hereditary in the family of Rurik, it was understood by all parties
that the reign of the prince depended upon the consent of his
subjects, and perhaps more still upon that of his drujina. A story is
told that in Vladimir's time the drujina complained that they were
made to eat from wooden bowls, whereupon he gave them silver ones,
saying: I could not buy myself a drujina with gold and silver; but
with a drujina, I can acquire gold and silver, as did my father and my
grandfather.
Ever since Kief had been the residence of Rurik's descendants, they
had been recognized as Grand Dukes, because they represented the
eldest of the descendants. They did not, as a rule, interfere with the
administration, but were the dukes, the commanders of the armies. Many
districts had such a duke, who was, however, invariably of the blood
of Rurik, and recognized the superior authority as the eldest of the
blood. When the Grand Duke of Kief died, he was not succeeded by his
son, unless he had neither uncle nor brother living; but it was within
the power of the grand duke to leave one or more districts to his
sons.
The descendants of the Norsemen were, therefore, the defenders of the
districts which they ruled as dukes. Novgorod and Pskof were republics
on the northwest frontier, and usually had the same duke. Smolensk was
an important dukedom, because it contained the sources of the Volga,
the Dnieper, and the Dwina, and embraced the ancient forest of Okof.
Not far from it was the dukedom of Toropetz. On the Upper Oka was
Tchernigof--a rival of Kief; further to the south was Novgorod-Swerki,
and east of the Upper Don, extending as far as the Oka, were (p. 047)
Riazan and Mourom. The dukedom of Souzdal, inhabited by a mixture of
Finns and Slavs, was in the north, the soil still covered by forests.
Southeast Russia embraced Red Russia, that is Volhynia and Gallicia
Proper.
The introduction of the Greek Church caused important changes. The
Greek Priests could not comprehend the relation between the people and
its defenders. To them the duke was not a _dux_ (leader), but a Cæsar,
Kaiser, or Czar, ruling, not with the consent of the governed, but by
the grace of God, as did the emperors at Constantinople. This idea
gradually penetrated into the minds of the several dukes, until it was
accepted and enforced by them.
Another very important change was effected by the Greek religion. We
have seen that according to the old Slav customs, it was not the son
who succeeded as the head of the family, but its eldest member. It
appears that the same custom prevailed among the Norsemen, as we have
seen that it was Rurik's brother, and not his son who succeeded him.
In the Byzantine Empire, the oldest son was the heir, and the priests
tried to introduce this as a law.
As the descendants of Rurik increased in number, it was not always
easy to determine who was entitled to the succession. Hence there were
often several claimants, and as a result, civil wars followed. These
wars, strange as it may appear, served to bind the dukedoms together,
because most of them were waged for the purpose of establishing the
claim of a duke upon the possession of Kief.
Iaroslaf died in 1054, and was buried in the church of St. Sophia (p. 048)
at Kief. In his will we see the effect of the Greek Church, for he
specially appointed his eldest son Isiaslaf as his successor. A
younger brother, Sviatoslaf, took up arms, and expelled him in 1073.
Upon his death in 1076, Isiaslaf returned to Kief, where he lived two
years. He died in 1078, and was succeeded by his brother Vsevolod, who
was grand duke until 1093, when he was succeeded by Sviatopolk, the
son of Isiaslaf, as the eldest of the family. He was not opposed by
Vsevolod's famous son Vladimir Monomachus, who admitted that
Sviatopolk's "father was older than mine, and reigned first in Kief."
V--A RUSSIAN REPUBLIC. (p. 049)
Sviatopolk reigned from 1093 to 1113. It was at this time that Russia
was disturbed by two civil wars. At the instance of Vladimir
Monomachus a congress of dukes met in 1097, at Loubetch on the Dnieper
to discuss the folly of civil wars which placed the country at the
mercy of its enemies. An agreement was concluded, wherein the dukes
swore upon the Cross that "henceforth the Russian land shall be
considered the country of us all, and whoso shall dare arm himself
against his brother, shall be our common enemy."
Soon after this a quarrel broke out about the succession of Volhynia,
and again the country was plunged into civil strife, which lasted two
years. In 1100 another congress was held at Vititchevo, on the left
bank of the Dnieper, where the dispute was settled, and it was
resolved to unite in a war with a powerful nomad people. The Russians
under Vladimir Monomachus gained a brilliant victory; the nomads had
seventeen khans killed on the battlefield.
When Sviatopolk died, the people of Kief declared that they would have
no grand duke except Vladimir. He declined saying that there were
elder heirs entitled to the succession; but when troubles broke out in
the city, he gave his consent. During his reign of twelve years, (p. 050)
from 1113 to 1125, Kief reached the height of prosperity and power. He
reduced Souzdal, in the north, to submission, and made many
improvements. His memory is cherished in Russia. He compiled a set of
instructions for his sons, from which we may judge of his character.
Among other remarks, he says: "It is neither by fasting, nor solitude,
nor the life in a cloister that will procure for you the life
eternal,--it is doing good. Do not forget the poor but feed them. Do
not bury your wealth in the bosom of the earth, for that is contrary
to the precepts of Christianity. Be a father to orphans, judge the
cause of widows yourself." "Put to death no one be he innocent or
guilty, for nothing is more precious than the soul of a Christian."
"When you have learned anything useful, try to preserve it in your
memory, and strive ceaselessly to acquire knowledge. Without ever
leaving his palace, my father spoke five languages, _a thing that
foreigners admire in us_."
There are in the museum at Moscow, a throne and crown, supposed to
have belonged to this noble and patriotic duke; unfortunately it has
been shown that they were never in his possession.
In his will, Vladimir gave the dukedom of Souzdal to his son George
Dolgorouki, and another son, Mstislaf, succeeded as grand duke at
Kief. When the latter died in 1146, leaving the grand dukedom to his
son Isiaslaf, George Dolgorouki claimed the succession as the eldest
of the family. Both sides were supported by their friends, and some
fierce battles were fought, but Isiaslaf maintained himself until
his death in 1157. After his reign, Kief's importance began to (p. 051)
decrease. Twelve years later, in 1169, it was captured by the Russians
of the north. A native historian[1] says of this event: "This mother
of Russian cities had been many times besieged and oppressed. She had
often opened her Golden Gate to her enemies, but none had ever yet
entered by force. To their eternal shame, the victors forgot that
they, too, were Russians! During three days not only the houses, but
the cloisters, churches, and even the temples of St. Sophia and the
Dîme, were given over to pillage. The precious images, the sacerdotal
ornaments, the books, and the bells,--all were carried off."
[Footnote 1: Karamsin.]
With the fall of Kief, the scene of Russian activity shifts to the
north. There, in the dukedom of Souzdal, George Dolgorouki laid, in
1147, the foundation of a town, Moscow, on a height overlooking the
Moscowa. For many years it remained an obscure village, and gave no
sign of its future greatness.
The chief interest at this time centers about the Russian republics,
Novgorod, Pskof, and Viatka. Although Novgorod did not possess the
advantages of Kief, since its soil was sandy, marshy, and
unproductive, the enterprise of its people made it the wealthiest and
most populous city of Russia. It is recorded that it counted 100,000
inhabitants, when Rurik arrived in Russia. He and his immediate
successors were satisfied with the position of Defender, which suited
their warlike and blunt character, and with the revenues assigned to
them, which with the spoils taken from the enemy, were ample for their
wants. These republics were administered by a vetché or municipal (p. 052)
council, with a possadnik or burgomaster, whose duty it was to see
that the city's privileges were preserved, and who distributed the
taxes. He shared with the duke in the administration of justice. There
was a militia for the defense of the people's rights, commanded by a
_tysatski_. Every ward of the city had a _starost_, charged with
preserving the peace. It is said that a written constitution,
partaking of the nature of the Magna Charta, was granted to Novgorod
by Iaroslaf the Great. The duke's rights and privileges, his duties
and his revenues, were carefully set down. He was entitled to the
tribute of some of the volosts,--cantons or counties,--and to certain
fines; he could gather in his harvests at stated times, and was not
permitted to hunt in the forest except in the autumn. He could neither
execute nor annul a judgment without the approval of the possadnik,
and he was expressly forbidden to carry a lawsuit beyond Novgorod.
Every duke, before he entered upon his office, was compelled to take
an oath to this constitution.
The members of the vetché were elected by a unanimous vote, instead of
by a majority. This gave rise to frequent, and sometimes very serious
disorder, because if a minority did not approve of the candidate, they
were apt to be ill-treated. There were occasions when two rival
vetchés were elected, and when this happened in the two parts of the
city divided by the river Volkhof, the bridge between them was often
the scene of a free fight. Owing to the extensive trade connections,
the merchants trading with western Europe by way of the Baltic sought
to promote friendly relations with the dukes of the west, who had (p. 053)
it in their power to promote or obstruct their trade; but the
merchants dealing with Asia, and those who connected with
Constantinople had other interests to consider and to guard. Thus
there were often three parties, each concerned with its own interests,
and forgetting that their prosperity was first and chiefly dependent
upon the power of the republic, they rendered it an easy prey for an
ambitious duke. The people, however, boasted of their patriotism, and
during the early period they were strong enough to defy the duke. On
some occasions, he and his drujina were expelled, or, as they
expressed it, "the people made him a reverence, and showed him a way
to leave." Sometimes, too, it happened that the duke was made a
prisoner, and confined in the Archbishop's palace. When Sviatopolk was
Grand Duke of Kief (1093-1113), he wished to force one of his sons
upon the people of Novgorod. "Send him along," said they, "if he has a
head to spare!" Usually the duke was glad to leave Novgorod, if he
could secure another dukedom. In 1132, Vsevolod Gabriel left Novgorod
to become Duke of Peréiaslaf, hoping to succeed as Grand Duke of Kief.
Seeing no way to attain the coveted dignity, he signified his wish to
return to the people of Novgorod. "You have forgotten your oath to die
with us," they replied; "you have sought another dukedom; now you may
go where you please." In this case, however, the people changed their
mind, and did take him back; but four years afterwards they expelled
him, declaring that "he took no care of the poor people; he desired to
establish himself at Peréiaslaf; at the battle of Mount Idanof against
the men of Souzdal, he and his drujina were the first to leave the (p. 054)
battlefield; he was fickle in the quarrels of the dukes, sometimes
joining one party and sometimes the other."
So long as the descendants of Rurik remained satisfied with their
position, Novgorod had enough men and resources to maintain its
independence; but more than that was required after the dukes had
tasted of the sweets of unlimited power.
George Dolgorouki had established colonies in Souzdal. The land was
his, the colonists were his subjects. He was no longer merely the
defender, he was the owner, not the duke, but the prince. There was no
vetché or popular assembly in his possessions. His son, Andrew
Bogolioubski, was brought up and educated amid these conditions, more
in conformity with those prevailing in Greece and other parts of
Europe, where the people were supposed to exist for the sole benefit
of their prince. It was he who ruined Kief, and the fall of that city
foretold the doom of Novgorod. "The fall of Kief," says a Russian
author,[2] "seemed to foreshadow the loss of Novgorod liberty; it was
the same army, and it was the same prince who commanded it. But the
people of Kief, accustomed to change their masters,--to sacrifice the
vanquished to the victors,--only fought for the honor of their dukes,
while those of Novgorod were to shed their blood for the defense of
the laws and institutions established by their ancestors."
[Footnote 2: Karamsin.]
During his father's life, Andrew left his castle on the Dnieper, and
moved northward to Vladimir which town he enlarged, and where he founded
a quarter named Bogolioubovo, whence his name of Bogolioubski. (p. 055)
After the death of George Dolgorouki, Andrew first made a successful
campaign against the Bulgarians, and then, after sacking Kief, he
turned his attention toward Novgorod, where he had established one of
his nephews. The cause of the quarrel is not known, but Andrew began
by compelling the neighboring dukes to join him, and overran the
territory of the republic with fire and sword. The people of Novgorod,
remembering the fate of Kief, were prepared to die in the defense of
the city. The siege commenced. One day the Archbishop took the
eikon--image--of the Virgin, which was carried around in solemn
procession. It was struck by an arrow shot by a Souzdalian soldier,
when miraculous tears appeared upon its face. The besiegers were
struck by a panic, and the people of Novgorod sallied out, killed a
number of the enemy, and took so many prisoners that "you could get
six Souzdalians for a grivna." Whatever may have been the value of
that coin, the market was evidently overstocked with Souzdalians.
Foiled in this attempt, Andrew tried other means. He prohibited the
sale of grain to the people of Novgorod, who were thereby compelled to
make peace. They did not surrender any of their privileges but
accepted as their duke the prince selected by Andrew.
His next war was with Mstislaf the Brave, Duke of Smolensk, who, aided
by his brothers, had taken Kief. Andrew sent a herald to him demanding
the evacuation of Kief, and imposing a fine upon each brother.
Mstislaf who, the Russians say, "feared none but God," gave orders to
have the herald's head and beard shaved,--a gross insult at that (p. 056)
time,--and then dismissed him, saying: "Go and repeat these words unto
your master,--'Up to this time we have respected you like a father,
but since you do not blush to treat us as your vassals and common
people, since you have forgotten that you speak to princes, we laugh
at your threats. Execute them!--we appeal to the judgment of God.'"
The challenge was accepted, and Andrew was defeated.
The Duke of Souzdal did not relax in his attempts to established
absolute government. It was with this purpose in view that he expelled
his three brothers, and made friends of the priests. Kief was still
the residence of the _Metropolitan_ or head of the Greek Church in
Russia, and Andrew was anxious that he should transfer his residence
to Vladimir so as to make that city the religious center of Russia.
His wish was not gratified. He failed in everything, except in making
enemies by his disregard of law. He was murdered in 1174 in his
favorite palace at Bogolioubovo, by his own _boyards_ or nobles.
VI--TROUBLOUS TIMES. (p. 057)
The death of Andrew was a welcome relief for the people of Novgorod.
They celebrated it by attacking the houses of the rich, and committed
so many excesses that the priests made a procession with the eikons.
In Souzdal there was trouble about the succession. Two of Andrew's
brothers returned from exile, and claimed the dukedom, and the city of
Vladimir gave them its support. That was enough for Souzdal and Rostof
to recognize another claimant, one of Andrew's nephews. Vladimir was
victorious in the contest, and Andrew's brother, Michael, became Grand
Duke of Souzdal. He died two years afterwards, and the people of
Souzdal once more refused to recognize Vladimir's candidate, Andrew's
other brother Vsevolod, surnamed the Big Nest on account of his
numerous family. Vladimir defeated Souzdal and Vsevolod was its grand
duke from 1176 to 1212. The people of Novgorod thought best to pacify
him. They sent a deputation to Vladimir, to tell Vsevolod, "Lord and
Grand Duke, our country is your patrimony; we entreat you to send us
the grandson of George Dolgorouki, the great-grandson of Monomachus,
to govern us." The request was granted, and Vsevolod's eldest son
Constantine came to Novgorod. The grand duke, however, was soon (p. 058)
displeased with him and displaced him by a younger son, Iaroslaf. Soon
there were quarrels between him and the people, whereupon Iaroslaf
moved to Torjok, a town within Novgorod territory, and from there
stopped all supplies. Famine appeared in the city, and at last envoys
were sent to the duke, who had them arrested. Nothing except absolute
submission would satisfy him. In this dire need help came from an
unexpected quarter. Mstislaf the Bold, son of Mstislaf the Brave, Duke
of Smolensk, heard of Novgorod's plight and sent word to the city,
"Torjok shall not hold itself higher than Novgorod. I will deliver
your lands and citizens, or leave my bones among you." He was as good
as his word. There was a great war between Souzdal and Smolensk; no
quarter was asked or given. In 1216, Vsevolod's sons were attacked at
Lipetsk by the troops of Novgorod and Smolensk, with such fury that
they were routed, and 9,000 were killed whereas only 60 were taken
prisoners. Iaroslaf renounced Novgorod and released the citizens
arrested by him.
Constantine succeeded his father Vsevolod, but died in 1217, and
another brother, George, became Grand Duke of Souzdal. This prince
made an expedition down the Volga, levying tribute as he proceeded. In
1220, he laid the foundation of Nishni Novgorod, and of several
villages in what was then Moravian territory.
Meanwhile Mstislaf the Bold resigned as Grand Duke of Novgorod in an
assembly of the people, saying, "I salute St. Sophia, the tomb of my
father,[3] and you. People of Novgorod, I am going to reconquer
Galitch from the strangers, but I shall never forget you. I hope (p. 059)
I may lie by the tomb of my father in St. Sophia." The people implored
him to remain; but he had made up his mind, and in 1218 he left for
the southwest, where he did succeed in conquering Galitch, that is the
name given to southwestern Russia at that time.
[Footnote 3: Mstislaf the Brave was buried in the
church of St. Sophia.]
After his departure the people of Novgorod called his nephew
Sviatoslaf as their grand duke, but soon there was a quarrel. The
possadnik Tferdislaf caused the arrest of one of the wealthy citizens,
whose friends rose to set him free. Then the burgomaster's friends
came and there was a fight in which ten men were killed. The grand
duke then demanded the dismissal of the burgomaster, and the vetché
assembled to hear both sides. The grand duke was asked what crime the
possadnik had committed.
"None," he replied, "but it is my will that he be dismissed."
The burgomaster then said: "I am satisfied, because I am not accused
of any fault; as for you, my brothers, you can dismiss alike
possadniks and dukes."
The vetché consulted, and announced its decision:
"Prince, since you do not accuse the possadnik of any fault, remember
that you have sworn to depose no magistrate without trial. Tferdislaf
will remain our possadnik,--we will not deliver him to you."
Sviatoslaf was very much displeased and resigned, and one of his
brothers, Vsevolod, was appointed in his place. This was in 1219; two
years later, in 1221, Vsevolod was expelled, and the people called
back that same Iaroslaf from whom they had been rescued by Mstislaf
the Bold. Soon there was another dispute and _he_ was sent about (p. 060)
his business. Vsevolod of Smolensk was again made duke, but the people
soon grew tired of him. At this time the Grand Duke of Souzdal
interfered; he made Novgorod pay him tribute, and appointed a prince
of Tchernigof as its duke; but he did not like the place and resigned.
Then the city suffered from a famine, when 42,000 citizens perished
and a fire destroyed a whole quarter of the city. Iaroslaf was made
duke for the fourth time; the spirit of the people was broken, and he
was permitted to rule over them as he pleased. He succeeded as grand
duke in 1236, when he left his son Alexander Nevski as duke in
Novgorod.
The east coast of the Baltic was considered tributary to Novgorod.
Several colonies had been established on the Düna and south of that
river, but in the 12th and 13th centuries missionaries and merchants
from Germany appeared and gradually penetrated as far as the Düna
where Bishop Meinhard, in 1187, built a Roman Catholic Church and a
fortress. The Livonians were converted much as St. Vladimir had made
Christians of the people of Kief; but in this case, the people of
Livonia revolted; in 1198 the second bishop was killed in battle, and
the natives returned to the heathen gods. Pope Innocent III ordered a
crusade against them. Another bishop sailed up the Düna with a fleet
of twenty-three ships, and in 1200 founded Riga. The year after a
religious society, the Sword-bearers, resembling the Templars, was
installed in Livonia, and the natives appealed to the Duke of Polotsk
for help. They marched upon Riga and were defeated in 1206.
German colonization proceeded actively under the Sword-bearers. (p. 061)
Several cities were founded, and the country was divided into fiefs,
according to the feudal system of Western Europe. The towns were
modeled after Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck. Riga grew into a large and
powerful city.
In 1225, another religious-brotherhood, the Teutonic Order, entered
into Lithuania, and twelve years later the two orders united. The
introduction of the Roman Catholic religion carried with it the
elements of Roman civilization, and did much toward estranging the
natives of the Baltic provinces from the Russians of the east.
Southwestern Russia, or Galitch, had, more than any other section,
preserved the old Slav character. "The duke was a prince of the old
Slavonic type. He was elected by a popular assembly, and kept his seat
by its consent."[4] The assembly was composed of boyards or nobles,
and sometimes disputes occurred between them and the duke, which ended
in more or less serious disorders. In 1188, the position was offered
to Roman, Duke of Volhynia. He accepted, but before he could enter the
capital, a duke who had been expelled was reinstalled. After his
death, Roman entered the territory of Galitch, not as an elected duke,
but as a conqueror at the head of an army, and treated the dukedom as
a conquest. He was especially cruel to the boyards, treating their
rights and privileges with scorn. Russian authors praise him; one of
them says that he "walked in the ways of God, exterminated the
heathen, flung himself like a lion upon the infidels, _was savage as a
wild cat, deadly as a crocodile_, swooped down on his prey like an (p. 062)
eagle," which seem strange qualities for praise. Roman died in battle,
in 1205. Mstislaf the Bold conquered Galitch and at his death, in
1228, his son-in-law Daniel became duke.
[Footnote 4: Kostomarof.]