at Rome, that he was a pagan in
early life, and that he became a Christian. His only extant work is a
defense of Christianity entitled _Octavius_, which was written probably
not far from 160 A. D. The introduction tells how Minucius., with
his two friends Octavius and Cæcilius, was walking by the seashore
at Ostia. Cæcilius saluted a statue of Serapis which they happened
to pass, whereupon Octavius rebuked Minucius for letting his friend
remain in ignorance of the true religion. They continue their walk,
but Cæcilius can not let the rebuke of Octavius pass. At last the
three friends sit down, Cæcilius undertakes the defense of the old
religion, Octavius that of the new, and Minucius is to be judge of
their arguments. Cæcilius argues that it is absurd for persons of
little education, such as are most Christians, to think that they can
settle questions which have puzzled the wisest philosophers. The Roman
religion should therefore be retained, especially as the power of the
gods has often been shown. An attack upon the lives and ceremonies
of the Christians follows, which is interesting as a proof of the
ignorance that prevailed in pagan circles. Cæcilius then attacks the
Christian belief in a future life, and ends with a recommendation of
skepticism. His speech is vigorous and even vehement, showing marked
rhetorical training. Octavius in his reply takes up the various points
raised by Cæcilius and replies to them in order. He lays the chief
stress upon the unity of God and the absurdities of pagan polytheism
and philosophy. There is no argument based upon the crucifixion or
the resurrection of Christ, no argument that is strictly Christian.
There is no appeal to faith or to love, but only to reason, and the
arguments are not drawn from the Bible, but from the works of pagan
philosophers, especially Cicero’s _De Natura Deorum_ and Seneca’s
writings, or from the experiences of human life. When Octavius has
finished, Cæcilius declares that he is convinced and the friends
separate.
The _Octavius_ is different from other early writings in defense of
Christianity, inasmuch as it bases no argument upon the Bible and
makes no appeal to the emotions. These peculiarities are most easily
explained by the theory that Minucius wrote his treatise as a reply to
a speech of Fronto against Christianity, that he put the substance of
Fronto’s speech into the mouth of Cæcilius, and then, in the person
of Octavius, refuted it point for point. In style Minucius attains at
times an almost classic elegance and simplicity, though he shows the
influence of the rhetorical schools of the Silver Age and is sometimes
needlessly emphatic. He continues the tradition of the classical
school, with no trace of the affectations or innovations of Fronto or
Apuleius. Apart from its interest as the earliest specimen of Christian
writing in Latin, the _Octavius_ deserves to be read as the most
attractive Latin prose after the time of Trajan.
Minucius Felix is known to us by only one short work, in which he
displays conservative literary taste, cultivated imagination, and
ability to conduct an argument calmly and dispassionately. [Sidenote:
Tertullian.] Tertullian, a much more important figure than Minucius in
the history of the church, is known by a great body of writings, in
which the qualities he shows are almost the opposite of those we admire
in Minucius. Yet Tertullian is an interesting and powerful figure in
the history of literature as well as in that of the church. Quintus
Septimius Florens Tertullianus was born at Carthage, probably about 160
A. D., and may have died about 230 A. D. At any rate, the period of his
chief activity was in the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla. In
early life he was a pagan, but was converted to Christianity, possibly
through his wife, who was a Christian. He attained the position of
presbyter in the church. In middle life he became a Montanist—that
is, a follower of Montanus, an enthusiast of Ardaba, in Mysia, who
declared himself the Comforter promised by Christ, claimed prophetic
powers, declared that the end of the world was at hand, and promulgated
a variety of strict doctrines and rules for conduct. The writings
of Tertullian are from beginning to end controversial. Some of them
are in defense of Christianity against the heathen, while others are
directed against those Christian beliefs and practises which he does
not approve. To the second class belong the writings in support of
Montanism, for Tertullian was of such a passionate nature that an
argument in support of any doctrine necessarily becomes an attack upon
those who hold any other views. As the chief advocate of Montanism
in the west, Tertullian softened some of its more obviously absurd
doctrines, but could not modify them so far as to make them acceptable
to the church at large. He was therefore in constant opposition to the
church during the latter part of his life, and at a later time his
writings came to be regarded as heretical. Nevertheless, his works were
much read, and his _Apologeticus_ was even translated into Greek.
[Sidenote: Style of Tertullian.] Tertullian exercised the greatest
influence upon the Latin of the church, for up to his time most
speculative Christian writing had been in Greek, and he was therefore
obliged to invent or adapt the suitable means for the expression of
those thoughts and ideas which were unknown to the pagan writers. He
is justly regarded as the founder of western, as opposed to eastern
or Greek, theology. His style is harsh, inelegant, and sometimes
obscure, but vigorous and animated. His eloquence is that of intense
earnestness rather than of careful training. His vocabulary is not
strictly classic, but contains expressions taken from the popular
speech and from Greek, as well as others which he seems to have
formed for himself. He has been called the Cicero of the church, but
whatever the greatness of his eloquence, it has little resemblance
in quality to that of Cicero. Only in a few orations does Cicero
approach the enthusiastic earnestness of Tertullian, and the polished
beauty of Cicero’s periods is utterly lacking to Tertullian’s rugged
utterance. His style has more resemblance in detail to that of his
fellow-African Apuleius, but shows no evidence of conscious imitation.
He uses short sentences, as a rule, and even his long sentences have
no periodic structure; he strives for effect by means of unnatural
expressions; he delights in antitheses, plays on words, and even
rhymes. His Latin is hard to read, but his originality of thought and
his passionate earnestness of purpose compensate fully for his defects
of style. With Minucius Felix Christian writing in Italy appears as
an attempt to express Christian thoughts, or at least to defend the
Christian religion, with all the elegance of classical Latinity.
Tertullian writes with vigor and enthusiasm, hampered by no classical
traditions. The relative importance of the Italian and African schools
may be judged in a measure by the difference in extent between the
brief treatise of Minucius and Tertullian’s voluminous writings. For
nearly two centuries the style of Tertullian predominates, being only
gradually assimilated to the classical norm, until St. Augustine
fixes the Latin of the church by forming a style in which the African
elements are subordinate.
[Sidenote: Cyprian.] The beginning of this change is seen even in
the writings of Tertullian’s admirer, St. Cyprian. Thascius Cæcilius
Cyprianus was born of pagan parents about 200 A. D. The place of his
birth is unknown, but we are informed that he was an African. He
received a good education and became a teacher of rhetoric. After his
conversion he became a presbyter, and in 248 or 249 A. D. was chosen
bishop of Carthage, not without opposition. From January 21, 250 A.
D., until the beginning of March in the following year, he lived in
concealment to escape the persecution of the Christians under Decius.
His avoidance of martyrdom at this time was severely criticized, but he
defended it on the ground that his life was necessary to the welfare
of the church. In 257 A. D. a new persecution was instituted by the
Emperor Valerian, and Cyprian was banished to Curubis, but afterwards
recalled to Carthage and confined to his gardens. When ordered to
appear before the proconsul at Utica he fled, but returned to his
gardens when the proconsul came to Carthage. He was arrested September
13, 258 A. D., and on the following day was tried, condemned, and
executed. Cyprian’s writings comprise thirteen treatises and eighty-one
letters, among which are several letters manifestly by other authors.
Some of the treatises or tracts are addressed to individuals, and
some of the letters are to all intents and purposes tracts, so that
the division into two classes is not easy to carry out consistently.
His writings are partly in defense of Christianity against paganism,
partly for the encouragement of the Christians in persecution, and
partly on various points of church discipline. His letters are
especially valuable for the light they throw upon church history. His
doctrines are orthodox, and his writings were therefore not open to
the objections urged against those of Tertullian. He was, however,
an ardent admirer of Tertullian, and shows the constant influence of
his teachings. His style is easier and simpler than Tertullian’s,
always clear, and often attractive. Although he lacks Tertullian’s
originality, he excels him in ability to express his thoughts so as to
appeal to the reader.
[Sidenote: Commodianus.] The earliest Christian poet is Commodianus.
Of his life little is known, and the statement that he was born at
Gaza, in Syria, is based upon a somewhat doubtful interpretation of
the title of one of his poems.[133] In early life he was a pagan, but
was converted, and became a bishop. His works consist of a long poem
in defense of Christianity (_Carmen Apologeticum_) and a collection of
eighty short poems called _Instructions_ (_Instructiones per Litteras
Versuum Primas_) so composed that the initial letters of the lines
spell the titles of the poems. The _Carmen Apologeticum_ contains
references which fix its date in 249 A. D. The poems are remarkable for
the earnestness of their Christian feeling and still more for their
metrical peculiarities. The hexameters are divided into halves, and at
the end of each half the rules for quantity are observed, while in the
rest of the verse those rules are disregarded. The lines are not merely
faulty hexameters, but a new and original combination of quantitative
verse and prose. In the _Carmen Apologeticum_ the lines are arranged in
pairs, so that each pair forms a distich. The most remarkable part of
the _Carmen Apologeticum_ is the fantastic description of the end of
the world with which the poem closes. The _Instructiones_ are divided
into two books, the first warning the heathen and the Jews to lay aside
their errors, the second containing advice for the various classes
of Christians. In spite of the dryness of his style Commodianus is
interesting as the earliest Christian poet, and the student of language
finds in his poems many words and constructions taken from the common
speech of the people.
[Sidenote: Arnobius.] Much less interest attaches to the seven books
_Adversus Nationes_ (_Against the Gentiles_) by Arnobius, who wrote
under Diocletian (284-305 A. D.). Jerome says that Arnobius was a
distinguished rhetor at Sicca in Africa, who opposed Christianity for a
long time. When he became converted the bishop demanded a proof of his
faith, whereupon he wrote a work against the heathen and was received
into the church. Whether this report is accurate or not, a work is
extant under the name of Arnobius, entitled _Adversus Nationes_, which
shows by its style that the author had been trained in the practise
of rhetoric. The first two books defend the Christians against
the accusations of their enemies, especially the charge that the
misfortunes of the world were due to the progress of Christianity and
the neglect of the old gods. The five remaining books proceed to show
the absurdities of polytheism and the foolishness of the pagan forms of
worship. Arnobius has little knowledge of the Christian religion and
little originality of thought. The only doctrine peculiar to him is his
theory that the soul is not immortal by nature, but may become immortal
through the grace of God. His style is disfigured by its excessive
vehemence and artificial rhetoric, which shows, however, that the
author was carefully educated. This appears also in his discussion of
pagan philosophy and religion, and indeed the chief interest attaching
to the books _Adversus Nationes_ is their testimony to the manner
in which an educated pagan employed his education in the service of
Christianity.
[Sidenote: Lactantius.] Lactantius (Lucius Cæcilius Firmianus
Lactantius) was a pupil of Arnobius, according to Jerome’s statement,
and was called by Diocletian with the grammarian Flavius to teach Latin
rhetoric at Nicomedia, in Bithynia, a Greek city in which teachers
of Latin found few patrons. Lactantius was therefore poor and had
leisure for writing. When he was converted to Christianity is not
known, but it can not have been before he reached middle life. In his
old age he was called by the Emperor Constantine to be the tutor of
his son Crispus. Nothing remains of writings by Lactantius before his
conversion, but his later works, both prose and verse, are numerous.
The most important are the seven books entitled _Institutiones Divinæ_
(_Divine Institutions_, an exhaustive philosophical work in support of
Christianity against paganism), after which should be mentioned the
treatises _De Opificio Dei_ (_On the Work of God_, a discussion of
creation and the nature of man), _De Ira Dei_ (_On the Wrath of God_,
dealing with the current theories of Providence), a fanatical work
on the deaths of the persecutors from Nero to Galerius (_De Mortibus
Persecutorum_), and a curious poem _On the Phœnix_. The treatise _De
Opificio Dei_ is Christian only in its general tendency, and contains
no direct reference to Christianity. This is probably because it was
written at the time of the persecution under Diocletian (303 A. D.).
The poem _On the Phœnix_ (that fabulous bird that builds a nest,
burns itself up, reappears among the ashes as a worm, grows to an
egg, is hatched, and flies away to renewed life) shows many traces of
Christianity but contains no direct reference to the new religion.
Lactantius was well educated in the learning of the pagans, and when
he became a Christian did not forget what he had learned before. His
style is purer than that of his Christian predecessors, being modelled
upon that of Cicero. For this reason the name “Christian Cicero” has
been applied more appropriately to him than to Tertullian, though in
power of eloquence Tertullian, with all his harshness of style, is the
greater.
The second century, which saw the birth of Christian literature in
Latin, produced, as we have seen, several writers of real power, and as
the third century opened, Christian literature gained, in the person of
Lactantius, a writer who possessed at the same time elegance of style.
With Lactantius the African school of Christian writing approaches the
classical style of Minucius Felix, and the path is made straight for
the writings of St. Jerome and St. Augustine. From this time on, the
real life of Latin literature is seen in Christian rather than in pagan
writings.