gatekeeper, employment department, practically any assembly work,
painting, upholstering, salvage department, body work, soldering,
foundry work, machine operator, tester, dynamometer tester. Loss of a
leg should not be a serious handicap.
_Shell shock and nervousness._ Drafting, checker, inspector, timekeeper,
gatekeeper, lighter assembly work, painting, upholstering, body work,
soldering, coil work, generator assembly, magneto assembly, cut-out
assembly, electrical testing.
_Heart trouble and epilepsy._ Drafting, checker, inspector, light
assembly work, painting, upholstering, coil work, generator assembly,
cut-out assembly, electrical testing.
_Tuberculosis._ Loading crew checker (outside), inspector, car clerk,
yard stock keeper, special salvage department as found in some factories
especially set aside for tubercular people, outside trucking.
_Rheumatism._ Drafting, checker, inspector, painting, upholstering, body
mechanic, wheel assembly, general assembly work, salvage department,
machine operator, ignition expert, soldering, coil work, magneto
assembly, generator assembly, cut-out assembly, testing of electrical
equipment, laboratory work.
_Other disabilities, such as body wounds, etc., leaving patient in
delicate condition._ Drafting, checker, inspector, foreman, clerk,
employment department, information department, gatekeeper, electrical
machine operator, light assembly work, machine operator, upholstery,
soldering, light inspection work, magneto assembly, generator assembly,
stationary motor assembly, Bakelite machine operator; many other
operations which require very little strength and skill.
PLAN No. 1139. OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Edward Matteossian, Special Agent for the
Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles
H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due to
Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.
WHAT THE WELDER DOES
He handles a torch, or blowpipe, at the tip of which a flame is produced
by the burning of a mixture of two gases--acetylene and oxygen. A high
degree of heat is produced by this flame, which can be concentrated at
any point by proper handling of the torch.
The welder’s activities may be divided into two operations--welding and
cutting.
WELDING
In welding, metals, like or unlike, are joined together by melting them
until they fuse, “adding material” being used where it is required. The
welder also builds up worn parts or adds metal where it is lacking.
Common metals which can be treated by this process include the
following: Cast iron, steel, malleable iron, aluminum, copper, brass,
bronze, lead, and nickel. Precious metals also can be welded. Each metal
has its peculiar characteristics and mode of treatment, and the welder
who would turn out a good job must master the special technique for
handling each metal.
Welding forms the larger part of the welder’s activities. It is much
more difficult than cutting, and also has a wider field of application.
CUTTING
Cutting can be learned in a few hours. It is restricted in its scope, as
it can be used only on steel and wrought iron. The cutting torch is
similar to the welding torch with the difference that it is equipped
with a special outlet for oxygen under pressure. The operator turns on
his usual welding flame until the object is heated to a cherry red, and
then presses a device which turns on the oxygen, causing the metal to
burn away rapidly. The torch is then advanced slowly along the line of
the cut to be made. By practice comes the knack of steadiness and of
moving the torch at just the right speed to cut clear through the
metal--not too fast for complete penetration, nor too slow, causing loss
of oxygen.
WORK IN THE OPEN AND IN THE SHOP
Where the job can not be brought into the shop, welding and cutting are
done out of doors, and may be carried on under all conditions of
weather. Very commonly the process is used in cutting scrap, wreckage,
and piling, and in welding piping and mains.
Inside work varies from shop to shop according as the shop is part of a
manufacturing plant or of a foundry, or is purely a job welding shop.
Some account of the common uses of the processes in different industries
is given in the section below on “Industrial Applications.” In steam and
electric railway shops and yards, in shipbuilding, in the manufacture
and repair of automobiles, in installing pipes and mains, in sheet-metal
and metal plate work, in the manufacture of furniture, containers and
other metal products, and in foundry work, welding and cutting is being
extensively used to-day, and each day the welder’s field of operations
is still further extended.
WHAT LOCALITIES NEED WELDERS?
The answer is: All localities where industrial plants are located, or
where street railways are operated, or where farm machinery and
implements are made or repaired, or where automobiles are used or built.
Such localities will probably include your own home town or some town
not far away from home.
THE WELDER’S TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The numerous makes of torches on the market are of two general
types--the medium, or positive, pressure torch; and the low pressure, or
injector torch. Practically all the oxygen used comes in compressed form
in cylinders. Acetylene is more commonly generated on the premises,
owing to the cheapness of this method. It is piped into the buildings
and is always readily accessible. Generators, like torches, are of
various makes, but they vary in type to correspond to the two kinds of
torches, _i. e._, pressure generators, and low-pressure generators.
Generators are automatic in their action, being controlled by the flow
of gas. Where the gas is not generated in the establishment, and
especially in outdoor work, dissolved acetylene is used. This comes in
cylinders which are filled with porous material and contain acetone, a
liquid, in which the gas is dissolved under pressure.
Welding equipment varies according to circumstances. In general a
welding unit includes welding and cutting torches; hose and connections;
oxygen and acetylene regulators and gauges; a supply of various tips;
filler rods; goggles; friction lighters; gloves; asbestos sheets;
fluxes; hand tools, such as pliers, files, hammers and cold chisels;
welding table; preheating arrangement; fire brick; carbon blocks; and
V-blocks. It may include also, hand shear, anvil, hand forge, bench and
pipe vises, emery grinders, drill press, hack saw, jigs, lathe, hoist,
and work bench.
Practically all of the necessary equipment is furnished to the welder,
sometimes with exception of goggles, gloves, and overalls or leather
apron, which the welder may have to obtain for himself.
WHY TAKE TRAINING?
The aim of re-education is to turn out a good welder who has not only
the manipulative skill, but who in addition is well-grounded in the
necessary theoretical knowledge. It can not be too strongly pointed out,
in the view of the highly unsatisfactory method of turning out welders
obtaining in the past, that the course can not be too thorough. The need
is for good welders, not for half-trained men. Really good welders in
this country are not many, and there is in this field a splendid
opportunity for the well-equipped man, but for him only. An employer
will always be looking for a better man if he has a half-trained man on
the job.
OVERCOMING YOUR DISABILITY
The question is not primarily one of the handicap, but rather of the man
behind the handicap. It is not the exception, but rather the rule, that
a partially handicapped person, endowed with ingenuity will, even though
at a disadvantage, beat the sound man who does not possess any
ingenuity. This is borne out by numerous instances of foreign experience
in re-education.
This applies, of course, especially to the less serious disabilities and
not at all to those which are manifestly debarring. In the case of a
welder, the latter would include blindness or defective vision,
paralysis, shell shock and nervous disorders, loss of both arms or
hands, tuberculosis, ankylosis of the upper members, spinal trouble,
stiff neck, and dizziness.
Ankylosis of the knee or wrist might be overcome to some extent.
Amputation of one leg will simply limit the field of activities. Where
both legs are gone it would still be possible to enter some specialized
field where work at the bench is all that is required. In such cases,
however, it might be advisable to take up soldering or electric
resistance welding. Loss of limbs would be an embarrassing handicap for
most jobs, and prohibitive for outside work which necessitates climbing,
crawling, stooping, or getting into abnormal positions. Men who have
trouble in getting about should not enter this field. Only physically
sound men should undertake work in confined spaces, in a boiler for
example. One partially amputated arm would probably not be deterrent.
Indoor work is manifestly unsuited to men with weak lungs, as the air in
the shop is generally more or less heated and vitiated. Outdoor work
might be pursued with benefit. Men with weak backs would generally be at
a disadvantage. Kidney or intestinal trouble might or might not be
deterrent, depending on the gravity of the trouble and the degree to
which physical stamina and general health are affected. Rupture would
not be a handicap except where heavy work is to be done, and in that
class of work there is usually a helper around. Impairment of efficiency
due to loss of one eye, which may make difficult the acquirement of
precision in distancing the flame from the material to be welded, may
nevertheless generally be overcome.
The welder must have one good arm and hand with which to hold and
manipulate the torch, and enough of a stump left in the other arm to be
capable of using the filler rod and of puddling. Amputation, ankylosis,
or paralysis of a finger or two are not prohibitive, so long as the
proper grip and manipulation of the torch can be preserved.
DEVICES FOR OVERCOMING HANDICAPS
Special “automatic pincers” are being used by French autogenous welders,
to take the place of a missing hand, for those who have lost only part
of the forearm. Drawings of this appliance are here given. The upper
drawing shows the opening of the pincers through extension of the
forearm, and the lower two drawings represent modification of the upper
pincers for the use of welders.
Those who are incapable of using their hand through any cause are
equipped with a special tool holder which is attached to the forearm.
Where the handicap consists of the loss of an arm, cutting may be taken
up to advantage. There is restricted field of employment for disabled
men in the operation of automatic welding or cutting machines.
SAFETY AND HYGIENE
As in other occupations, there are in welding, certain safety measures
to be taken to avoid accidents. These are clearly defined and are made
an integral part of the welder’s training until observance becomes
automatic.
This applies, of course, to the man who is physically sound as well as
to the disabled. In the case of the handicapped, the matter becomes one
of ascertaining if the disability interferes with the carrying out of
these safety measures; and if so, if the difficulty can be overcome. If
not, some other occupation must be selected. In the welder’s case,
however, these precautions are mostly “don’ts,” and do not present
serious difficulties to be overcome.
Acetylene is not poisonous and the impurities in the gas which are
poisonous are not present in sufficient quantity in the American carbide
to be dangerous. The characteristic odor of the gas is a protection
against fire, explosion, and suffocation. One cubic foot thoroughly
mixed with 10,000 cubic feet of air can be detected.
HOW PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE HELPS
In selecting any vocation, a man’s former occupation must be carefully
taken into account, and particularly is this true in the case of
welding. Previous experience, training, and education are such important
factors in the student’s success or failure that particular attention
should be paid to them. Experience as a blacksmith, machinist,
boilermaker, patternmaker, sheet-metal worker, molder, electrician, and
in kindred occupations will be in every case of great value.
All experience in handling metals, as well as all mechanical experience
is a valuable asset. For a man who has had such experience, it will be
comparatively easy to become a good all-round welder. It goes without
saying that no disabled man should take up the course unless he feels an
interest in the work or in some special branch of it. It is this
interest coupled with ingenuity which will make it possible for the
welder to handle new problems successfully and to devise better and more
efficient ways of doing things.
In the case of a former welder who is capable of taking up his former
vocation, a short course of training will suffice. A former welder whose
handicap prevents him from taking up his old trade may, with the proper
training and necessary qualifications, become an excellent teacher, a
welding foreman, or a superintendent.
ARE WELDERS GOING TO BE NEEDED?
The process is of comparatively recent application, dating back to about
the year 1904. Its growth has been extremely rapid, especially of later
years, as regards development of technique, extension of its
applications, and perfection of apparatus. Regardless of this progress,
however, it is no exaggeration to state that the process is as yet in
its initial stages, and that in the near future its field of utility
will be greatly extended. As contrasted with the growth of oxy-acetylene
welding, the supply of good welders has lagged far behind the demand.
Unlike European countries, this country has only lately come to realize
the importance of well-grounded, thorough, practical training for
prospective welders. In view of these two factors--the remarkable
expansion of the process and the shortage of welders--prospects look
bright for the future.
QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER OF THE WELDING PROCESS
In any occupation where the demand for labor is increasing rapidly,
there is bound to be a demand for men to teach the processes and
practice of the occupation. If you master the trade you yourself may
qualify as a teacher.
GETTING TO WORK AFTER TRAINING
In contemplating placement after training the following factors are to
be taken into account:
Your choice of a field.
Your special fitness.
The industrial demand.
It is the disabled man’s privilege to decide what he will specialize in
and he will be allowed the freedom of choosing which branch of welding
he will take up, such choice being of course subject to the guidance of
the vocational adviser.
Most welders will exhibit a tendency toward some special branch or type
of welding, even while they are learning the art. The instructor will
keep in constant touch with the pupil during the course to determine if
there is such a trend in him, and if so to encourage it. Some take to
one metal in preference to others; some to one operation in preference
to others; some may give evidence of ability as all-round welders.
The demand for welders is so varied that knowing the demands in general
it will in most cases be possible to satisfy preferences and special
aptitudes. This will be the aim always.
If as a trained welder you desire to get started on your own hook,
several questions will arise in your mind?
Where shall I be located?
What are the demands of the locality in which I shall live?
What is my fitness for the work?
How about the necessary equipment?
The locality should be such as to give you ample opportunity to make
good. It might be hard for you to go against much competition at the
start. Likewise, to act as a pioneer of the industry in some locality
which knows nothing about the work, might not be desirable.
In placing retrained welders, local demands will be carefully considered
to the end that no man shall be placed where he may have work coming in
which he is not capable of handling efficiently.
WHAT IF YOU DO NOT TAKE TRAINING?
You will not be a real welder; probably you will not get a chance to try
your hand at manipulating the torch at all. If you do get a chance you
may get hurt or hurt others trying to weld without training for the
trade. Train for it, and then go to it, and if you fail come back for
more training or for training in some other trade.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Some idea of the wide range of application of the oxy-acetylene
processes may be gained from a brief survey of their uses in several
industrial fields.
PLAN No. 1140. STEAM RAILWAYS
Oxy-acetylene welding is used in the shops of practically every railroad
in the country as a means of reducing cost of repair and of reclaiming
worn parts. Each craft usually does the welding of metals that
originates in its department: Blacksmiths handle wrought iron and steel;
boilermakers, boiler plates and flues; machinists, cast iron;
coppersmiths, brass pipe work.
The process is generally used in the reclamation of broken engine
frames, damaged cylinders, broken spokes in driver wheels, cracked valve
chamber bushings, broken steam and exhaust pipes and air pump heads; in
mending cracks, cutting out and welding patches on side sheets of fire
boxes, flue sheets and door collars; in welding front end doors when
damaged, engine truck frames and cradles, frame braces and brackets,
tender bolsters, guides, and pedestals. The process is used to some
extent also in building up worn diamond crossings and frogs. Both
cutting and welding are used in the upkeep and repair of steel cars.
At the scrap yard the welder cuts up old boilers and other scrap for
salvaging.
PLAN No. 1141. ELECTRIC RAILWAYS
Applications of the process by electric railways are similar to those by
steam railways. There are, however, more opportunities for doing welding
at the table. Of such a nature are restoring of armature bearing
housings and frame heads, worn axle seats for motors and axle caps,
journal boxes, pinion seats and keyways, brush holders, trolley bases,
and third-rail shoe castings. Heavy broken parts such as truck frames,
drawheads, brake hangers and body bolsters are repaired. To some extent
the process is used also in bonding rails and in welding steel trolleys.
Most of the work is handled in the shop, where, however, electric
welding is coming into more general use, owing to the availability and
economy of electric power.
PLAN No. 1142. SHIPBUILDING
Extensive use is made of the process in cutting all kinds and shapes of
steel plate. Hydrogen is very generally used, instead of acetylene, and
welding machines have been introduced. Welding proper is more generally
applied in reclamation work, damaged or broken parts of the ship and of
its machinery and propellers being often welded by this process.
Electric arc welding is fast coming to the front in this field, except
for cutting where the gas process can not be replaced.
PLAN No. 1143. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
Oxy-acetylene welding of automobile parts is not in general very
difficult, but as in all other welding mastery of fundamentals is here
also essential to success. The work is varied in character, including
cast iron, aluminum, steel, and wrought iron welding.
The process is extensively used in the repair of automobiles, and to a
lesser degree in their manufacture. Both the industry itself and the
repair work provide excellent fields for the prospective welder.
Repair work is done generally in either a job welding shop, where a
number of welders are employed and where all kinds of welding is carried
on, or else in a garage or automobile repair shop where a welder is
employed to do the necessary work. In small communities the welding shop
is usually run by one man who owns it and who does all the welding. In
the large welding shops acetylene is generated; in other cases dissolved
acetylene is used. A welder who is expert in the welding of aluminum is
particularly valuable in this work.
In manufacture, the work is done in the shop. It is often simple and
well suited to workers who must elect a sedentary employment. The
process is broadening its scope in this field.
Closely related to the automobile is the motorcycle. A number of its
parts, such as handlebars, special jigs and muffler heads, are welded in
manufacture. In repair work the scope is somewhat similar to that of
automobile repairing.
PLAN No. 1144. PIPE AND MAIN WORK
In the welding of pipes and mains, the process is finding increased
application and this field presents good prospects of expansion in the
future. Extensive work in this country as well as in Europe, where it is
more largely used, has demonstrated that welding is not only the most
economical method but as well the most efficient in that leaky joints
are eliminated. Welding does away with threaded joints, and thus makes
possible the use of much lighter pipe, since there is no need for making
allowance in thickness for threading. Moreover, joint couplings are
dispensed with. The expense saved in maintenance alone is tremendous, as
the joint is water-tight and there is therefore little likelihood of
trouble arising from leaks. In making connections, Y’s, T’s, crosses and
drips are made on the spot, being cut out of odd lengths of pipe and
fitted together. This effects an economy in that these odd pieces are
saved.
The process has its greatest application in the welding of gas, steam,
air, oil, water and ammonia pipes and mains, and the work is chiefly
outside work, although it is used to some extent on interior pipe
connections. Special fittings or connections may be welded in the shop.
Outdoors welding is generally performed on sections of pipe while above
the ground, the whole section being finally lowered into the ditch. The
welding of these several sections to each other has to be done in the
ditch or trench, a pit being generally dug in order to give the welder
sufficient room for carrying on the work. Obviously this work requires
suppleness in the worker.
Where there is a large amount of welding, the apparatus most commonly
used is a portable generator, with which is mounted a set of oxygen
tanks. In other cases a small two-wheeled truck carrying one oxygen and
one dissolved acetylene cylinder may suffice.
In this kind of work, the welder is generally assisted by one or two
helpers who do the heavy work, placing, holding, and turning the pipes
while the welder keeps on welding. Some overhead welding is done which
forces the welder to assume a strained position.
PLAN No. 1145. SHEET METAL
Welding sheet metal is an important application of the process, which is
superseding to a large extent riveting and soldering. Very careful work
may be required but in the main the work is not particularly difficult,
and it can be easily mastered if the training given is thorough.
Electric resistance welding, however, is superseding oxy-acetylene in
many manufacturing operations.
PLAN No. 1146. METALLIC FURNITURE
Extensive use of oxy-acetylene welding is made in the manufacture of
metallic furniture and in kindred trades. Welding is an efficient and
economical way of joining various parts together, as well as of making
the parts themselves. The work may be more or less routine and much of
it is done at the bench. This is a comparatively easy type of welding,
in which a man can become proficient in a short time. It would be
eminently suited to the welder who has trouble in going about or who is
easily fatigued, and who would be better off in some sedentary work. The
process is largely used in the manufacture of steel desks, chairs,
filing cabinets, office safes, stepladders, and surgical, hospital and
dental furniture.
PLAN No. 1147. CONTAINERS
Welding is fast superseding old methods in the manufacture of containers
of various kinds out of sheet metal. In this class is included the
manufacture of steel barrels, range boilers, kitchen utensils, light air
tanks, and storage tanks. This kind of work needs a well-trained man on
the job. Except in the case of larger objects, the work can be done at
the welding table, and it is not of a straining nature.
PLAN No. 1148. METAL PLATE
Metal plate welding is quite similar in its scope to sheet metal work.
It is largely used in the manufacture of ammonia and air receivers,
vacuum driers, steam driers, and vats. The process is not used in boiler
work to any extent, as the consequences of a faulty weld might be
extremely serious.
PLAN No. 1149. FOUNDRIES
In steel foundries the process is extensively used in cutting away
risers, gates, and heads from castings. As compared with the old method
of cutting with a saw, the gas process is much quicker and much more
economical. This sort of cutting work is simple and does not require
great dexterity. The welder should be capable of bending over or
assuming more or less cramping positions, as he has to work on the
castings in positions in which they have been left on the floor. Welding
is almost universally used in the reclamation of defective castings, and
by this process castings are saved which for some slight defect would
have been consigned to the scrap heap. The process finds application
also in the welding of blowholes, cold shuts, porous spots, and cracks.
It is used to some extent in manufacture, two parts being cast
separately and joined by welding.
PLAN No. 1150. FORESTRY PURSUITS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Capt. S. T. Dana, in the Forestry Service
of the Department of Agriculture, under the direction of Charles H.
Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for
Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the
Research Division for editorial assistance.
WHAT FORESTRY IS
Forestry is the business, or the art, or the science, depending on the
point of view from which you look at it, of handling forests for timber
production or stream-flow protection. It does not, as is often
mistakenly thought, have anything to do with fruit trees, or even with
street and park trees. The care of these comes under horticulture and
arboriculture. Forestry is distinct from either in that it has to do
primarily with entire stands of trees, or forests, rather than with
individuals. Forests are really nothing more nor less than tree
societies, or communities, comparable in many ways with human
communities, every member of which has an influence upon and in turn is
influenced by its neighbors; and it is this fact that gives to forestry
its distinctive character.
Forestry should also not be confused with lumbering. Lumbering has to do
merely with harvesting the trees on any given area, with cutting them,
transporting them to the mill, and converting them into lumber or other
products. While the chief task of the forester is to manage forest
lands, he has to do with the production of trees as well as with their
utilization. Forestry is concerned fully as much with the future as with
the present. Like agriculture it looks forward to keeping the land
continuously productive by the growth of successive crops. Only in the
case of forestry the crops instead of being wheat, or rye, or corn, are
trees, which in turn can be converted into fuel, fence posts, telephone
poles, railroad ties, wood pulp, lumber, and a host of other wood
products. How much the forests mean to the economic development of a
community through the crops which they produce and the employment which
they offer is evidenced only too plainly by the desolation which has
followed destructive lumbering in many a once prosperous forest region.
In addition to yielding crops which have a commercial value, forests in
mountainous regions perform another important function which is none the
less valuable because its benefits are difficult to measure in dollars
and cents. By decreasing erosion and regulating stream-flow the mountain
forests conserve water for domestic supplies, irrigation, power, and
navigation, and at the same time help to lessen the damage caused by
destructive floods. So far-reaching is this influence and so great is
the population affected by it, that the treatment which such forests
receive becomes a matter of vital interest to the general public. One of
the primary concerns of forestry is to see that they are handled in such
a way as to afford the maximum amount of protection, even if this
involves, as it not infrequently does, the restriction or entire
prevention of lumbering operations.
WHAT FORESTERS DO
In order to handle to the best advantage the area under his charge there
is a wide range of work which a forester may be called upon to do. He
must be able to identify different kinds of trees and must know the uses
to which each can be put and the sites to which they are best adapted.
He must be able to map the area and to determine the amount and value of
the timber upon it. He must be able to draw up a complete plan for
protecting the forest from fire and to carry out the details involved in
its execution. He must know how to control the attacks of destructive
insects and fungous diseases. He must be able to handle the many details
connected with the collection of seed and the production of young trees
in forest-tree nurseries. He must know where and how to plant these, or
how to sow the seed on areas where this is preferable. He must know
whether any given stand is too dense, and if so, what and how many trees
should be taken out to stimulate the growth of those that are left. He
must be able to determine the rate at which trees are growing and the
age at which they should be cut and to make plans for harvesting them in
such a way as to secure natural reproduction. And finally, he must be
able to draw up a “working plan” providing in detail for the handling of
the entire forest in such a way as to keep it continually productive.
All of this obviously involves a good deal of office work in the
formulation of plans, the maintenance of records, and the miscellaneous
administrative work connected with any business enterprise. It also
involves a good deal of practical out-of-door work. The average forester
must take long walks and horseback rides. He must often camp out in a
tent or with no shelter whatever. He must take his part in fighting
forest fires, which means the liberal and energetic use of the axe, the
mattock, and the shovel. He must run compass and transit lines, and make
topographic maps. He must estimate the size and contents of standing
trees by the use of calipers and height-measures, and must scale the
fallen timber. He must mark, or blaze, the trees to be removed in
lumbering and must see that the operations are carried out in accordance
with the approved plans. He must collect tree cones, extract the seeds
from these, sow them in the nursery, care for the young seedlings, and
later set them out in the forest.
He must also do a hundred and one other things which are not strictly
forestry but which are so closely connected with it that they must be
handled by the forester along with his other work. Grazing is a good
example of this, since most of the forest regions in the United States
produce forage as well as trees. In order to utilize this to best
advantage the forester must know how many stock the range will support
and how they should be handled. In regions where mineral deposits occur
he must be familiar with the mining laws and must have at least enough
knowledge regarding mining to enable him to deal intelligently with
prospectors and others. Since most of the forests occur in undeveloped
regions he must know how to open these up by building ranger and lookout
stations and by constructing such other permanent improvements as roads,
bridges, trails, and telephone lines. In short, the average forester,
particularly in pioneer regions, must be a veritable jack-of-all-trades.
WHERE FORESTERS WORK
Forestry is primarily an out-of-door occupation. Some indoor work in the
formulation of plans, writing of reports, handling of correspondence,
and other office routine, is of course necessary, particularly in the
case of those charged with the administration of large areas. But the
average forester must spend the bulk of his time in the open, in the
forests for which he is caring. Sometimes his headquarters may be in a
small town or sometimes in a more or less isolated situation in the
woods themselves. In either case his daily work will ordinarily take him
into the open in sunshine and in rain. Occasionally he may be absent
from home for several weeks at a time carrying his bed and provisions on
his back, or, if he is fortunate, on a pack animal.
So far as geographical location is concerned, opportunities for
foresters have heretofore been mainly in the mountain regions of the
West where the National Forests are located. As forestry comes to be
practiced more and more on State Forests and on private lands, however,
similar opportunities will develop in the East. There is no reason why
large numbers of foresters should not eventually be employed wherever
forests occur, and this means practically throughout the country except
in the Great Plains and in the farming regions of the Central States and
Middle West.
WHAT HANDICAPS ARE SERIOUS
Generally speaking, a forester must be able-bodied and in good physical
health. He must have a strong heart, sound lungs, and a constitution
able to stand exposure to all kinds of wind and weather. Heart disease,
tuberculosis, and other serious organic troubles are handicaps that
point to the choice of another occupation.
On the other hand, there are certain disabilities, and particularly
injuries of various sorts, that do not constitute any serious drawback.
Injuries to the mouth, nose, ears, scalp, and other parts of the head,
for example, do not disqualify unless they interfere to a dangerous
extent with one’s eyesight or hearing. Some deafness is allowable
provided it has not gone so far as to prevent communication or to
endanger one from falling trees or other accidents. Even blindness in
one eye is not a real handicap if the other eye is still sound. The loss
of an arm or a leg incapacitates a man for the physical work required of
most foresters, but minor injuries to these limbs, such as loss of a
finger or a toe, do not disqualify one.
For certain specialized duties one can have sustained even more serious
injuries and still be able to give satisfactory service. One may be
badly crippled and yet be successful in research work provided he is
able to move about more or less freely, has some use of his arms, and
can handle a microscope. Men at fire-lookout stations need little more
than good eyes and sufficient hearing to use a telephone. On the other
hand, one would hardly wish to take up fire-lookout work as a permanent
occupation, and unless his condition can be improved sufficiently to
enable him to resume active physical work his chances for advancement
are poor. Special appliances for handling tools are not necessary, as is
the case with many industrial workers. The average forester must be able
to turn his hand to a wide variety of activities and to use such homely
implements as the axe, the hammer, the shovel, and the mattock.
The danger of further injury is no greater in forestry than in most
other outdoor occupations. Accidents due to forest fires, bucking
horses, falling trees, and rolling stones are always possible, but the
proportion of those seriously injured in such ways as these is not
large. Those employed by the National Government receive compensation in
case of injury incurred in line of duty.
WHAT TRAINING IS NECESSARY
Forestry requires the services of three more or less distinct grades of
workers--the professional forester, the forester ranger, and the forest
guard. The professional forester handles the larger and more technical
phases of forest management. He determines what the forest under his
charge contains, how much it is worth, how fast it is growing, when and
how it should be cut, what kinds of trees should be favored, and other
questions of the same kind; and also exercises general supervision over
the execution of whatever measures are decided upon. The forest ranger
acts as a sort of semi-technical assistant to the professional forester.
He does not need so thorough an education as the professional forester
but must have sufficient technical knowledge to enable him to carry out
intelligently the plans formulated by the latter. His work is to a large
extent “practical” and involves the routine of fire protection and fire
fighting, marking the trees to be removed in timber sales, scaling the
felled logs, handling planting operations, surveying, building trails,
running telephone lines, and doing other work connected with the
administration of the forest. The forest guard is ordinarily a
non-technical assistant who helps the forest ranger in those aspects of
his work which require little or no knowledge of forestry. Forest guards
are frequently appointed for short periods only to help the regular
force during the busy season and particularly in the work of fire
protection and fire fighting. Previous experience in the woods or in
similar occupations such as lumbering and surveying constitutes a
valuable, but not essential, preliminary training for foresters of all
grades.
Twenty-five years ago the professional forester was almost unknown in
this country and there was not a single educational institution at which
he could secure the necessary training. To-day the profession is well
recognized and there are more than 20 schools offering instruction of a
grade similar to that required of civil engineers, doctors, lawyers,
ministers, and other professional men. As a basis for the more technical
phases of his education the man who desires to become a professional
forester must have had courses of collegiate grade in botany, geology,
organic chemistry, mathematics through trigonometry, plane surveying,
mechanical drawing, economics, and either French or German, or
preferably both. With these as a foundation he is ready to go ahead with
the technical subjects such as dendrology, silvics, silviculture, forest
mensuration, forest valuation, forest management, and forest regulation.
Obviously a comprehensive training of this sort can not be obtained with
less than four years of collegiate work, at least two of which must be
devoted almost entirely to professional forestry subjects. If a man has
already had a college education, however, he can readily prepare himself
for the profession by two years of post-graduate work. The degree of
bachelor of science in forestry is usually given on the completion of a
four-year professional course, and of master of science in forestry, or
master of forestry, on the completion of a five-year professional course
or of two years of postgraduate work following four years of regular
college work.
For the forest ranger no such intensive training is necessary. With a
high school education as a background, one year of rather elementary
training in such subjects as fire protection, surveying, timber
estimating and scaling, nursery practice, methods of planting, range
management, and report writing is sufficient to enable a man to qualify.
In general, the course covers much the same ground as that taken by the
professional forester, but in a much briefer and more elementary way.
Those who have already had considerable practical experience along these
lines can secure a sufficient foundation for their work in three or four
months, although even for such men the longer course is preferable if
time to take it can be found. Many of the forest schools of the country
now offer courses of this sort and the opportunities for instruction are
ample.
Since forest guards are engaged almost wholly on nontechnical work no
particular course of training is necessary. No one with any ambition,
however, would wish to remain a forest guard indefinitely when other
opportunities are open to him merely by taking a free course of
instruction. If one wishes to take up forestry, therefore, and is not in
a position to take the professional course, he should by all means
attempt to qualify as a forest ranger. Should lack of other openings
then make it necessary for him to serve as a forest guard for the time
being, he would be in a position to take advantage of the first
opportunity for advancement.
WHAT OPPORTUNITIES ARE OFFERED
Opportunities for employment for foresters may be classed as fairly
good. The point has now been passed where the supply is totally
inadequate to meet the demand, but at the same time the war has greatly
depleted the ranks of foresters throughout the country, and there is no
question that many new men will be needed during the process of
reconstruction and afterwards. The National Forests already offer
opportunities for the employment of many men and it can not be doubted
that similar opportunities will soon be offered in State forests as well
as in the case of forests still in the hands of private owners. With the
steady decrease in the timber supply, the Nation will soon be face to
face with the necessity of practicing forestry extensively as a national
safeguard and unless private owners take upon themselves the task, there
is little question but that the Federal and State Governments will take
matters largely into their own hands.
Altogether it is a safe prediction that any one who desires to engage in
forestry and who qualifies himself for the work will be able to find
employment. The entering salary for forest guards in the national
service averages about $900 a year and for forest rangers about $1,100 a
year. Technically trained foresters ordinarily enter at approximately
the same salary as forest rangers, $1,100 or $1,200 a year, but with
greater opportunities for advancement later. In State and private work
approximately the same entering salaries may be expected although some
private owners may be unwilling to pay quite so much to forest guards
and forest rangers at the start.
WHAT ARE THE CHANCES FOR PROMOTION?
Chances for limited promotion are reasonably good. It should be
recognized frankly, however, that one can not hope to get rich in the
profession and that a comfortable living is all that can ordinarily be
looked forward to. In exceptional cases unusually able and well
qualified men will doubtless be able to draw salaries of $4,000 or
$5,000 a year. The average professional forester, however, can hardly
hope to advance much beyond $2,500 or $3,500 a year except by acquiring
an interest in some lumber business or in the forest itself. For the
forest ranger a salary of $1,500 or $1,600 may reasonably be looked
forward to. Moreover, this salary often carries with it a ranger station
which can be occupied as long as he stays in the service, and also an
opportunity to produce some crops for his own use. Forest guards can
hardly hope for more than $900 or $1,800 a year.
In other words, in forestry, as in all other professions, the better
educated you are the better are your chances for promotion. Even at
best, however, the chances for large salaries are small and those who
are bent on getting rich should look elsewhere for an opportunity to do
so. On the other hand, one who is satisfied to make a comfortable
living, to spend a large part of his life in the open, to occupy a
responsible and respected place in his home community, and to enjoy the
satisfaction which comes from having an important share in a work of
great public service, can not look for a more congenial or attractive
occupation than forestry.
APPENDIX ON FORESTRY SCHOOLS AND COURSES
These lists have been compiled by the Forest Service to aid in answering
inquiries as to institutions at which instruction in forestry may be
obtained. While every effort has been made to avoid errors, the Forest
Service does not vouch for the completeness of the lists, their
accuracy, or the relative merits of the courses offered. More detailed
information regarding opportunities for disabled soldiers and sailors to
take training courses in forestry may be obtained from representatives
of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
SCHOOLS WITH COURSES LEADING TO A DEGREE IN FORESTRY
_University of California, College of Agriculture, Division of Forestry,
Berkeley, Cal._--Two four-year courses, one in forestry and one in
forest engineering, both leading to the degree of bachelor of science.
Nineteen weeks of each of these courses are spent in camp, most of the
time on a national forest. A five-year course combining the work of both
courses leads to the degree of master of science in forestry, which is
also granted on the completion of one year of graduate work in
connection with either course.
_Colorado State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo._--Four-year
course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science in
forestry.
_Colorado College, Colorado School of Forestry, Colorado Springs,
Colo._--Two-year course leading to the degree of forest engineer, open
only to applicants who have completed two years of college work or an
equivalent course of study. The fall and spring terms are spent at
Manitou Park, the property of the school, near Woodland Park, Colo. A
two-year course for graduate students leads to the degree of master of
forestry.
_New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, Department
of Forestry, Ithaca, N. Y._--Five-year course in professional forestry,
leading after four years to the degree of bachelor of science and after
one additional year to that of master of forestry. Field work includes
five weeks in camp in the Adirondacks in the summer following sophomore
year, 10 weeks each in the summers following junior and senior years,
and three months of practical work in the forest in the fall term of
senior year.
_Georgia State College of Agriculture at University of Georgia, Georgia
State Forest School, Athens, Ga._--Four-year professional course leading
to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. Considerable latitude
for specialization is offered during junior and senior years. Eighteen
weeks of the course are spent in field work in camp, and three months in
practical work in specialization.
_Georgia College of Forestry, Greensboro, Ga._--Three-year course of ten
months a year leading to the degree of bachelor of science. Headquarters
of the college are on a timber tract five miles from Greensboro. Trips
are required to the hardwood region of northern Georgia and the
long-leaf pine region of southern Georgia.
_Harvard University, Department of Forestry, Bussey Institution, Jamaica
Plain, Mass._--Graduate specialization and research leading to the
degree of master in forestry. Special elective work is offered in
dendrology, silviculture, forest management, wood technology, and (in
cooperation with the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration)
a two-year course in lumbering. The technical work is carried on at the
Harvard Forest, the Arnold Arboretum, and the Bussey Institution.
_University of Idaho, School of Forestry, Moscow, Idaho._--Two four-year
collegiate courses, one in general forestry and one with special
attention to lumbering, both leading to the degree of bachelor of
science in forestry.
_Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Department of
Forestry, Ames, Iowa._--Four-year undergraduate course leading to the
degree of bachelor of science in forestry; also a five-year course
leading to the degree of master of science in forestry. Both courses
include three months of work in summer camp, in addition to which all
candidates for degrees must have at least three months of practical
work. A five-year combined course in forestry and landscape gardening
leads to the two degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and bachelor
of science in horticulture.
_University of Maine, Department of Forestry, Orono, Me._--Four-year
undergraduate course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of
science in forestry. Special attention is given to forest management and
forest engineering applicable to the northeastern United States.
_Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Forestry, East Lansing,
Mich._--Four-year course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor
of science. Graduate courses leading to the degree of master of forestry
are also offered. A summer term of seven weeks between the sophomore and
junior years is held near Cadillac, Mich.
_University of Michigan, Department of Forestry, Ann Arbor,
Mich._--Four-year course leading to the degree of bachelor of science in
forestry; also a five-year course leading to the degree of master of
science in forestry. Graduates of other colleges of university rank
require two years of graduate study.
_University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture, College of
Forestry, University Farm, St. Paul, Minn._--Four-year course in
forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science and offering three
lines of specialization: Technical forestry, lumbering, and wood
chemistry. Two months of freshman year, from June 1 to August 1, and
four months of junior year, from April 15 to August 15, are spent at
Itasca State Park. One year of graduate work leads to the degree of
master of science.
_University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Department of Forestry,
Columbia, Mo._--Five-year course in forestry leading to the degree of
master of forestry. The degree of bachelor of science in forestry is
conferred upon the completion of four years’ work. Field work includes a
summer course of 10 weeks on the university forest of 50,000 acres in
the Ozark Uplands.
_University of Montana, Forest School, Missoula, Mont._--Two four-year
courses, one in forestry and one in forest engineering, leading
respectively to the degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and
bachelor of science in forest engineering. The course in forestry aims
to prepare men for the work of forest rangers and forest supervisors,
and for such work with lumber companies, timber-owning corporations, and
the like, as involves the administration, protection, and utilization of
forests; that in forest engineering for work as scalers, cruisers,
lumbermen, logging engineers, and in general all engineering work in the
forest. A graduate course in forest engineering leading to the degree of
forest engineer will be offered later.
_Ohio State University, Department of Forestry, Columbus,
Ohio._--Four-year undergraduate course in forestry leading to the degree
of bachelor of science in forestry. At least one summer of practical
work in the woods is required before graduation. An optional fifth year
is offered leading to the degree of master of science in forestry.
_Oregon Agricultural College, School of Forestry, Corvallis, Oreg._--Two
four-year courses, one in forestry and one in logging engineering,
leading respectively to the degrees of bachelor of science in forestry
and bachelor of science in logging engineering.
_Pennsylvania State College, Department of Forestry, State College,
Pa._--Four-year course in professional forestry leading to the degree of
bachelor of science. Field work includes six weeks in camp at the end of
freshman year, eight weeks at the end of sophomore year, and eight weeks
during senior year. Opportunity is given for special study in lumbering.
_Pennsylvania Department of Forestry, State Forest Academy, Mont Alto,
Pa._--Three-year course in forestry of 48 weeks a year leading to the
degree of bachelor of forestry. The course is maintained for the
training of foresters for the State Forest Service. Appointments are
made from a competitive examination open to residents of Pennsylvania
between 19 and 25 years of age. The State supplies board, tuition, and
quarters, and requires bond for the successful completion of the course
and three years’ service on State forests.
_New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.
Y._--Four-year courses lending to the degree of bachelor of science.
Five-year professional courses leading to the degrees of master of
forestry and doctor of economics. Special opportunity is offered in
lumbering, pulp and paper making, city forestry, forest entomology and
botany, and forest pathology, and for research work at the State Forest
Experiment Station.
_State College of Washington, Department of Forestry, Pullman,
Wash._--Four-year course leading to the degree of bachelor of science in
forestry.
_University of Washington, College of Forestry, Seattle, Wash._--Four
and five year courses, arranged for specialization in general forestry,
logging engineering, forest products, and the business of lumbering. At
the end of the fourth year the student receives the degree of bachelor
of science and at the end of the fifth year of master of science in
forestry. Students who wish to specialize should take the five-year
course.
_Yale University, School of Forestry, New Haven, Conn._--Two-year
graduate course leading to the degree of master of forestry. Field work
includes 10 weeks at Milford, Pike County, Pa., in the summer term of
junior year; three weeks at Union, Conn., and in the Adirondack
Mountains in the spring term of junior year, and 12 weeks in the South
in the spring term of senior year. Advanced work in dendrology,
silviculture, forest management, forest products, and lumbering is open
to those who have already had a general course in forestry. Special
students are accepted in limited numbers provided their scholastic
attainments are such that they can take the work to advantage.
SCHOOLS WITH SHORT COURSES IN FORESTRY OTHER THAN RANGER COURSES
_Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala._--An elementary course in
forestry covering seven weeks is given to senior students in the
agricultural course. The work comprises a study of forest conditions in
Alabama, care of woodlands, uses of the different southern woods,
methods of preservation, etc.
_Berea College, Berea, Ky._--A short course in the fundamental
principles of forestry is given as part of the course in agriculture.
_University of California, Berkeley, Cal._--Nonprofessional instruction
in general forestry is given throughout the regular college year by
means of two courses open to any student in the university.
_University of Chicago, Ill._--The department of botany offers a course
in forest ecology, dealing mainly with the life, activities, and death
of trees; the structure and rôle of their various organs; and their
relation to climate, soil, and their organic environment. Forest
succession and its causes and the great forest formations of the United
States and Canada are also taken up.
_Clemson Agricultural College, Clemson, S. C._--A course in general
forestry is required of all students in the agricultural course during
the latter part of junior year.
_Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn._--A course in wood lot
forestry covering one semester is required of all students in the
regular four-year courses. The course is designed to give the student a
working knowledge of the best methods of handling the farm wood lot with
special reference to Connecticut conditions. The field work covers the
identification of the economic species, measurement of growth and yield,
improvement cuttings, and reforestation. A similar but less
comprehensive course covering one semester is required of all students
in the two-year course in the School of Agriculture.
_Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y._--Five elementary courses are offered
for agricultural and other students in the university covering the farm
wood lot, elements of forestry silviculture, mensuration, management,
utilization, and conservation. Two other courses, the field of forestry
and wood technology, are open to both general and professional students.
General courses in forestry are also given in the summer school and in
the short-term winter course.
_Delaware College, Newark, Del._--An elementary course covering one
semester is elective for juniors and seniors in agriculture. It deals
with the elements of silvics, methods of silvicultural management,
natural and artificial regeneration, forest protection, forest
mensuration, wood utilization, lumbering, wood preservation, forest
economics, forest finance, and a study of the characteristic lumber
trees of the United States, their classification and identification.
_University of Georgia, Athens, Ga._--A short course in farm forestry is
required of seniors in agriculture, and an elementary course in wood lot
forestry of one-year men in agriculture. A nature study during the
summer, open to teachers, a vocational course in wood and its uses, and
a correspondence course in farm forestry are also offered.
_University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho._--A course in general forestry is
offered for students in the various departments of the university, and a
short course in farm forestry for students in the College of
Agriculture.
_Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa._--A
course in farm forestry designed to meet the needs of the Iowa farmer is
required of practically all agricultural students during their first
year. It includes a discussion of windbreaks, shelter belts, and wood
lots with respect to their value on the farm, and also a little work on
dendrology, forest planting, silviculture, preservative treatment of
timbers, and the utilization of forest products.
_Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans._--Courses in farm
forestry, silviculture, and dendrology are elective for all students in
agricultural and general science courses during the winter term of
junior year. A course in forest nursery practice is elective for
students in the School of Agriculture during the spring term of the
third year, and also, without credit, for all students in college
courses in agriculture and general science.
_Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La._--A year’s course in
general forestry is required of juniors in the teachers’ course in
agriculture, and additional courses of one year each in forestry and in
the propagation and care of ornamental and shade trees are elective for
seniors. Courses in forestry covering two years and a course in the
propagation and care of ornamental and shade trees covering one year are
elective for juniors and seniors in the College of Agriculture. The aim
is not to turn out trained foresters, but to teach forestry in
connection with the agricultural courses, with special reference to the
management of farm wood lots.
_University of Maine, Orono, Me._--A course in general forestry is open
to all students, and is required of all students in the College of
Agriculture.
_Maryland Agricultural College, College Park, Md._--A course in farm
forestry comprising 20 lectures and 60 hours of demonstration work is
given to seniors in agriculture and horticulture, and to the second-year
men of the two-year courses in agriculture and horticulture. The course
includes wood lot management, nursery practice, planting, forest botany,
and estimating timber crops.
_Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass._--An elective major
course is offered in the department of forestry during junior and senior
years, which takes up such studies as dendrology, silviculture, forest
mensuration, and allied subjects. During the winter several lectures are
given by the State forester on “State Forest Policy.” The course is
intended to give the students the same kind of education regarding true
forest land that they receive concerning tillable land, and also to
prepare students for the graduate schools of forestry. A lecture course
dealing especially with wood lot management is offered to students of
the short winter and summer schools.
_University of Minnesota, Northwest School and Station, Crookston,
Minn._--An elementary course in forestry is offered dealing with the
planting of windbreaks and wood lots, the characteristics and
adaptability of the more common trees, and the methods of propagation
and conservation of planted and natural forests.
_Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College,
Miss._--Courses in farm forestry and dendrology of one term each are
offered for students in agriculture.
_University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo._--A summer school of forestry for
lumbermen, timberland owners, and rangers is given on the university
forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark Mountains, in connection with the
summer course for regular forestry students.
_University of Montana, Missoula, Mont._--Special courses in surveying,
scaling and cruising, lumbering, forest appraisal, and logging
engineering are offered in connection with the short course for rangers.
_Mount Hermon School, Mount Hermon, Mass._--An elementary course in the
care of lawns, shrubbery, and forests is given during one term.
_University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr._--A course in farm forestry
covering one semester is elective for all students of the university and
is designed primarily for agricultural students. It is an elementary
course designed to familiarize students with the best trees that will
grow in the State of Nebraska, as well as the methods of handling the
farm wood lot.
_New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H._--Courses in forestry are required
of all four-year and two-year agricultural students, and are elective
for all students of the college. Beginning with junior year, four-year
students in agriculture may elect forestry as a principal subject and
are then given advanced forestry work together with other agricultural
and associated subjects. Every encouragement and assistance is given a
student desiring to make forestry his profession, with the understanding
that he will complete his training at some school offering a complete
course in forestry.
_North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh,
N. C._--A course in forestry is offered as one of the senior
horticultural electives.
_North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N. Dak._--An
elementary course in forestry covering six weeks is offered in the third
term of junior year in the four-year agricultural course.
_North Dakota State School of Forestry, Bottineau, N. Dak._--Instruction
similar to that in the agricultural high schools is offered with special
attention to horticulture and forestry. The forestry work consists of a
study of the plains and prairie regions and has to do particularly with
windbreaks, shelter belts, etc. A special three-year course is also
offered for the preparation of landscape gardeners, landscape engineers,
and city foresters.
_Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla._--A
course in elementary forestry is required of all horticulture students
during the first term of junior year.
_Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind._--The work in forestry consists of a
line of electives within the school of science. The subjects covered are
forest botany and dendrology, elements of silviculture, forest
mensuration, forest management, forest protection, forest utilization,
forest pathology, and technical forestry. The latter includes a study of
structural timbers with demonstrations in the testing laboratories and
also work in surveying and making forest maps.
_Rhode Island State College, Kingston, R. I._--A course in forestry
dealing with the management of New England wood lots is required in the
second term, junior year, in the agricultural course.
_South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Brookings,
S. Dak._--A course in forestry is required in the second semester of the
sophomore year in the horticultural group and in the third-year of the
three-year school of agriculture. It is elective in the second semester,
junior year, in the animal husbandry and dairy husbandry groups of the
four-year collegiate agricultural course.
_Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal._--Courses
are offered in the study of trees, forest pathology, and other matters
basal to the study of forestry.
_Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y._--A field course in elementary
forestry, forest ecology, and botany, soils, geology, and woodcraft,
open to any man over 15, is given by the New York State College of
Forestry during August at Cranberry Lake in the western Adirondacks.
Courses in forestry are also given for students in the university
outside of the College of Forestry, and especially for those desiring to
teach.
_University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn._--An elective course in
forestry covering one term is offered in the senior year of the
four-year agricultural course. The work deals chiefly with the
management of farm wood lots and small holdings of hardwood timber.
_Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station,
Tex._--Courses in the principles of forestry, dendrology, silviculture
(with special reference to planting), and wood technology and
utilization, each covering one semester and elective for juniors and
seniors in agriculture and science, offered in the college year 1916-17.
No attempt will be made to equip students for the profession of
forestry. From time to time, however, additional courses will be offered
to meet the needs of students along farm forestry, planting, timber
preservation, and other lines.
_University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt._--Students in agriculture are
required to take one course in forestry during their sophomore year. The
aim of this course is to give all agricultural students a working
knowledge of forestry, which can be applied to their own farms or in the
teaching of agriculture. The more advanced courses are open to those who
wish to pursue the subject further.
_State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash._--A one-year practical
course is offered in the elementary science department, planned to equip
young men to become logging engineers.
_University of Washington, Seattle, Wash._--Two courses of 12 weeks each
are offered--one in lumber and its uses for men engaged in offices at
the mills, lumber salesmen, engineers, contractors, and builders; the
other in logging for the training of logging foremen or others engaged
in work at logging camps.
_Winona College of Agriculture, Winona Lake, Ind._--A course of one-half
semester in the principles of forestry is offered in the two-year
agricultural course. The growing of trees for fences and the
preservative treatment of fence posts are taken up in a practical way,
and some work is also offered on lumber and its use on the farm.
_University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis._--Nine elective courses, each
running through one semester, as well as a number of special lectures in
various departments of the university, are given by members of the
Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, where
opportunity for research work is also offered. The object of the work,
which is open to both undergraduates and graduates, is to enable men to
acquire a thorough scientific and practical training in organic
chemistry and wood technology and to apply this knowledge in scientific
and commercial operations and investigations in the wood-using
industries and in teaching.
_Wyman’s School of Woods, Manising, Mich._--A 24-months’ course in
forestry, logging, and woodcraft is offered, on the satisfactory
completion of which students are granted a certificate of efficiency in
logging and engineering. A 10-weeks’ out-of-door summer course is also
offered to afford those students who are contemplating forestry as a
profession an opportunity to become familiar with the character of the
work.
_Yale University, New Haven, Conn._--An elementary course of eight weeks
is offered during the summer at Milford, Pike County, Pa., for those who
desire a general knowledge of the subject.
TREE SURGERY
_Davey Institute of Tree Surgery, Kent, Ohio._--A 20-months’ course for
the training of tree surgeons is offered, including instruction in
botany, plant pathology, dendrology, entomology, fruit growing,
spraying, and the theory and practice of tree surgery.
SCHOOLS WITH RANGER COURSES IN FORESTRY
_University of California, College of Agriculture, Division of Forestry,
Berkeley, Cal._--Beginning in January, a 12 weeks’ course designed
especially for rangers and loggers is offered.
_Georgia State College of Agriculture at University of Georgia, Georgia
State Forest School, Athens, Ga._--A ranger course of eight weeks, open
to men in the Government service and to lumbermen, is offered during the
summer.
_University of Idaho, School of Forestry, Moscow, Idaho._--A three-year
ranger course, extending from November 1 to April 1 of each school year,
is offered. The course is so arranged that a single year’s work may also
be taken.
_University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Department of Forestry,
Columbia, Mo._--A course for lumbermen, timberland owners, and rangers
is offered on the university forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark
Mountains, in connection with the summer course for regular forestry
students.
_University of Montana, Forest School, Missoula, Mont._--A three months’
ranger course is offered during the winter, with opportunity for
specialization and the election of advanced work. The course is
designed primarily for men who have already had considerable experience
in woods work.
_New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse,
N.Y._--A one-year course of practical training is offered at the State
Ranger School located on the college forest of 2,000 acres at Wanakena,
in the western Adirondacks. The course is designed to fit men for such
positions as guards, rangers, forest-estate managers, tree-planting
experts, and nursery foremen.
_Oregon Agricultural College, School of Forestry, Corvallis, Oreg._--A
five months’ course is offered for those desiring to prepare for the
position of ranger in the United States Forest Service or for work in
the State protective associations.
_State College of Washington, Department of Forestry, Pullman, Wash._--A
six weeks’ course is offered in the Winter School for the preparation of
forest rangers.
_University of Washington, College of Forestry, Seattle, Wash._--Two
courses of 12 weeks each are offered, one in forestry for the training
of forest rangers, guards, or woodland owners; the other in logging for
the training of logging foremen or others engaged in work at logging
camps.
PLAN No. 1151. AUTOMOBILE MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by Charles W. Sylvester, under direction of
Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board
for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of
the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
In no other industry, perhaps has progress been so rapid and marvelous
as in the manufacture and maintenance of automobiles, which to-day
employs hundreds of thousands of men and women in a great variety of
occupations, and represents investment of many millions of dollars.
Two great divisions of the industry may be made, one including the
manufacturing plants which produce new cars, and the other, the
maintenance and service shops and departments which operate and keep
cars in repair and good running order. This monograph deals with
occupations in “Automobile maintenance and service.”
WHAT MEN DO IN THESE OCCUPATIONS
In automobile maintenance and service, specialization is rapidly
creating six principal groups of workers. It is true that in small
garages one man may “tinker” with all parts of an automobile, but it is,
in fact, just as essential to employ, for example, a battery specialist
for a machine as it is to employ an eye specialist for a person.
The six groups include: (1) Repair-shop men, who deal primarily with the
mechanical treatment of the car when it has been disabled; (2) starting
and lighting experts, who repair and adjust electrical equipment,
including wiring, lights, motors, and generators; (3) ignition experts,
who look after the testing, adjustment and maintenance of current
supply, short circuits, contact breakers, vibrators, spark plugs, coils,
condensers, connections, distributors, and magnetos; (4) storage-battery
men in stations where batteries are charged, repaired, rebuilt, tested,
and kept in good working condition; (5) tire-repair men, who take care
of the splicing, patching, retreading, building up, inside repair, and
vulcanizing of casings and tubes that have been disabled by punctures,
blisters, blow-outs, rim cuts, and general wear; and (6) automobile and
truck drivers, who are responsible for operation of cars on the road.
The work of these groups embraces a greatly diversified field of
employment and offers a wide range of occupational choice.
[Illustration: Plan No. 1150. Auto Repair]
WHERE MEN IN THESE OCCUPATIONS WORK
Men are employed in the maintenance and service of automobiles and
trucks in every community. In every village, town, and city shops and
service stations are to be found.
Private garages commonly have some equipment for making minor
adjustments and small repairs, and chauffeurs are expected to keep their
automobiles in good running order. Public garages, which in many cases
are maintained in connection with automobile sales agencies, often
employ several general repair men, and sometimes employ starting,
lighting, and ignition specialists.
The repair shops are established principally for the purpose of
repairing and rebuilding all types of cars with their parts and
accessories. They offer a large field of employment for repairmen and
experts.
Service stations, often referred to as oil and gasoline filling
stations, include shops where special types of work are done. They may
be classified as battery, speedometer, ignition, starting and lighting,
and tire-service stations. Many men, if they have been trained, find
employment in these places.
Chauffeurs and truck drivers find employment in both private and public
service--chauffeurs in driving taxicabs and private pleasure
automobiles; and drivers in the operation of light and heavy delivery
trucks for retail and wholesale houses, and also in hauling materials
for road and building construction, farm produce, and manufactured
products.
Automobile plants and garages employ men as testers in the working out
of new cars, and for the purpose of locating and determining trouble
when a car is not working properly.
Finally, men with a knowledge of automobiles, parts, accessories, and
equipment can find employment as salesmen in garages, sales agencies,
and retail and wholesale stores.
PLAN No. 1152. AUTOMOBILE REPAIR-SHOP WORK
THE OCCUPATION
Repair-shop work consists in overhauling, adjusting, and repairing all
types of motor cars and their parts. In the small garages where only a
few men, often only one, are employed the mechanic must handle all kinds
of work. Some large garages, as has been noted, employ specialists, and
in many localities there are service and repair shops maintained
especially for this work.
Oxy-acetylene welding, a trade separate and apart from repair work,
which is used to a very large extent in the repairing and building up of
broken castings and forgings in automobile repair shops, is taken up in
another monograph.
In some shops there are enginemen, axlemen, transmission men, and other
mechanical experts. All of these may be classified as mechanics. Other
men found in repair shops are known as trouble-finders or inspectors,
helpers, foremen, and carburetor specialists.
The mechanic should be able to do skilled work on all mechanical parts
of any car. His work consists in adjustment, care, overhauling, and
repairing. Adjustment and care include valve, carburetor, clutch-spring,
brake, and steering-mechanism adjustment, and cleaning and lubrication
of parts. Much of this work can, however, be done by the automobile
driver or helper in a garage. Overhauling includes repairing, but refers
generally to the tearing down of the whole machine for cleaning,
inspection, adjustment, and testing, together with replacement of worn
and broken parts. Work on the engine requires in many cases its removal
from the chassis, and disconnection of all attached parts. Some of the
jobs to be done on automobile engines are removal of carbon from
pistons, refitting of pistons, regrinding valves, replacing and scraping
bearings, adjustment of fans and valve rods, setting timing gears,
correcting the firing order of cylinders, repairing and replacing broken
parts.
The mechanic is required to remedy clutch troubles, by adjustment or
replacing of worn leather on the cone. Transmission repairs include
replacement of gears, fitting keys, taking up the wear in the main
bearings, or complete replacement and repair of shifting-rod connections
to overcome looseness. The universal joints in driving mechanisms often
require disassembling and rebushing, while the mesh of the drive pinion
and bevel gear of the differential will need adjusting. Work on the
differential and rear axle may involve tearing down the rear
construction. Such work requires skilled mechanics, especially to
determine the trouble and make the proper reassembly. The play in wheels
needs careful attention and exact adjustment, although it requires no
particular skill or knowledge. Trouble found in the front wheels is
ordinarily due to lack of alignment, and must be remedied to relieve not
only a tremendous wear on tires but to prevent uncertain and difficult
steering. A sagging in the frame, often caused by a fracture, can best
be repaired by welding. Brakes require attention to eliminate noises
and dragging, which causes a noticeable lack of power, and worn brake
linings must be replaced.
The cooling system, made up of pump, fan, radiator, and connections,
will require adjustment and repair, including replacing the rubber hose,
mending broken parts of the pump, putting on new fan belts, and
soldering leaks in the radiator. Cleaning the radiator and taking
cold-weather precautions against freezing also are necessary tasks.
An inspector or trouble finder in a repair shop or garage service
department is the foreman or mechanic, but in large shops men are
employed solely for the purpose of diagnosing trouble. Such a man must
be highly skilled. His work is to locate trouble and determine and
report its nature and extent. Trouble is located by inspection and
examination of the car standing still, by testing at the start and at
various speeds, and by coasting. The trouble-finder expert makes a list
of all worn and broken parts, indicates necessary repairs and
adjustments, and then turns the job over to the men who are to do the
work.
Usually the foreman is in charge of all repair-shop work. He should be a
man of clean personal habits, should have a thorough knowledge of
automatic construction, and be able to direct work and handle men with
courtesy and tact, to compute jobs, estimate cost of time and materials,
keep time and stock records, and route work through on repair-order
forms specifying work, parts, and costs for each job. A manager or
superintendent often is in charge of the business end of the work, in
which case the foreman gives his time to seeing that jobs are correctly
done.
Helpers are usually assigned to heavy lifting and pulling, to cleaning
parts, and to general shop sweeping. They run errands, help pull down
and assemble motors, transmissions, and rear axles, and do other work
requiring little skill.
TOOLS, MACHINES, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS USED
A variety of hand tools are used in repair work, including adjustable
and fixed jaw wrenches, hammers, snips, breast and hand drills, screw
drivers, hack saws, center punches, cold and cape chisels, soldering
coppers, pliers, files, brushes, blow torches, vises, and other small
tools. The machine equipment includes lathes, drill presses, grinders,
and forges equipped with motor power and having full sets of tools for
use with each. The shop must be further provided with benches, chain
hoists, motor and rear-axle stands, creepers, and special tools and
devices for special work. An oxy-acetylene welding and cutting outfit of
the portable type is one of the greatest conveniences in any repair
shop.
Most of the parts, supplies, and materials come to the shop prepared and
ready for use. For some jobs, however, it may be convenient and more
satisfactory to construct the necessary parts, such as shims, gaskets,
and small metal pieces, from stock material. It is inadvisable, however,
to make anything that can be secured already prepared.
Automobile repair-shop work is varied and interesting. Jobs frequently
change, with intervals of rest.
DISABILITIES
Hard and fast rules as to availability for this work of men with certain
disabilities can not be laid down. With perseverance, skill, and
inventiveness some men will succeed in lines of work which might seem
entirely unsuited to their disability. For example, a man who has lost
his right arm near the shoulder has been for 30 years doing successfully
all of the repair work and making all of the adjustments necessary on a
thrashing machine, a traction engine, 12 self-binding and 12 mowing
machines on a farm in England. An all-round mechanic must usually be
able to move about easily. He needs at least one good eye, and must be
able to hear well for trouble testing. A man with abdominal, kidney, or
alimentary canal trouble, which prohibits him from stooping, bending, or
squatting, can not do the work. Gas vapors, fumes, and dust in a garage
may affect men with lung diseases. It is very necessary for the worker
to have reasonably good command of neck and head movements.
APPLIANCES
Many devices and prosthetic appliances are in use in all countries by
men with arm amputations, and where previous experience, desire, and
conditions place a man in a position requiring the use of an artificial
appliance for gripping and holding tools one of strong and simple
construction should be selected.
PREVIOUS EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EXPERIENCE
While general education will help a man in shop repair work, as in
anything else, it is more essential that he shall have had some
technical training acquired either in a school or in a shop. Previous
experience in automobile repair or construction work will, of course,
give the best foundation for re-education. A man who has worked as a
helper in a garage long enough to become familiar with automobile
construction and operation may through a short course of instruction
easily qualify as a mechanic. Experience in other mechanical work such
as machine-shop work, blacksmithing, and boiler making will be also
helpful. Business experience will be a valuable asset for a repair-shop
foreman or manager.
WHERE RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN
Full-time classes may be given in the shop of a high school, vocational
or trade school, college or university, where the equipment is
sufficient to provide for real instruction of a practical nature.
Re-education classes will be trained also in commercial garages under
actual shop conditions. Part-time classes providing alternate weeks or
months in the school and in the shop may be best in some cases, or the
first or last part of the training period may be spent in the shop and
the other part in school. For example, in an eight months’ course four
months may be spent in a commercial repair shop and the remaining four
months in a school shop.
Evening classes offer a splendid opportunity for the workman who is
employed during the day. These, of course, will be for those men only
who are able to return without re-education or for men who have finished
their re-education course and desire additional instruction.
Correspondence courses may be used in some instances.
WHAT CAN BE LEARNED AND IN WHAT TIME
Although theory and demonstration work will accompany the shop practice,
each man will be required to actually do the work. To say the least, the
course of instruction will be such as will enable the disabled man to
qualify on the job beside his able-bodied neighbor and to command the
prevailing wage after completing his course. His work will include the
overhauling, repairing, and adjusting of various makes and models of
automobiles and parts.
The time required to complete the course of instruction will depend to a
certain extent on the man’s previous education, training, and
experience, but may occupy from six to nine months. It will not be the
policy of the Government to give just enough training to enable the man
to secure a job under good but abnormal conditions or by sympathetic
favor. Sufficient time will be given to prepare each man adequately for
his work.
AFTER TRAINING--WHAT?
Skilled auto mechanics are in great demand, and since repair work is so
diversified and widely distributed over the entire country, it is
comparatively easy for a trained man to find permanent employment. Auto
mechanics as a rule are poorly trained. The trade therefore presents
excellent opportunities for the disabled man with expert training. The
field is also wide open for capable foremen and inspectors in every
community.
Hours of employment for the mechanic depend largely upon location and
amount of work to be done. Shops in large cities have an 8 to 10 hour
day, the total number of hours per week being 45 to 60. In small towns
and communities shops are irregular as to hours, mechanics being
required often to work 9 to 12 hours per day.
First-class mechanics in large shops are paid a prevailing wage of 60
cents per hour. Small shops pay from 30 to 60 cents. A mechanic who owns
his shop may earn more or less. Foremen employed by the hour usually
receive a little more than the mechanic, while in a position as shop
manager he may be paid $125 to $175 per month.
Automobile repair shops doing general work are located in all parts of
the country and usually in many different parts of a city. Work will
therefore probably be available for the trained man near his home or at
least in his home town.
An automobile mechanic may expect to secure a position as foreman or
inspector, which is often more suitable for a disabled man than that of
mechanic. Or he may be able to open up a garage and repair shop for
himself. Because of the increased use of automobiles and the lack of
first-class trained mechanics future prospects in the service are good.
QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER
Teachers for automobile work are in great demand at the present time in
both day and evening vocational schools. A man with a fair general
education, considerable experience in the trade, and ability to impart
knowledge to others, will have a good foundation for vocational
teaching.
ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING SERVICE
THE OCCUPATION
The principal parts of an electric starting and lighting system are the
electric starting motor, the electric generator, and the storage
battery. The work of the expert in this division consists of the repair,
adjustment, care, operation, and installation of these systems and
auxiliary parts, but usually not including the storage battery which
requires the individual attention of another specialist.
To keep the starting motor in good running condition the expert must be
able to remedy grounds, short circuits, and commutator and brush
troubles. The generator and all connecting parts must be kept clean in
order to insure reliable action. There are many types and varying
features in generators, motors, auxiliary devices, and wiring circuits,
with which the mechanic must be familiar. Automobile manufacturers in
altering the characteristics of their motors from year to year and
manufacturers of electrical apparatus in introducing various
improvements may entirely change their systems.
In addition to being able to locate trouble by tracing and testing
systems for grounds, shorts, and breaks in wiring, it is necessary for
the mechanic to install systems including all the wiring. He must be
able to repair and keep in shape electric horns and gear shifts which
are closely related to the starting and lighting systems. The wiring for
starting, generating, and lighting systems involves the installation of
all necessary wires, many of which must be run in conduit. It also
includes the use of proper sized wire and their connection to the
lights, starter, horn, fuse boxes, switches, generator, and battery. The
repair and adjustment of the lighting system require considerable expert
attention, as does also equipment of cars with lamp reflectors,
measuring instruments, and other devices.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
All tools used in the maintenance and service of automobile starting and
lighting systems are small and light. They will include screw drivers,
wrenches, hammers, files, pliers, and various drilling tools. Some
machines may be required to make or fit metal parts, but as a rule they
will be found in the repair shop.
DISABILITIES
The work in this occupation is highly skilled but light. In working
around the car it is necessary to bend, stoop, reach, and climb, which
might be detrimental to a man suffering from abdominal trouble. The work
ordinarily requires two good hands, although a man with one hand with
the proper training and experience would be able to make repairs and
adjustments. Good eyesight is necessary in testing for trouble, but a
slight deafness will not be a serious handicap for this work. A man with
hernia or lung wounds and diseases would not necessarily be debarred
from this occupation.
PREVIOUS EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EXPERIENCE
Practical experience and a technical knowledge of electricity will be
very helpful in electric starting and lighting work. Some of the best
men in the field have had considerable electrical experience in some
other field, many of them having been with telephone companies. A man
who thoroughly understands electricity will soon adapt himself to this
new field of work. A general education is always an aid, and
particularly so here where it will be necessary to do considerable
reading to keep pace with new improvements and developments in these
appliances.
WHERE AND WHAT EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN
The re-education classes for training starting and lighting specialists
will be given in about the same type of schools as for repair-shop men.
It may also be advisable to train men in service or manufacturing shops.
The content of the course will cover the field of both theory and
practice in studying and working on motors, generators, and lighting
systems. That a man is fully qualified to go into a permanent position
will necessarily be shown by his ability to do the work. The time
required to finish the course will depend upon his previous experience
and training, but it will probably be from four to six months.
AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?
The demand for skilled specialists is increasing in all parts of the
country. This is true of any specialist in automobile maintenance and
service. Permanent positions will be available in all large
establishments and men employed in the smaller shops will be prepared to
handle other automobile work. The hours of employment will vary from 9
hours in large city shops to 10 or 12 hours in a shop owned by the
mechanic. The prevailing wage for this work will be about 60 cents per
hour.
Employment will no doubt be very stable both for the present and the
future. There is a lack of skilled specialists now, and with the
increased use of trucks and automobiles the demand will grow. The work
can be done in a good, light, dry shop, which will not be detrimental to
health. Because of the character of the work safety appliances are not
necessary, and danger from accidents of any kind is very small. The same
opportunity is open to these men for advancement and success as to the
repair-shop mechanic. They can become foremen, managers, or owners of
service and maintenance shops.
PLAN No. 1153. AUTOMOBILE IGNITION SERVICE
OCCUPATION
The ignition system is usually made up of certain electrical devices
which probably give more trouble to the auto man and require more expert
attention than all the other parts on the automobile. To be able to
diagnose a case and submit a remedy for ignition troubles, it is
necessary to be thoroughly familiar with the principles of ignition and
to understand how these ignition systems are operated and maintained.
Ignition primarily means igniting the gas in the cylinders of an engine
by means of an electric spark as the gas mixture is compressed. An
ignition expert should first of all have a practical knowledge of
electricity, know the meaning of electrical terms and the method of
generation and transmission of electric current. Of the two systems of
ignition, high and low tension, the high-tension system is now in use in
nearly all makes of motor cars. The low-tension system was formerly used
to a great extent on boat engines, and is used now to some extent on
stationary engines.
The ignition mechanic deals with the testing, adjustment, and
maintenance of current supply, vibrators, coils, commutators and timers,
contact breakers, spark plugs, condensers, distributors, magnetos, and
connectors. He must be thoroughly familiar with wiring systems and their
connections. Spark plugs will have to be cleaned, adjusted and repaired,
as will the vibrators when they are used. Ignition timing to insure
ignition at the right time requires special attention. The care,
installation, and maintenance of magnetos, which brings in the proper
firing order of the engine, care of the distributor, and attention to
connections, is one part of the ignition expert’s task. The field of
ignition trouble may be covered under three heads: (1) Failure of
current supply, (2) short circuits or grounds, (3) failure of ignition
devices. To keep the ignition system in good working order it is
necessary to locate trouble and make repairs as indicated.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Because of the many small and complex parts ignition systems require
delicate attention. This involves the use of small hand tools only, such
as will be used by the electric starting and lighting experts. Although
it will be necessary to make certain repairs to broken and worn parts,
it is customary to replace with new parts.
DISABILITIES
The work of the ignition expert is very much like the work of the
electric starting and lighting expert. Bench repairs to magnetos and
other devices can be made by a man whose disability requires him to sit.
The work is not strenuous and consequently could be done by men with
lung disease, hernia, and abdominal troubles, except where it is
necessary to stoop or bend over the job, as would be necessary in
testing for trouble and making connections in the installed system.
Because of the delicate work, a mechanic’s eyesight must be good, but
poor hearing would not debar a man from this occupation. It is quite
necessary for the workman to have good use of his hands and fingers.
PREVIOUS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE
The same training and experience helpful to the electric starting and
lighting expert would aid the man in training for ignition work. A man
who has been employed previous to army service in any electric work,
such as telephone and telegraph installation and maintenance, or the
making of electric motors and devices, would have acquired electrical
experience which would be of great help to him in this work.
WHERE AND WHAT EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN
The classes for ignition mechanics will be carried on in both schools
and shops. The time will probably be divided between theory and shop
practice. The proper equipment and practical jobs will be available for
teaching the man to do the work.
The course will be from four to six months in length for about seven
hours per day for five days in the week. Instruction will include all
problems requiring attention of the commercial ignition shop.
AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?
The demand for the ignition expert is equally as great as for any other
automobile specialist. His services are required in garages and service
stations, as well as in assembly plants, and in the driving and
operation of motor cars and trucks. The hours of employment are the same
as in other auto repair shops, usually eight hours per day for union
shops, and longer in small unorganized shops and where the mechanic owns
his business.
The prevailing wage is 60 cents per hour, although this may vary from 30
cents to 75 cents per hour, depending upon labor conditions and methods
of employment. It is probable that ignition experts will be employed
only in the larger places, but it is necessary to have expert ignition
service in any shop. This is in small shops usually taken care of by the
repair-shop mechanic who has a general knowledge of the automobile
maintenance and service. Employment for the trained man will be stable.
Ordinarily only the better class of mechanics, those with special
training are retained during the winter season, when the overhauling of
cars is done. The rush season from spring to fall gives employment to a
number of “roustabouts” or helpers, but these “floaters” require no
special training.
Promotion and success will depend largely upon the ability of the
mechanic, but it is possible for him to advance to positions of
responsibility, carrying increase of wages. The field is large and
skilled mechanics are scarce, thus making it possible for the trained
man to find suitable employment and to make changes for promotion.
PLAN No. 1154. STORAGE BATTERY REPAIRMEN
OCCUPATION
The sources of electricity for ignition, starting, lighting, warmers,
horn, shifting gears, and application of brakes in some instances are
the generators and battery. They must furnish the power. The generator
produces electricity only while the engine is running, and the demands
on it are comparatively light and simple. The battery must furnish power
to crank the engine, to light the car, operate the horn and other
electrical devices when the generator is not in motion. It is without
doubt one of the most essential and necessary parts of the automobile.
To be a thorough master of battery problems a knowledge of both
electricity and chemistry is necessary.
A general knowledge of batteries includes the method of construction and
the materials used in the manufacture of batteries. Chemistry deals with
the actions producing electricity and aids in determining the reasons
and remedy for trouble. The expert must know what happens in a battery
standing idle, just what takes place in the charging and discharging,
and what determines the capacity of batteries. A knowledge of battery
diseases will help a man very materially in the proper diagnosis of
battery trouble.
The shop work of the battery man includes caring for, charging, lead
burning, and rebuilding batteries. Caring for batteries includes keeping
the plates covered with distilled water, brushing dirt and dust from the
top, keeping cables and connections tight, cleaning battery terminals
and connections and carefully inspecting and testing it frequently.
Charging consists, figuratively, in feeding it electricity, which when
digested gives it energy. It is necessary for the battery man to be
thoroughly familiar with the charging apparatus and able to operate it
successfully. Lead burning is a process of melting together the plates
and straps or posts and top connectors and terminals with a special
lead-burning outfit. In rebuilding a battery, it is first charged, then
opened and torn down, after which the plates are repaired or replaced,
assembled with the proper separators, replaced in the jars, and then
carried through the charging process. The covers are next put on and
sealed.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The room for battery work should have a floor such as tile or brick, not
easily affected by acid. The equipment ordinarily includes work benches,
vises, a lead burning outfit, water supply, charging benches and
equipment, shelves, and stoves. Proper tools, including brushes,
scrapers, pliers, nippers, files, hydrometers, putty knife, wrenches,
brace and bit, stock drills, center punches, hack saws, kettles, ladles,
jars, screw drivers, materials and other hand tools are provided. The
work is practically all hand work and consequently requires hand tools.
DISABILITIES
Battery work requires the use of two hands. The loss of three fingers
from one hand would not seriously impair efficiency if some grip with
the remaining finger and thumb is retained. In the use of pliers, screw
drivers, brace and bits, and other tools it is necessary to hold them
firmly. Hearing is not particularly essential, but good eyesight is
necessary. Stooping, bending, and lifting the weight of a battery would
not affect men with slight hernia and abdominal trouble. A man with
artificial legs should be able to do the work if he can get around
without great difficulty.
Danger from lead poisoning and acid burns and fumes is prevalent in
battery work, but occurs only through carelessness. A man with any skin
or lung diseases or wounds probably should not undertake this work.
Gloves are worn in handling lead, but they will not protect against skin
wounds. The eyes may be injured by lead and acid, but by wearing goggles
this can be avoided. A man with any open wounds should not enter battery
service work.
SPECIAL APPLIANCES
No special appliances can be arranged satisfactorily to handle the tools
and equipment, although stools can be provided for the man who is
required to sit.
PREVIOUS EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE
A knowledge of chemistry and work in a chemical laboratory will help a
man to become a battery expert. Experience in battery construction and
in the care of starting and lighting batteries will also be an excellent
start, as would experience as a helper in a battery-service station.
WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN
To a large extent the instruction in battery work will be carried on in
a service station where equipment is available. A school shop properly
equipped will also be made use of.
The course will contain the elements and fundamentals of battery
maintenance and service. The length of the course will be from 4 to 6
months.
AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?
Permanent positions as battery experts will be open in battery-service
stations. The knowledge will also be necessary for the man who proposes
to set up a shop of his own. It is a general condition that battery work
be done in an independent and separate shop rather than in a general
repair shop. The hours of employment will not vary from those already
given for other types of maintenance and service work, and the wage will
also be about the same.
In cities and towns of 5,000 or over there will be found work enough for
one or more battery stations employing two or more men. Employment will
invariably be stable for the highly skilled battery expert. Opportunity
for promotion and success will depend upon the man, but there is great
demand for expert service, and there is a good field in many places for
the establishment of service stations. Future prospects are exceedingly
good due to the large increase in the use of storage batteries. It is
also true that the average automobile driver and owner is waking up to
the fact that the battery must have special care and repair to keep it
in good working shape.
PLAN No. 1155. TIRE REPAIRING
THE OCCUPATION
The repair of automobile tires, including casings and tubes, is almost
invariably assigned to a specialist, although many of the minor repairs,
such as patching tubes, are done by owners or amateur repairers. Tires
are probably the most delicate and the most misunderstood part of the
car, as well as being the part receiving the hardest use. To secure the
greatest mileage and the least trouble from tires they must receive
proper treatment and have the attention of a specialist when trouble
develops.
The tire repairman should have a knowledge of tire construction and be
well versed in tire troubles and their causes in order to make proper
diagnoses of the cases. This knowledge is necessary also in making
adjustments on tire mileage, which is, in connection with the tire sales
agency, a business very often established as an adjunct to the repair
business.
The shop work of the repair man deals with casing troubles from
punctures, blow-outs, rim cuts, blisters, stone bruises, and with the
preparation of the tire for repairing, relining, retreading, and
vulcanizing. Tubes have to be patched, spliced, and vulcanized. Valves
in the tube stem will often cause trouble by leaking, but can be
remedied by replacing with new valves. Sand blisters can be cured by
opening the blister with a sharp knife, cleaning out the dirt and
filling the hole with a self-curing rubber filler. A blow-out caused by
a weak place in the casing usually due to a sand blister or stone
bruise can be remedied by the inside method or a combination inside and
outside method. Both methods consist in removing layers of fabric and
applying fabric patches. When the outside has been properly built up
with fabric and the chafing strips applied the cushion gum unit can be
applied and the whole casing then placed in a sectional mold, where heat
applied to both the inside and out will cure the job. Rim cuts are
repaired in a similar way. Retreading is done by first cleaning down to
the carcase and applying coats of vulcanizing cement upon which the
tread can be built up and vulcanized. Reliners are vulcanized to the
inside of a casing to take care of inside fabric breaks.
The work on the inner tube consists in patching to cover small holes,
cuts, pinched tubes, and minor injuries.
Vulcanizing, which should be done on large patches, is also the best
remedy for any repair. It is done by first cleaning the hole, preparing
the patch, and placing and vulcanizing. Inserting new sections or
splicing tubes is done by removing the damaged section, inserting a new
one, and vulcanizing, one splice being made at a time.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The equipment of a tire repair shop contains vulcanizers of many sizes
which apply the heat through the use of gasoline, steam, or electricity.
Vulcanizing moulds which are made to fit the tire are necessary for
applying casing patches. Vulcanizing kettles, sidewall and retreading
vulcanizers, benches, vises and holding forms are also to be found. The
small tools required include flat and concave rollers, awls, stickers,
rubber knives, large shears, wire brushes, tread gauges, fabric knives,
pliers, scrapers, tread chisels and cement brushes. Splicing mandrels,
try squares, tweezers, rules, spreaders and other devices and tools may
be found in the equipment.
DISABILITIES
The work in a repair shop is not very strenuous, although it requires
careful attention and speed. It is necessary that the man have the use
of both hands and be able to see his work clearly. Deafness will not
interfere to any great extent with his success. Lifting, stooping, or
bending, while necessary to a small degree, is not common. The weight of
a tire is the heaviest weight to handle around the shop.
There is little danger from poisoning or injury to skin, except as
infection may be brought in with dirt on the tires. A man with leg
disabilities will certainly not be debarred from this occupation if he
can get around without great difficulty. It is possible to do some of
the work while seated. A man having lost the use of certain neck
movements would be able to handle tire repair work.
PREVIOUS EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE
A general education will be of much help in handling the business end of
the shop, while technical knowledge of automobile tires will be a good
basis for repairing. Experience in a tire manufacturing plant or rubber
industry, and in a repair shop as a helper will be very valuable to a
man entering this field.
WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN
Classes for tire repairmen will be carried on in schools where equipment
is available, but probably to a large extent in the commercial repair
shop where actual working conditions exist. Both full-time and part-time
schemes may be used.
The course will include practical work on all kinds of repair jobs.
Tires will be studied to help a man to determine the cause and remedy of
tire trouble and to make adjustments. The time necessary to qualify as
an expert tire repairman will be from 4 to 6 months.
AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?
Employment in tire repair shops for a skilled man will be easily found.
The field is large and shops are required in nearly every village, town
and city. With the increased use of cars the year round will come
increased demand for tire repair service and hence year round employment
for the tire specialist. The daily hours of work will be from 8 to 10
depending upon local conditions.
The wage of the skilled workman will be about 60 cents per hour, but a
man owning his business can make it more profitable. Opportunity for
promotion will come through increase of the man’s own business, or
through advancement to the position of foreman or manager in a large
shop.
PLAN No. 1156. AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK DRIVERS
THE OCCUPATION
Chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers are employed to drive cars and keep
them in good running condition. It is very essential that anyone
operating a car shall know its construction and the function that each
part performs. He should know how to care for the machine and how to
make minor adjustments. Lubrication of all parts properly at regular
intervals is an important task of the driver. The location of trouble
and the detection of its cause and remedy is even more important than
driving upon the highway.
The operation of the car includes starting and stopping the engine,
starting and stopping the car, and driving. One of the first things to
know is how to stop the car. The use of the emergency and service
brakes, as well as braking with the engine, requires considerable skill
and experience. Cranking and starting apparatus must be understood if it
is to be used with ease and without injury. Skill in shifting gears and
in controlling the car is attained by experience.
A good driver must have a knowledge of road regulations and precautions,
and must also be familiar with city ordinances in regard to the driving
and parking of automobiles. He must be cautious, able to see danger, and
to avoid it.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
An automobile should always be equipped with a complete set of tools for
making repairs and adjustments. A tire repair outfit is a valuable
addition to the driver’s equipment. The tools and equipment are of the
portable type, easy to manipulate, and convenient to carry around.
DISABILITIES
A chauffeur or truck driver should have good eyesight and be able to
hear distinctly. It is necessary to locate trouble and remedy it by
seeing or hearing. Danger is averted by carefully watching the road and
things likely to interfere with travel, and also by listening for
approaching trains and cars.
A man in this employment should have two hands, although he might have
lost some of his fingers. It is also well for him to have the free use
of his arms and legs. A man with leg amputation below the knee would be
able to operate the brakes, clutch, and accelerator without difficulty.
Lung diseases and wounds, hernia, and abdominal trouble would not debar
a man from work of this kind. It is necessary that he be able to have
the full use of his neck and head. A man suffering from shell shock, who
is subject to nervousness, loss of memory, or inability to control his
actions should not be employed as a chauffeur.
APPLIANCES
A man so disabled that he must have special devices or appliances to
operate an automobile should not enter the occupation. Artificial legs
which can be properly controlled would not, however, debar him.
PREVIOUS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE
A man who has had experience in operating or repairing automobiles,
motor boats, motorcycles, or gas engines will have some knowledge
necessary for chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers. A man with ability
along mechanical lines and training, also, enabling him to learn the
principles of motor-car operation and care readily will have a good
foundation for this occupation.
WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN
Classes for motor-car care and operation will be conducted very largely
in schools having the necessary space and facilities for work.
Instruction will include class-room instruction and study, shop-repair
work, and driving. Operation instruction will be conducted on the road.
The course will be arranged to prepare a man adequately for successful
motor-car care and operation. He will have an opportunity to come in
contact with all problems usually confronted by the automobile and truck
driver. It will require from two to four months to complete the course,
depending upon the man’s previous experience and ability.
AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?
Good automobile and truck drivers are in demand. It has been predicted
that many of the truck drivers now in Government service will take
positions of that type after the war. This condition would probably
cause an excess of men for this work, and it is well to say that the men
who have the best training and qualifications will ordinarily secure the
positions.
The hours of employment will depend upon the man’s position but usually
the time is 8 to 12 hours per day. Drivers of pleasure cars are employed
for a greater number of hours usually, but much of the time while on
duty they are idle. Men in these jobs are paid at the rate of $10 to $35
per week.
Work as driver of light or heavy trucks and pleasure cars is available
in nearly all towns and cities. Employment is stable, except for the
fact that the cars may be out of use during the season of snow. The work
is healthful, inasmuch as the men are out in the air most of the time.
Severe weather may cause inconvenience and hardship to some people.
There is very little opportunity for promotion, except that gained
through changing jobs.
PLAN No. 1157. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND CEMENT MANUFACTURE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This monograph was prepared by A. J. R. Curtis, of the Portland Cement
Association, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the
Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division,
for editorial assistance.
Development in the field of concrete construction during the past two
decades has been little short of marvelous. This increase may be
accredited to the wide variety of uses to which concrete may be put and
to the demand on the part of the American public for construction that
is permanent, reasonable in cost, and fireproof. The concrete industry
has brought in to the field of labor a new type of skilled workmen and
its varied phases each call for men with distinct, definite training.
Indications point to a greatly increased demand for men in this line of
industrial activity. If the increase in the production of Portland
cement during the last few years is reviewed one can easily see the
constantly increasing importance with which concrete construction is
being regarded. The shipments of cement leaped from 8,000,000 barrels in
1900 to 92,000,000 in 1917. A vivid imagination will not be needed to
picture a still greater and wider field for its use in the future.
With the cessation of hostilities new construction work of many kinds is
being planned in every section of the country. Millions of dollars will
be spent for new buildings, highways, bridges, and various other types
of public and private improvements. There will be a demand for trained
workmen which will probably tax every effort to supply. A large
percentage of the occupations in this line of work can be filled
efficiently by men who have suffered some disability in the service of
their country. The handicap in the loss of a leg or an arm on the
battlefields of France can be overcome with the aid of a “Made in
America” leg or arm, fitting the wearer to fill efficiently many
occupations in the concrete industry.
A careful study has been made of the limitations imposed by various
injuries. There are many cases on record where injured men have overcome
all handicaps and have made good in positions which from the survey of
the re-educationist appeared quite impossible. Many instances have come
to light which show that the statement, “A handicap is merely a state of
mind,” holds true for a great variety of cases.
The wage question is no doubt one of the first which arises in your
mind. It is natural that one should ask, “What wages or salary does this
job pay?” and, “What are the chances for advancement?” In a review of
the wages of men engaged in concrete construction as compared with the
men engaged in other lines of construction work this fact was noted,
that although in 1913 the average wage for the concrete worker was
somewhat lower, during the year 1916 wages for concrete workers advanced
60 per cent while for workers in the other line the advance was only 20
per cent. For the man with training in this work the salary will average
near $150 per month. As regards opportunities for advancement, few other
lines of activity seem to hold forth comparable opportunities, when it
is considered that a large proportion of competent workers eventually
become partners or managing owners in contracting concerns, while the
demand for construction superintendents is usually greater than the
supply.
For convenience, concrete-work employments may be classified in three
distinct groups, namely: (1) Structural group, including the building of
reinforced concrete structures, ships, bridges, dams, retaining walls,
and a multitude of small structures; (2) roads and highway group,
including the construction of concrete roads and highways, pavements,
and alleys; (3) products plant group, including the making of blocks,
brick, tile, sewer and pressure pipe, and ornamental trim work.
PLAN No. 1158. STRUCTURAL GROUP
ENGINEER OR ARCHITECT
In large structural work the man in charge is usually a civil engineer
or an architect, who has specialized during his course of training in
structural or reinforced concrete engineering. He is the designer or the
creator of the proposed structure. Before any work is done he must
picture in his mind the finished product in every detail of its
construction; he must be able to design and lay out the plans for the
work in its entirety; he must be familiar with the cost of labor and
materials, in order that he may know when the contractor is placing a
fair price upon the construction. He must know the building laws and
codes in any part of the country in which he may be working. He should
have business training and experience, as practically all his
associations will be with business men, and he must be able to talk
intelligently and in business terms to them.
A large percentage of his time will be spent in the office or designing
room.
His training is received in one of two ways, namely: By full-time course
of training in the civil engineering department of a university or
college, or by part-time study in a technical school. Many schools of
this last-named type are now giving evening work, which enables young
men to attain the degree of a civil engineer or architectural engineer
while working. Thus, a man who is working during the day, may increase
his efficiency and attain the same end as his brother, who has been more
fortunate in that he has received a full four years’ training.
To reach the position of engineer architect, the training described
above is an absolute necessity. As a usual thing a civil engineer who
has just completed his course starts work in the capacity of draftsman,
foreman, inspector, or assistant superintendent, and as he gains in
experience is given more responsible positions. His wages range from
approximately $100 at the start to $400 or $500 per month as he gains in
efficiency and experience.
Often, after gaining experience an engineer will establish a clientage,
and gradually work up a business of his own. This is a goal toward which
to strive, as it means greater independence and a larger income. His
services are in demand in every part of the country the year round.
PLAN No. 1159. INSPECTOR
After designing a structure the engineer lets the job of constructing to
a contracting firm. He places as his representative on the job an
inspector whose duty it is to see that the engineer’s plans and
specifications are properly carried out. The duties of an inspector are
not difficult, but it takes a man with diplomacy and consideration, yet
one who is sufficiently firm to safeguard his employer’s interests and
make sure that every part of the work is performed in a thoroughly
acceptable manner. It goes without saying that he must be acquainted
with every feature of the construction work as planned by the engineer.
His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or
architect. However, it is possible for a man who can not complete his
entire training at one time to accept a position as inspector, and gain
some very valuable experience in this way. There are also men who work
up from the ranks to this position. The demand for his services is
greatest in connection with large industrial and public projects and in
the general construction work in cities. His wages range from $100 to
$200 per month.
PLAN No. 1160. CONTRACTOR
The contractor or firm of contractors are equipped to handle the
construction work. At such a time as the engineer or architect has his
plans completed he advertises among the contractors for bids on the
construction according to his plans. As a rule the responsible firm
making the lowest bid gets the job.
PLAN No. 1161. SUPERINTENDENT
The first thing the contractor does after accepting the job is to select
a superintendent of construction. Superintendents are usually engineers
who have grown up in the service of the firm. The successful
superintendent must have resourcefulness, technical knowledge, tact,
energy, honesty, and judgment. He must have a personality which drives
to activity several hundred originally unorganized men who are without
special interest in the company they work for or in the results
accomplished, and with tact and judgment he must weld them into a
unified working organization, cheerful and self-respecting, with a high
morale and finally with enthusiasm for the work at hand. He must be able
to build in full size, with permanent materials, a structure the design
of which troubled the engineer or architect to show clearly on paper; he
must be honest, since his company must leave their reputation in his
hands and trust him with funds; he must, through attention and
experience, be so trained that dangerous operations are carried on as a
matter of routine without worry either to himself or his company; he
must have ability to foresee and provide for the problems which are
perhaps to come up months later; he should have his temper continually
under control, even under the most provoking circumstances; he should
have as much pride in the structure he is erecting as the engineer who
designed it; he must be able to handle labor and cope with the various
labor problems that may arise.
His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or
inspector, but he has been fitted by experience for the position of
superintendent. He may have served in various capacities with the same
contracting firm or with other firms. In some cases men with
extraordinary ability have worked up from the ranks by hard work and
home study or night-school training. The salary of the superintendent
varies in different localities and upon different jobs. It usually
ranges from $150 per month upward.
PLAN No. 1162. ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT
On the larger jobs the superintendent has an assistant. His duties are
dependent largely upon the man under whose direction he may be working.
From a study of the duties and qualifications of the superintendent an
idea may be gained of the nature of the assistant’s work. The
educational requirements are the same as those for the superintendent,
but his responsibility is less and therefore as great and varied
experience is not required. The opportunity for his services depends
upon the number of large jobs under construction. His salary usually
ranges from $100 to $200 per month.
PLAN No. 1163. TIMEKEEPER
On all large jobs a timekeeper has a position of responsibility. His
duties are clerical in nature; in fact he might be called the
superintendent’s clerical assistant. As his name implies he is keeper of
the time of the men, and each day checks up the men on the job in order
that no mistakes may be made in figuring their time. He handles a large
amount of clerical work in connection with the pay roll, and may also be
called upon to do other work in connection with construction. He must be
a man who is absolutely honest and trustworthy. He has a wonderful
opportunity for observation and study of construction operations, and
can by application and study advance to a position of greater
responsibility and trust. His wage varies somewhat, and is dependent on
the amount of responsibility placed upon him and of work required of
him. Experience is of secondary importance.
PLAN No. 1164. FOREMAN
On a large job there will be several foremen, usually a general foreman,
a concrete foreman, foreman of reinforcing placing, and a
carpenter-foreman.
First and most important a foreman must be able to _handle men_. His
duties are more than just to hire and fire. He must be acquainted with
the problems of his men and spend some time studying their viewpoint of
all questions in which they may be interested. As he is ofttimes a man
who has advanced from the ranks by hard work, study, and superior
ability, he will be acquainted with the men’s side of the various labor
questions. However, he must be fair minded and not see the viewpoint of
the men alone, but must regard that also of his employer. He must be
able to weigh carefully any situation, and to make a fair and just
decision.
He must be able to read designs and put them into operation. He may not
be called upon to perform actual mechanical operations, but he must be
able to tell and to show his men how the work is done. He is, in fact,
the superintendent’s right-hand man on the particular portion of the
work which has been assigned to him. All of his time will be spent out
in the open upon the job. Wherever there are concreting operations in
progress, there you will find him.
The general foreman has active charge of all operations. The other
foremen, as a rule, come directly under his jurisdiction.
The concrete foreman has charge of all concreting operations; the
reinforcing foreman has charge of the placing all reinforcing; and the
carpenter foreman has charge of the building of the forms and erecting
of all staging and hoist towers necessary for carrying on the concreting
operations.
Generally speaking, the foremen gain their training from experience and
study; night schools have been started in some of the cities of the
country, which are giving courses in concrete work, particularly for the
man who is anxious to better his position.
PLAN No. 1165. FINISHERS
The repairing of imperfections in the concrete surfaces and the
finishing or floating of flat surfaces requires the work of the
finisher. He must possess manual dexterity so that he can handle a float
skillfully and must know when a surface has been worked sufficiently.
Skill is also required in pointing up or repairing imperfections in
surface from which forms have been removed. His wages range from 50 to
60 cents per hour. His training is received on the job.
PLAN No. 1166. MIXER OPERATOR
Several things are required of a mixer operator. First he must have some
mechanical skill and be able to handle and to take care of a steam or
gas engine or an electric motor. He should be able to repair the mixer
in case of a breakdown. He must also know something of proportioning and
of consistencies required for different mixtures and under different
conditions. Wherever any considerable amount of concreting is done the
services of a mixer operator are required. The wages are practically the
same as for finishers. His training is gained through experience on the
job.
PLAN No. 1167. FORM BUILDERS
Form builders are carpenters and must have the experience and training
required in that trade.
PLAN No. 1168. REINFORCING PLACERS
Reinforcing placers are very often laborers under the direction of a
skilled foreman. Their duties are to place the reinforcing steel
according to the specifications prepared by the engineer. In some of the
larger cities the Structural Steel Workers’ Union requires that all
placing of reinforcing be done by men from their union. The wages vary
according to locality. Very little training or experience is necessary.
PLAN No. 1169. RURAL CONTRACTORS
Rural contractors comprise a very numerous group, handling concrete jobs
in the smaller cities and towns throughout the country. Endowed with an
ordinary amount of business judgment, the rural contractor usually
becomes a well-to-do business man. He usually acts as his own
superintendent directing his jobs personally. The average rural
contractor is independent and commands the respect of the business men
of his community. His income is variable but always affords a good
living if his business is well managed. His income is often comparable
with that of the larger merchants in the community.
ROAD AND HIGHWAY GROUP
A large number of the occupations in this division are analogous to the
positions in the structural division.
PLAN No. 1170. ENGINEER
On practically all public highways the outlining of the plans and
specifications are left to the county or state highway engineer. His
course of technical training should include specialized work in highway
engineering. He must be thoroughly reliable and of unquestionable
integrity, as his judgment in matters pertaining to the construction of
highways and roads must be faultless.
Only recently the states of Illinois and Pennsylvania voted enormous
bond issues to be used in the construction of permanent hard-surfaced
roads. Many other states are planning to appropriate huge sums for the
same purpose. Never before has the opportunity for the highway engineer
been so great. The training required and the salary paid are very
similar to those of the structural engineer.
PLAN No. 1171. INSPECTOR
As in structural work the building of highways is usually let to a
contractor and the engineer places an inspector as his representative on
the job. The duties of the inspector are practically the same as upon
structural work.
PLAN No. 1172. SUPERINTENDENT