(iii.) _The Middle Ages_.--(a) _In the East_, commonly called the

_Byzantine Age_, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical learning was

represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by Photius (d. 891), the

patriarch of Constantinople, who is also the author of a _Bibliotheca_

reviewing and criticizing the contents of 280 MSS., and incidentally

preserving important extracts from the lost Greek historians.

In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were Homer,

Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus (_Prometheus, Septem_

and _Persae_), Sophocles (_Ajax, Electra_ and _Oedipus Tyrannus_), and

Euripides (_Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae_, and, next to these, _Alcestis,

Andromache, Hippolytus, Medea, Rhesus, Troades_,) also Aristophanes

(beginning with the _Plutus_), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius

Periegetes. The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato

and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's _Lives_, and, above all,

Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.

One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of Caesarea

in Cappadocia (c. 907-932), devoted himself with remarkable energy to

collecting and expounding the Greek classics. Among the important MSS.

still extant that were copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid

(888) and the Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th

century we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suidas, a combination of a

lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on the

history of literature.

Meanwhile, during the "dark age" of secular learning at Constantinople

(641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread eastwards to Syria and

Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun

al-Rashid, philosophical works were translated by Syrian Christians from

Greek into Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that

Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards, we

have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on Aristotle, and of

portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen; while in the 10th century new

translations of Aristotle and his commentators were produced by the

Nestorian Christians.

The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East to the West by

being transmitted through the Arab dominions in northern Africa to

Spain, which had been conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century. In the

12th century Toledo was the centre of the study of Aristotle in the

West, and it was from Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to

Paris and to other seats of learning in western Europe.

The 12th century in Constantinople is marked by the name of Tzetzes (c.

1110-c. 1180), the author of a mythological, literary and historical

miscellany called the _Chiliades_, in the course of which he quotes more

than four hundred authors. The prolegomena to his scholia on

Aristophanes supply us with valuable information on the Alexandrian

libraries. The most memorable name, however, among the scholars of this

century is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at

Constantinople preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica

(1175-1192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the _Iliad_ and

the _Odyssey_ dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of Homer on

the literature of Greece.

While the Byzantine MSS. of the 11th century (such as the Laurentian

MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna MS. of Aristophanes)

maintain the sound traditions of the Alexandrian and Roman ages, those

of the times of the Palaeologi give proof of a frequent tampering with

the metres of the ancient poets in order to bring them into conformity

with theories recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The

scholars of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest

representatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these later

Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes (d. 1330),

who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing excellent translations

of Caesar's _Gallic War_ as well as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ and

_Heroides_, and the classic work of Boethius; he also compiled (in 1302)

the only Greek anthology known to scholars before the recovery in 1607

of the earlier and fuller anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).

The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with the great

Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the continuity of tradition by

which the Greek classics selected by the critics of Alexandria were

transmitted to modern Europe.

(b) _In the West_ (c. 530-c. 1350).--At the portal of the middle ages

stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any) knowledge

of Greek and had no sympathy with the _secular_ side of the study of

Latin. A decline in grammatical learning is exemplified in the three

Latin historians of the 6th century, Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of

Tours (d. 594), who begins his history of the Franks by lamenting the

decay of Latin literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the

Latin poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. _c._ 600), who is still remembered

as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning _Salve festa

dies_, _Vexilla regis prodeunt_, and _Pange lingua gloriosi proelium

certaminis_. The decadence of Latin early in the 7th century is

exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius Maro, who also

illustrates the transition from Latin to Provencal, and from quantitive

to accentual forms of verse.

While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not unknown in

Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the spread of Greek

learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk Columban, shortly before

his death in 615, founded in the neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of

Bobbio, to be the repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately

dispersed among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same

date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of Constance

the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were preserved until their

recovery in the age of the Renaissance. During the next twenty-five

years Isidore of Seville (d. 636) produced in his _Origines_ an

encyclopaedic work which gathered up for the middle ages much of the

learning of the ancient world.

In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th

centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin Churches.

The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary extinction of

Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th and the 9th

centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine emperors drove many

of the Greek monks and their lay adherents to the south of Italy, and

even to Rome itself.

In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of Armagh (_c._

807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was copied by an Irish

monk of Liege, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who had a wide knowledge of

Latin literature. In England, some sixty years after the death of

Augustine, the Greek archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d.

690) founded a school for the study of Greek, and with the help of an

African monk named Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools

of Greek and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some

of the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and

Latin as with their mother-tongue." Among those who had learned their

Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the first Englishman who

cultivated classical learning with any success." While Aldhelm is known

as "the father of Anglo-Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary

medium used by Bede in his celebrated _Ecclesiastical History_ of

England (731). Nine years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, "the

apostle of Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon

rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who was

probably born in the year of Bede's death, tells us of the wealth of

Latin literature preserved in the library at York. Through the

invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated with the revival

of learning which marks the reign of that monarch, by presiding over the

School of the Palace (782-790), and by exercising a healthy influence as

abbot of St Martin's at Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and

the advisers of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of

Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin poet, and as

the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in his classic life

of Charles the Great, models his style on that of Suetonius, and shows

his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus

(d. 856), who long presided over Einhard's school of Fulda, was the

first to introduce Priscian into the schools of Germany. His pupil,

Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for

Latin poetry, a gift agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in

the monastic garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin

classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at Fulda, and

was abbot of Ferrieres for the last twenty years of his life (d. 862).

In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the humanists of the

Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877) there was a certain revival

of interest in literature, when John the Scot (Erigena) became, for some

thirty years (c. 845-875), the head of the Palace School. He was

familiar with the Greek Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin

rendering of the writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron

saint of France. In the preface the translator praises the king for

prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West, but

to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the Greeks." In

the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to open a school in

Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted in Remi's Commentary on

Donatus, which remained in use until the Renaissance. During the two

centuries after John the Scot, the study of Greek declined in France. In

England the 9th century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the

Welsh monk, Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin

texts, including Boethius and Orosius and Bede, and the _Cura

Pastoralis_ of Gregory the Great.

In the 10th century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno, brother

of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had himself learned

Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial court, and who called

an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at the imperial capital. He

also encouraged the transcription of Latin MSS., which became models of

style to Widukind of Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the

same century the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the

retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the exploits of

Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose six moral and

religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the most prominent

personages of the century was Gerbert of Aurillac, who, after teaching

at Tours and Fleury, became abbot of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and

ultimately pope under the name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently

quotes from the speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the

survival of those speeches may have been due to the influence of

Gerbert. The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of

Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during his

repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time in England

Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at Fleury, invited Abbo

(d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey recently founded at Ramsey,

near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he wrote for his pupils a scholarly work

dealing with points of prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an

accurate knowledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century,

AElfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop AEthelwold in

making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was there that he

began his _Latin Grammar_, his _Glossary_ (the earliest Latin-English

dictionary in existence), and his _Colloquium_, in which Latin is taught

in a conversational manner.

In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the 11th

century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and after the

middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bec flourished under the

rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom had begun their career in

northern Italy, and closed it at Canterbury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the

styles of Sallust and Livy were being happily imitated in the _Annals_

of Lambert of Hersfeld (d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin

literature seems never to have entirely died out, young nobles and

students preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning

Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics, such

as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as divided in his

allegiance between the saints and the muses. Learning flourished at

Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope

Victor III.). In this century that famous monastery had its classical

chronicler in Leo Marsicanus, and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future

archbishop of Salerno.

The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle, and we may

here briefly note the successive stages in their gradually increasing

knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only the first two of the five parts

of the _Organon_ were known, and those solely in Latin translations from

the original. After that date two more became known; the whole was

familiar to John of Salisbury in 1159; while the _Physics_ and

_Metaphysics_ came into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented

by the Latin translation of the _Timaeus_. Abelard (d. 1142) was

acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations, but he has

left his mark on the history of European education. The wide popularity

of his brilliant lectures in the "schools" of Paris made this city the

resort of the many students who were ultimately organized as a

"university" (c. 1170). John of Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in

1136, and, after spending two years in the study of logic in Paris,

passed three more in the scholarly study of Latin literature at

Chartres, where a sound and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard

of Chartres (fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that

school the study of "figures of speech" was treated as merely

introductory to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the

sense as well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set

subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned by heart,

while written exercises in prose and verse were founded on the best

ancient models. In the general scheme of education the authority

followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury (d. 1180), the ripest product

of this school, is the most learned man of his time. His favourite

author is Cicero, and in all the Latin literature accessible to him he

is the best-read scholar of his age. Among Latin scholars of the next

generation we have Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of

topographical and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other

works teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the middle

ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language of

literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and historians,

the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury (d. 1142) and Matthew

Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse had been felicitously applied to

historic themes by William of Apulia (fl. 1100) and other Latin poets

(1088-1247). In the 12th century England claims at least seven Latin

poets, one of these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d.

1210), whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin

versifier, John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France

(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were still in

use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French birth include

Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former being the author of

the _Alexandreis_, and the latter that of the _Anti-Claudianus_, a poem

familiar to Chaucer.

During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between the early

translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about 1150 and the death in

1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator of the _Rhetoric_ and the

_Politics_, the knowledge of Aristotle had been greatly extended in

Europe by means of translations, first from the Arabic, and, next, from

the original Greek. Aristotle had been studied in England by Grosseteste

(d. 1253), and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus Magnus

(d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). Among the

keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of the recent translations of

Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294), whose _Opus majus_ has been

recognized as the _Encyclopedie_ and the _Organon_ of the 13th century.

His knowledge of Greek, as shown in his _Greek Grammar_ (first published

in 1902), was clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The

medieval dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished.

This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works of ancient

literature, and the transition from the middle ages to the revival of

learning was attended by a general widening of the range of classical

studies and by a renewed interest in Plato.

The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-hand. It

was often derived from glossaries, from books of elegant extracts, or

from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among the compilers of these last

were Isidore and Hrabanus, William of Conches and Honorius of Autun,

Bartholomaeus Anglicus (fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and,

lastly, Brunetto Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante.

For Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas,

Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin translations of Aristotle

and to his interpreters he refers in more than three hundred passages,

while the number of his references to the Latin translation of the

_Timaeus_ of Plato is less than ten. His five great pagan poets are

Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a "Christian"

converted by Virgil's _Fourth Eclogue_. His standard authors in Latin

prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His knowledge of

Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language of his political

treatise, _De Monarchia_, and even that of his defence of the vulgar

tongue, _De Vulgari Eloquio_. He is, in a limited sense, a precursor of

the Renaissance, but he is far more truly to be regarded as the crowning

representative of the spirit of the middle ages.

Italy.

(iv.) _The Modern Age._--(a) Our fourth period is ushered in by the age

of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527). Petrarch (1304-1374)

has been well described as "the first of modern men." In contrast with

the Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle. He

was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall of

Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and Plato, though

his knowledge of the language was limited to the barest rudiments. For

that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was indebted to Leontius Pilatus,

with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-1375) became "the first of modern men" to

study Greek to some purpose during the three years that Leontius spent

as his guest in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek

was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400). Another

generation passed, and the scholars of the East and West met at the

council of Florence (1439). One of the envoys of the Greeks, Gemistus

Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei Medici with the thought of founding an

academy for the study of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age

of Lorenzo, Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio

Ficino (d. 1499). The _Apology_ and _Crito_, the _Phaedo, Phaedrus_ and

_Gorgias_ of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines,

with the _Oeconomics, Ethics_ and _Politics_ of Aristotle, had already

been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the _Rhetoric_ by Filelfo

(1430), and Plato's _Republic_ by Decembrio (1439). A comprehensive

scheme for translating the principal Greek prose authors into Latin was

carried out at Rome by the founder of the manuscript collections of the

Vatican, Nicholas V. (1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary

circle of Cosimo at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted

to three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy,

Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were undertaken by

Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio and Perotti. Among

the scholars of Italian birth, probably the only one in this age who

rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor of their own literature was

Politian (1454-1494), who lectured on Homer and Aristotle in Florence,

translated Herodian, and was specially interested in the Latin authors

of the Silver Age and in the text of the _Pandects_ of Justinian. It

will be observed that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence

half a century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal

writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before that event.

Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been actively

pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech _pro Archia_ at Liege

(1333) and the _Letters to Atticus_ and _Quintus_ at Verona (1345).

Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius, and had been the first of

the humanists to be familiar with Varro and Tacitus, while Salutati had

recovered Cicero's letters _Ad Familiares_ (1389). During the council of

Constance, Poggio, the papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the

interval between May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at

leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.

Thirteen of Cicero's speeches were found by him at Cluny and Langres,

and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary of Asconius, a

complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius Flaccus were

discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to that monastery and to

others in the neighbourhood led to the recovery of Lucretius, Manilius,

Silius Italicus and Ammianus Marcellinus, while the _Silvae_ of Statius

were recovered shortly afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, _De

Oratore_, _Brutus_ and _Orator_, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi

(1421). Cornelius Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434).

The _Agricola_, _Germania_ and _Dialogue_ of Tacitus reached Italy from

Germany in 1455, and the early books of the _Annals_ in 1508. Pliny's

_Panegyric_ was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433), and his

correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris about 1500.

Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in 1423 returned

with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight, including the celebrated

Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller

number was brought from Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus

Smyrnaeus was discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his

own collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the

foundation of the library of St Mark's (1468). As the emissary of

Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning from his

second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from Mount Athos.

The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illustrated by

several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio addressed to a prince

of Padua the first treatise which methodically maintains the claims of

Latin as an essential part of a liberal education. Eight years later, he

was learning Greek from Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils

of the latter was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote "the earliest

humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady." He here

urges that the foundation of all true learning is a "sound and thorough

knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of reading, in which history

is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius, and Caesar; oratory by Cicero;

and poetry by Virgil. The same year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose

early reverence for the muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the

memory of Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which

he wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he recommends

include "Aesop" and Sallust, the tragedies of Seneca and the epic poets,

especially Virgil, whom he interprets in an allegorical sense. He is in

favour of an early simultaneous study of a wide variety of subjects, to

be followed later by the special study of one or two. Eight years before

the death of Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a

brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the

young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be studied include

Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, and (with certain

limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as Plautus, Terence

and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors recommended are Cicero,

Livy and Sallust. The first great school of the Renaissance was that

established by Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the

last twenty-two years of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors

studied were Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and

Juvenal, besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and

Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the dramatists,

with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and Demosthenes, Plutarch

and Arrian.

Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training of the

eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent the last

thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-books of Greek

and Latin grammar, and translations from Strabo and Plutarch. His method

may be gathered from his son's treatise, _De Ordine Docendi et

Studendi_. In that treatise the essential marks of an educated person

are, not only ability to write Latin verse, but also, a point of "at

least equal importance," "familiarity with the language and literature

of Greece." "Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is,

in any real sense, impossible" (1459).

By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, "Italy (in the eloquent phrase of

Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient civilization,"

but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival of learning, which

had begun a century before. Bessarion, Theodorus Gaza, Georgius

Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chalcondyles, all had reached Italy before

1453. A few more Greeks fled to Italy after that date, and among these

were Janus Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal

service in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and

popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-invented art

of printing. That art had been introduced into Italy by the German

printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who had worked under Fust at Mainz. At

Subiaco and at Rome they had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions

of Cicero, _De Oratore_ and the _Letters_, and eight other Latin

authors.

The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar of

Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions of Homer

(1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by Demetrius Chalcondyles,

while Janus Lascaris was the first to edit the Greek anthology,

Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian

(1494-1496). In 1494-1515 Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less

than twenty-seven _editiones principes_ of Greek authors and of Greek

works of reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,

Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus, Euripides,

Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar, Plato and Athenaeus.

In producing Plato, Athenaeus and Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was

largely aided by Musurus, who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516)

and the _Etymologicum_ printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,

Callierges (1499).

The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome (1527).

Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in Italy, but

meanwhile an interest in that language had been transmitted to the lands

beyond the Alps.

In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists was the

_imitation_ of the style of their classical models. In the case of

poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's _Africa_, and in

the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro, Vida and many others.

Petrarch was not only the imitator of Virgil, who had been the leading

name in Latin letters throughout the middle ages; it was the influence

of Petrarch that gave a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of

Cicero was carried on with varying degrees of success by humanists such

as Gasparino da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of

epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the importance of a

rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian prose (1490); and

by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X., Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of

these papal secretaries were mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus

in his celebrated dialogue, the _Ciceronianus_ (1528), in which no less

than one hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly

and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero denounced, and

the law laid down that "to speak with propriety we must adapt ourselves

to the age in which we live--an age that differs entirely from that of

Cicero." One of the younger Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was

Longolius, who had died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians

was defended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Etienne

Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other scholars down

to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict type of Ciceronianism

was represented by Paulus Manutius (d. 1574), and a freer and more

original form of Latinity by Muretus (d. 1585).

Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent centuries, in

connexion with the leading nations of Europe, we may briefly note the

cosmopolitan position of Erasmus (1466-1536), who, although he was a

native of the Netherlands, was far more closely connected with France,

England, Italy, Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his

birth. He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise was

recognized by Rudolf Agricola, "the first (says Erasmus) who brought

from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late in 1499 Erasmus spent

some two months at Oxford, where he met Colet; it was in London that he

met More and Linacre and Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at

Oxford. At Paris, in 1500, he was fully conscious that "without Greek

the amplest knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three

years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna and

attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October 1511 he was

teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cambridge; at Basel in

1516 he produced his edition of the Greek Testament, the first that was

actually published; and during the next few years he was helping to

organize the college lately founded at Louvain for the study of Greek

and Hebrew, as well as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five

at Freiburg, and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all

these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence. By his

published works, his _Colloquies_, his _Adages_ and his _Apophthegms_,

he was the educator of the nations of Europe. An educational aim is also

apparent in his editions of Terence and of Seneca, while his Latin

translations made his contemporaries more familiar with Greek poetry and

prose, and his _Paraphrase_ promoted a better understanding of the Greek

Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen and

brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of humanism.

France.

Germany.

In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek was Janus

Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils was Budaeus (d. 1540),

who prompted Francis I. to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal

Readers in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous under

the name of the College de France. In the study of Greek one of the

earliest links between Italy and Germany was Rudolf Agricola, who had

learned Greek under Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger

contemporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek which

attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration of Reuchlin is

twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon afterwards was pre-eminent as

the "praeceptor" of Germany.

England.

In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied Greek was a

Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494), who paid two visits to

Italy. At Canterbury he inspired with his own love of learning his

nephew, Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek at

Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently stayed in Italy

from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise of Galen was printed at

Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who, in the same year and place, was the

first to use Greek type in England. Greek had been first taught to some

purpose at Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the

younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up his Greek

at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the first high-master of

the school founded by Colet at St Paul's (1510).

(b) That part of the _Modern Period_ of classical studies which succeeds

the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided into three periods

distinguished by the names of the nations most prominent in each.

The French period.

1. The first may be designated the _French_ period. It begins with the

foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530, and it may

perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700. This period is marked by a

many-sided _erudition_ rather than by any special cult of the _form_ of

the classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of

France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who settled in

France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and the learned printers

Robertus and Henricus Stephanus, while among its foremost names are

those of the younger (and greater) Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of

these, Casaubon ended his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving

France for the Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the

supremacy in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his

adoption. The last sixteen years of his life (1593-1609) were spent at

Leiden, which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the home

of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius (d. 1606). In

the 17th century the erudition of France is best represented by

"Henricus Valesius," Du Cange and Mabillon. In the same period Italy was

represented by Muretus, who had left France in 1563, and by her own

sons, Nizolius, Victorius, Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th

century by R. Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the 16th, claim W. Canter as

well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G.J. Vossius, Johannes Meursius, the

elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J.F. Gronovius, J.G. Graevius

and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the 16th, is represented by George

Buchanan; England by Sir John Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile,

and, in the 17th, by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and

Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim and Chr.

Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected with other

countries.

Literary Latin.

We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was one of the

characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and after the middle of the

16th century a correct and pure Latinity was promoted by the educational

system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the vernacular literatures

Latin became more and more exclusively the language of the learned.

Among the most conspicuous Latin writers of the 17th century are G.J.

Vossius and the Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton.

Latin was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir

Isaac Newton's _Principia_ (1687), and many of the works of Leibnitz

(1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John Ray (1627-1705) in

his _Historia Plantarum_ and in other works was continued in 1760 by

Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_. The last important work in English

theology written in Latin was George Bull's _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_

(1685). The use of Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the

17th century; but, long after that date negotiations with the German

empire were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the

debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.

The English and Dutch period.

2. During the 18th century the classical scholarship of the Netherlands

was under the healthy and stimulating influence of Bentley (1662-1742),

who marks the beginning of the English and Dutch period, mainly

represented in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and

correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), and the latter

scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798). It is the age of

historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. Both of these

were ably represented in the first half of the century by Bentley

himself, while, in the twenty years between 1782 and 1803, the verbal

criticism of the tragic poets of Athens was the peculiar province of

Richard Porson (1759-1808), who was born in the same year as F.A. Wolf.

Among other representatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and

Jonathan Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr and Sir

William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Burmanns and L. Kuester,

Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling, Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel

Wyttenbach (1746-1829). Germany is represented by Fabricius and J.M.

Gesner, J.A. Ernesti and J.J. Reiske, J.J. Winckelmann and Chr. G.

Heyne; France by B. de Montfaucon and J.B.G.D. Villoison; Alsace by

French subjects of German origin, R.F.P. Brunck and J. Schweighaeuser;

and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.

The German period.

3. The _German_ period begins with F.A. Wolf (1759-1824), whose

_Prolegomena_ to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the founder of the

systematic and encyclopaedic type of scholarship embodied in the

comprehensive term _Altertumswissenschaft_, or "a scientific knowledge

of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf was ably continued by

August Boeckh (d. 1867), one of the leaders of the historical and

antiquarian school, brilliantly represented in the previous generation

by B.G. Niebuhr (d. 1831).

In contrast with this school we have the critical and grammatical school

of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this period, while Germany

remains the most productive of the nations, scholarship has been more

and more international and cosmopolitan in its character.

Germany.

_19th Century._--We must here be content with simply recording the names

of a few of the more prominent representatives of the 19th century in

some of the most obvious departments of classical learning. Among

natives of Germany the leading scholars have been, in _Greek_, C.F.W.

Jacobs, C.A. Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs, W.

Dindorf, T. Bergk, F.W. Schneidewin, H. Koechly, A. Nauck, H. Usener, G.

Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in _Latin_, C. Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M.

Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen, E. Baehrens, L. Mueller and O.

Ribbeck. _Grammar_ and kindred subjects have been represented by P.

Buttmann, A. Matthiae, F.W. Thiersch, C.G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C.W.

Krueger, R. Kuehner and H.L. Ahrens; and _lexicography_ by F. Passow and

C.E. Georges. Among editors of _Thucydides_ we have had E.F. Poppo and

J. Classen; among editors of _Demosthenes or other orators_, G.H.

Schaefer, J.T. Voemel, G.E. Benseler, A. Westermann, G.F. Schoemann, H.

Sauppe, and C. Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The

_Platonists_ include F. Schleiermacher, G.A.F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the

many-sided C.F. Hermann; the _Aristotelians_, C.A. Brandis, A.

Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays and F.

Susemihl. The history of _Greek philosophy_ was written by F. Ueberweg,

and, more fully, by E. Zeller. _Greek history_ was the domain of G.

Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius, Arnold Schaefer and Adolf Holm;

_Greek antiquities_ that of M.H. Meier and G.F. Schoemann and of G.

Gilbert; _Greek epigraphy_ that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von

Hartel, U. Koehler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; _Roman history and

constitutional antiquities_ that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), who was

associated in _Latin epigraphy_ with E. Huebner and W. Henzen. _Classical

art and archaeology_ were represented by F.G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C.O.

Mueller, F. Wieseler, O. Jahn, C.L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C.B. Stark, J.

Overbeck, W. Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwaengler; _mythology_ (with

cognate subjects) by G.F. Creuzer, P.W. Forchhammer, L. Preller, A.

Kuhn, J.W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and _comparative philology_ by F.

Bopp, A.F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen, Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and

H. Steinthal. The history of _classical philology_ in Germany was

written by Conrad Bursian (1830-1883).

France,

Belgium, Holland,

England.

In France we have J.F. Boissonade, J.A. Letronne, L.M. Quicherat, M.P.

Littre, B. Saint-Hilaire, J.V. Duruy, B.E. Miller, E. Egger, C.V.

Daremberg, C. Thurot, L.E. Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in

archaeology) A.C. Quatremere de Quincy, P. le Bas, C.F.M. Texier, the

duc de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W.H. Waddington and O. Rayet;

and (in comparative philology) Victor Henry. Greece was ably represented

in France by A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and the Baron De

Witte (long resident in France); in Holland, C.G. Cobet; in Denmark,

J.N. Madvig. Among the scholars of Great Britain and Ireland may be

mentioned: P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P.P. Dobree, J.H. Monk,

C.J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T.H. Key, B.H. Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T.W.

Peile, R. Shilleto, W.H. Thompson, J.W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H.G.

Liddell, C. Badham, G. Rawlinson, F.A. Paley, B. Jowett, T.S. Evans,

E.M. Cope, H.A.J. Munro, W.G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H.A. Holden,

J. Riddell, J. Conington, W.Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W.D. Geddes, D.B.

Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R.C. Jebb, A.S. Wilkins, W.G.

Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and archaeologists, W.M.

Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long

and Charles Merivale, Sir Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A.S.

Murray, Robert Burn and H.F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists Max

Mueller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by adoption, while,

in the United States, his ablest counterpart was W.D. Whitney. B.L.

Gildersleeve, W.W. Goodwin, Henry Drisler, J.B. Greenough and G.M. Lane

were prominent American classical scholars.

Schools of Rome and Athens.

The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization of the great

series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by the foundation of the

Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829), which was at first

international in its character. The Athenian Institute was founded in

1874. Schools at Athens and Rome were founded by France in 1846 and

1873, by the United States of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England

in 1883 and 1901; and periodicals are published by the schools of all

these four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially in art

and archaeology) has been maintained in England by the Hellenic Society,

founded in 1879, with its organ the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_. A

further interest in Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized

lands by the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,

Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete. The

extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly extended our

knowledge of the administration of that country in the times of the

Ptolemies, and have materially added to the existing remains of Greek

literature. Scholars have been enabled to realize in their own

experience some of the enthusiasm that attended the recovery of lost

classics during the Revival of Learning. They have found themselves

living in a new age of _editiones principes_, and have eagerly welcomed

the first publication of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (1891),

Herondas (1891) and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the _Persae_ of

Timotheus of Miletus (1903), with some of the _Paeans_ of Pindar (1907)

and large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907). The

first four of these were first edited by F.G. Kenyon, Timotheus by von

Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Menander partly by J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and

partly by B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, who have also produced fragments

of the _Paeans_ of Pindar and many other classic texts (including a

Greek continuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in

the successive volumes of the _Oxyrhynchus papyri_ and other kindred

publications.

AUTHORITIES.--For a full bibliography of the history of classical

philology, see E. Huebner, _Grundriss zu Vorlesungen ueber die

Geschichte und Encyklopaedie der klassischen Philologie_ (2nd ed.,

1889); and for a brief outline, C.L. Urlichs in Iwan von Mueller's

_Handbuch_, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, _Manuel de

philologie classique_ (2nd ed., 1883-1884; _nouveau tirage_ 1907),

1-22; and A. Gudemann, _Grundris_ (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For

the Alexandrian period, F. Susemihl, _Gesch. der griechischen

Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_ (2 vols., 1891-1892); cf. F.A.

Eckstein, _Nomenclator Philologorum_ (1871), and W. Poekel,

_Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon_ (1882). For the period ending

A.D. 400, see A. Graefenhan, _Gesch. der klass. Philologie_ (4 vols.,

1843-1850); for the Byzantine period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von

Mueller, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed., 1897); for the Renaissance, G. Voigt,

_Die Wiederbelebung des class. Altertums_ (3rd ed., 1894, with

bibliography); L. Geiger, _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und

Deutschland_ (1882, with bibliography); J.A. Symonds, _Revival of

Learning_ (1877, &c.); R.C. Jebb, in _Cambridge Modern History_, i.

(1902), 532-584; and J.E. Sandys, _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of

Learning_ (1905); also P. de Nolhac, _Petrarque et l'humanisme_ (2nd

ed., 1907). On the history of Greek scholarship in France, E. Egger,

_L'Histoire d'hellenisme en France_ (1869); Mark Pattison, _Essays_,

i., and _Life of Casaubon_; in Germany, C. Bursian, _Gesch. der class.

Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); in Holland, L. Mueller, _Gesch. der

class. Philologie in den Niederlanden_ (1869); in Belgium, L.C.

Roersch in E.P. van Bemmel's _Patria Belgica_, vol. iii. (1875),

407-432; and in England, R.C. Jebb, "Erasmus" (1890) and "Bentley"

(1882), and "Porson" (in _Dict. Nat. Biog._). On the subject as a

whole see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (with

chronological tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; _From the

Sixth Century B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages_ (1903, 2nd ed.,

1906); vols. ii. and iii., _From the Revival of Learning to the

Present Day_ (1908), including the history of scholarship in all the

countries of Europe and in the United States of America. See also the

separate biographical articles in this Encyclopaedia.

(B) THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION

After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed much to the

influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre, Budacus, Erasmus and

Melanchthon, who were among the leading representatives of that revival

in Italy, France, England and Germany.

England.

1. In _England_, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and Eton

(1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but before the

revival had reached Britain. The first school[2] which came into being

under the immediate influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul's

by Dean Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise _De pueris

instituendis_ (1529) has its English counterpart in the _Governor_ of

Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be "learned

in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may be gotten." The

master and the second master of Shrewsbury (founded 1551) were to be

"well able to make a Latin verse, and learned in the Greek tongue." The

influence of the revival extended to many other schools, such as

Christ's Hospital (1552), Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors'

(1561); Repton (1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).

Shakespeare and the grammar-school.

Early text-books.

At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-1577, Shakespeare

presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid and the _Bucolics_ of Baptista

Mantuanus (1502). In the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca.

Similarly, in _Titus Andronicus_ (iv. 2) he says, of _Integer vitae_:

"'Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in the grammar long

ago." In _Henry VI._ part ii. sc. 7, when Jack Cade charges Lord Say

with having "most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in

erecting a grammar-school," Lord Say replies that "ignorance is the

curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In the

_Taming of the Shrew_ (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from Terence

(_Andria_, 74): "_redime te captum quam queas minimo._" This is taken

_verbatim_ from Lilye's contribution to the _Brevis Institutio_,

originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for St Paul's School

(1527), and ultimately adopted as the _Eton Latin Grammar_. The

_Westminster Greek Grammar_ of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of

Camden (1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently

adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long remained in

use as the _Eton Greek Grammar_, while at Westminster itself it was

superseded by that of Busby (1663). The text-books to be used at Harrow

in 1590 included Hesiod and some of the Greek orators and historians.

Ascham.

In one of the _Paston Letters_ (i. 301), an Eton boy of 1468 quotes two

Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later, on New

Year's Day, 1560, forty-four boys of the school presented Latin verses

to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his

_Scholemaster_ (1570), agrees with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in

making the imitation of the Latin classics the main aim of instruction.

He is more original when he insists on the value of translation and

retranslation for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and

when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin too soon.

Ascham's influence is apparent in the _Positions_ of Mulcaster, who in

1581 insists on instruction in English before admission to a

grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance of his age in urging

the foundation of a special college for the training of teachers.

Cleland.

Bacon, Milton, Petty.

Locke.

Cleland's _Institution of a Young Nobleman_ (1607) owes much to the

Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting against

compulsory Latin conversation, and only slightly modifies his

predecessor's method of teaching Latin prose. When Latin grammar has

been mastered, he bids the teacher lead his pupil "into the sweet

fountain and spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning

which is "as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for

speaking." In the study of ancient history, "deeds and not words" are

the prime interest. "In Plutarch pleasure is so mixed and confounded

with profit; that I esteem the reading of him as a paradise for a

curious spirit to walk in at all time." Bacon in his _Advancement of

Learning_ (1605) notes it as "the first distemper of learning when men

study words and not matter" (I. iv. 3); he also observes that the

Jesuits "have much quickened and strengthened the state of learning" (I.

vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education; he waves the humanist

aside with the words: _vetustas cessit, ratio vicit_. Milton, in his

_Tractate on Education_ (1644), advances further on Bacon's lines,

protesting against the length of time spent on instruction in language,

denouncing merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a

large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-matter,

and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His ideal place of

education is an institution combining a school and a university. Sir

William Petty, the economist (1623-1687), urged the establishment of

_ergastula literaria_ for instruction of a purely practical kind. Locke,

who had been educated at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford

(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from the scheme

which he unfolded in his _Thoughts on Education_ (1693). With Locke, the

moral and practical qualities of virtue and prudence are of the first

consideration. Instruction, he declares, is but the least part of

education; his aim is to train, not men of letters or men of science,

but practical men armed for the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to

be learned through use, with as little grammar as possible, but with the

reading of easy Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition.

Greek he absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language

to the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.

Arnold.

Throughout the 18th century and the early part of the 19th, the old

routine went on in England with little variety, and with no sign of

expansion. The range of studies was widened, however, at Rugby in

1828-1842 by Thomas Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and

geography, as a necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his

edition of Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended

when those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters of

other schools.

During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the three royal

commissions known by the names of their chairmen: (1) Lord Clarendon's

on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse,

Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864),

resulting in the Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782

endowed schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr

Bryce's on secondary education (1894-1895).

Controversy on classical education.

A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical training

found expression in the _Essays on a Liberal Education_ (1867). The

author of the first essay, C.S. Parker, closed his review of the reforms

instituted in Germany and France by adding that in England there had

been but little change. The same volume included a critical examination

of the "Theory of Classical Education" by Henry Sidgwick, and an attack

on compulsory Greek and Latin verse composition by F.W. Farrar. The

claims of verse composition have since been judiciously defended by the

Hon. Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective

restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir Richard

Jebb's Romanes Lecture on "Humanism in Education" (1899).

The question of the position of Greek in secondary education has from

time to time attracted attention in connexion with the requirement of

Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the Previous Examination at

Cambridge.

"Compulsory Greek."

In the _Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 9, 1870, it was

stated that, "in order to provide adequate encouragement for the study

of Modern Languages and Natural Science," the commissioners for endowed

schools had determined on the establishment of modern schools of the

first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The commissioners feared

that, so long as Greek was a _sine qua non_ at the universities, these

schools would be cut off from direct connexion with the universities,

while the universities would in some degree lose their control over a

portion of the higher culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a

syndicate recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and

German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek; on the 27th

of April this recommendation (which only affected candidates for honours

or for medical degrees) was rejected by 51 votes to 48.

All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the Previous

Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892 are set forth in the

_Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In

November 1903 a syndicate was appointed to consider the studies and

examinations of the university, their report of November 1904 on the

Previous Examination was fully discussed, and the speeches published in

the _Reporter_ fcr December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion

Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the

master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86 head masters

belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose replies had been

published, "about 56 held the opinion that the exemption from Greek for

all candidates for a degree would endanger or altogether extinguish the

study of Greek in the vast majority of schools, while about 21 head

masters held a different opinion." On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal

for accepting either French or German as an alternative for either Latin

or Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052 votes,

and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing between students in

letters and students in science, and (_inter alia_) _requiring_ the

latter to take either French or German for either Latin or Greek in the

Previous Examination, were rejected by 746 to 241.

Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek optional with

all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902, by 189 votes to 166;

a preliminary proposal permitting students of mathematics or natural

science to offer one or more modern languages in lieu of Greek was

passed by 164 to 162 in February 1904, but on the 29th of November the

draft of a statute to this effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the

course of the controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord

Kelvin, Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the

proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.

The Classical Association.

Incidentally, the question of "compulsory Greek" has stimulated a desire

for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In December 1903, a year

before the most important of the public discussions at Cambridge, the

Classical Association was founded in London. The aim of that association

is "to promote the development, and maintain the well-being, of

classical studies, and in particular (a) to impress upon public opinion

the claim of such studies to an eminent place in the national scheme of

education; (b) to improve the practice of classical teaching by free

discussion of its scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and

call attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of

friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of classical

learning in this country."

The curriculum.

The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary education

has occupied the attention of the Classical Association, the British

Association and the Education Department of Scotland. The general effect

of the recommendations already made would be to begin the study of

foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of Latin to the

age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen. At the Head

Masters' Conference of December 1907 a proposal to lower the standard of

Greek in the entrance scholarship examinations of public schools was

lost by 10 votes to 16, and the "British Association report" was adopted

with reservations in 1908. In the case of secondary schools in receipt

of grants of public money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in

1907-1908), "the curriculum, and time-table must be approved by the

Board of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the

curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the Charitable

Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily applying for

inspection with a view to being recognized as efficient.

Reform in Latin pronunciation.

Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the

movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In 1871 this

movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's _Syllabus of Latin

Pronunciation_. The reform was carried forward at University College,

London, by Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873, and

was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool College, Christ's

Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London school. It was taken up anew

by the Cambridge Philological Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages

Association in 1901, by the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the

Philological Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was

accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant masters in

December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed scheme was formally

approved by the Board of Education in February 1907.

See W.H. Woodward, _Studies in Education during the Age of the

Renaissance_ (1906), chap. xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith, _Studies

in Secondary Education_, with introduction by James Bryce (1892);

_Essays on a Liberal Education_, ed. F.W. Farrar (1867); R.C. Jebb,

"Humanism in Education," Romanes Lecture of 1899, reprinted with other

lectures on cognate subjects in _Essays and Addresses_ (1907); Foster

Watson, _The Curriculum and Practice of the English Grammar Schools up

to 1660_ (1908); "Greek at Oxford," by a Resident, in _The Times_

(December 27, 1904); _Cambridge University Reporter_ (November 11 and

December 17, 1904); _British Association Report on Curricula of

Secondary Schools_ (with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong

on "The Teaching of Classics"), (December 1907); W.H.D. Rouse in _The

Year's Work in Classical Studies_ (1907 and 1908), chap. i.; J.P.

Postgate, _How to pronounce Latin_ (Appendix B, on "Recent Progress"),

(1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890 of Dr Karl

Breul's "Grossbritannien" in Baumeister's _Handbuch_, I. ii. 737-892

(Munich, 1897).

France.

2. In _France_ it was mainly with a view to promoting the study of Greek

that the corporation of Royal Readers was founded by Francis I. in 1530

at the prompting of Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was

originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598 prescribed

the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus, Plato, Demosthenes and

Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin classics), and required the

production of three exercises in Greek or Latin in each week.

Textbooks.

From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin were generally

learned from unattractive abridgments of the grammar of the Flemish

scholar, van Pauteren or Despautere (d. 1520), which, in its original

folio editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The unhappy lot of

those who were compelled to learn their Latin from the current

abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist in a striking passage

describing the gloomy forest of _le pays de Despautere_ (Guyot, quoted

in Sainte-Beuve's _Port-Royal_, iii. 429). The first Latin grammar

written in French was that of Pere de Condren of the _Oratoire_ (c.

1642), which was followed by the Port-Royal _Methode latine_ of Claude

Lancelot (1644), and by the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin,

and also used by Fenelon for the instruction of the duc de Bourgogne. In

the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar and rhetoric

were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the practice of composition

(especially verse composition) transferred to the explanation and the

study of authors.

Richelieu, Bossuet, Fenelon, Fleury.

Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which Latin was to

have a subordinate place, while room was to be found for the study of

history and science, Greek, and French and modern languages. Bossuet, in

educating the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine

represented by the extensive series of the "Delphin Classics" the study

of history and of science. A greater originality in the method of

teaching the ancient languages was exemplified by Fenelon, whose views

were partially reflected by the Abbe Fleury, who also desired the

simplification of grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the

suppression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in his

day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys "learned just enough of that

language to have a pretext for saying for the rest of their lives that

Greek was a subject easily forgotten."

Rollin.

In the 18th century Rollin, in his _Traite des etudes_ (1726), agreed

with the Port-Royalists in demanding that Latin grammars should be

written in French, that the rules should be simplified and explained by

a sufficient number of examples, and that a more important place should

be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy of Latin

was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same century. Even at

the close of the previous century the brilliant achievements of French

literature had prompted La Bruyere to declare in _Des ouvrages de

l'esprit_ (about 1680), "We have at last thrown off the yoke of

_Latinism_"; and, in the same year, Jacques Spon claimed in his

correspondence the right to use the French language in discussing points

of archaeology.

The Jesuits.

Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the university of

Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the _Collegium

Claromontanum_. After the accession of Henry IV. they were expelled from

Paris and other important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return until

1609, when they found themselves confronted once more by their rival,

the university of Paris. They opened the doors of their schools to the

Greek and Latin classics, but they represented the ancient masterpieces

dissevered from their original historic environment, as impersonal

models of taste, as isolated standards of style. They did much, however,

for the cultivation of original composition modelled on Cicero and

Virgil. They have been charged with paying an exaggerated attention to

form, and with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This

neglect is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the "pagan" element in

the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods, they

kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars (and in their oral

instruction) long after it had been abandoned by others.

Port-Royal.

The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of the "Little

Schools" of the Jansenists of Port-Royal(1643-1660). The text-books

prepared for them by Lancelot included not only the above-mentioned

Latin grammar (1644) but also the _Methode grecque_ of 1655 and the

_Jardin des racines grecques_ (1657), which remained in use for two

centuries and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636) and the

_Tirocinium_ of Pere Labbe (1648). Greek began to decline in the

university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-Royalists were

aiming at its revival. During the brief existence of their schools their

most celebrated pupils were Tillemont and Racine.

The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Moliere, as well

as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and Voltaire. Of their

Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau (d. 1652), Rene Rapin (d.

1687) and N.E. Sanadon (d. 1733). In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed,

and more than one hundred schools were thus deprived of their teachers.

The university of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the

parliament, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour to

replace them. The university took possession of the _Collegium

Claromontanum_, then known as the _College Louis-le-Grand_, and

transformed it into an _ecole normale_. Many of the Jesuit schools were

transferred to the congregations of the _Oratoire_ and the Benedictines,

and to the secular clergy. On the eve of the Revolution, out of a grand

total of 562 classical schools, 384 were in the hands of the clergy and

178 in those of the congregations.

Classical education attacked.

The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks directed

against all schemes of education in which Latin held a prominent

position. At the moment when the university of Paris was, by the absence

of its rivals, placed in complete control of the education of France,

she found herself driven to defend the principles of classical education

against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of devices were suggested for

expediting the acquisition of Latin; grammar was to be set aside; Latin

was to be learned as a "living language"; much attention was to be

devoted to acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, "to save time,"

composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of Latin

texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear translations,

originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in France by Dumarsais

(1722), and in constant vogue down to the time of the Revolution.

Early in the 18th century Rollin pleaded for the "utility of Greek,"

while he described that language as the heritage of the university of

Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty years no one would be able

to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland declared that the university, which held

Greek in high honour, nevertheless had reason to lament that her

students learnt little of the language, and he traced this decline to

the fact that attendance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek,

however, was still recognized as part of the examination held for the

appointment of schoolmasters.

Eve of the Revolution.

During the 18th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the general aim

was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at the risk of

missing it altogether. On the eve of the Revolution, France was enjoying

the study of the institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the

_Voyage du jeune Anacharsis_ (1789), but the study of Greek was menaced

even more than that of Latin. For fifty years before the Revolution

there was a distinct dissatisfaction with the routine of the schools. To

meet that dissatisfaction, the teachers had accepted new subjects of

study, had improved their methods, and had simplified the learning of

the dead languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the

classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than evolution

that was loudly demanded.

First Republic.

The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued battle of the

"Programmes." Under the First Republic the schemes of Condorcet (April

1792) and J. Lakanal (February 1795) were superseded by that of P.C.F.

Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of the "central schools"

into three groups, according to age, with corresponding subjects of

study: (1) twelve to fourteen,--drawing, natural history, Greek and

Latin, and a choice of modern languages; (2) fourteen to

sixteen,--mathematics, physics, chemistry; (3) over sixteen,--general

grammar, literature, history and constitutional law..

Consulate.

In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1) nine to

twelve,--elementary knowledge, including elements of Latin; (2) above

twelve,--a higher course, with two alternatives, "humanistic" studies

for the "civil," and purely practical studies for the "military"

section. The law of the 1st of May 1802 brought the _lycees_ into

existence, the subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, "mainly Latin

and mathematics."

Restoration.

At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycees was

replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the "Royal Colleges." The

reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of classics was followed by the more

liberal programme of Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no

taste for a classical education, certain "special courses" (1830), which

were the germ of the _enseignement special_ and the _enseignement

moderne_.

Third Republic.

Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of administration

there was a consistent desire to hold the balance fairly between all the

conflicting subjects of study. After the revolution of 1848 the

difficulties raised by the excessive number of subjects were solved by

H.N.H. Fortoul's expedient of "bifurcation," the alternatives being

letters and science. In 1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy

encouraged the study of history, and also did much for classical

learning by founding the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In 1872, under the

Third Republic, Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern

languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and reducing the number

of exercises in Latin prose, while he insisted on the importance of

studying the inner meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles

were carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In the

scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten hours a week

and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later with two hours,

increasing to six and ending with four.

The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M. Alexandre

Ribot, published an important report, which was followed in 1902 by the

scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The preamble includes a striking tribute

to the advantages that France had derived from the study of the

classics:--

"L'etude de l'antiquite grecque et latine a donne au genie francais

une mesure, une clarte et une elegance incomparables. C'est par elle

que notre philosophie, nos lettres et nos arts ont brille d'un si vif

eclat; c'est par elle que notre influence morale s'est exercee en

souveraine dans le monde. Les humanites doivent etre protegees contre

toute atteinte et fortifiees. Elles font partie du patrimoine

national.

"L'esprit classique n'est pas ... incompatible avec l'esprit moderne.

Il est de tous les temps, parce qu'il est le culte de la raison claire

et libre, la recherche de la beaute harmonieuse et simple dans toutes

les manifestations de la pensee."

By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the course of seven

years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of four years) having

two parallel courses: (1) without Greek or Latin, and (2) with Latin,

and with optional Greek at the beginning of the third year. In the

second cycle (of three years) those who have been learning both Greek

and Latin, and those who have been learning neither, continue on the

same lines as before; while those who have been learning Latin only may

either (1) discontinue it in favour of modern languages _and_ science,

or (2) continue it with _either_. As an alternative to the second cycle,

which normally ends in the examination for the _baccalaureat_, there is

a shorter course, mainly founded on modern languages or applied science

and ending in a public examination without the _baccalaureat_. The

_baccalaureat_, however, has been condemned by the next minister, M.

Briand, who prefers to crown the course with the award of a school

diploma (1907).

See H. Lantoine, _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au

XVIIe siecle_ (1874); A. Sicard, _Les Etudes classiques avant la

Revolution_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Port-Royal_, vols. i.-v.

(1840-1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Greard, _Education et

instruction_, 4 vols., especially "Enseignement secondaire," vol. ii.

pp. 1-90, with conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A.

Ribot, _La Reforme de l'enseignement secondaire_ (1900); G. Leygues,

_Plan d'etudes_, &c. (1902); H.H. Johnson, "Present State of Classical

Studies in France," in _Classical Review_ (December 1907). See also

the English Education Department's _Special Reports on Education in

France_ (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in England

by Matthew Arnold's _Schools and Universities in France_ (1868; new

edition, 1892) and _A French Eton_ (1864).

Germany.

3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into three

periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the Reformation

(1500-1650), (b) the age of French influence (1650-1800), and (c) the

19th century.

Melanchthon.

The Greek Testament.

(a) During the first twenty years of the 16th century the reform of

Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the old medieval

grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical literature, and by

prescribing the study of classical authors and the imitation of

classical models. In all these points the lead was first taken by south

Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine down to the Netherlands. The

old schools and universities were being quietly interpenetrated by the

new spirit of humanism, when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds

of religious conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the

classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirckheimer in

1528, exclaims: "Wherever the spirit of Luther prevails, learning goes

to the ground." Such a fate was, however, averted by the intervention of

Melanchthon (d. 1560), the _praeceptor Germaniae_, who was the

embodiment of the spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with

its union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture. Under his

influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at Magdeburg, Eisleben

and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During more than forty years of academic

activity he not only provided manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and

many other text-books that long remained in use, but he also formed for

Germany a well-trained class of learned teachers, who extended his

influence throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as

a writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style, and

models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means whereby a

remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained at Strassburg

during the forty-four years of the headmastership of Johannes von Sturm

(d. 1589), who had himself been influenced by the _De disciplinis_ of

J.L. Vives (1531), and in all his teaching aimed at the formation of a

_sapiens atque eloquens pietas_. Latin continued to be the living

language of learning and of literature, and a correct and elegant Latin

style was regarded as the mark of an educated person. Greek was taught

in all the great schools, but became more and more confined to the study

of the Greek Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to banish

all "profane" authors from the schools, and in 1589 a competent scholar

was instructed to write a sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a

substitute for the works of the "pagan" poets. In 1637, when the doubts

of Scaliger and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New

Testament prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of

classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testament

was bitterly resented.

The Jesuits.

The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most of the

teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of Germany were

Jesuits. The society was "dissolved" in 1773, but survived its

dissolution. In accordance with the _Ratio Studiorum_ of Aquaviva

(1599), which long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by

J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the _litterae

humaniores diversarum linguarum_. The chief place among these was

naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society and of the

Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that of the Jesuit rector of

the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572). As in the Protestant schools, the

principal aim was the attainment of _eloquentia_. A comparatively

subordinate place was assigned to Greek, especially as the importance

attributed to the Vulgate weakened the motive for studying the original

text. It was recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vives had said)

was "in no small need of Greek," and that, "unless Greek was learnt in

boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The text-book used was

the _Institutiones linguae Graecae_ of the German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser,

of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the reading in the highest class included

portions of Demosthenes, Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod,

Pindar, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and

Protestant schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving a

command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary form and for

culture. Latin was still the language of the law-courts and of a large

part of general literature. Between Luther and Lessing there was no

great writer of German prose.

The age of French influence.

(b) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin continued to

hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin of the strictly

classical type. Greek fell still further into the background; and Homer

and Demosthenes gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between 1600

and 1775 there was a great gap in the production of new editions of the

principal Greek classics. The spell was only partially broken by J.A.

Ernesti's _Homer_ (1759 f.) and Chr. G. Heyne's _Pindar_ (1773 f.).

Modern and secular education.

The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in the history of

education in Germany. Thenceforth, education became more modern and more

secular. The long wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England,

were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed points of

theology. But the modern and secular type of education that now

supervened was opposed by the pietism of the second half of the 17th

century, represented at the newly-founded university of Halle (1694) by

A.H. Francke, the professor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far

greater than that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1707), the founder of the first

philological _Seminar_ (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius

(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old

humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian pedantry,

and it was mainly his influence that made German the language of

university lectures and of scientific and learned literature. A modern

education is also the aim of the general introduction to the _nova

methodus_ of Leibnitz, where the study of Greek is recommended solely

for the sake of the Greek Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d.

1635) had in vain pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the

space of six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that the

study of a language should begin with the study of an author. Comenius

(d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his pupils in a

thousand graduated phrases distributed over a hundred instructive

chapters, while the Latin authors were banished because of their

difficulty and their "paganism" (1631). One of the catchwords of the day

was to insist on a knowledge of _things_ instead of a knowledge of

_words_, on "realism" instead of "verbalism."

Ritter-akademien.

Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became the ideal in

the German education of the upper classes of the 17th and 18th

centuries. A large number of aristocratic schools (_Ritter-Akademien_)

were founded, beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tuebingen (1589)

and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775). In these

schools the subjects of study included mathematics and natural sciences,

geography and history, and modern languages (especially French), with

riding, fencing and dancing; Latin assumed a subordinate place, and

classical composition in prose or verse was not considered a

sufficiently courtly accomplishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus

withdrawn from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic

schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the ordinary

public schools were once more frequented by the young nobility.