GROTIUS.--AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF
FRANCE.
1634--1645.
The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important period in the
history of the War of Thirty years.
This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious disputes of
the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's first attack on the See
of Rome, the Reformation was established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia,
and Hesse-cassell; in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Anhalt;
Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its progress in Germany
is particularly connected with the subject of these pages.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.]
At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes of Germany
delivered to the emperor their Confession of Faith; they afterwards, at
Smalcald, entered into an offensive and defensive league against the
emperor. Being sensible that they were unable to resist him, they
engaged the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor was
victorious; but a new league was formed. France then took a more active
part in favour of the confederates, and the contest ended in the peace
of Passau, in 1552, there the two parties, for the first time, treated
as equals, and the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the First and
Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the disputes, which arose
on the succession to the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, the religious
differences broke out with fresh animosity:--the Protestant princes
formed a confederacy called the _Evangelical Union_, and placed, at its
head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics formed a confederacy called
the _Catholic League_, and placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In
the year 1618, they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in it. France was
the soul of the Protestant cause; she assisted it with her armies, and
her subsidies:--it may be truly said, that, if there be a Protestant
state from the Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the Bourbon
monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has been called the WAR
OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its _Palatine, Danish, Swedish,_ and
_French_ periods.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
1. Frederick, the fifth _Elector Palatine_ of that name, being elected
King of Bohemia, by the states of that kingdom, made war on the emperor
Ferdinand the Second. Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague,
and abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and deprived of
his other states.
2. Christian the Fourth of _Denmark_, then placed himself at the head of
the confederacy against the emperor; but, having in 1626, lost the
battle of Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he
signed, three years after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was placed at
the head of the confederacy. Their cause appeared desperate: Walstein,
the Austrian general, had been uniformly successful, and almost the
whole of Germany had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; his councils
were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the ablest statesmen that has
appeared upon the theatre of the world. Vast, but provident in his
designs; daring, but considerate in his operations; capable of the
largest views and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
projects, and succeeded in all.
"When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his celebrated
_Testament Politique_, "resolved at the same time to admit me into your
councils, and to give me a great portion of your confidence, I can say
with truth that the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, and the
governors of the provinces, as if they were the sovereigns of them; and
that France was contemned by her foreign allies."
To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate France to be
the preponderating power in Europe, were the three objects, which the
Cardinal proposed to himself. In each, he had difficulties to encounter,
which extraordinary talents only could surmount. By a strict
administration of justice, and severely punishing, without respect to
rank or connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, he
completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; by victorious
armies and a vigorous dispensation of the laws, he reduced the Hugonots;
and, by calling forth all the energies of his country, and arraying
half the Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI 1634-1645.]
To the last only of these three designs our present subject leads us.
_Sweden_ had long been engaged in a war against Denmark, and highly
dissatisfied with Austria. By the persuasion of Richelieu, she made
peace with the Danes, and entered into an offensive and defensive
alliance with France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of Swedes
entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the command of the
confederate forces, and his brilliant campaigns turned the tide of
success in their favour. At Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but
lost his life.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the Mareschal of
the Diet proposed, that the celebrated Christina, the only child of
Gustavus, then an infant of very tender years, should be crowned: the
Mareschal carried her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her father. "Yes!"
they cried, "it is she herself! she has the eyes, the nose and the
forehead of Gustavus! We will have her for our queen!" She was
immediately seated on the throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of
the kingdom, during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential minister and friend
of Gustavus, and shewed through life that he deserved that confidence,
by his wisdom, eminent talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch
and his minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and virtue
of Grotius: His treatise _De Jure Belli et Pacis_ was found, after the
death of Gustavus, in the royal tent.
4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at Lutzen, the
Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at Nordlingen, in one of the
most obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history: the confederates
were completely defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the weight of the
war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes and _the French_. Till this
time, they had acted and negociated on an equality: the loss of this
battle made the Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
Richelieu made them severely feel it.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with France: a
skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was necessary. Oxenstiern
fixed his eye upon Grotius: the penetrating minister had several
conversations with him. The embassy to France was certainly the most
important commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, demonstrated the
minister's high opinion of him. Some time in July 1634, he declared
Grotius councillor to the Queen of Sweden, and her ambassador to the
court of France. Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the
2d of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or compliment was
omitted in his regard, by the court of France.
Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius, two envoys from
some of the Protestant states in Germany had previously signed a treaty
with France, which was generally considered by the confederates to be
injurious to their interests.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place on the 28th
March. During their conference, a dispatch arrived from Oxenstiern to
Grotius: it was immediately put into his bands, by the Cardinal's
desire. It announced a resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to
Paris, and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu was
displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor the most
honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st of April, Grotius met
Oxenstiern at Soissons: they proceeded together to Paris. Conferences
between the Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The
matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged: France
undertook to declare war against the emperor, to subsidize Sweden, and
to send an army to co-operate with her forces in Germany. It has always
been considered highly creditable to the firmness and talents of
Oxenstiern, that, in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could
obtain for them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty
was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay, he shewed a
marked attention to Grotius, and expressed unqualified approbation of
his conduct and views.
The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General Bannier
obtained important advantages over the imperialists; in Alsace, the arms
of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following
year, the two victorious generals carried their arms into the heart of
the Austrian territories, and, were almost uniformly successful.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the military
achievements or political intrigues of the times of which we are
speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal of the events of this war.
Through the whole of its long period, Germany was a scene of
devastation. In its northern and central parts, the ravages of advancing
and retreating armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost
horrors: many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages
depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the women, the
children, and the aged, naked, pale, and disfigured, were seen wandering
over the fields, supporting themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild
roots, and even grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an
affecting account of the calamities, which it produced in that beautiful
province, was published by Father Caussin, who accompanied Lewis XIII
into it, as his confessor.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an humble missionary
priest, who, at that time, resided at Paris, requested an audience of
Cardinal de Richelieu. Being admitted, he represented to his eminence,
with respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the sins, and
all the other enormities, which are the usual consequences of war: he
then fell upon his knees, and in a voice, equally animated by grief and
charity, "Sir!" he said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have
compassion upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive
genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He raised Vincent
from the ground. He told him, with much apparent benignity, that "the
general pacification of Europe was his great object, but that
unfortunately it did not depend on him alone; there being, both within
and without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and prevented
peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability, or produced greater
public or private misery, than Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be
doubted, whether, at the day of general retribution, when every child of
Adam will have to account for his works, even one will appear with more
numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than St. Vincent of
Paul.[042]
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius, prospered in
his hands. In his conduct, there was an uniform assemblage of prudence,
activity, moderation, and firmness. To the French monarch, he was always
acceptable--not always so to the cardinal minister. It was the constant
object of the latter, to delay the payments of the subsidies promised
to Sweden, or to make deductions from them; and to lessen the number of
soldiers, which France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by
blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his agents
endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these irregularities: but
Grotius was always true to the interests of the country which he
represented: it does not appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point
against him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in
renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms which were
considered to do great honour to his diplomatic talents.
In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain other
unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid: this often
subjected him to great inconveniences. He had disputes respecting rank
and ceremonial, both with the French ministry and the ambassadors of
other states. It must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius
questioned the right of the English ambassador to precedence over him:
the French court often played one ambassador, against the other.
[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the serenity of his
mind; and his attachment to sacred and profane literature. He cultivated
the acquaintance of the learned and the good, of every communion; and
possessed their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was always
approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he lived, and after his
decease, by his son and successor in his office. The Queen of Sweden was
equally favourable to Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer
into her confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to Paris.
This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now thickened upon him.
He applied to the Queen for his recall. She granted it in the most
flattering terms, and desired him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to
receive, from her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the
Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself in a manner
highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged her obligations to him
and protested that she never would forget them. This was towards the
month of March 1645.
[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
About three years after this event, the war of thirty years was
concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the Protestant princes
of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes were indemnified for their
charges of the war, by Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the
house of Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and Camin;
Alsace was conquered, and retained by France; Lusatia, was ceded to
Saxony. The history of the treaty of Westphalia has been ably written by
_Father Bougeant_, a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the
best historical work in the French language. Till the late revolution of
France, it was the breviary of all French aspirants to political
distinction.