SIR MARTIN FROBISHER
It was more than 20 years after the expedition of Willoughby to the
north-east that the efforts towards the north-west were commenced.
Their inception was due to Martin Frobisher, one of the greatest of the
Elizabethan seamen.
Born at Altofts, in the parish of Normanton in Yorkshire, about 1535,
Martin was a nephew of Francis Frobisher, who had been Mayor of
Doncaster. His father, Bernard Frobisher, died in Martin’s infancy, and
his mother sent the boy, being one of several children, to the care of
her brother, Sir John Yorke, in London. Martin is described as “a youth
of great spirit and bold courage, and natural hardiness of body.” His
uncle seems to have found him more than he could manage, so he sent
him to sea. Martin’s first voyage was to the coast of Guinea in 1554,
and for many years he continued to make voyages to Africa and to the
Levant, becoming a thorough sailor, but without much book learning.
Yet he was deeply impressed with the importance of Arctic discovery
very early in his career. His great ambition was to lead an expedition
and to discover the strait which must, he thought, lead into the ocean
discovered by Magellan on the north side of America, as Magellan’s
Strait leads into it on the south.
Frobisher saw service in Ireland, and it has been suggested with much
probability that he there became acquainted with Sir Henry Sidney, the
Lord Deputy. This was the friend of the young King, Edward VI, who on
the part of his sovereign, took an active interest in the expedition of
Sir Hugh Willoughby, and obtained the appointment of Richard Chancellor
as second in command. Sidney would naturally take an equal interest in
the project of Frobisher, would encourage his enthusiasm, and exert
his influence to enable him to realise his ardent longing. So it was
that Sidney’s brother-in-law, Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick, took
the matter in hand, brought it before Queen Elizabeth, and secured her
approval.
The discourse of Sir Humphrey Gilbert to prove a passage to Cataya and
the East Indies was printed in 1576, but it had been written some years
before, and its powerful advocacy was no small help to the persuasions
of Frobisher. It is divided into ten chapters. The first is to prove
the existence of a passage from authority, in the second is the proof
from reason, and the third shows that America must be an island. The
next four chapters discuss the traditions that the passage had been
sailed through[44], and the eighth contests the reasons given by
Anthony Jenkinson for preferring a north-east passage. In the ninth it
is argued that a north-west route will be more commodious for traffic,
and in the tenth the manifold advantages of the discovery are set
forth. At the close of his discourse Sir Humphrey exclaims: “He is not
worthy to live at all who for fear or danger of death shunneth his
country’s service or his own honor, since death is inevitable, and the
fame of virtue immortal.”
The advocacy of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and the support of the Queen’s
ministers and courtiers enabled Frobisher to make progress in
collecting funds. A difficulty was raised by the Muscovy Company,
represented by Mr Michael Lock, who maintained that the voyage was
contrary to the Company’s privileges. But the Privy Council ordered the
Company either to make the attempt itself, or to grant a licence to
Frobisher to do so, and the latter alternative was preferred. Moreover
Frobisher won over Michael Lock to his side, a most important ally.
[Illustration: Sir Martin Frobisher]
Lock’s father was an Alderman of London, and Michael was born in
1532. The father, Sir William Lock, was a mercer, and was also
Agent-beyond-the-seas in divers affairs for Henry VIII. After
keeping his son at school until he was 13, he sent him to France and
Flanders to learn the language. Michael afterwards passed through
nearly all the countries of Christendom, had command of a large ship
in the Levant trade for three years, and then settled in London as a
merchant. He was an ardent geographer, and had made a large collection
of books, maps, and instruments. He became an enthusiastic partner of
Frobisher, and they together began to sell shares in the venture, and
succeeded in raising £875 for the projected voyage. This sum was quite
inadequate, but Lock patriotically came forward and guaranteed the rest
on his own personal security.
Two small vessels, the _Michael_ of 25 tons, and the _Gabriel_ of 20
tons, were fitted out in the Thames, with a small pinnace of 7 tons
to be used in going ahead to sound and look out, and to explore bays
and inlets. Michael Lock’s maps and charts were diligently examined
and discussed, and frequent councils were held at which Frobisher and
Lock were assisted by Stephen Burrough, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and the
learned Dr Dee. The master and mate of the _Gabriel_, Christopher Hall
and James Best, also received instructions from Dr Dee in the use of
instruments and in computation. At length all was ready. On June 17th,
1576, the little squadron anchored off Greenwich Palace, and fired a
salute. The Queen stood at an open window and waved her hand, also
sending the adventurers a gracious message that she had “good liking
of their doings.” Proceeding down the river the crew received the
Sacrament at Gravesend, and on the 18th Harwich was left astern and the
voyage began.
Passing the Shetland Islands on June 26th a furious gale was
encountered and the little pinnace foundered with the loss of four men.
The _Michael_, commanded by one Owen Gryffyn, deserted soon afterwards
and returned with a report that the _Gabriel_ was lost. Frobisher held
resolutely on his way and sighted the south coast of Greenland, which
was supposed to be a (fabulous) land shown on the fanciful Zeno chart
with which he was supplied and called Frieslanda. The little _Gabriel_
continued her westward course with 18 men all told, amidst drifting
icebergs and dense fogs. Another gale sprang up with a fearful sea,
coming on so suddenly that there was no time to shorten sail. Her
canvas pressed the ship down until she was on her beam ends, and the
men were seized with despairing panic. The captain rushed up with an
axe in his hand, ran along the channels on the weather side, and cast
off the foretack, relieving her of pressure from the foresail. He then
ran aft and cut away the mizzen mast. The ship slowly began to right
herself, and was got before the wind. Seeing this the affrighted crew
made a rush to cut away the main shrouds, thinking further relief from
pressure would complete what their captain had done. But Frobisher
drove them back, ordering them to desist. As it was, the mainmast was
sprung, and had to be fished.
On the 28th July high land was sighted, receiving the name of Queen
Elizabeth’s Foreland. But the ice was floating in masses, and a huge
iceberg split up close to the little craft as she drifted past. A
landing was effected on an island, which was named after Christopher
Hall, the master. The men brought back grass and flowers, and a piece
of black stone which was destined to have a malign influence on
Frobisher’s project of discovery. He sailed up a channel with land
on either side, which received the name of Frobisher’s Strait, and
succeeded in establishing apparently friendly traffic with the Eskimos.
But the traffic ended in a catastrophe. The boat, with five men, went
away and, contrary to orders, pulled out of sight of the ship to barter
for skins. Neither men nor boat were ever heard of again. It was a
great calamity, for there was no other boat and the men were a serious
loss. Frobisher succeeded in capturing one savage, with his kayak, but
this was poor consolation. On the 26th August the return voyage was
commenced and by the 9th October the _Gabriel_ was once more in the
Thames.
Owing to the false report of the _Michael_, Frobisher and his people
had been given up for lost. They had a hearty welcome and the
gallant leader was well received at court. All would have proceeded
satisfactorily for the resumption of the work of discovery, if it had
not been for the black stone. Michael Lock got hold of it, forgetting
that “all that glisters is not gold.” He took it to the Assay Master of
the Tower who pronounced it to be iron pyrites. Then he went to another
assayer named Wheeler, who made the same report. Next he appealed to an
Italian named Aquello, who was more complaisant. He produced a little
gold dust. When he was asked how he had found gold where the other
assayers declared there was none, his cynical reply was “_Bisogno sap
ere adulare la natura_.”
Lock then spread the report that there were rich gold mines in
Frobisher Strait. There was great excitement. A gold-mining company
was formed called the “Cathay Company,” and a charter was granted on
the 17th March, 1577. The Queen took shares to the amount of £1000,
and lent one of her ships, the _Aid_ of 200 tons. She named the newly
discovered land “Meta Incognita.” The subscriptions came in rather
slowly, but Lock guaranteed the balance, and became Governor of the
Company.
Frobisher took command of the second expedition on May 25th, 1577.
It consisted of three vessels. The _Aid_, the Queen’s vessel, was
Frobisher’s flag-ship, with George Best as his lieutenant, Christopher
Hall as master, and 30 gentlemen volunteers and soldiers. The _Gabriel_
of 20 tons was commanded by Edward Fenton and had a crew of 18 men,
with William Smyth as master. Gilbert Yorke, possibly a cousin of
Frobisher, had the _Michael_ of about 25 tons, with a crew of 16 men.
They sailed from Blackwall on the 26th May, and next day the Vicar of
Gravesend came on board the _Aid_ and administered the Sacrament to
officers and men.
On July 7th land, which was believed to be the Frieslanda of Zeno,
was sighted, and an attempt was made to cross or get through the ice
and land, but it proved impracticable. This was of course Greenland.
Sailing onwards the _Michael_ lost her topmasts in a gale but
succeeded in regaining her consorts, and a few days afterwards the
land discovered during the first voyage was reached. The object of
the expedition was to load the ships with the black micaceous stones
which were supposed to be gold ore, and had nothing to do with Arctic
discovery. The gallant admiral, however, thought far more of rescuing
the men who were believed to have been captured by the Eskimos on his
former voyage than of the imaginary gold ore. He tried every means,
attempted negotiation with the savages, and made searches, but all in
vain. Some of their clothes were found in the Eskimo tents, and there
can be little doubt that they were murdered. The ships returned with
their cargoes of black stones, and the voyagers received just praise
from the Queen. Her Majesty “rejoiced at their great forwardness in
this so dangerous toiling and faithful attempt, especially she praised
so good order of government, so good agreement, every man so ready in
his calling to do whatsoever the General should command.” Elizabeth
had rightly formed a very high opinion of the ability and capacity of
Martin Frobisher.
The worthless character of the stones was not yet exposed and the
feeling was stronger than ever for further supplies. There was to be
a colony formed at the Countess of Warwick’s Sound. A timber house
was embarked, and miners were engaged from Cornwall. There were many
gentlemen volunteers, and no less than 15 vessels were engaged:--
_Aid_ (Admiral) Martin Frobisher
_Thomas Allin_ (Vice Admiral) Yorke
_Judith_ (Lieut.-Gen.) Fenton
_Ann Frances_ Best
_Hopewell_ Carew
_Bear_ Philpot
_Thomas_ (of Ipswich) Tanfield
_Emanuel_ (of Exeter) Courtenay
_Emanuel_ (Busse) (of Bridgewater) Newton
_Francis_ (of Foy) Moyles
_Moon_ Upcot
_Salomon_ (of Weymouth) Randal
_Dennis_ Kendal
_Gabriel_ Harvey
_Michael_ Kinnersley
The Queen received the captains at Greenwich, and threw a gold chain
round the neck of “her loving friend Martin Frobisher.” The fleet
sailed from Dover on May 31st, 1578, and shaped a course down channel.
The Admiral had issued an order prohibiting swearing or card-playing,
and ordering that there was to be Divine service daily in every ship.
Most of the ships were chartered, and the Admiral had not the same
control over them as if they had been Queen’s ships, which increased
his difficulties.
[Illustration: Frobisher’s Discoveries.]
After crossing the North Atlantic Frobisher again sighted Greenland,
still supposed to be the Frieslanda of the Zeno map, and once more
attempted to land. This time he was successful. Taking the pinnace,
and accompanied by Fenton and Christopher Hall, he forced his way
through the pack ice, and reached a bay where there were Eskimos in
their kayaks and a summer encampment of tents. He intended to continue
his discoveries but a dense fog came on, and he was obliged to return
and attend to the needs of the fleet. Frobisher was thus the first to
land in Greenland since the colony was abandoned to its fate by the
Norwegians.
During eight days the ships were crossing the ice-laden strait, making
for the land of the false gold ore which had been visited during the
two previous voyages. They were in much danger, encountering furious
gales of wind, amidst icebergs and drifting packs. One day there was
a violent concussion on board the _Salomon_, as if she had run stem
on to an iceberg; and a whale rose under her bows. She was brought up
all standing, and soon afterwards the whale was seen dead, floating on
the surface. Another vessel lost her topmasts in a gale, but at last
land was in sight and they were off Frobisher’s Strait. The entrance,
however, was blocked by the pack. The Queen’s Foreland and Lock’s
Island, names given in the previous voyages, could be seen over the
wide extent of ice.
Frobisher attempted to force his way through. Sending the pinnace ahead
to seek out leads, he entered the pack in the _Aid_, with the other
vessels following in line. There were numerous icebergs, and some
vessels, going very slow, ran against them, but without receiving much
damage. At last the _Aid_ was stopped by a floe of no great width,
and men were sent in boats to attempt to cut through it. Up to this
time the weather had been fine, but suddenly a gale of wind sprang up,
closed the pack between the ships and the open sea, and placed them in
great danger. Several were closely beset, others severely nipped. The
_Dennis_ was forced against an iceberg and sank, the crew being saved
by the boats sent to cut the floe. Every contrivance was resorted to
that they could devise to save the rest of the fleet. The loss of the
_Dennis_ was very serious, as she carried half the prepared timber for
the house or fort for the proposed colony. The great peril lasted for
13 hours, during which time the men, expecting death every moment,
worked like true English seamen. Next morning the wind veered round
and drifted away the pack between the ships and the open sea. This was
on the 3rd July. On the 9th another effort was made to reach the land.
A very strong current was noted to the south-west “the noise of the
stream being like the waterfall of London Bridge,” The largest iceberg,
which they called “Salomon’s Porch” was measured and found to be 330
feet high.
They were at the entrance of what is now known as Hudson’s Strait,
too far to the south. Frobisher suspected this, but a wide opening
leading westward was before him, and he cared much more for discovery
than for the supposed gold ore. After all, discovery was included in
his instructions. Christopher Hall was strong against the attractive
openings being Frobisher’s former strait, and words ran high. The
Admiral lost his temper and was in a great rage. Hall was mutinous and
would not keep company. The _Aid_ entered the newly-discovered strait,
followed by six or seven other vessels with like-minded loyal captains.
Frobisher went on to the westward for six or seven days, meeting with
natives on shore with whom he bartered, and noting much animal life. He
had discovered what is now called Hudson’s Strait. The great explorer
longed to push on, but there was his duty to the Cathay Company, his
duty to bring home shiploads of worthless stones. So, on the first fine
day, Frobisher had to observe for latitude, and of course found himself
60 miles too far south[45].
His duty obliged him to give up his discoveries and return to the
sordid work of loading the ships with black stones. On the 28th July
the _Aid_ was forced through the pack into the Countess of Warwick’s
Sound, other ships following, and the miners set to work collecting
their rubbish. The first part of the voyage was completed, and many
dangers had been overcome, difficulties encountered, and experience in
ice navigation gained. A solemn service of thanksgiving was held. The
chaplain was Master Wolfall, a patriotic clergyman who had given up
a good living to serve his country in a dangerous enterprise. He now
preached an eloquent sermon of thanksgiving and encouragement, shortly
afterwards administering the Sacrament to the crews on shore.
Autumn was approaching. The _Thomas_ of Ipswich had already deserted.
As half the timber intended for the fort was lost in the _Dennis_ it
was resolved that the idea of a colony must be abandoned. The ships
were accordingly loaded and began the return voyage. Before their
arrival, however, it had at last been discovered that the stones were
worthless. The bubble burst, the shareholders had to pay, and Frobisher
for a time was reduced to poverty. But the great Queen knew his worth,
and did not lose sight of him.
Frobisher had many good and loyal comrades in his Arctic voyages. First
and foremost was George Best, who wrote the narrative of the voyage;
next Christopher Hall, a fine seaman but not equally loyal; Edward
Fenton, who afterwards served against the Spanish Armada; Gilbert
Yorke, who did good service afterwards in the West Indies, his Arctic
service standing him in good stead; and Charles Jackman, pilot of the
_Aid_, an excellent and loyal officer who lost his life, as already
recorded, in the North-east Passage enterprise with Arthur Pet.
The provisions supplied for Frobisher’s voyages were sufficient if they
were good of their kind. They consisted of biscuit (16 tons for five
months for 115 men), meal 30 tons, beer, wine, salt beef and pork,
peas, stock-fish, butter, cheese, oatmeal, rice (a small quantity),
raisins, almonds, and liquorice, sea coal 30 tons, wood 14 tons, and
charcoal. The whole was in 240 barrels of 4 bushels. The ration was 1
lb. per man per diem, and a gallon of beer[46].
The _Emanuel_, busse, of Bridgewater, of which Newton was captain,
reported that on his voyage home in 57° 30′ he sailed for three days
along a high and well-wooded coast. The master, James Leach, and T.
Wiars, a passenger, corroborated the statement. The island, known as
the “Land of Busse” was shown by Plancius and on the Molyneux globe.
Hall expected to see it in 1605, and subsequently said that he did see
it in 1606. Seller placed it with defined shape, and names of points,
harbours, and mountains. Several captains in the 17th century reported
that they had seen it. Fifty years after the last time it was alleged
to have been sighted in 1671, it was reported to have been submerged,
and it then became the “_sunken land of Busse_.” Lieut. Pickerskill, in
the _Lion_ in 1776, sought for it, and struck a bank in 57° N. with 330
fathoms. Sir John Ross found no bottom in 180 fathoms. There never was
any such island. If the people on board the busse ever saw anything,
it was a part of the south coast of Greenland. They can have taken no
observations, and were trusting to badly-kept dead reckoning[47].
Sir Martin Frobisher was one of our great Arctic heroes. He was imbued
with enthusiasm for discovery in the interests of his country. Of
dauntless courage, great capacity for work, and the gift of endearing
men to him by his noble qualities, he was also quick tempered, but as
quickly appeased. His Arctic training and experience were helpful in
his after career of great services to the country in the West Indies,
in the Channel, and in the defeat of the Spanish Armada, when he was
knighted. In 1594 Frobisher was called away from his home in Yorkshire
to command the Channel Fleet, and, with a land force under Sir John
Norris, to drive the Spaniards out of the fort of Crozon near Brest.
During the siege Frobisher, while leading on his men, was mortally
wounded; but Crozon was taken by storm. The Admiral was taken on board
the _Vanguard_, his flag-ship. The Queen sent him a letter in her own
handwriting. The wound need not have been mortal, but the surgeon
who extracted the ball left the wadding behind, and the neglect was
fatal. The great seaman and explorer died on November 22nd, 1594. Queen
Elizabeth, whose extraordinary insight into character was one great
element in the success of her reign, put complete trust in Frobisher,
and from 1589 she employed no other admiral during his lifetime.
Frobisher had unswerving faith in his religion, and devoted loyalty to
his Queen. In the dangers of storm and ice, as under the fire of his
country’s enemies, he ever combined presence of mind, forethought, and
prudence, with heroic bravery and dash when the moment for action came.
Among the Elizabethan worthies Sir Martin Frobisher justly takes his
place in the first rank[48].