course lies eastward, and leads to the Ganges, which is the greatest
river of India, and adjoins the extremity of the Eastern continent
called +Khrusê+, or the Golden. Near the river, or, according
to Ptolemy, on the third of its mouths stands a great emporium of
trade called +Gangê+, exporting _Malabathrum_ and cottons and
other commodities. Its exact position there are not sufficient data
to determine. Khrusê is not only the name of the last part of the
continent, but also of an island lying out in the ocean to eastward,
not far from the Ganges. It is the last part of the world which is
said to be inhabited. The situation of Khrusê is differently defined
by different ancient authors. It was not known to the Alexandrine
geographers. Pliny seems to have preserved the most ancient report
circulated regarding it. He says (VI. xxiii. 80): “Beyond the mouth
of the Indus are +Chryse+ and +Argyre+ abounding in metals
as I believe, for I can hardly credit what some have related that
the soil consists of gold and silver.” Mela (III. 7) assigns to it
a very different position, asserting it to be near +Tabis+,
the last spur of the range of Taurus. He therefore places it where
Eratosthenês places +Thînai+, to the north of the Ganges on the
confines of the Indian and Skythian oceans. Ptolemy, in whose time the
Transgangetic world was better known, refers it to the peninsula of
Malacca, the Golden Khersonese.
64. Beyond this region, immediately under the north, where the sea
terminates outwards, there lies somewhere in +Thîna+ a very great
city,—not on the coast, but in the interior of the country, called
+Thîna+,—from which silk, whether in the raw state or spun into
thread
and woven into cloth, is brought by land to Barugaza through Baktria,
or by the Ganges to Limurikê. To penetrate into +Thîna+ is not
an easy undertaking, and but few _merchants_ come from it, and that
rarely. Its situation is under the Lesser Bear, and it is said to be
conterminous with the remotest end of Pontos, and that part of the
Kaspian Sea which adjoins the Maiôtic Lake, along with which it issues
by _one and_ the same mouth into the ocean.
(64) The last place which the _Periplûs_ mentions is Thînai, an
inland city of the +Thînai+ or +Sinai+, having a large
commerce in silk and woollen stuffs. The ancient writers are not at
all agreed as to its position. Colonel Yule thinks it was probably
the city described by Marco Polo under the name of +Kenjan-fu+
(that is Singan-fu or Chauggan,) the most celebrated city in Chinese
history, and the capital of several of the most potent dynasties. It
was the metropolis of Shi Hwengti of the T’Sin dynasty, properly the
first emperor, and whose conquests almost intersected those of his
contemporary Ptolemy Euergetês—(vide Yule’s _Travels of Marco Polo_,
vol. II. p. 21).
65. On the confines, however, of +Thînai+ an annual fair is held,
attended by a race of men of squat figure, with their face very broad,
but mild in disposition, called the +Sesatai+, who in appearance
resemble wild animals. They come with their wives and children to this
fair, bringing heavy loads of goods wrapped up in mats resembling
in outward appearance the early leaves of the vine. Their place of
assembly is where their own territory borders with that of Thînai; and
here, squatted on the mats on which they exhibit their wares, they
feast for several days, after which they return to their homes in the
interior. On observing their retreat the people of Thînai, repairing to
the spot, collect the mats on which they had been sitting, and taking
out the fibres, which are called _petroi_, from the reeds, they put
the leaves two and two together, and roll them up into slender balls,
through which they pass the fibres extracted from the reeds. Three
kinds of Malabathrum are thus made—that of the large ball, that of the
middle, and that of the small, according to the size of the leaf of
which the balls are formed. Hence there are three kinds of Malabathrum,
which after being made up are forwarded to India by the manufacturers.
66. All the regions beyond this are unexplored, being difficult of
access by reason of the extreme rigour of the climate and the severe
frosts, or perhaps because such is the will of the divine power.
THE
VOYAGE OF NEARKHOS,
FROM THE INDUS TO THE HEAD OF THE
PERSIAN GULF,
AS DESCRIBED IN THE SECOND PART OF
THE INDIKA OF ARRIAN,
(FROM CHAPTER XVIII. TO THE END.)
TRANSLATED FROM MÜLLER’S EDITION
(As given in the _Geographi Græci Minores_: Paris, 1855).
WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES.
THE VOYAGE OF NEARKHOS.
INTRODUCTION.
The coasting voyage from the mouth of the Indus to the head of
the Persian Gulf, designed by Alexander the Great, and executed
by Nearkhos, may be regarded as the most important achievement of
the ancients in navigation. It opened up, as Vincent remarks, a
communication between Europe and the most distant countries of Asia,
and, at a later period, was the source and origin of the Portuguese
discoveries, and consequently the primary cause, however remote, of the
British establishments in India. A Journal of this voyage was written
by Nearkhos himself, which, though not extant in its original form,
has been preserved for us by Arrian, who embodied its contents in his
little work on India,[23] which he wrote as a sequel to his history of
the expedition of Alexander.
Nearkhos as a writer must be acknowledged to be most scrupulously
honest and exact,—for the result of explorations made in modern times
along the shores which he passed in the course of his voyage shows
that his description of them is accurate even in the most minute
particulars. His veracity was nevertheless oppugned in ancient times by
Strabo, who unjustly stigmatises the whole class of the Greek writers
upon India as mendacious. “Generally speaking,” he says (II. i. 9),
“the men who have written upon Indian affairs were a set of liars.
Deimakhos holds the first place in the list, Megasthenês comes next,
while Onêsikritos and Nearkhos, with others of the same class, stammer
out a few words of truth.” (παραψελλίζοντες). Strabo, however, in
spite of this censure did not hesitate to use Nearkhos as one of his
chief authorities for his description of India, and is indebted to him
for many facts relating to that country, which, however extraordinary
they might appear to his contemporaries, have been all confirmed by
subsequent observation. It is therefore fairly open to doubt whether
Strabo was altogether sincere in his ill opinion, seeing it had but
little, if any, influence on his practice. We know at all events that
he was too much inclined to undervalue any writer who retailed fables,
without discriminating whether the writer set them down as facts, or
merely as stories, which he had gathered from hearsay.
In modern times, the charge of mendacity has been repeated by Hardouin
and Huet. There are, however, no more than two passages of the Journal
which can be adduced to support this imputation. The first is that
in which the excessive breadth of 200 stadia is given to the Indus,
and the second that in which it is asserted that at Malana (situated
in 25° 17´ of N. latitude) the shadows at noon were observed to
fall southward, and this in the month of November. With regard to
the first charge, it may be supposed that the breadth assigned to
the Indus was probably that which it was observed to have when in a
state of inundation, and with regard to the second, it may be met by
the supposition, which is quite admissible, that Arrian may have
misapprehended in some measure the import of the statement as made
by Nearkhos. The passage will be afterwards examined,[24] but in the
meantime we may say, with Vincent, that if the difficulty it presents
admits of no satisfactory solution, the misstatement ought not, as
standing alone, to be insisted upon to the invalidation of the whole
work.
But another charge besides that of mendacity has been preferred
against the Journal. Dodwell has denied its authenticity. His attack
is based on the following passage in Pliny (VI. 23):—Onesciriti et
Nearchi navigatio nec nomina habet mansionum nec spatia. _The Journal
of Onesicritus and Nearchus has neither the names of the anchorages
nor the measure of the distances._ From this Dodwell argues that,
as the account of the voyage in Arrian contains both the names and
the distances, it could not have been a transcript of the Journal of
Nearkhos, which according to Pliny gave neither names nor distances.
Now, in the first place, it may well be asked, why the authority of
Pliny, who is by no means always a careful writer, should be set so
high as to override all other testimony, for instance, that of Arrian
himself, who expressly states in the outset of his narrative that he
intended to give the account of the voyage which had been written by
Nearkhos. In the second place, the passage in question is probably
corrupt, or if not, it is in direct conflict with the passage which
immediately follows it, and contains Pliny’s own summary of the voyage
in which little else is given than the names of the anchorages and the
distances. Dodwell was aware of the inconsistency of the two passages,
and endeavoured to explain it away. In this he entirely fails, and
there can therefore be no reasonable doubt, that in Arrian’s work we
have a record of the voyage as authentic as it is veracious.
Of that record we proceed to give a brief abstract, adding a few
particulars gathered from other sources.
The fleet with which Nearkhos accomplished the voyage consisted of
war-galleys and transports which had been partly built and partly
collected on the banks of the river Hydaspes (now the Jhelam), where
Alexander had supplied them with crews by selecting from his troops
such men as had a knowledge of seamanship. The fleet thus manned sailed
slowly down the Hydaspes, the Akesinês, and the Indus, its movements
being regulated by those of the army, which, in marching down towards
the sea, was engaged in reducing the warlike tribes settled along the
banks of these rivers. This downward voyage occupied, according to
Strabo, ten months, but it probably did not occupy more than nine. The
fleet having at length reached the apex of the Delta formed by the
Indus remained in that neighbourhood for some time at a place called
Pattala, which has generally been identified with Ṭhaṭha—a town near to
where the western arm of the Indus bifurcates,—but which Cunningham and
others would prefer to identify with Nirankol or Haidarâbâd.[25] From
Pattala Alexander sailed down the western stream of the river, where
some of his ships were damaged and others destroyed by encountering
the Bore, a phenomenon as alarming as it was new to the Greeks.[26]
He returned to Pattala, and thence made an excursion down the Eastern
stream, which he found less difficult to navigate. On again returning
to Pattala he removed his fleet down to a station on the Western
branch of the river (at an island called Killouta),[27] which was
at no great distance from the sea. He then set out on his return to
Persia, leaving instructions with Nearkhos to start on the voyage as
soon as the calming of the monsoon should render navigation safe. It
was the king’s intention to march near to the coast, and to collect at
convenient stations supplies for the victualling of the fleet, but he
found that such a route was impracticable, and he was obliged to lead
his army through the inland provinces which lay between India and his
destination, Sûsa.[28] He left Leonnatos, however, behind him in the
country of the Oreitai, with instructions to render every assistance in
his power to the expedition under Nearkhos when it should reach that
part of the coast.
Nearkhos remained in the harbour at Killouta for about a month after
Alexander had departed, and then sailed during a temporary lull in the
monsoon, as he was apprehensive of being attacked by the natives who
had been but imperfectly subjugated, and whose spirit was hostile.[29]
The date on which he set sail is fixed by Vincent as the 1st of October
in the year B.C. 326. He proceeded slowly down the river, and
anchored first at a place called Stoura, which was only 100 stadia
distant from the station they had quitted. Here the fleet remained for
two days, when it proceeded to an anchorage only 30 stadia farther
down the stream at a place called Kaumana.[30] Thence it proceeded to
Koreatis (v. 1. Koreëstis)—where it again anchored. When once more
under weigh its progress was soon arrested by a dangerous rock or bar
which obstructed the mouth of the river.[31] After some delay this
difficulty was overcome, and the fleet was conducted in safety into the
open main, and onward to an island called Krôkala (150 stadia distant
from the bar), where it remained at anchor throughout the day following
its arrival. On leaving this island Nearkhos had Mount Eiros (now
Manora) on his right hand, and a low flat island on his left; and this,
as Cunningham remarks, is a very accurate description of the entrance
to Karâchi harbour. The fleet was conducted into this harbour, now so
well known as the great emporium of the trade of the Indus, and here,
as the monsoon was still blowing with great violence, it remained for
four and twenty days. The harbour was so commodious and secure that
Nearkhos designated it the Port of Alexander. It was well sheltered by
an island lying close to its mouth, called by Arrian, Bibakta, but by
Pliny, Bibaga, and by Philostratos, Biblos.
The expedition took its departure from this station on the 3rd of
November. It suffered both from stress of weather and from shortness
of provisions until it reached Kôkala on the coast of the Oreitai,
where it took on board the supplies which had been collected for its
use by the exertions of Leonnatos. Here it remained for about 10
days, and by the time of its departure the monsoon had settled in its
favour, so that the courses daily accomplished were now of much greater
length than formerly. The shores, however, of the Ikhthyophagoi,
which succeeded to those of the Oreitai, were so miserably barren and
inhospitable that provisions were scarcely procurable, and Nearkhos
was apprehensive lest the men, famished and despairing, should desert
the ships. Their sufferings were not relieved till they approached the
straits, which open into the Persian Gulf. When within the straits,
they entered the mouth of the river Anamis (now the Minâb or Ibrahim
river), and having landed, formed a dockyard and a camp upon its banks.
This place lay in Harmozeia, a most fertile and beautiful district
belonging to Karmania. Nearkhos, having here learned that Alexander
was not more than a 5 days’ journey from the sea, proceeded into the
interior to meet him, and report the safety of the expedition. During
his absence the ships were repaired and provisioned, and therefore
soon after his return to the camp he gave orders for the resumption of
the voyage. The time spent at Harmozeia was one and twenty days. The
fleet again under weigh coasted the islands lying at the mouth of the
gulf, and then having shaped its course towards the mainland, passed
the western shores of Karmania and those of Persis, till it arrived
at the mouth of the Sitakos (now the Kara-Agach), where it was again
repaired and supplied with provisions, remaining for the same number
of days as at the Anamis. One of the next stations at which it touched
was Mesembria, which appears to have been situated in the neighbourhood
of the modern Bushire. The coast of Persis was difficult to navigate
on account of intricate and oozy channels, and of shoals and breakers
which frequently extended far out to sea. The coast which succeeded,
that of Sousis (from which Persis is separated by the river Arosis or
Oroatis, now the Tâb) was equally difficult and dangerous to navigate,
and therefore the fleet no longer crept along the shore, but stood
out more into the open sea. At the head of the gulf Sousis bends to
westward, and here are the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, which
appear in those days to have entered the sea by separate channels. It
was the intention of Nearkhos to have sailed up the former river, but
he passed its mouth unawares, and continued sailing westward till he
reached Diridôtis (or Terêdon), an emporium in Babylonia, situated on
the Pallacopas branch of the Euphrates. From Diridôtis he retraced
his course, and entering the mouth of the Tigris sailed up its stream
till he reached the lower end of a great lake (not now existing),
through which its current flowed. At the upper end of this lake was
a village called Aginis, said to have been 500 stadia distant from
Sousa. Nearkhos did not, as has been erroneously supposed by some, sail
up the lake to Aginis, but entered the mouth of a river which flows
into its south-eastern extremity, called the Pasitigris or Eulæus,
the Ulai of the Prophet Daniel, now the Karûn. The fleet proceeded
up this river, and came to a final anchor in its stream immediately
below a bridge, which continued the highway from Persia to Sousa. This
bridge, according to Ritter and Rawlinson, crossed the Pasitigris at
a point near the modern village of Ahwaz. Here the fleet and the army
were happily reunited. Alexander on his arrival embraced Nearkhos with
cordial warmth, and rewarded appropriately the splendid services which
he had rendered by bringing the expedition safely through so many
hardships and perils to its destination. The date on which the fleet
anchored at the bridge is fixed by Vincent for the 24th of February
B. C. 325, so that the whole voyage was performed in 146 days,
or somewhat less than 5 months.
The following tables show the names, positions, &c., of the different
places which occurred on the route taken by the expedition:—
I.
From the Station on the Indus to the Port of Alexander (Karâchi
Harbour).
-------------------------+------------------+-------+--------+--------
| |Distance| |
| | in | |
Ancient name. | Modern name. |Stadia.| Lat. N.|Long. E.
| | [32] | |
-------------------------+------------------+-------+--------+--------
1. Station at Killouta. | Near Lari-Bandar | -- | 24° 30´| 67° 28´
2. Stoura | -- | 100 | |
3. Kaumana | Khau | 30 | |
4. Koreatis | | 20 | |
5. Herma |_Bar in the | | |
| Indus._ |
6. Krôkala | -- | 120 | |
7. _Mount Eiros_ | Manora. | | |
8. _Is. unnamed._ | | | |
9. The Port of Alexander.| Karâchi | -- | 24° 53´| 66° 57´
-------------------------+------------------+-------+--------+--------
II.
Coast of the Arabies (Sindh).
Length of the Coast from the Indus to the Arabis R. 1000 Stadia.
Actual length in miles English 80
Time taken in its navigation 38 Days.
--------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------
| Modern | Distance | |
Ancient Name. | name. | in | Lat. N. | Long. E.
| | Stadia. | |
--------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------
1. Port of Alexander| Karâchi | -- | 24° 53´ | 66° 57´
2. _Bibakta_ | | | |
3. Domai Is. | | 60 | 24° 48´ | 66° 50´
4. Saranga | | 300 | 24° 44´ | 66° 34´
5. Sakala | | | 24° 52´ | 66° 33´
6. Morontobara | | 300 | 25° 13´ | 66° 40´
7. _Is. unnamed_ | | | |
8. Arabis R. | Purâli R. | 120 | 25° 28´ | 66° 35´
--------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
III.
Length of the coast (Arrian) 1600 Stadia.
Do. do. (Strabo) 1800 --”
Actual length in miles English 100
Time taken in its navigation 18 Days.
---------------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------
| | Distance | |
Ancient Name. | Modern name. | in | Lat. N. | Long. E.
| | Stadia. | |
---------------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------
1. Pagala | -- | 200 | 25° 30´ | 66° 15´
2. Kabana | -- | 400 | 25° 28´ | 65° 46´
3. Kôkala | NearRâs-Katchari | 200 | 25° 21´ | 65° 36´
4. Tomêros R. |Maklow or Hingul R.| 500 | 25° 16´ | 65° 15´
5. Malana | Râs Malan | 300 | 25° 18´ | 65° 7´
---------------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------
IV.
Coast of the Ikhthyophagoi (Mekran or Beluchistan).
Length of the coast (Arrian) 10,000 Stadia.
Do. do. (Strabo) 7,000 “
Actual length in miles English 480
Time taken in its navigation 20 Days.
----------------------+---------------+----------+---------+----------
| | Distance | |
Ancient Name. | Modern name. | in | Lat. N. | Long. E.
| | Stadia. | |
----------------------+---------------+----------+---------+----------
1. Bagisara | On Arabah or | 600 | 25° 12´ | 64° 31´
| Hormara Bay | | |
2. _Pasira_ | | | |
3. Cape unnamed | Râs Arabah | | 25° 7´ | 64° 29´
4. Kolta | | 200 | 25° 8´ | 64° 27´
5. Kalama | Kalami R. | 600 | 25° 21´ | 63° 59´
6. _Karbine Is._ | Asthola or | | |
| Sânga-dîp | | |
7. Kissa in _Karbis_ | -- | 200 | 25° 22´ | 63° 37´
8. Cape unnamed | C. Passence | | 25° 15´ | 63° 30´
9. Mosarna | Near do. | | |
10. Balômon | -- | 750 | |
11. Barna | -- | 400 | 25° 12´ | 63° 10´
12. Dendrobosa |Daram or Duram | 200 | 25° 11´ | 62° 45´
13. Kôphas |Râs Koppa | 400 | 25° 11´ | 62° 29´
14. Kuiza |Near Râs Ghunse| 800 | 25° 10´ | 61° 56´
15. Town unnamed |On Gwattar Bay | 500 | |
16. Cape called Bagia | | | 25° 7´ | 61° 28´
17. Talmena |On Chaubar Bay | 1000 | 25° 24´ | 60° 40´
18. Kanasis | | 400 | 25° 24 | 60° 12´
19. Anchorage unnamed.| | | |
20. Kanate | Kungoun | 850 | 25° 25´ | 59° 15´
21. Taœi or Troisi | Near Sudich | 800 | 25° 30´ | 58° 42´
| River | | |
22. Bagasira | Girishk | 300 | 25° 38´ | 58° 27´
23. Anchorage unnamed | -- | 1100 | |
----------------------+---------------+----------+---------+----------
V.
Coast of Karmania (Moghistan and Laristan).
Length of the coast (Arrian and Strabo) 3,700 Stadia.
Actual length in miles English 296
Time taken in its navigation 19 Days.
--------------------------+------------------+--------+-------+-------
| |Distance| |
Ancient name. | Modern name. | in | Lat. | Long.
| |Stadia. | N. | E.
--------------------------+------------------+------+---------+-------
1. Anchorage unnamed | | | |
2. Badis |Near Cape Bombarak| | 25° 47´ |57° 48´
3. Anchorage unnamed | -- | 800 | |
4. _Cape Maketa in Arabia_| Cape Musendom | | |
5. Neoptana | Nr. Karun | 700 | 26° 57´ |57° 1´
6. Anamis R. | Mînâb R. | 100 | 27° 11´ |57° 6´
7. _Organa Is._ | _Ormus or Djerun_| | |
8. Orakta Is. 2 anchorages| Kishm | 300 | |
9. _Island dist. from it |_Angar or Hanjam_ | | |
40 stadia._ | | | |
10. Island 300 stadia | Tombo | 400 | 26° 20´ |55° 20´
from mainland. | | | |
11. _Pylora Is._ | _Polior Is._ | | 26° 20´ |54° 35´
12. Sisidone | Mogos? | | |
13. Tarsia | C. Djard | 300 | 26° 20´ |54° 21´
14. Kataia Is. | Kenn | 300 | 26° 32´ |54°
VI.
Coast of Persis (Farsistan).
Length of Coast 4,400 Stadia.
Actual length in miles English 382
Time taken in its navigation 31 Days.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+--------
Ancient name. | Modern | Distance | |
| name. | in | Lat. N. |Long. E.
| | Stadia. | |
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+--------
1. Ila and Kaikander Is. |Inderabia | 400 | 26° 38´ | 53° 35´
| Island | | |
2. Island with Pearl Fishery| | | |
3. Another anchorage here | -- | 40 | |
4. Mount Okhos | -- | | 26° 59´ | 53° 20´
5. Apostana | -- | 450 | 27° 1´ | 52° 55´
6. Bay unnamed |On it is | 400 | 27° 24´ | 52° 25´
| Nabend | | |
7. Gôgana at mouth of | Konkan | 600 | 27° 48´ | 52°
Areôn R. | | | |
8. Sitakos | Kara-Agach| | |
| R. | 800 | |
9. Hieratis | ... | 750 | 28° 52´ | 50° 45´
10. Heratemis | | | |
R. near it. | | | |
11. Podagron, R. | | | |
12. Mesambria | Near | ... | 29° | 50° 45´
| Bushire.| | |
13. Taökê on | Taaug | 200 | 29° 14´ | 50° 30´
Granis, R. | | | |
14. Rhogonis, R. | ... | 200 | 29° 27´ | 50° 29´
15. Brizana, R. | ... | 400 | 29° 57´ | 50° 15´
16. Arosis or | River Tâb.| ... | 30° 4´ | 49° 30´
Oroatis, R. | | | |
-----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+--------
VII.
Coast of Sousis (Khuzistan.)
Length of the Coast 2000 Stadia.
Time taken in its navigation 3 Days.
----------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------
| Modern | Distance | |
Ancient name. | name. | in | Lat. N. | Long. E.
| | Stadia. | |
----------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------
1. Kataderbis R.| ... | 500 | 30° 16´ | 49°
| | | |
2. Margastana Is.| | | |
| | | |
3. Anchorage | ... | 600 | |
unnamed. | | | |
| | | |
4. Diridôtis, | Near Jebel| 900 | 30° 12´ | 47° 35´
the end of the| Sanâm. | | |
sea voyage. | | | |
----------------+-----------+----------+---------+--------
TRANSLATION.
XVIII. When the fleet formed for Alexander upon the banks of the
Hydaspes was now ready, he provided crews for the vessels by collecting
all the Phœnikians and all the Kyprians and Egyptians who had followed
him in his Eastern campaigns, and from these he selected such as
were skilled in seamanship to manage the vessels and work the oars.
He had besides in his army not a few islanders familiar with that
kind of work, and also natives both of Ionia and of the Hellespont.
The following officers he appointed as Commanders of the different
galleys[33]:—
Makedonians.
Citizens of Pella.