[1] See Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in "Ueber
Clarinette und Basset-horn," _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp.
36 and 37, note.
[2] Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in Messrs
Rudall, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann patent.
[3] Aristotle (_de Audib._ 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
_zeuge_ (mouthpiece) or the _glottai_ (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper
tone is produced.
[4] Cf. V.C. Mahillon, _Elements d'acoustique musicale et
instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, _Die Musik
und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen
der Akustik ..._ (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.
[5] "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893).
[6] _De Musica_, 1138.
[7] _Op. cit._ pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, _Die
Klarinette_ (Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.
[8] See Macrobius, _Comm. in somnium Scipionis_, ii. 4. 5 "nec secus
probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis ori sonus
acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis, gravior:
item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta."
[9] See Victor Loret, _L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons--la vie, le
science, et l'art_ (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The
author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in
the Musee Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
mural paintings described on p. 190 of _Petit guide illustre au Musee
Guimet_, par L. de Milloue.
[10] See Victor Loret, "Les flutes egyptiennes antiques," _Journal
asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.
[11] See also A.A. Howard, "Study on the Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard
Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F.C. Gevaert, _Musique de
l'antiquite_; Carl von Jan, article "Floete" in August Baumeister's
_Denkmaeler des klassischen Alterthums_ (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.;
Dr Hugo Riemann, _Handbuch der Musikgesch._ vol. i. p. 90, &c.
(Leipzig, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.
[12] Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne trajane_ (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pl.
76.
[13] "Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis
Ki leur cante et Kalemele,
En la muse au grant bourdon."
J.A.U. Scheler's _Trouveres belges_.
[14] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Hotteterre et les Chedeville, celebres
facteurs de flutes, hautbois, bassons et musettes_ (Paris, 1894), p.
15 et seq., and _Methode pour la musette_, &c., par Hotteterre le
Romain (Paris, 1737).
[15] The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in _Jahrb. d.
Samml. des Alterh. Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, 1883-1884).
[16] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
[17] _Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch_ (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).
[18] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbuettel, 1618). This work and those
mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of _Publikationen_
(Berlin).
[19] See _Descriptive Catalogue_, by Capt. C.R. Day (London, 1891),
pl. iv. A and p. 110, No. 221.
[20] _Wappenbuch_, p. 111, "Musica."
[21] Paris, 1767, vol. v. "Planches," pl. ix. 20, 21, 22.
[22] Dr Theofilo Muffat, "Componimenti musicali per il cembalo," in
_Denkmaeler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich_, Bd. iii.
[23] _Historische Nachricht von den Nuernbergischen Mathematicis u.
Kuenstlern_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.
[24] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIXe siecle._
[25] For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C.R.
Day, _op. cit._ pl. iv. C. and p. 109.
[26] _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911,
where an illustration is given. See also Capt. C.R. Day, _op. cit._
pl. iv. B and _Errata_ where the description is printed.
[27] For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon's _Catalogue
descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.
[28] See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.
[29] See V. Mahillon, _Catal. descript._ (1896), p. 213, No. 913.
[30] H. Welcker von Gontershausen, _Die musikalischen Tonwerk-zeuge_
(Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.
[31] Op. cit. p. 6.
[32] See Capt. C.R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.
[33] V. Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), p. 182, refers his statement
to the Chevalier L. de Burbure.
[34] _Das neu-eroeffnete Orchester_ (Hamburg, 1713).
[35] Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), vol. i. p. 182.
[36] See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, _Die kaiserliche
Hofmusik-kapelle zu Wien, 1543-1867_ (Vienna, 1869).
[37] In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.
CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician, was born at
Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father, who also was a medical
man, died when he was only a few years old. After attending school in
Aberdeen, he was sent by his guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a
druggist; then returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the
university of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh, where in
the extra-academical school he had a student's career of the most
brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to J. Hughes
Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal Infirmary, and
assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert Knox. But symptoms of
pulmonary phthisis brought his academic life to a close, and in the hope
that the sea might benefit his health he joined the medical department
of the navy in 1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar
hospital, where T.H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he
was the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator to
the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to devote all his
energies to pathology, but circumstances brought him into active medical
practice. In 1854, the year in which he took his doctor's degree at
Aberdeen, the post of assistant-physician to the hospital became vacant
and he was prevailed upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how
his phthisical tendencies gained him the appointment. "He is only a poor
Scotch doctor," it was said, "with but a few months to live; let him
have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly declared
that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the time of his
selection he was the only one remaining alive. In 1854 he became a
member of the College of Physicians, and in 1858 a fellow, and then went
in succession through all the offices of honour the college has to
offer, ending in 1888 with the presidency, which he continued to hold
till his death. From the time of his selection as assistant physician to
the London hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting among his
patients some of the most distinguished men of the day. The great number
of persons who passed through his consulting-room every morning rendered
it inevitable that to a large extent his advice should become
stereotyped and his prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae,
but in really serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and
carefulness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite of
the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good many books,
all written in the precise and polished style on which he used to pride
himself. Doubtless owing largely to personal reasons, lung diseases and
especially fibroid phthisis formed his favourite theme, but he also
discussed other subjects, such as renal inadequacy, anaemia,
constipation, &c. He died in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a
paralytic stroke which was probably the result of persistent overwork.
CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- ), American clergyman, was born of New
England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of Quebec, Canada, on the 12th of
September 1851. He was the son of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name
of an uncle, the Rev. E.W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his
father's death in 1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the Congregational
ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congregational church at
Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of the Phillips Congregational
church, South Boston, Mass., from 1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February
1881 he founded at Portland the Young People's Society of Christian
Endeavor, which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
church, developed into a great interdenominational organization, which
in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000 members scattered
throughout the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, South
Africa, India, Japan and China. After 1887 he devoted his time entirely
to the extension of this work, and was president of the United Societies
of Christian Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and
editor of the _Christian Endeavor World_ (originally _The Golden Rule_).
Among his numerous publications are _The Children and the Church_
(1882); _Looking Out on Life_ (1883); _Young People's Prayer Meetings_
(1884); _Some Christian Endeavor Saints_ (1889); _World-Wide Endeavor_
(1895); _A New Way Round an Old World_ (1900).
See his _The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began, &c._
(Boston, 1895); _Christian Endeavor Manual_ (Boston, 1903); and
_Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years of
Progress_ (Philadelphia, 1907).
CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier military leader, was
born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 19th of
November 1752. Early in life he became a land-surveyor; he took part in
Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio
Company to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage and
magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his frontier
neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate to the Virginia
legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental in bringing about the
organization of Kentucky as a county of Virginia, and also obtained from
Governor Patrick Henry a supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers.
Convinced that the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids
against the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts
north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts would put
an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late in 1777 and
submitted to Governor Henry and his council a plan for offensive
operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he was commissioned
lieutenant-colonel, received L1200 in depreciated currency, and was
authorized to enlist troops; and by the end of May he was at the falls
of the Ohio (the site of Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition
proceeded to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now
Illinois. This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St
Louis, were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon the
support of the French _habitants_. The French being willing to accept
the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken. Clark gained
the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest at Kaskaskia, and
through his influence the French at Vincennes on the Wabash were induced
(late in July) to change their allegiance. On the 17th of December
Lieut.-Governor Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit,
recovered Vincennes and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779
he was surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison of about
80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of Detroit and several
other posts on the Canadian frontier the whole of the North-West was
thus brought under American influence; many of the Indians, previously
hostile, became friendly, and the United States was put in a position to
demand the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this
valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private funds,
he received practically no recompense either from Virginia or from the
United States, and for many years before his death he lived in poverty.
To him and his men, however, the Virginia legislature granted 150,000
acres of land in 1781, which was subsequently located in what are now
Clark, Floyd and Scott counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was
8049 acres, but from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson
on the Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same year, and
in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the Miami river. With
this last expedition his active military service virtually ended, and in
July 1783 he was relieved of his command by Virginia. Thereafter he
lived on part of the land granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville
for the rest of his life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a
commission as "major-general in the armies of France, and
commander-in-chief of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi
Valley," and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme, however, was
abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed at what he regarded as his
country's ingratitude, and broken down by excessive drinking and
paralysis, he lost his once powerful influence and lived in comparative
isolation until his death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of
February 1818.
See W.H. English, _Conquest of the Country north-west of the River
Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark_ (2 vols.,
Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
which represents an immense amount of research among both printed and
manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his expeditions, and other
interesting documents, are given in the appendix to this work.
CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was the youngest
brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline county, Virginia, on
the 1st of August 1770. At the age of fourteen he removed with his
parents to Kentucky, settling at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He
entered the United States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March
1792, and served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of ill-health.
In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he commanded the famous
exploring expedition across the continent to the mouth of the Columbia
river, and was commissioned second lieutenant in March 1804 and first
lieutenant in January 1806. In February he again resigned from the army.
He then served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
territorial militia, as Indian agent for "Upper Louisiana," as
territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superintendent of
Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death there on the 1st of
September 1838.
CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born at Cullen,
Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school of Fordyce and at the
universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He served for six years as a
surgeon in the army; then spent some time in travelling on the
continent, in order to investigate the mineral waters and the climate of
various health resorts; and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he
began to practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria in
1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He published _The Influence of
Climate in Chronic Diseases_, containing valuable meteorological tables
(1829), and a _Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption_ (1835).
CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847- ), American economist, was born at Providence,
Rhode Island, on the 26th of January 1847. Educated at Brown University,
Amherst College, Heidelberg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of
political economy at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he
became professor of history and political science in Smith College,
Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in Amherst
College. He was appointed professor of political economy at Columbia
University in 1895. Among his works are: _The Philosophy of Wealth_
(1885); _Wages_ (1889); _Capital and its Earnings_ (1898); _The Control
of Trusts_ (1901); _The Problem of Monopoly_ (1904); and _Essentials of
Economic Theory_ (1907).
CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1898), English engineer and electrician, was
born on the 10th of March 1822 at Great Marlow, Bucks. His first
interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in 1848 he became assistant
engineer at the Menai Straits bridge under his elder brother Edwin
(1814-1894), the inventor of the Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two
years later, when his brother was appointed engineer to the Electric
Telegraph Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent "for
conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure of air and
vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction of a large
pneumatic despatch tube between the general post office and Euston
station, London. About the same period he was engaged in experimental
researches on the propagation of the electric current in submarine
cables, on which he published a pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a
member of the committee which was appointed by the government to
consider the numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measurement, and
besides designing various improvements in method and apparatus and
inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a leading part in the
movement for the systematization of electrical standards, which was
inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir C.T. Bright read on the
question before the British Association in 1861. With Bright also he
devised improvements in the insulation of submarine cables. In the later
part of his life he was a member of several firms engaged in laying
submarine cables, in manufacturing electrical appliances, and in
hydraulic engineering. He died in London on the 30th of October 1898.
Besides professional papers, he published an _Elementary Treatise on
Electrical Measurement_ (1868), together with two books on astronomical
subjects, and a memoir of Sir W.F. Cooke.
CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at Ayr on the 31st
of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed lecturer on chemistry at the
Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in 1831 he took the degree of M.D. at
the university of that city. Two years later he became professor of
chemistry in Marischal College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the
duties of that position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he
remained professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion
with his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at Glasgow on
the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the study of the historical
origin of the Gospels.
CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical and Shakespearian
scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington, in March 1821. He was
educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury schools and Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow after a brilliant university
career. In 1857 he was appointed public orator. He travelled much during
the long vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
_Peloponnesus_ (1858) was an important contribution to the knowledge of
the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken orders, but left the
Church in 1870 after the passing of the Clerical Disabilities Act, of
which he was one of the promoters. He also resigned the public
oratorship in the same year, and in consequence of illness left
Cambridge in 1873. He died at York on the 6th of November 1878. He
bequeathed a sum of money to his old college for the foundation of a
lectureship in English literature. Although Clark was before all a
classical scholar, he published little in that branch of learning. A
contemplated edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he
was singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868 for
the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS., and on his
return began the notes to the _Acharnians_, but they were left in too
incomplete a state to admit of publication in book form even after his
death (see _Journal of Philology_, viii., 1879). He established the
Cambridge _Journal of Philology_, and cooperated with B.H. Kennedy and
James Riddell in the production of the well-known _Sabrinae Corolla_.
The work by which he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare
(1863-1866), containing a collation of early editions and selected
emendations, edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
W. Aldis Wright. _Gazpacho_ (1853)gives an account of his tour in Spain;
his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection, and to
Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in _Vacation
Tourists_, ed. F. Galton, i. and iii.
H.A.J. Munro in _Journal of Philology_ (viii. 1879) describes Clark as
"the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met"; see also
notices by W. Aldis Wright in _Academy_ (Nov. 23, 1878); R. Burn in
_Athenaeum_ (Nov. 16, 1878); _The Times_ (Nov. 8, 1878); _Notes and
Queries_, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.
CLARKE, ADAM (1762?-1832), British Nonconformist divine, was born at
Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760 or 1762. After receiving a
very limited education he was apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but,
finding the employment uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the
institution founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley to the
Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. His popularity as a preacher was very
great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated by the fact
that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to be president of the
conference. He served twice on the London circuit, the second period
being extended considerably longer than the rule allowed, at the special
request of the British and Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him
in the preparation of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral
work, he found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself for
the great work of his life, his _Commentary on the Holy Scriptures_ (8
vols., 1810-1820). In 1802 he published a _Bibliographical Dictionary_
in six volumes, to which he afterwards added a supplement. He was
selected by the Records Commission to re-edit Rymer's _Foedera_, a task
which after ten years' labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also
wrote _Memoirs of the Wesley Family_ (1823), and edited a large number
of religious works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state were his
personal friends. He died in London on the 16th of August 1832.
His _Miscellaneous Works_ were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
_Life_ (3 vols.) by his son, J.B.B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.
CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902), British soldier and administrator, son
of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal, Ireland, governor of West
Australia, was born at Southsea, England, on the 27th of July 1824, and
educated at King's school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844 as
second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed to his
father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be A.D.C. and
military secretary to the governor of Tasmania; and in 1847 he went to
New Zealand to take part in the Maori War, and for some years served on
Sir George Grey's staff. He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria,
took a prominent part in framing its new constitution, and held the
office of minister of public lands during the first administration
(1855-1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent on a
special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he was appointed
director of works for the navy, and held this post for nine years, being
responsible for great improvements in the naval arsenals at Chatham,
Portsmouth and Plymouth, and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda
and elsewhere. In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in consolidating
British rule and ameliorating the condition of the people. From 1875 to
1880 he was minister of public works in India; and on his return to
England in 1881, holding then the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the
army, he was first appointed commandant at Chatham and then
inspector-general of fortifications (1882-1886). Having attained the
rank of lieutenant-general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from
official life, and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament
as a supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was
agent-general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both as a
technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial administrator Sir
Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most useful public servants of
his time; and his contributions to periodical literature, as well as his
official memoranda, contained valuable suggestions on the subjects of
imperial defence and imperial consolidation which received too little
consideration at a period when the home governments were not properly
alive to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of those
who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience, the views of
imperial administration and its responsibilities, which in his last
years he saw accepted by the bulk of his countrymen.
CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877), English author and Shakespearian
scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, on the 15th of December 1787.
His father, John Clarke, was a schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John
Keats. Charles Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love
of poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards became
acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and Hazlitt. Clarke
became a music publisher in partnership with Alfred Novello, and married
in 1828 his partner's sister, Mary Victoria (1809-1898), the eldest
daughter of Vincent Novello. In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden
Clarke began her valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually
issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume form in
1845 as _The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being a Verbal Index
to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the Poet_. This work
superseded the _Copious Index to ... Shakespeare_ (1790) of Samuel
Ayscough, and the _Complete Verbal Index ..._ (1805-1807) of Francis
Twiss. Charles Cowden Clarke published many useful books, and edited the
text for John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most
important work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856 on
Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more notable series
were published, among them being _Shakespeare's Characters, chiefly
those subordinate_ (1863), and _Moliere's Characters_ (1865). In 1859 he
published a volume of original poems, _Carmina Minima_. For some years
after their marriage the Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in
London. In 1849 Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he
was joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at Genoa
at the "Villa Novello." They collaborated in _The Shakespeare Key,
unlocking the Treasures of his Style ..._ (1879), and in an edition of
Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was issued in weekly parts, and
completed in 1868. It was reissued in 1886 as _Cassell's Illustrated
Shakespeare_. Charles Clarke died on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa,
and his wife survived him until the 12th of January 1898. Among Mrs
Cowden Clarke's other works may be mentioned _The Girlhood of
Shakespeare's Heroines_ (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of
Berlioz's _Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration_
(1856).
See _Recollections of Writers_ (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends;
and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, _My Long Life_ (1896). A
charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by Anne
Upton Nettleton as _Letters to an Enthusiast_ (Chicago, 1902).
CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineralogist and traveller,
was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th of June 1769, and educated
first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he obtained the office of chapel clerk at
Jesus College, Cambridge, but the loss of his father at this time
involved him in difficulties. In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after
became private tutor to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In
1792 he obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and visiting a
few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome, he went to Naples,
where he remained nearly two years. Having returned to England in the
summer of 1794, he became tutor in several distinguished families. In
1799 he set out with a Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of
Europe, beginning with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards to Egypt
and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria, Clarke was of
considerable use in securing for England the statues, sarcophagi, maps,
manuscripts, &c., which had been collected by the French savants. Greece
was the country next visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by
land to Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany and France.
Clarke, who had now obtained considerable reputation, took up his
residence at Cambridge. He received the degree of LL.D. shortly after
his return in 1803, on account of the valuable donations, including a
colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the
university. He was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near
Cambridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law added
that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke was appointed to the
professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge, then first instituted. Nor was
his perseverance as a traveller otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he
had collected in the course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian
library for L1000; and by the publication of his travels he realized
altogether a clear profit of L6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted the study
of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally by means of the
gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high degree of perfection. He
was also appointed university librarian in 1817, and was one of the
founders of the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1819. He died in
London on the 9th of March 1822. The following is a list of his
principal works:--_Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue
of Ceres in the Public Library, Cambridge_ (8vo, 1801-1803); _The Tomb
of Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria,
and now in the British Museum_ (4to, 1805); _A Methodical Distribution
of the Mineral Kingdom_ (fol., Lewes, 1807); _A Description of the Greek
Marbles brought from the Shores of the Euxine, Archipelago and
Mediterranean, and deposited in the University Library, Cambridge_ (8vo,
1809); _Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa_ (4to,
1810-1819; 2nd ed., 1811-1823).
See _Life and Remains_, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).
CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841- ), English lawyer and politician, son
of J.G. Clarke of Moorgate Street, London, was born on the 15th of
February 1841. In 1859 he became a writer in the India office, but
resigned in the next year, and became a law reporter. He obtained a
Tancred law scholarship in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1864. He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a
bencher of Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge brought
against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to defeat justice,
and his reputation was assured by his defence of Patrick Staunton in the
Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs Bartlett against the charge of
poisoning her husband (1886). Among other notable cases he was counsel
for the plaintiff in the libel action brought by Sir William
Gordon-Cumming (1890) against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for
slander, charging him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this
case the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he
appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when they were
tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was knighted in 1886.
He was returned as Conservative member for Southwark at a by-election
early in 1880, but failed to retain his seat at the general election
which followed a month or two later; he found a seat at Plymouth,
however, which he retained until 1900. He was solicitor-general in the
Conservative administration of 1886-1892, but declined office under the
Unionist government of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were
debarred from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone on the
second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899 differences which
arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party on the subject of the
government's South African policy led to his resigning his seat. At the
general election of 1906 he was returned at the head of the poll for the
city of London, but he offended a large section of his constituents by a
speech against tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 12th of
March, and shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
He published a _Treatise on the Law of Extradition_ (4th ed., 1903), and
also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.
CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher and author, was
born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of April 1810. He was
prepared for college at the public Latin school of Boston, and graduated
at Harvard College in 1829, and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833.
He was then ordained as minister of a Unitarian congregation at
Louisville, Kentucky, which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw
himself heart and soul into the national movement for the abolition of
slavery, though he was never what was then called in America a "radical
abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his friends
established (1841) the "Church of the Disciples." It brought together a
body of men and women active and eager in applying the Christian
religion to the social problems of the day, and he would have said that
the feature which distinguished it from any other church was that they
also were ministers of the highest religious life. Ordination could make
no distinction between him and them. Of this church he was the minister
from 1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also
secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871 professor of
natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard. From the beginning
of his active life he wrote freely for the press. From 1836 until 1839
he was editor of the _Western Messenger_, a magazine intended to carry
to readers in the Mississippi Valley simple statements of "liberal
religion," involving what were then the most radical appeals as to
national duty, especially the abolition of slavery. The magazine is now
of value to collectors because it contains the earliest printed poems of
Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's
earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need of
establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused by people
who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who maintained what a
good American phrase calls "hard-shelled churches." But it would be
wrong to call his work controversial. He was always declaring that the
business of the Church is Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as
_Orthodoxy: Its Truths and Errors_ (1866) have been read more largely by
members of orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate of
the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring much what company
he served in, he could always be seen and heard, a leader of unflinching
courage, in the front rank of the battle. He published but few verses,
but at the bottom he was a poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar,
and among the books by which he is best known is one called _Ten Great
Religions_ (2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects of
literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later books are
_Every-Day Religion_ (1886) and _Sermons on the Lord's Prayer_ (1888).
He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of June 1888.
His _Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence_, edited by Edward
Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E.E.H.)
CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was born in Baltimore,
Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and was educated for the law. He
made his first appearance in Boston as Frank Hardy in _Paul Pry_ in
1851. In 1859 he married Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth,
and he was associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the
management of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut Street
theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867 he went to
London, where he made his first appearance at the St James's as Major
Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's _Everybody's Friend_, rewritten
for him and called _The Widow's Hunt_. His success was so great that he
remained in England for the rest of his life, except for four visits to
America. Among his favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200
nights at the Strand, Dr Pangloss in _The Heir-at-law_, and Dr Ollapod
in _The Poor Gentleman_. He managed several London theatres, including
the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He retired in 1889, and
died on the 24th of September 1899. His two sons also were actors.
CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881), Australian author, was born in
London on the 24th of April 1846. He was the only son of William Hislop
Clarke, a barrister of the Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated
forthwith to Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a
county court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn farming at a
station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was already writing stories
for the _Australian Magazine_, when in 1867 he joined the staff of the
Melbourne _Argus_ through the introduction of Dr Robert Lewins. He also
became secretary (1872) to the trustees of the Melbourne public library
and later (1876) assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick
Club, which soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
letters. The most famous of his books is _For the Term of his Natural
Life_ (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian penal
settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a Melbourne
paper. He also wrote _The Peripatetic Philosopher_ (1869), a series of
amusing papers reprinted from _The Austral-asian; Long Odds_ (London,
1870), a novel; and numerous comedies and pantomimes, the best of which
was _Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star_ (Theatre Royal, Melbourne;
Christmas, 1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his
popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at Melbourne on
the 2nd of August 1881.
See _The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume_ (Melbourne, 1884), containing
selections from his writings with a biography and list of works,
edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.
CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick duke of York,
second son of George III., was born either in London or at Oxford. Her
father, whose name was Thompson, seems to have been a tradesman in
rather humble circumstances. She married before she was eighteen, but Mr
Clarke, the proprietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and
she left him. After other _liaisons_, she became in 1803 the mistress of
the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large and
expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The duke's promised
allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape her financial
difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's position,
receiving money from various promotion-seekers, military, civil and even
clerical, in return for her promise to secure them the good services of
the duke. Her procedure became a public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel
Wardle, M.P., brought eight charges of abuse of military patronage
against the duke in the House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was
appointed, before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of
the inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was concerned,
and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of what was being
done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit himself. He resigned his
appointment as commander-in-chief, and terminated his connexion with Mrs
Clarke, who subsequently obtained from him a considerable sum in cash
and a pension, as the price for withholding the publication of his
numerous letters to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June
1852.
See Taylor, _Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke_; Clarke (? pseud.),
_Life of Mrs M.A. Clarkek_; _Annual Register_, vol. li.
CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher and divine, son of
Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years was parliamentary
representative of the city of Norwich, was born on the 11th of October
1675, and educated at the free school of Norwich and at Caius College,
Cambridge. The philosophy of Descartes was the reigning system at the
university; Clarke, however, mastered the new system of Newton, and
contributed greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin
version of the _Traite de physique_ of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years of age.
The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon Cartesian principles,
and was previously known only through the medium of a rude Latin
version. Clarke's translation (1697) continued to be used as a text-book
in the university till supplanted by the treatises of Newton, which it
had been designed to introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and
best being that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.
Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in the
original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken holy
orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), bishop of Norwich,
who was ever afterwards his friend and patron. In 1699 he published two
treatises,--one entitled _Three Practical Essays on Baptism,
Confirmation and Repentance_, and the other, _Some Reflections on that
part of a book called Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life, which
relates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and, the Canon of the
New Testament_. In 1701 he published _A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St
Matthew_, which was followed, in 1702, by the _Paraphrases upon the
Gospels of St Mark and St Luke_, and soon afterwards by a third volume
upon St John. They were subsequently printed together in two volumes and
have since passed through several editions. He intended to treat in the
same manner the remaining books of the New Testament, but his design was
unfulfilled.
Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the rectory of
Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in 1704 with the
_Being and Attributes of God_, and in 1705 with the _Evidences of
Natural and Revealed Religion_. These lectures, first printed
separately, were afterwards published together under the title of _A
Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the Obligations of
Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian
Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author of the Oracles
of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed Religion_.
In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell's views on the
immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy with Anthony
Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of Newton's _Optics_,
for which the author presented him with L500. In the same year through
the influence of Bishop Moore, he obtained the rectory of St Benet's,
Paul's Wharf, London. Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of
her chaplains in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of
St James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in divinity,
defending as his thesis the two propositions: _Nullum fidei Christianae
dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rectae rationi dissentaneum_,
and _Sine actionum humanarum libertate nulla potest esse religio_.
During the same year, at the request of the author, he revised Whiston's
English translation of the _Apostolical Constitutions_.
In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated edition (folio
1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's _Commentaries_, with elegant engravings,
dedicated to the duke of Marlborough. During the same year he published
his celebrated treatise on _The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity_. It
is divided into three parts. The first contains a collection and
exegesis of all the texts in the New Testament relating to the doctrine
of the Trinity; in the second the doctrine is set forth at large, and
explained in particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England relating to
the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston informs us that,
some time before the publication of this book, a message was sent to him
from Lord Godolphin "that the affairs of the public were with difficulty
then kept in the hands of those that were for liberty; that it was
therefore an unseasonable time for the publication of a book that would
make a great noise and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him
to forbear till a fitter opportunity should offer itself,"--a message
that Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right in
their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great number of
replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the Lower House of
Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an apologetic preface, and
afterwards gave several explanations, which satisfied the Upper House;
and, on his pledging himself that his future conduct would occasion no
trouble, the matter dropped.
In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative to the
principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was at length cut
short by the death of his antagonist. A collection of the papers which
passed between them was published in 1717 (cf. G. v. Leroy, _Die philos.
Probleme in dem Briefwechsel Leibniz und Clarke_, Giessen, 1893). In
1719 he was presented by Nicholas 1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership
of Wigston's hospital in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen
sermons, eleven of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the
death of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
master of the mint, worth on an average from L1200 to L1500 a year. This
secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused. In 1728 was
published "A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin Hoadly, F.R.S.,
occasioned by the controversy relating to the Proportion of Velocity and
Force in Bodies in Motion," printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_.
In 1729 he published the first twelve books of Homer's _Iliad_. This
edition, dedicated to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly
praised by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the 11th of May 1729, when going
out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was seized with a
sudden illness, which caused his death on the Saturday following (May
17, 1729).
Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of Sarum,
published, from his original manuscripts, _An Exposition of the Church
Catechism_, and ten volumes of sermons. The _Exposition_ is composed of
the lectures which he read every Thursday morning, for some months in
the year, at St James's church. In the latter part of his life he
revised them with great care, and left them completely prepared for the
press. Three years after his death appeared also the last twelve books
of the _Iliad_, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of
these books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
and annotated by his father.
In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An intimate friend
relates that he once found him swimming upon a table. At another time
Clarke on looking out at the window saw a grave blockhead approaching
the house; upon which he cried out, "Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a
fool." Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line,
"Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,"
says, "Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances; that Newton
once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued himself on his agility,
and frequently amused himself in a private room of his house in leaping
over the tables and chairs?"
_Philosophy._--Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but his
chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of Hobbes,
the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the determinism of
Leibnitz, Collins' necessitarianism, Dodwell's denial of the natural
immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on Christianity, and
the morality of the sensationalists--all these he opposed with a
thorough conviction of the truth of the principles which he advocated.
His fame as theologian and philosopher rests to a large extent on his
demonstration of the existence of God and his theory of the foundation
of rectitude. The former is not a purely a priori argument, nor is it
presented as such by its author. It starts from a fact and it often
explicitly appeals to facts. The intelligence, for example, of the
self-existence and original cause of all things is, he says, "not
easily proved a priori," but "demonstrably proved a posteriori from
the variety and degrees of perfection in things, and the order of
causes and effects, from the intelligence that created beings are
confessedly endowed with, and from the beauty, order, and final
purpose of things." The propositions maintained in the argument
are--"(1) That something has existed from eternity; (2) that there has
existed from eternity some one immutable and independent being; (3)
that that immutable and independent being, which has existed from
eternity, without any external cause of its existence, must be
self-existent, that is, necessarily existing; (4) what the substance
or essence of that being is, which is self-existent or necessarily
existing, we have no idea, neither is it at all possible for us to
comprehend it; (5) that though the substance or essence of the
self-existent being is itself absolutely incomprehensible to us, yet
many of the essential attributes of his nature are strictly
demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in the first place, that
he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the self-existent being must
of necessity be infinite and omnipresent; (7) must be but one; (8)
must be an intelligent being; (9) must be not a necessary agent, but a
being endued with liberty and choice; (10) must of necessity have
infinite power; (11) must be infinitely wise, and (12) must of
necessity be a being of infinite goodness, justice, and truth, and all
other moral perfections, such as become the supreme governor and judge
of the world."
In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that time
and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but
attributes--the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have, in
consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence of time
and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake. The
existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being is
supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature of
time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have derived the
opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite immaterial
and spiritual being from the _Scholium Generale_, first published in
the second edition of Newton's _Principia_ (1714). The truth is that
his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared nine years before
that _Scholium_. The view propounded by Clarke may have been derived
from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo, Henry More, or Cudworth, but
not from Newton. It is a view difficult to prove, and probably few
will acknowledge that Clarke has conclusively proved it.
His ethical theory of "fitness" (see ETHICS) is formulated on the
analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things
possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of
things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as
immutable as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by
Jouffroy, Amedee Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown and
others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist in
conformity to the relations of things universally, although the whole
tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view conformity to such
relations only as belong to the sphere of moral agency. It is true
that he might have emphasized the relation of moral fitness to the
will, and in this respect J.F. Herbart (_q.v._) improved on Clarke's
statement of the case. To say, however, that Clarke simply confused
mathematics and morals by justifying the moral criterion on a
mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared the two subjects for the
sake of the analogy.
Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar criticism,
his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt to present the
doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which would not shock the
conscience of his time. His work contained a measure of rationalism
sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox theologians, without
making any valuable addition to, or modification of, the underlying
doctrine.
AUTHORITIES.--See W. Whiston's _Historical Memoirs_, and the preface
by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke's _Works_ (4 vols., London, 1738-1742).
See further on his general philosophical position J. Hunt's _Religious
Thought in England_, _passim_, but particularly in vol. ii. 447-457,
and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &c.; Rob. Zimmermann in the
_Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Classe_,
Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); H. Sidgwick's _Methods of Ethics_ (6th ed.,
1901), p. 384; A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (1872), p. 562 foll., and
_Mental Science_ (1872), p. 416; Sir L. Stephen's _English Thought in
the Eighteenth Century_ (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.; J. E. le Rossignol,
_Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke_ (Leipzig, 1892).
CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860- ), American artist, was born in Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860, and graduated at Princeton in
1882. He was a pupil of the Art Students' League, New York, and of the
Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, under J.L. Gerome; later he entered the
atelier of Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture,
worked for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received a
medal of honour in Madrid for his "The Cider Press," now in the Golden
Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and he made four caryatides of
"The Seasons" for the Appellate Court House, New York. He designed an
"Alma Mater" for Princeton University, and a model is in the library.
Among his paintings are his "Night Market in Morocco" (Philadelphia Art
Club), for which he received a medal at the International Exposition in
Berlin in 1891, and his "A Fool's Fool," exhibited at the Salon in 1887
and now in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,
Philadelphia.
CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878), British geologist, was born at
East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of June 1798. He received his
early education at Dedham grammar school, and in 1817 entered Jesus
College, Cambridge; he took his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became
M.A. in 1824. In 1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk,
and he acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick, he
utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting facts on the
geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a paper "On the Geological
Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ 1837). He also
communicated a series of papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to
the _Magazine of Nat. Hist._ (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe
illness, he left England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of
benefiting by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country, and
came to be regarded as the "Father of Australian Geology." From the date
of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he was in clerical charge
first of the country from Paramatta to the Hawkesbury river, then of
Campbelltown, and finally of Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention
to the geology of the country, with results that have been of paramount
importance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer who had
obtained it _in situ_ in the country, finding it both in the detrital
deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains, and he then
declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he made the first actual
discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859 he made known the occurrence
of the diamond. He was also the first to indicate the presence of
Silurian rocks, and to determine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in
New South Wales. In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of
_Dinornis_ in Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New South Wales. In
1860 he published _Researches in the Southern Gold-fields of New South
Wales_. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876, and in the following year was
awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London. His
contributions to Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died
near Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878.
CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery agitator, was born on
the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, where his father
was headmaster of the free grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's
school and at St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded in 1785 in
gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. The subject
appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was one in which he was
himself deeply interested--_Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare?_ (Is
it right to make men slaves against their will?). In preparing for this
essay Clarkson consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which
the chief was Benezet's _Historical Survey of New Guinea_; and the
atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined to
devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the slave trade, and
gave up his intention of entering the church.
His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English translation
of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced to search in all
quarters for information concerning slavery. He soon discovered that the
cause had already been taken up to some extent by others, most of whom
belonged to the Society of Friends, and among the chief of whom were
William Dillwyn, Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do all that
was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade. Meanwhile
Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce, Whitbread, Sturge
and several other men of influence. Travelling from port to port, he now
commenced to collect a large mass of evidence; and much of it was
embodied in his _Summary View of the Slave Trade, and the Probable
Consequences of its Abolition_, which, with a number of other
anti-slavery tracts, was published by the committee. Pitt, Grenville,
Fox and Burke looked favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt
introduced a parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves carried in a
vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A number of Liverpool and
Bristol merchants obtained permission from the House to be heard by
council against the bill, but on the 18th of June it passed the Commons.
Soon after Clarkson published an _Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave
Trade_; and for two months he was continuously engaged in travelling
that he might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts of
the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount of
evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to appear
before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had been obtained by
Wilberforce and the committee, and on the 12th of May 1789 the former
led a debate on the subject in the House of Commons, in which he was
seconded by Burke and supported by Pitt and Fox.
It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the hope that
he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with other abuses,
Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six months. He found Necker
head of the government, and obtained from him some sympathy but little
help. Mirabeau, however, with his assistance, prepared a speech against
slavery, to be delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis
de la Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this visit
Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo, who had come to
France to present a petition to the National Assembly, desiring to be
placed on an equal footing with the whites; but the storm of the
Revolution permitted no substantial success to be achieved. Soon after
his return home he engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of
which finely displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate
enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself witnessed the
capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend having met by chance a
man-of-war's-man who had done so, Clarkson, though ignorant of the name
and address of the sailor, set out in search of him, and actually
discovered him. His last tour was undertaken in order to form
anti-slavery committees in all the principal towns. At length, in the
autumn of 1794, his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active
work. He now occupied his time in writing a _History of the Abolition of
the Slave Trade_, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the abolition of
the trade became law in 1807; but it was still necessary to secure the
assent of the other powers to its principle. To obtain this was, under
pressure of the public opinion created by Clarkson and his friends, one
of the main objects of British diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and
in February 1815 the trade was condemned by the powers. The question of
concerting practical measures for its abolition was raised at the
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this
occasion Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria and
Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed, and Clarkson was
one of its vice-presidents. He was for some time blind from cataract;
but several years before his death on the 26th of September 1846, his
sight was restored.
Besides the works already mentioned, he published the _Portraiture of
Quakerism_ (1806), _Memoirs of William Penn_ (1813), _Researches,
Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical_ (1836), intended as a
history of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good,
and _Strictures_ on several of the remarks concerning himself made in
the _Life of Wilberforce_, in which his claim as originator of the
anti-slavery movement is denied.
See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).
CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, Tennessee,
U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, about 50 m. N.W. of
Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the mouth of the Red river. Pop.
(1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom 5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548.
It is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central
railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland
river. The city hall, and the public library are among the principal
public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd Fellows'
home, and of the South-Western Presbyterian University, founded in 1875.
Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark tobacco belt--commonly known
as the "Black Patch"--and is an important tobacco market, with an annual
trade in that staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being
exported to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a
region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
shipping point for the lumber--chiefly oak, poplar and birch--and the
iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the Louisville &
Nashville railway extending into the iron district. The city's principal
manufactures are flour and grist mill products, chewing and smoking
tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron, and pearl buttons. The value
of the factory product in 1905 was $2,210,112, being 32% greater than in
1900. The municipality owns its water-works. Clarksville was first
settled as early as 1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers
Clark, and was chartered as a city in 1850.
CLASSICS. The term "classic" is derived from the Latin epithet
_classicus_, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15), where a
"_scriptor 'classicus'_" is contrasted with a "_scriptor proletarius_."
The metaphor is taken from the division of the Roman people into
_classes_ by Servius Tullius, those in the first class being called
_classici_, all the rest _infra classem_, and those in the last
_proletarii_.[1] The epithet "classic" is accordingly applied (1)
generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more particularly to
a Greek or Roman author of that character. Similarly, "the classics" is
a synonym for the choicest products of the literature of ancient Greece
and Rome. It is to this sense of the word that the following article is
devoted in two main divisions: (A) the general history of classical
(i.e. Greek and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher
education.
(A) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS
We may consider this subject in four principal periods:--(i.) the
_Alexandrian_, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the _Roman_, A.D. c. 1-530; (iii.)
the _Middle Ages_, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the _Modern Age_, c. 1350 to
the present day.
(i.) _The Alexandrian Age._--The study of the Greek classics begins with
the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus
(285-247 B.C.), learning found a home in the Alexandrian Museum and in
the great Alexandrian Library. The first four librarians were Zenodotus,
Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus
produced before 274 the first scientific edition of the _Iliad_ and
_Odyssey_, an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the
beginning, with a short horizontal dash called an _obelus_ (--). He also
drew up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a
classified catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators,
philosophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the scholar and
poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of Callimachus was
Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus as librarian. Apart from
his special interest in the history of the Old Attic comedy, he was a
man of vast and varied learning; the founder of astronomical geography
and of scientific chronology; and the first to assume the name of
[Greek: philologos]. The greatest philologist of antiquity was, however,
his successor, Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of critical
symbols in his recension of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. He also edited
Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes, besides composing brief
introductions to the several plays, parts of which are still extant.
Lastly, he established a scientific system of lexicography and drew up
lists of the "best authors." Two critical editions of the _Iliad_ and
_Odyssey_ were produced by his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian
until 146 B.C. and was the founder of scientific scholarship. His
distinguished pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up a Greek
grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries. The
most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was Didymus (c. 65
B.C.-A.D. 10), who, in his work on the Homeric poems, aimed at restoring
the lost recensions of Aristarchus. He also composed commentaries on the
lyric and comic poets and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his
commentary on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a
teacher in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death, about
A.D. 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He is the industrious
compiler who gathered up the remnants of the learning of his
predecessors and transmitted them to posterity. The poets of that age,
including Callimachus and Theocritus, were subsequently expounded by
Theon, who flourished under Tiberius, and has been well described as
"the Didymus of the Alexandrian poets."
The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably had its
origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes of Byzantium
and Aristarchus, included the following authors:--
_Epic poets_ (5): Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.
_Iambic poets_ (3): Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.
_Tragic poets_ (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.
_Comic poets, Old_ (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes,
Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. _Middle_ (2): Antiphanes, Alexis. _New_
(5): Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.
_Elegiac poets_ (4): Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.
_Lyric poets_ (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar,
Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos.
_Orators_ (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates, Aeschines,
Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Andocides, Deinarchus.
_Historians_ (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius,
Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius.
The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who died about
123 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus were subsequently
added to the "epic" poets. Philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle,
were possibly classed in a separate "canon."
While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in the _verbal
criticism_ of the Greek _poets_, a wider variety of studies was the
characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary rival of
Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a large part of the 150
years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C.
The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno, Cleanthes and
Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in words such as "genitive,"
"accusative" and "aorist," has become a permanent part of the
grammarian's vocabulary; and the study of this grammar found its
earliest home in Pergamum.
From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamene school was Crates of
Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the principle of
"anomaly" in grammar, and was thus opposed to Aristarchus of Alexandria,
the champion of "analogy." He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported
the Stoics, by insisting on an _allegorical_ interpretation of Homer. He
is credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy to the Roman
senate, "shortly after the death of Ennius" in 169 B.C., had a
remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome. Meeting with an
accident while he was wandering on the Palatine, and being detained in
Rome, he passed part of his enforced leisure in giving lectures
(possibly on Homer, his favourite author), and thus succeeded in
arousing among the Romans a taste for the scholarly study of literature.
The example set by Crates led to the production of a new edition of the
epic poem of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the _Annals_ of
Ennius, and (two generations later) the _Satires_ of Lucilius.
(ii.) _The Roman Age._--(a) _Latin Studies._--In the 1st century B.C.
the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-c. 74), who is
described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek and Latin literature,
and as an accomplished critic of Roman antiquities and of ancient
authors. Of the plays then passing under the name of Plautus, he
recognized twenty-five as genuine. His most famous pupil was Varro
(116-27), the six surviving books of whose great work on the Latin
language are mainly concerned with the great grammatical controversy on
analogy and anomaly--a controversy which also engaged the attention of
Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian. The twenty-one
plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless the twenty now extant,
together with the lost _Vidularia_. The influence of Varro's last work
on the nine _disciplinae_, or branches of study, long survived in the
seven "liberal arts" recognized by St Augustine and Martianus Capella,
and in the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_ of the middle ages.
Part of Varro's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-43), who
as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-countrymen enlarged
the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable renderings of Greek
philosophical terms, and thus ultimately gave us such indispensable
words as "species," "quality" and "quantity."
The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by Verrius
Flaccus in a work, _De Verborum Significatu_, which survived in the
abridgment by Festus (2nd century A.D.) and in the further abridgment
dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles the Great.
Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace. Their own
poems soon became the theme of criticism and of comment; and, by the
time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they shared the fate (which Horace had
feared) of becoming text-books for use in schools.
Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as Horace and
Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. A.D. 88), with critical symbols
resembling those invented by the Alexandrian scholars. His contemporary
Asconius is best known as the author of an extant historical commentary
on five of the speeches of Cicero. In A.D. 88 Quintilian was placed at
the head of the first state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive
work on the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
education, which had an important influence on the humanistic schools of
the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a critical survey of
the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the heads of poets,
historians, orators and philosophers (book x. chap. i.). The lives of
Roman poets and scholars were among the many subjects that exercised the
literary skill of Hadrian's private secretary, Suetonius. One of his
lost works is the principal source of the erudition of Isidore of
Seville (d. A.D. 636), whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite
text-book in the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius
(A.D. 160) a work entitled the _Noctes Atticae_ was begun by Aulus
Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical scholar, who
frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS. of old Latin authors.
Early in the 4th century the study of grammar was represented in
northern Africa by the Numidian tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the
author of an encyclopaedic work in three parts, lexicographical,
grammatical and antiquarian, the main value of which lies in its
quotations from early Latin literature. About the middle of the same
century grammar had a far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius
Donatus, the preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a
text-book that remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general
state of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c.
310-393), the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
_Mosella_, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of Gratian
(376), providing for the appointment and the payment of teachers of
rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the principal cities of
Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius Symmachus, the consul of
A.D. 391, aroused in his own immediate circle an interest in Livy, the
whole of whose history was still extant. Early in the 5th century other
aristocratic Romans interested themselves in the textual criticism of
Persius and Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the most
scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century, the student
of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the translator of the
_Chronology_ of Eusebius, and the author of the Latin version of the
Bible now known as the Vulgate. St Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his
early fondness for Virgil, and also tells us that he received his first
serious impressions from the _Hortensius_ of Cicero, an eloquent
exhortation to the study of philosophy, of which only a few fragments
survive. In his survey of the "liberal arts" St Augustine imitates (as
we have seen) the _Disciplinae_ of Varro, and in the greatest of his
works, the _De Civitate Dei_ (426), he has preserved large portions of
the _Antiquitates_ of Varro and the _De Republica_ of Cicero. About the
same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
Capella produced his allegorical work on the "liberal arts," the
principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
schools.
In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representative of
Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470), whose
_Letters_ were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while his poems
give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance with classical
literature. He laments the increasing decline in the classical purity of
the Latin language.
An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where schools of
learning flourished as early as the 1st century at Autun, Lyons,
Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Narbonne and Marseilles; and, from the 3rd
century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers, Besancon and Bordeaux.
About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius, the consul
of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome. Boethius, who
early in life formed the ambitious plan of expounding and reconciling
the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued in the year of his sole
consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-countrymen in the wisdom of
Greece. He is a link between the ancient world and the middle ages,
having been the last of the learned Romans who understood the language
and studied the literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the
middle ages the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the
signal for the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the crowning
work of his life, the _Consolatio Philosophiae_ (524), was repeatedly
expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings that were among the
earliest literary products of the vernacular languages of modern Europe.
His contemporary, Cassiodorus (c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty
years in the service of the Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the
last thirty-three years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of
Squillace, where he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their
inmates to become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts
for their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constantinople by one
of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be reproduced in a thousand MSS.
in the middle ages. More than ten years before Cassiodorus founded his
monasteries in the south of Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had
rendered a more permanent service to the cause of scholarship by
building, amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have lent an
undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The learned labours of the
Benedictines were no part of the original requirements of the rule of St
Benedict; but before the founder's death his favourite disciple had
planted a monastery in France, and the name of that disciple is
permanently associated with the learned labours of the Benedictines of
the Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS).
(b) _Greek Studies._--Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics was
ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius of
Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the ancient
Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the probable date of
the masterpiece of literary criticism known as the treatise _On the
Sublime_ by Longinus (q.v.).
The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians, Apollonius
Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and the creator of the study
of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian, the larger part of whose
principal work dealt with the subject of Greek accentuation. It is also
the age of the lexicographers of Attic Greek, the most important of whom
are Phrynichus, Pollux (fl. A.D. 180) and Harpocration.
In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated by the widely
influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-c. 393), the pagan
preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same century we may assign the
grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria, who, instead of confining himself
(like Dionysius Thrax) to the tenses of [Greek: thupto] in actual use,
was the first to set forth all the imaginary aorists and futures of that
verb, which have thence descended through the Byzantine age to the
grammars of the Renaissance and of modern Europe.
In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria, the compiler of
the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons, and Proclus, the
author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts from which (as preserved by
Photius) we owe almost all our knowledge of the contents of the lost
epics of early Greece. In the same century the study of Plato was
represented by Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-c. 413) and by the
Neoplatonists of Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman
age of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529. In
that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in the West, while
the school of Athens was closed in the East. The Roman age thus ends in
the West with Boethius, Cassiodorus and St Benedict, and in the East
with Priscian and Justinian.