A CHAPTER ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.--THE DUTCH CULTURE SYSTEM IN JAVA.
For several days Frank and Fred, accompanied by the genial Doctor, made
excursions in the neighborhood of Buitenzorg in the forenoon, and
remained in-doors, during the rainy period, in the afternoon. A good
many things came under their observation; they studied the agriculture
in the region around the summer capital, and learned all they could
about the manners and customs of the people. They investigated the
peculiarities of the Dutch dominion over Java, and were much interested
in the problem of governing seventeen millions of Asiatics with thirty
thousand Europeans in such a way as to keep the millions perfectly
content with the new rule, and enable a handsome amount of money to go
every year from Java to the treasury of Holland.
The rainy afternoons were spent in reading, drawing, writing, and
conversation; and the boys soon learned that the time in-doors was by no
means without value. They formed an acquaintance with several gentlemen
who were stopping at the hotel for the sake of the breezes, that were
cooler than those of the sea-coast. Many of the foreign residents of
Batavia are in the habit of going frequently to Buitenzorg, as a New
Yorker goes to Saratoga; and this recreation is so much the fashion that
several hotels do a very good business in providing for their wants. The
Bellevue was one of the popular resorts, and it happened that there was
quite a party of Batavians there at the same time as our friends.
While making notes of their visit to the governor's garden, the boys
began drawing pictures of the elephant as he would appear when developed
according to the theories of Doctor Darwin. Frank made the Yankee
elephant with the traditional garments and jack-knife, and Fred followed
it with a Chinese elephant peddling cigars from a small box. Frank
designed the operatic elephant entertaining an audience with a song, and
was immediately followed by Fred with the elephant in love, engaged in
a serenade. Of course there was no allusion to Frank's frequent thoughts
of somebody at home, and if any one entertained the idea he kept it to
himself. The series was brought to a close by a delineation of the
original elephant in two acts; but the designers neglected to state
where this particular performance of the animal could be witnessed.
[Illustration: THE YANKEE ELEPHANT.]
[Illustration: THE CHINESE ELEPHANT.]
[Illustration: THE OPERATIC ELEPHANT.]
[Illustration: THE ELEPHANT IN LOVE.]
One of the first practical results of their afternoon work was the
preparation of a brief description of Java, which was duly forwarded by
mail to their friends. Both the boys contributed to its preparation, and
each made a copy for his own use. Here is the story:
"Java is not of great extent. It is only six hundred miles long, and
varies from sixty to one hundred and twenty in width: its area added to
that of the island of Madura, which lies near it, is estimated at
thirty-eight thousand geographical square miles. Its population is not
far from seventeen millions; and when this is considered with relation
to its extent, it will be seen that Java is one of the most
densely-peopled countries in the world. That the country has prospered
under the rule of the Dutch, is evident from the growth of the
population, which was little more than five millions in 1826, nine
millions in 1850, and is now at the figure just mentioned. If it goes on
at this rate, doubling about every twenty-six years, there will come a
time when it will be obliged to put out a placard announcing 'standing
room only!'
"It is said that formerly the religion of the people of Java was
Brahminical, and when Buddhism became the fashion of the East the new
form was adopted. This continued till about four hundred years ago, when
Mohammedanism was introduced, and it has remained to this day; so that
the greater part of the population at present are Moslems. There are
many traces of the former character of the people in the shape of
monuments and ruins, some of them of great extent. In the eastern part
of the island these remains are very abundant, and show that the ancient
Javanese had great artistic skill.
[Illustration: ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF--JAVA.]
"Few persons have any idea of the extent of these ruins, and their
corresponding splendor. They are far more extensive than those of
Central America, and some travellers think they surpass the temple ruins
of India. In the centre of Java there is a mass of ruins where there
were formerly twenty separate temples, and the largest of them is
thought to have been ninety feet high. In another place there is a
collection of no less than two hundred and ninety-six temples, all
greatly ruined, but bearing evidence of a high class of art in their
construction. Sculptured figures are abundant, and the walls of forts,
temples, houses, baths, and aqueducts can be distinctly traced. It is a
pity that the government does not pay some attention to these ruins, and
save them from decay. At present they are left to the action of the
elements, which is very rapid in this tropical land.
[Illustration: A MONSTER VOLCANO.]
"Java is by no means a level island. There is a good deal of country
sufficiently level for agricultural purposes, but the island has its
full share of mountains, and no less than forty-six of them are
volcanic. Twenty of the volcanoes are active, and one of them is the
second largest in the world--that of Kilauea, in the Sandwich Islands,
being the chief. It is known as the Tenger Mountain, and its crater is
three miles in diameter, with a level bottom of sand, containing a dozen
or more cones that are constantly smoking. The whole island is supposed
to be of volcanic origin, and is subject to frequent earthquakes; so
that the practice of building houses only one story high is a very
sensible precaution. The island has a backbone of mountains, as the
principal chain extends from one end of Java to the other. There is
another small chain near the south coast; and all over the island there
are hot springs maintained by the fires far down in the ground.
"We have already told of the trees and animals of Java, as well as some
other things. We will come as soon as we can to the topic that interests
us more than any other--the relations between the natives and the Dutch
rulers. To do this intelligently, we must go back and see what the
history of the island has been.
"Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch began to trade with the
native chiefs and people of Java, and obtained permission to build a
fort and trading post near the present site of Batavia. In a little
while they went to war with the natives; and by the end of the century
had obtained considerable territory. From that time on they have had
occasional difficulties, and each time when the war was ended the result
has been that the position of the Dutch was strengthened.
"They had possession of the island till 1811, when England took it from
them, and held it four years. Then it was given back to Holland by
treaty, and has remained her peaceful possession ever since.
"The principal exports are coffee, sugar, rice, indigo, spices, tin,
pepper, India-rubber, cinnamon, tea, camphor, rattans, and various other
things; and the aggregate amount of the trade is very great. Down to the
time of the restoration by the English, the expense of maintaining Java
had been quite as great as the revenue from it; and it was this fact
that made the English willing to give it up. If they had known that it
would be made to yield a net revenue of five million dollars a year,
over and above the expense of maintaining the local government, they
would have thought twice before surrendering it.
"The genius of one man--General Johannes Van den Bosch, Governor-general
and Commissary-general of the Dutch East Indies, from 1830 to
1834--brought about this result, and made Java the most profitable
colony that any country has ever known.
"And he not only made it profitable to Holland, but prosperous for its
inhabitants; while they enriched the rulers, they were themselves
enriched. Anybody who has money may benefit the poor at his own expense,
but it takes a man of genius to confer an equal benefit on the poor, and
make something for himself or his employers out of the transaction. Such
a man was General Van den Bosch.
[Illustration: PEASANT FARM-HOUSES.]
"Down to 1830, the expenditure to maintain the Dutch government in Java
was a steady burden on the treasury of Holland, as it was greater than
the revenue from the island. General Van den Bosch was sent out in that
year with plans of his own for making Java profitable; but there were
many who considered him a visionary schemer, whose experiments were sure
to result in disastrous failure. He proposed to offer liberal terms to
the respectable Europeans in Java for cultivating the soil, and
producing such things as were needed in Europe. He further proposed to
make the peasants who lived on the government lands plant a certain
portion of those lands with crops needed in Europe, and which the
government would buy of them at a certain fixed rate. His scheme was
shaped to cover the following principles:
"1. Profit to the peasant, to make the new system acceptable.
"2. Profit to the contractor, to induce its extension by private
enterprise.
"3. A percentage to the officials, to secure their active support.
"4. Personal interest of the village community in its success, so as to
secure careful cultivation.
"5. Improvement in the tax-payer's means, in order to increase the
revenue and facilitate its payment.[3]
[3] For much of the information concerning the culture-system of General
Van den Bosch and its results, the author is indebted to the excellent
and exhaustive work of Mr. J. W. B. Money, entitled "Java; or, How to
Manage a Colony."
"The plan for making advances to the contractors was carried out by
crediting each one with the money estimated necessary to start his
manufactory; and he was expected to apply it under government
supervision to the construction of his mill, and placing it in working
order. It was loaned to him for twelve years, without interest; but he
was expected to repay a tenth of it the third year, and a similar amount
in each succeeding year till the whole amount was repaid. Many persons
refused the proposal, but there were others who gladly accepted it, and
went to work at once.
[Illustration: HOME OF A PROSPEROUS CONTRACTOR.]
"It was further provided that the government would advance to the
contractor, at the beginning of every season, the money necessary to
produce his crop; and this advance was to be repaid out of the crop when
it was gathered. There were many details of the plan which would require
too much space to describe, and they were varied from time to time in
order to make them as practicable as possible. Besides--"
"Stop a moment," said Frank, when they had reached this point. "Don't
you think we are making this part of our story a little too heavy? I am
afraid Mary and Miss Effie, and the rest of the young folks in our
families, may not enjoy it."
"Perhaps not," replied Fred; "but then, you know, the whole family is to
read our letters, and I am sure the subject will be very interesting to
my father, and to yours too. And I think you will find the younger folks
will like it, because it will teach them something of what is called
political economy. Every intelligent boy and girl in America wants to
know about the science of government; the history of the colonial
government of Java is very interesting to both of us, and I believe we
had better assume that it will be equally so to persons of our age at
home. So go ahead, if you please, and if anybody doesn't want to read
what we have written, he may skip it."
Work was resumed without further discussion.
[Illustration: COFFEE-PLANTATION IN THE MOUNTAINS.]
"Down to the time we are considering the chief product of the soil
tilled by the Javanese peasants was rice. General Van den Bosch proposed
to have them cultivate coffee, sugar, and other articles that commanded
a ready sale in Europe; and, as the government would buy the crop at a
certain fixed price on the spot, the peasant would have a market at his
door, and feel certain that he would not be robbed by middle-men and
commission merchants, as is too often the case in other countries
besides Java. The price paid by government was sufficient to make a fair
return for the labor employed in making the crop, and at the same time
low enough to allow a handsome profit when it was sold in Holland."
"That explains something I have never before understood," said Fred, as
he laid aside his pen for a moment.
"What is that?" Frank inquired.
[Illustration: "OLD GOVERNMENT JAVA."]
"Why, we often read in the papers at home about the price of 'Old
Government Java Coffee.' It is the coffee the government buys of the
producer, and then sells in the market."
"Exactly so," Frank responded. "That bit of information will interest a
good many boys in America."
"And men too," chimed in the Doctor, who was sitting in an arm-chair
close at hand, and watching the clouds as they rolled over the mountain
in the background of the view from the veranda.
"I want to know," said Frank, "how the enterprising general proposed to
compel the people to work in the fields and cultivate the crops, when
they might spend their time under the trees, and pluck the fruit when
they needed it to supply their wants."
[Illustration: A JAVANESE CHIEF.]
"Mr. Money says," answered Fred, "that the general made a careful study
of the relations between the people and their native rulers. He found a
patriarchal form of government, the villages being ruled by their chosen
chiefs; several villages forming a sort of district, and several
districts united into a province or principality. It was the policy of
General Van den Bosch to take this organization as he found it; and,
instead of over-throwing the native rulers, he would strengthen them,
and make it for their interest, and that of their subjects, to be on
friendly terms with the Dutch. This policy was adopted, and it is
carried out to this day.
"Now, under the old system of government, before the Dutch came to Java,
the peasant was required to give one-fifth of his labor gratuitously in
return for the rent of the land, which was considered to be the property
of the prince. When the Dutch captured a region, they claimed that they
had captured the prince, and not the people, and that the revenues
belonged to them as the conquerors. In some of the provinces the Dutch
hold possession by treaty, and not by conquest; and the revenues
continue to go to the prince as before. To develop the producing
capacities of the country, they made an estimate of the quantity of any
given article that each district ought to raise under proper management,
and then they required the native ruler of the district to see that
there was the proper production. Allowance was made for bad seasons, or
other calamities; and if the production fell short, without any
assignable cause, the ruler found his revenues cut off. The government
bought the product, as we have already seen, and made its profit. The
prince had his revenue and was happy, and the same was the case with the
subordinate chiefs. The peasant was rewarded for his labor; and, as he
had no more tax to pay than under the old system, he had nothing to
complain of.
"The crown-lands, or those obtained by conquest, were the ones let out
to contractors. They were generally on long leases, so that the
contractor was encouraged to make improvements; and the result is that
cultivation by private management has been greatly increased, and large
fortunes have been made in many instances. The government takes its
rental by receiving a share of the crops; and it watches over the
relations between the lessee and his laborers, to see that neither
practices any imposition on the other. Each must keep his agreement,
under severe penalties, and the whole system is said to work very
smoothly.
"The Dutch officials all over the island have no dealings with the
natives except through their own rulers. The native princes have the
title of regents, and the authority of each is supreme in his district
as long as he carries out the policy of the government. A Dutch resident
or assistant-resident lives near each regent, and is considered to be
his 'elder brother,' who advises the younger what to do. He frequently
makes recommendations to the regent, though he never gives orders; but
it is pretty clearly understood that he expects the recommendation to be
adopted. The resident has a few subordinate Europeans, who go through
the district at regular intervals, and visit every village it contains.
They talk with the lower native rulers, examine the proceedings of the
native courts, investigate the condition of the government plantations,
hear the complaints of the people against their head men, or petty
chiefs, and listen to any suggestions that are offered. Disputes are
settled in the local courts without the intervention of a Dutch
official; but in case of dissatisfaction they may be appealed to the
district court, and, if not settled there, they may be carried to the
highest courts of the island.
[Illustration: AN IMPROVED SUGAR ESTATE.]
"There is a very efficient police system all through Java, and by means
of it, added to the employment of the people in honest industry, the
amount of crime has been enormously reduced in the past fifty years.
Every man, woman, and child in Java is registered, and each village
chief is made responsible to a certain extent for the conduct of his
subjects. An offence against the law can be readily traced, and if the
village or its chief are at fault, a fine is assessed upon them.
Consequently everybody in a village is directly interested in seeing
that everybody else behaves properly.
"Well, to sum up the results of the Dutch system of culture in Java, we
can say as follows:
"From being an expense to Holland, the island now yields an annual
revenue of more than five millions of dollars to the royal treasury,
after paying all the costs of the colonial rule. The expenses of the
latter are by no means small, as the salaries of the officials are on a
liberal scale. The Governor-general receives $100,000 a year, besides
$60,000 additional for entertainments. It is said that the latter figure
pays nearly all his expenses, so that he can, if he chooses, lay aside
$100,000 a year for a rainy day. A Resident in a province receives
$10,000, in addition to free rent of house and all surrounding
buildings, and an allowance for extras. The subordinate officials are
paid in proportion; so that nobody is obliged to rob the government or
the people in order to make an honest living.
[Illustration: RETAINERS OF A JAVANESE REGENT.]
"Crime and litigation have been so reduced that the sittings of the
local courts do not average thirty days a year.
"Formerly there was much poverty and suffering in Java; now nearly every
man, woman, and child appears to be well fed and clothed, and a beggar
is a very rare sight.
"The import and export trade have been increased fourfold, in spite of
the protective policy, which is the necessary attendant of the Java
culture system.
"The population has more than trebled in sixty years, and promises to
increase in the same ratio, unless interrupted by some great calamity.
"Those who have travelled in both Java and India say that the contrast
in the conditions of the two countries is something enormous. In Java
there is hardly any indication of poverty, and the public works are all
in excellent shape; while in India the reverse is the case. Want and
degradation are visible everywhere, and the traveller has daily and
hourly appeals for charity. Famines are frequent in India, and in the
year 1877 more than a million people died of starvation in Bengal and
Madras. Famines are virtually unknown in Java, and in case of a general
drought to cut off the crops, relief could be carried promptly to all
parts of the island by means of the excellent roads that the Dutch have
constructed.
"There is a great deal more that we might say, but it is getting near
bed-time, and we will stop for the present. The wind sets our candle in
a flicker, and it is 'guttering' in a way that threatens to extinguish
it altogether. Good-night!"
[Illustration: "GOOD-NIGHT."]