RICE CULTURE IN JAVA.--MILITARY AND SOCIAL MATTERS.
Bright and early the next morning the boys were out for a visit to a
place where there was a spring of remarkably cold water. It was about
two miles from Buitenzorg, and the road leading to it ran through a palm
forest and among rice-fields. They had an opportunity to see the care
with which the Javanese till their land. The hilly ground is laid out in
terraces, one above another, and when the water has performed its work
in one place, it goes to the terrace next below; thus it is made to do
duty over and over again. There are large reservoirs where water can be
stored in the wet season, and kept for the period when the rain-fall
ceases. By close attention to the needs of the soil and the
peculiarities of the climate, the Javanese are able to make their land
extremely productive, and a failure of crops is a very rare occurrence.
On much of the rice-land they grow two crops a year.
[Illustration: THE HOUSE AT THE SPRING.]
The spring was of goodly size, and flowed into a pool fifty or sixty
feet across. A house had been erected at one side of this pool, and was
overshadowed by banana and cocoa trees; it had a lot of dressing-rooms,
where the boys were not long in donning the proper costume for a bath.
They shivered somewhat when they first entered the water; but the shock
did not last long, and then they found the sensation was most delicious.
The place was in charge of a Chinese, who demanded a most exorbitant
price for the use of the bath and a few bananas and mangosteens that
were ordered. When they offered a low sum, he bowed, and seemed to say
that, if he could not have what he wanted, he would take what they
offered, which was a good deal more than he deserved.
On their return they had a different view of the rice-fields, and Fred
made note of the fact that when you look upwards on a lot of rice-fields
you see nothing but a series of terraces, while, looking downwards, you
seem to be gazing on a lake. While the water is on the flats, the ground
is stirred with a harrow drawn by a pair of buffaloes; the rice is sown,
and as soon as the plants are of the requisite height the surplus ones
are taken out and transplanted. The crop is then started, and the
farmer has little to do till the time of harvest, beyond taking care
that his fields have plenty of water. When the harvest is made, the
paddy--as the uncleaned rice is called--is cut and taken to the mill.
Rice-mills are abundant in Java; some are run by steam, many by water,
and many small ones by horses and buffaloes. The rice-mill is quite
simple, and consists of a shaft like a ship's capstan and four
projecting arms. Each arm has a wheel at the end, and as the shaft goes
round the wheels revolve in a circular groove containing the rice to be
cleaned. The wheel removes the husk, and when this is done a
winnowing-mill separates the rice from the chaff or trash. This is the
whole operation. The rice-mill of to-day is practically what it was a
hundred years ago.
The Dutch have introduced farming implements of the European pattern on
some of the estates, but the natives do not generally take kindly to the
innovation. They prefer the old form of ploughs which have been in use
from ancient days, and think that what was good for their fathers is
good for them. Frank made a sketch of a primitive plough; it had a
single handle, and its point could only scratch a furrow in the soil
without turning it over.
[Illustration: POUNDING COFFEE.]
At one place they saw a native engaged in pounding coffee in a large
mortar, to separate the berry from the hull. He had a heavy pestle which
he held in both hands, and the perspiration standing on his face showed
that the labor was not one of pure pleasure.
On all the large coffee estates improved machinery is in use for the
preparation of the product. The berry as it comes from the tree is
about the size of an English walnut; the bean is enclosed in a thick
husk, and the great point in the preparation is to remove the husk
without injuring the bean. Pounding by hand is likely to damage the bean
by breaking it, and when this is done the market value of the coffee is
considerably reduced. Inventors have studied the problem, and a good
many machines have been devised to accomplish the desired separation.
The most successful one thus far is the invention of an Englishman in
Ceylon, and his machines are in use all over the coffee-producing world.
[Illustration: DUTCH OVERSEERS.]
He has called the principle of specific gravity to his aid, and made it
very useful. The coffee-berry floats on water, as the husk is very
light, but the bean by itself sinks to the bottom. A stream of water
floats the berries along a narrow channel, and feeds them automatically
into a groove where two plates of copper revolve in opposite directions
about half an inch apart. These plates crush the berry, but do not
injure the bean; the husk and bean together are carried to a trough,
where the bean sinks and is caught in a tub, while the useless husk
floats away to whatever distance the water is made to carry it. The
coffee is then spread out on a platform and dried in the sun, and it is
afterwards sorted, winnowed, and made ready for market. The work is
supervised by Dutch overseers, but all the manual labor is performed by
natives.
On returning from their ride, and while at breakfast, the boys had a
conversation with one of the gentlemen whose acquaintance they had made
during the rainy afternoons on the veranda. Fred was curious to know why
he did not hear a single native speaking Dutch or English, but confining
himself strictly to Malay.
"That is easily explained," said the gentleman. "It is the policy of the
Dutch not to teach their language to the natives, but they require all
their own officials to learn Malay. They have a school or college in
Holland, at the old town of Delft, which was established in 1842, for
the express purpose of fitting young men for the East Indian service.
Before they can graduate, the students must pass an examination in the
usual college studies, and also in the Malay language, Mohammedan
justice and laws, and in a knowledge of the country and nations of
Netherlands India. Of course they are not expected to speak the Malay
language fluently on leaving college, but they know a good deal of it
when they land here, and are expected to know more before they have been
long in Java. If they are not able to converse easily in Malay by the
end of a couple of years, they are liable to be sent home. This makes
them study hard, and renders them far more useful than if they could
talk only in Dutch.
"You see how it works," he continued. "The Dutch officials can talk and
write in their own language with very little fear that the natives can
understand a word; but no native can write or say anything that every
Dutch official cannot comprehend at once. On several occasions they have
been able to nip conspiracies in the bud by this advantage, particularly
at the time of the great mutiny in India. Then they do not encourage
missionaries to labor among the natives; they argue that the natives are
quite content with the religion they have, and it would interfere with
their labor in the field to become interested in Christianity. And if a
missionary should open a school to teach any other language than Malay,
and endeavored to tell the principles of any European or American
religion to the natives, he would be very liable to receive a notice to
leave the island at an early date."
A company of soldiers marched past the hotel while the party was at
breakfast. After looking at them, Fred inquired, "How large an army do
they keep here, and how is it composed?"
"The number of troops in the field, or on duty in garrisons, varies from
time to time," was the reply, "and therefore an account of the army at
one date is not altogether good for another. The army is composed, like
that of India, partly of native and partly of European soldiers. The
native force is exclusively Mohammedan, and is filled up by voluntary
enlistments, never by conscriptions. The European portion is also
voluntary, and the conscript troops in the army in Holland are never
sent to Java. The infantry is divided into field battalions and garrison
battalions, and the soldiers in each battalion are one-third European
and two-thirds native. Each battalion contains six companies, the two
flank companies consisting of European soldiers, and the four centre
companies of natives. The native companies are composed of the different
Mohammedan tribes and sects from all parts of Netherlands India, all
mixed together, so that there shall never be a large majority of one
kind of people in the same battalion."
"That is a very shrewd arrangement," said Frank, "as it prevents a
mutiny by making it impossible for a whole battalion to have a common
grievance."
[Illustration: FOOT-BRIDGE OVER A MOUNTAIN STREAM.]
"Not only that," the gentleman replied, "but it facilitates the movement
of the troops; and the Dutch say that their principal object in making
the battalions in this way was in consequence of the character of the
service. The Dutch East Indies are of great extent, and it is often
necessary to make marches where there are no roads, and the few bridges
that exist are only intended for persons on foot. Consequently, they can
never move their troops in large bodies, owing to the difficulty of
carrying provisions. Each battalion under the present system has the
means of transporting its own provisions, ammunition, and light mountain
guns where there are no roads, as the native soldiers can act as
porters, while the Europeans compose the fighting force in case an enemy
is encountered.
"All the commissioned officers are Europeans, and in each native company
two of the four sergeants and four of the eight corporals must be
Europeans; and some of them live in the barrack-rooms with the native
soldiers. The European companies in each battalion have barracks
separate from the natives, but close at hand; and whenever any of the
soldiers of the native companies are sent on duty, they are accompanied
by a proportionate number of Europeans. There is a difference in the pay
and food of the European and native soldiers; but in all other respects
they are treated as nearly alike as possible.
"There is a free school attached to each battalion for the education of
both adults and children; the soldiers are urged to attend it, and their
children are required to do so. Every officer of the battalion, whether
commissioned or non-commissioned, who has any peculiar knowledge, is
required to give it to the school; and any soldier of the battalion who
has a talent for instructing can be appointed an assistant-teacher in
the school, and be relieved from duties that are purely military--except
in time of war. All soldiers, whether native or European, can have their
wives and children with them, except when on active service in the
field."
Fred thought the Java soldier had an easy time of it. Frank thought so
too; and asked if he had any more privileges than those that had been
named.
"Yes," was the reply; "there is the privilege of a house and garden."
"What!" said one of the boys, "a house and garden for soldiers in the
army!"
[Illustration: REWARDS FOR GOOD CONDUCT.]
"Certainly," responded their informant; "when a regiment is not
quartered in the city, the soldiers are rewarded for good conduct by
receiving a plot of ground near the barracks, with the privilege of
building a hut. European and native are treated alike in this respect;
and it has been found the greatest incentive to good conduct. The man
spends his time with his family in the cultivation of his garden when he
is not on duty--which is by far the larger part of the day. He returns
to the barracks at night, and his family may remain in the hut or go
with him to the military quarters.
[Illustration: PIRATE PRISONERS ON A COLONIAL GUN-BOAT.]
"But I haven't told you how large the army of Java is. Ordinarily,
there are about twenty-five thousand men of all arms; but at present the
number is greater, owing to the war in Sumatra, which requires an extra
force. The infantry is the most important branch of the service, and is
composed as I have told you. The engineers consist of Europeans and
natives mixed together in the same companies; the artillery has European
gunners and native riders, and the cavalry are nearly all Europeans.
There is a colonial navy with several gun-boats, which are generally
occupied in seeing that the pirates throughout the Archipelago are kept
in proper subjection. And there is also a militia force, which is only
to be called on in emergencies: it consists of a cavalry and an infantry
corps; and every European living in Java, whether Dutchman or other
foreigner, must belong to the militia or the fire-brigade."
The boys thought this was a severe regulation; but they changed their
minds when told that the militia-service was very slight, and a man
might be a member of the fire-brigade for years without any call being
made for his assistance. The Europeans in the interior are exempt from
service, except in cases of special emergency; and those living in the
cities are not often called upon. Englishmen and others have complained
of the requirement to do militia and fire-brigade service, but are met
with the reply which cannot be easily answered: "If you don't like the
laws and customs of Java, you had better emigrate."
"The Dutch rulers of Java do not pretend they are occupying the country
for any other purpose than to make money out of it. They never talk
about their great mission of civilizing and enlightening the benighted
people of the East, as the English do in India; and whenever anybody is
disposed to find fault with them, they say to him without hesitation,
'If you don't like things as you find them here, you would do well to
leave. The steamer will start for Singapore in a few days, and you are
at liberty to take passage at once.'
[Illustration: PASSPORT OFFICE.]
"You must have a passport on landing in Java, or, if you have none, the
consul of your country must vouch for you. You must get a permission to
travel in the interior; it is very rarely refused, and only when the
authorities are satisfied that you have the intention of doing harm."
Frank asked what it would be necessary to do in case he desired to
remain permanently, and become an inhabitant of Java.
"You can stay here six weeks," was the reply, "without any formalities
beyond the ordinary permission of the police, which costs nothing. But
if you want to live here you must apply for permission on a printed
form, and have two householders of the place where you are to endorse
your application. If there is no objection to your staying, the desired
document will be granted by the Governor-general, and the fees and
stamps connected with it will cost you about forty dollars of American
money."
"Does every foreigner who comes here to live have to pay forty dollars?"
Fred inquired.
"That is the law," answered his informant; "but the permission is never
refused, unless the authorities suspect that the applicant intends to
disturb the public peace, or when he is unable to obtain the necessary
securities. The result is, that the foreign population of Java is of a
better class than you find in most other parts of the East; the
adventurers who have not a dollar in their pockets, and expect to make a
living by means more or less questionable, do not come here. The
Chinese are very numerous in Java; more than a quarter of a million are
settled here; but they are of a better class than the majority of those
who go to San Francisco, and they give very little trouble to the
authorities. The security is required to protect the government against
the applicant becoming a pauper, and to vouch for his good behavior; but
it has no reference to private debts, which are treated just like
private debts everywhere else.
[Illustration: ORDERED OUT OF THE COUNTRY.]
"The government also reserves the right to send anybody out of the
country in case he becomes troublesome, even after he has received
permission to reside here. The rule applies to a citizen of Holland the
same as to any other foreigner, but it is very rarely exercised, and
only when all other means of adjusting the difficulty have failed. The
local governors have the power of ordering anybody to leave their
districts, if he has been found guilty of treating the natives
improperly, and the Governor-general may restrict the movements of any
individual whenever he thinks the good of the colony requires it."
Fred wished to know if a foreigner could hold land in Java like any
subject of the King of Holland, and was answered in the negative.
"What a monstrous injustice!" he replied.
Doctor Bronson laughed at his nephew's remark, and the latter turned
towards him with an inquiring look on his face.
"You may not be aware," said the Doctor, "that an alien in the United
States is unable to hold real estate, and I believe that the same is the
case in Great Britain."
"In that view of the matter," said Fred, "Java is not so bad as I
thought it was. But can a foreigner be naturalized here, as in England
and America, and then hold property?"
"Certainly," responded the gentleman; "and the time of residence in Java
before naturalization is the same as in your own country--six years.
When he becomes a citizen, he has the same rights as a Dutchman, but
until that time he labors under various disadvantages. The Dutch theory
is that all the good things in Java belong to themselves, and if a
foreigner chooses to live here and not become a citizen, he must be
satisfied with any crumbs that happen to be lying around."
"I have before told you," he continued, "that the Dutch discourage all
attempts of the natives to learn the languages of Holland and the rest
of Europe, and are not inclined to teach them anything that is
distinctively European. I know a native of high rank who went to Europe
and spent several years there; when he returned he could speak Dutch,
English, and French quite fluently, and was proud of his
accomplishments. But he has told me that whenever he spoke to a Dutch
official or to a private citizen in any European language, he was always
answered in Malay, and if he tried to continue the conversation in any
other than the latter tongue it was soon brought to an end. While the
Dutch treat the natives kindly, and will not allow any imposition upon
them, they are very particular about anything that would bring a
European below a native. For instance, they will not permit a native to
have a European servant, no matter how high the rank of the former, and
how low the latter.
"No native would dare to drive out with a European coachman on any of
the public streets, nor with a European on the front seat of his
carriage, while he occupied the back one. If a European soldier or
sailor becomes drunk in public, he is instantly arrested by the police,
in order that his conduct may not degrade the white race in the eyes of
the natives. Several years ago a native regent obtained the consent of a
Dutch girl to marry him; her family was poor, and her social rank was
low, but when he asked the permission of government for his marriage it
was promptly refused, and he was dismissed from his office.
"The Dutch idea in this whole matter is that the Oriental never respects
his equals, but only his superiors. Consequently they hold that in all
social relations they can best serve their own interests and those of
the natives by holding themselves to be the superiors, as they are by
right of conquest. At the same time, they endeavor to give the native no
cause of complaint against them. If a Dutch master maltreats a servant,
the latter can have his wrongs redressed in the nearest police court;
and if the master is found guilty, he is subject to a heavy fine. A
merchant who endeavors to defraud a native is in hot water very
speedily; and if he becomes notorious for attempts to enrich himself by
this kind of dishonesty, his troubles will increase at a very rapid
rate."
"But if one foreigner attempts to cheat another," said Frank, "does the
government feel called on to interfere?"
"That is quite another affair," was the reply; "commercial matters
between foreigners are exactly like the same transactions in other
countries, and the courts exist for the administration of justice, the
enforcement of contracts, and other contingencies of trade, in Java as
in England and America."
[Illustration: NO ADMITTANCE.]