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[Illustration: Map]
THE STORY OF RUSSIA
BY
R. VAN BERGEN, M.A.
AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF JAPAN,"
"THE STORY OF CHINA," ETC.
NEW YORK-:-CINCINNATI-:-CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Copyright, 1905,
By AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London
STORY OF RUSSIA
W. P. 2.
To
HENRY MATHER LOWMAN
AMICUS CERTUS RE INCERTA CERNITUR.
PREFACE.
Recent events have drawn the attention upon Russia, a country of which
but little is known here, because the intercourse between it and the
United States has been limited. In my frequent journeys to the Far
East, I found it often difficult to comprehend events because, while I
could not help perceiving that the impulse leading to them came from
Russia, it was impossible to discover what prompted the government of
the czar. I felt the necessity to study the history of Russia, and
found it so fascinating, that I resolved to place it in a condensed
form before the students in our schools. They must be the judges of
how I have succeeded.
R. VAN BERGEN.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
I. The Realm of the Czar 13
II. Early Records of Russia 23
III. The Norsemen (or Varingians) in Russia 29
IV. Saint Vladimir and Iaroslaf the Great 41
V. A Russian Republic 49
VI. Troublous Times 57
VII. The Yellow Peril 63
VIII. Russia Under the Mongol Yoke 71
IX. Lithuania and Moscow 79
X. Decline of the Tartar Power. Dmitri Donskoï 87
XI. Ivan III, the Great 97
XII. Russia becomes an Autocracy 106
XIII. Ivan IV, the Terrible 111
XIV. Russia Under Ivan the Terrible 122
XV. Feodor, the Last of Rurik's Descendants 129
XVI. Michael Feodorovitch (Son of Theodore) the
First Romanof 137
XVII. Early Years of Peter the Great (Peter
Alexievitch) 145
XVIII. Peter the Great and His Reign 153
XIX. Peter the Great and His Time 162
XX. The Successors of Peter the Great 173
XXI. Russia Under Catherine II (the Great) 183
XXII. Russia During the Wars of Napoleon 194
XXIII. An Eventful Period 208
XXIV. Alexander II, the Liberator 219
XXV. Great Events During Alexander's Reign
Nihilism 229
XXVI. Alexander III, the Peasants' Friend 241
XXVII. Russia Methods: The War with Japan 251
XXVIII. The Origin and Growth of The Asiatic Empire 259
XXIX. Russian Methods. The War with Japan 267
XXX. Russia Loses her Prestige 277
THE STORY OF RUSSIA.
I--THE REALM OF THE CZAR. (p. 013)
When we think of our country, we feel proud of it for other and better
reasons than its great size. We know how its extent compares with that
of other nations; we know that the United States covers an area almost
equal to that of Europe, and, more favored than that Grand Division,
is situated on the two great highways of commerce, the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans. Europe is as far from the latter, as Asia is from the
former; and these highways, powerful means toward creating prosperity,
remain at the same time barriers whereby nations that find greater
delight in the arts of war than in those of peace, are restrained from
disturbing our national progress.
At the beginning of this twentieth century the nations upon which
depends the world's peace or war, happiness or misfortune, are the
United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy,
Russia, Japan, and in the near future China. Here we see that Europe,
although little larger in area than the United States, is represented
by seven nations, Asia by two, and the Western Hemisphere by one which
by its institutions stands for peace and progress, for law and (p. 014)
order. Hence we, its citizens, are known all over the world as
Americans.
If we compare the area occupied by the several European powers with
that covered by the main body of our republic, that is, not including
Alaska and other outlying territories, we find that Austria-Hungary
has four thousand square miles less than Texas, while Germany lacks
forty thousand square miles in comparison with the Lone Star State.
France is four thousand square miles less than Germany, and Italy is
only a thousand square miles greater than Nevada. The British Kingdom
in Europe is about twice the area of Illinois. Among the great nations
of the world, aside from outlying possessions beyond the Grand
Division, our country stands third, and should occupy the second
place, because China, the next larger, owes its greater area to
territories over which she has little or no control, and which she
seems destined to lose.
The largest country is Russia, covering as it does one-sixth of all
the land on the earth. This empire, although inhabited by people
differing in race, religion, and customs, is one compact whole. It
embraces in Europe 2,113,000 square miles, or more than all other
European nations combined; its area in Asia is 6,672,000 square miles,
making a total of 8,785,000 square miles, or 2.8 times as many as the
main body of our country. All the people living in this immense
empire, whatever their race, religion, or language, obey the will of
_one man_. We, who dwell in our beloved country, yield obedience only
to the Law; but the laws are made by ourselves, and they allow us (p. 015)
to do as we please, so long as we do not interfere with others who
have the same rights; and those laws are ever ready to protect us. In
Russia laws are made or unmade at the will of one person who is
himself above the laws. Every man, woman, or child, born and living in
that country, is at his mercy. Mere suspicion is sufficient to drag a
man from his family and home, perhaps to disappear without leaving a
trace. Such a government is called an autocracy, and the man who may
thus dispose of people's life and property, is known as an Autocrat.
Hence the title of the Emperor of Russia is: Autocrat of All the
Russias.
Why "All the Russias"? Look at the map of Eurasia, the continent
embracing the two Grand Divisions Europe and Asia. You will see that
the Russian Empire is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the
east by the Bering Strait, the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the
Japan Sea; on the south by China, Pamir, Afghanistan, Persia, Asiatic
Turkey, and the Black Sea; and on the west by Roumania,
Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, the Baltic Sea, Sweden, and
Norway. This immense empire is the growth of many centuries, and even
in Europe it has not yet been welded into one whole. When we read
Russian books, we learn about Great and Little Russia, White and Red
Russia, which shows that divisions of bygone years are still observed
by the people. Much has been done towards effacing those boundary
lines; but the fact that the czar, autocrat though he is, recognizes
and admits the division in his title, shows that even he is, to some
extent, subject to public opinion.
Russia in Europe, however, with the exception of Poland and (p. 016)
Finland, is a country with one religion and one language; that is, the
czar and his government recognize and admit no other. That is the
cause of the persecution of the Jews, four fifths of whom dwell in the
southwest of Russia in an area covering 356,681 square miles, which is
sometimes mentioned as the Jewish territory. Every succeeding czar has
tried to make all his subjects think and act in the manner prescribed
by him. The process is known as "Russianizing," and goes on
incessantly in its different stages. Immediately after the conquest of
a country, its people are assured that their religion, institutions,
and language, shall be respected; the only difference is that the
native officials are displaced by Russians. This continues until
Russian rule is firmly established, and no one dreams of resisting the
czar. Then the Russian language displaces the native tongue, and if
disturbances occur, the military is called in to inflict a terrible
punishment. The loss of the native language carries with it that of
old institutions, and when the people have submitted to their fate, it
is the turn of their religion. The Russian is in no hurry; he has a
conviction that time has no changes in store for his empire, hence he
bides his time, and is likely to succeed in his purpose. This process
is now carried on in Central Asia where Russian power has found its
greatest expansion in modern times. It is but fair to admit that
Russian absorption there has been highly beneficial because robber
tribes were reduced to law and order.
[Illustration: Russia]
Before telling the Story of Russia, that is, of how the huge empire
was formed and grew to its present size, it is necessary to become (p. 018)
better acquainted with the aspect and nature of the country. Looking
at the map of the Eurasian continent, that is, the continent embracing
Europe and Asia, we cannot fail to notice that Russia is a country of
the plains. Its southern boundary seems to follow the mountain
barriers which divide Asia into two parts. Does it not seem as if long
billows of earth roll down toward the Arctic Ocean, where they rest
benumbed by the eternal cold? These mountains branch off toward the
south, east or west, but scorn to throw so much as a spur northward.
It is true that a solitary chain, the Urals, runs north and south, but
it stands by itself, and is nothing more than what the word Ural
signifies, a _belt_ or _girdle_ separating the European from his
Asiatic brother. These mountains do not form the backbone of a
country, nor do they serve as a watershed, like our Rocky Mountains or
the Andes of South America. Some of their peaks rise to a height of
6,000 feet above the level of the sea, but the chain, 1531 miles long,
seems destined only to keep the two races apart.
Beyond the Ural mountains, the plain resumes its sway. This extensive
flat could not fail to exert a noticeable influence upon the country
and its inhabitants. The dense forests in the north, while acting as a
screen, do not afford protection against the icy polar winds which
sweep with scarcely diminished force over the broad expanse, so that
the northern shores of the Black and Caspian Seas in January have
about the same temperature as Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. The
mountains of Western Europe shut off the aërial current of the Gulf
Stream which tempers the summer heat as well as the winter cold. (p. 019)
Russia's climate, therefore, is one of extremes. In summer the
heat is very oppressive, owing to the absence of the sea breeze which
elsewhere affords so much relief; and when a wind does blow, it only
adds to the discomfort, because it has lost its moisture. That is the
reason why Russia suffers so often from drought. This is especially
the case in the south where no forests are found to attract rain.
Nature has provided a substitute in the splendid waterways. In about
the center of European Russia, rises the Valdai plateau to a height of
1,100 feet above the sea level. This is Russia's great watershed. Near
it, in Lake Volgo, rises the largest river of Europe, "Mother Volga,"
as the Russian ballad singers love to call it. Its entire length is
2,336 miles, or nearly the length of the Missouri; it has a basin of
590,000 square miles. Owing to the slight slope of the land, the great
river flows placidly in its bed, which is fortunate since its Waters
are swollen by several large rivers, so that there are points where it
is seventeen miles wide. The Kama, one of the tributaries of the
Volga, is 1,266 miles long; the Oka, another confluent, has a length
of 633 miles. At Kazan, the Volga is 4,953 feet wide, at Jaroslaf
2,106 feet, and at Samara, 2,446 feet. It empties into the Caspian
Sea, with a delta of more than seventy branches. The fish caught in
this river often grow to gigantic proportions; its sturgeons,
lampreys, and salmon, are highly prized. Since time immemorial, the
Volga has been a great highway of trade. Kostroma, Nishni Novgorod,
Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratof, and Astrakhan, are the most populous cities
on its banks.
Other large rivers rise on the Valdai plateau. The Dnieper runs (p. 020)
south, passing by Kief, and empties in the Black Sea, near Odessa. The
Dwina runs northward, seeking the icy Arctic, which it enters by way
of the White Sea near Archangel. The Düna takes a westerly course
towards the Gulf of Riga where it empties near the city of that name.
Of greater importance are the small streams which feed Lakes Ladoga
and Onega, because they connect Central Russia with the Baltic Sea by
means of the Neva.
European Russia is usually divided into four zones or belts, from the
character of the soil and the nature of its productions; their general
direction is from southwest to northeast. In the north, as a screen
against the Arctic blast, is the _poliessa_ or forest region, densely
covered with lindens, birches, larches, and sycamores, with oaks on
the southern fringe. These forests are invaluable to Russia where, in
the absence of mountains, stone is scarce. The houses are built of
wood, and fires are of common occurrence. Both lumber and fuel are
supplied by these forests which originally extended to Novgorod,
Moscow, and Jaroslaf. The increase in population together with the
growing demand for lumber, have caused extensive clearings; but the
area covered by the forests is so large, that the supply is well-nigh
inexhaustible.
South of this zone are the black earth lands, extending down to the
Caucasus and across the Urals, and covering in Europe an area of one
hundred and fifty million acres,--equal to that of Texas. This zone
derives its name from an apparently inexhaustible bed of black (p. 021)
mold, so rich that no manure is required to produce abundant crops.
Until late in the last century, and before the United States began to
export its surplus harvests, this region was considered the granary of
Europe. It was known in very old times since we read of it in the
Heroic Age of Ancient Greece, when Jason sailed in the Argo to bring
home the Golden Fleece.
Almost equal in extent is the zone of arable steppes, or prairies,
once the home of the Cossack, the nomad who led here the life of a
shepherd king, moving about as the condition of pasture and flock
required. Most of this land is now under cultivation, and with careful
farming produces good crops. These arable steppes cover an area equal
to that of Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska.
The fourth and last zone is that of the barren steppes. There is ample
evidence that at some remote time these plains were covered with salt
water. The Caspian Sea has a level eighty feet below that of the Black
Sea, and it is therefore probable that here was a large inland sea of
which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. These steppes are
unfit for farming. Here dwell the Kalmucks and Kirghizes, descendants
of the Tartars whose yoke once pressed heavily upon Russia.
[Illustration: Russian Peasants] (p. 022)
II--EARLY RECORDS OF RUSSIA. (p. 023)
At an early period in the history of Greece, we hear of colonies
established on the northern shore of the Pontus Euxinus or Hospitable
Sea, as they named the Black Sea. We may even now recognize some of
the names of those colonies, such as Odessos, at the mouth of the Bug,
Tyras, at that of the Dniester, and Pityas where Colchis, the object
of the search of Jason and his fellow Argonauts, is supposed to have
been. In the fourth century before our era, some of these colonies
united under a hereditary _archon_ or governor, probably for the
purpose of securing better protection against the barbarians who dwelt
further inland.
The Greeks mention these barbarians as the Scythians, and divided them
into three classes. The agricultural Scythians dwelt in the black
earth belt, near the Dnieper; the nomad Scythians lived at some
distance to the east of them, and the royal Scythians occupied the
land around the Sea of Azof.
Learned men of Russia have made many excavations on the spots where
the Greek settlements once stood, during the past century. They have
been rewarded by finding many works of art, illustrating the mode of
living of the Scythians. They have been placed, and may be seen (p. 024)
in the Hermitage museum of St. Petersburg. Among these relics of the
past are two beautifully engraved vases, one of gold, the other of
silver. The Scythians on the silver vase wear long hair and beards,
and are dressed in gowns or tunics, and bear a close resemblance to
the Russians of our time. These vases and other ancient objects
confirm what is said about these people by Herodotus, a Greek
historian who lived in the fourth century before Christ.
We learn from him that the Scythians worshiped a sword stuck into the
ground, representing the god of war, and that they made human
sacrifices. They drank the blood of the first enemy killed in battle,
scalped their prisoners, and used their skulls as drinking cups. In
the course of time the Greek civilization exerted its influence, and
penetrated to tribes dwelling much further in the north, as is shown
by the antiquities found in the government of Ekaterinoslaf.
The _orbis terrarum_ or world so far as it was known to the Greeks,
was centered about the Mediterranean; hence the name of that sea,
meaning Middle of the Land or Middle of the Earth. Beyond that there
was an unknown region, supposed to be inhabited by people of whom many
wonderful stories were told. Thus they believed in the existence of
the Arimaspians, a race of one-eyed people; there are legends, too, of
the Agrippei who were described as bald and snub-nosed. The Greeks
also mention the Gryphons, who, they said, were guardians of immense
quantities of gold. The most wonderful people to the Greeks were the
Hyperboreans, or dwellers beyond the regions of the north wind, (p. 025)
who were looked upon with awe and pity because it was said that
they lived in a country where snow fell summer and winter. These were
some of the races and tribes supposed to inhabit Russia, which goes
far to prove that the knowledge of that country, in those times, was
neither extensive nor very accurate.
The truth is that we know very little about the early inhabitants of
Russia; nor do they concern us greatly, because grave changes occurred
in the fourth century of our era. At that time several large and
warlike tribes of Central Asia moved westward compelling other tribes
on their route to join them or to move ahead. Thus they gathered
strength until it looked as if Asia was bent upon the conquest of
Europe. They poured in through the gap between the Ural mountains and
the Caspian Sea, and the civilized people of southeastern Europe were
unable to cope with the savage hordes. In the vanguard were the Goths,
who made an effort to settle, in Scythia, but they were forced to move
on when Attila, who is known as the Scourge of God, swooped down upon
them with his Huns. He was followed by a host of Finns, Bulgarians,
Magyars, and Slavs who, however, left his wake, scattered and settled
down. Soon after the Slavs became known to Greek authors and were
described by them. They were divided into a number of tribes, among
them the Russian Slavs who settled about the sources of the Volga and
the Oka, and were the founders of Novgorod, Pskof, and Izborsk.
They must have been a numerous people. We hear of another tribe
settling on the banks of the Vistula, and laying the foundation of (p. 026)
the future kingdom of Poland. They settled on the upper Elbe, and in
the north of Germany. It is believed that the Slavs are ancestors of
the people in Bohemia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Servia, and Dalmatia, and in
Prussia of those living in Pomerania and Brandenburg.
All these Slavs, although widely dispersed, practiced the same heathen
rites, spoke the same language, and nursed the same traditions, until
they fell under different influences. They were, however, not the sole
occupants of northeastern Europe. Other races had followed in Attila's
wake, and among them the Finns were the most numerous and most
warlike. They settled in the basin of the Dwina and the Kama and named
their new home Biarmaland, while the Russians called it Great Permia.
They also occupied what is now known as Finland, but which was then
known as Land of the Suomi. The Finns, more than any other tribe, bore
evidence of their Asiatic origin.
Thus the present European Russia was divided among a host of tribes,
belonging either to the Slav or Finn families, and each kept to a
great extent the superstitions and traditions of his race. Even in our
time the traces of these superstitions are plainly discernible in many
parts of Russia. When Christianity was introduced among these people,
the missionaries found many of the barbaric rites so strongly
implanted among the people that, instead of making vain efforts to
uproot them, they preferred to admit them under a Christian name.
The religion of the Slavs bore a great resemblance to that of the
Norsemen and of the Germanic races; that is, they worshiped nature (p. 027)
and its phenomena. Dagh Bog was the sungod; Perun, the Thor of
northern mythology, was the god of thunder; Stri Bog, the god of the
winds; Voloss, the protector of flocks. They had neither temples nor
regular priests, but worshiped the oak as the symbol of Perun, and
before it the leaders offered sacrifices. These ancient deities are
preserved under the names of St. John, who displaced Perun; Voloss who
became St. Vlaise, etc. When a chief died, the wife often refused to
survive her husband. The men-servants were summoned and asked which of
them would be buried with his master. When one of them came forward,
he was immediately strangled. Then the same question was put to the
women servants, and if one of them consented, she was feasted until
the day when the funeral pyre awaited the corpse. She was then killed
and her body burned with that of her master. There were, however, some
tribes that buried their dead.
The father was absolute master of his family, but his authority did
not descend to the eldest son, but to the oldest of the family, his
brothers, if any were living, according to their age. The Slavs kept
several wives, and were given to consume large quantities of a strong
drink called kvass. They were a people devoted to agriculture; the
land under cultivation was not owned by one person or a family, but by
all the members of a community, or _mir_. The heads of the families
composing the mir assembled in a council or _vetché_, which had
authority over the mir. Only the house and the _dvor_ or inclosure,
and his share in the harvest, were the property of each householder.
In the course of time, several of these rural communities united (p. 028)
in a canton or county, called a _volost_, which was then governed by a
council composed of the elders of several communes. It happened
sometimes that one of these elders, who was considered unusually wise
or powerful, became chief of the volost, a dignity which might become
hereditary. This was probably the origin of the boyards or nobles. As
a rule, the volosts were proud of their independence; they disliked
entangling alliances, although in time of danger or necessity they
would enter into a confederacy of all the counties belonging to the
same tribe, which was then called _plemia_. But it was always
understood that such an arrangement was temporary. In most of the
volosts, there was at least one spot fortified by earthen walls and
wooden palisades, where the people might take refuge in case of an
attack.
We know that some of the Slav tribes attained some degree of
civilization as early as the seventh century of our era. Novgorod was
a town, large for that time, which carried on a brisk trade with Asia.
This is amply proved by the discovery of Asiatic coins belonging to
that period. Although the favorite occupation of the Slavs was
agriculture, the construction of the fortified places suggests that
they were not averse to increase their wealth by an occasional raid
upon their unprepared neighbors. There is other evidence that
Novgorod, grown into a wealthy city in the middle of the ninth
century, longed for peace. No wonder that such a community sought for
means of security for its commerce. But the manner in which it
accomplished this desire, decided the fate of Russia.
III--THE NORSEMEN (OR VARINGIANS) IN RUSSIA. (p. 029)
It would have been strange indeed, if the bold Norsemen, the bold
buccaneers who in their frail craft pillaged the west coasts of Europe
and extended their voyages into the Mediterranean, should have omitted
to pay a visit to the shores of the Baltic Sea. We know that they
settled in England and France, and it causes no surprise when we read
that the Slavs in the neighborhood of the Baltic paid tribute to them.
They must have been exacting tax collectors, because we read also
that, in 859, the Slavs rose and expelled their visitors. Three years
later they returned at the invitation of the people of Novgorod.
Nestor, the historian of the Slav race, who lived in the twelfth
century, and whose account is remarkably clear and trustworthy, wrote
that the inhabitants of Novgorod "said to the princes of Varingia,
'Our land is great and fertile, but it lacks order and justice; come,
take possession, and govern us.'"
The invitation was accepted. Three brothers, Rurik or the Peaceful,
Sineous or the Victorious, and Truvor or the Faithful, proceeded to
Russia with their families and fighting men. Rurik settled on the
south shore of Lake Ladoga, Sineous on the White Lake, and Truvor at
Izborsk. The two younger brothers died, and Rurik moved to (p. 030)
Novgorod where he built a castle. At about the same time two other
Norsemen, Askold and Dir, landed in Russia, and went to Kief, then
also a flourishing city, where they were equally well received. They
persuaded its people to prepare an expedition against Czargrad, the
City of the Czar or Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, now known as
Constantinople, but at that time named Byzantium. The expedition of
Kief under Askold and Dir sailed down the Dnieper in a fleet of 200
large boats, entered the Golden Horn--or Bosphorus,--and began the
siege of Constantinople. The capital was saved by the Patriarch or
head of the Greek Church, who plunged a wonder-working robe into the
waves, whereupon a violent storm destroyed the Russian fleet.
The two chiefs, Askold and Dir, must have escaped, because they were
back at Kief when that city received a disagreeable visit. Upon
Rurik's death, he was succeeded, not by his son Igor, but by his
brother Oleg as the eldest of the family. The new prince or _kniaz_
did not approve of rival Norsemen in his neighborhood. With his own
men and a large number of Slavs and Finns, he marched upon Kief, and
on his way compelled Smolensk and Loubetch to submit to his authority.
When he arrived before Kief, he succeeded in capturing Askold and Dir
who were put to death "because," Oleg explained, "they were neither
princes themselves, nor of the blood of princes." Kief was taken, and
Oleg took up his residence in that city.
[Illustration: Norsemen]
It is at this time that the name Russia first appears. Its (p. 032)
derivation is doubtful and is, besides, of no great importance. Oleg
ruled over Russia, that is, the plain extending from Kief to Novgorod.
There is a story that he was defeated by the Hungarians, who had
crossed the Dnieper, but it is doubtful, because in the year 907, we
find him preparing another expedition against Constantinople. On this
occasion the people of that capital forgot to bring out the robe, and
tried to poison the invaders, but their scheme was discovered in time;
they were forced to pay a heavy tribute and Oleg secured, besides, a
very advantageous commercial treaty.
One of the wizards at Oleg's court had warned him that his favorite
horse would be the cause of his death, and the animal was kept away
from him until it died. Oleg did not believe in wizards; he insisted
upon seeing the body and entered the stable. A snake came out of the
horse's skull and stung Oleg in the foot, and he died from the effect
of the poison.
Igor, Rurik's son, was the eldest, and succeeded his uncle. He led
another expedition against Constantinople, but it ended in disaster,
because the Russian fleet was destroyed by Greek fire. A large number
of Russians were captured but Igor escaped. This failure did not
prevent him from again attacking the Byzantine Empire, and this time
he was successful. The emperor agreed to pay tribute and signed
another commercial treaty.
Nestor, the Russian historian, tells us the story of Igor's death. "In
the year 945," he says, "the _drujina_" (that is, the body-guard,
composed of Norsemen or their descendants), "of Igor said to him, 'The
men of Sveneld are richly provided with weapons and garments, while
we go in rags; lead us, Prince, to collect the tribute so that (p. 033)
thou and we may become rich.' Igor consented, and conducted them to
the Drevlians to raise the tribute. He increased the first imposts,
and did them violence, he and his men; after having taken all he
wanted, he returned to his city. While on the road he bethought
himself and said to his drujina, 'Go on with the tribute; I will go
back and try to get some more out of them.' Leaving the greater part
of his men to go on their way, he returned with only a few, to the end
that he might increase his riches. The Drevlians, when they learnt
that Igor was coming back, held council with Nal, their prince. 'When
the wolf enters the sheepfold he slays the whole flock, if the
shepherd does not slay him. Thus it is with us and Igor; if we do not
destroy him, we are lost.' Then they sent deputies who said to him,
'why dost thou come anew unto us? Hast thou not collected all the
tribute?' But Igor would not hear them, so the Drevlians came out of
the town of Korosthenes, and slew Igor and his men, for they were but
a few."
The drujina or body-guard of the duke was at the same time his
council. The men composing it were considered as members of his
family; they ate at his table and shared his amusements as well as his
toil. He did nothing without consulting them, and was really but the
first among his peers. They formed a court of justice, and it was from
among them that he appointed the voievods or governors of fortresses,
and possadniks or commandants of large towns. We have a description of
the courts of that time by an Arab writer named Ibn Dost. He says: (p. 034)
"When a Russian brings a complaint against another, he summons him
before the court of the prince where both state their case. When the
prince has pronounced his verdict, his orders are executed; but if
both parties are dissatisfied, the dispute must be decided by weapons.
He whose sword cuts sharper, gains his cause. At the time of the
fight, the relatives of the two adversaries appear armed, and surround
the space set apart. The combatants then come to blows, and the victor
may impose any terms he pleases."
The people of the country, the peasants, were not quite so free as
when Rurik landed. They began to be known as _moujik_, a contemptuous
diminutive of the word mouj or man, literally manikin. The merchants
or _gosti_ did not form a distinct class, but in larger cities, such
as Novgorod and Kief, they had a voice in the administration. These
cities had a vetché or municipal council which directed the city's
business without any direct interference from the prince. The
successors of Rurik attended to the defense of the country, the
administration of justice, and the collection of tribute and taxes,
which sources of revenue were appropriated by them and served for
their support and for that of the drujina.
The Slavs of that time exhibited many characteristics which we
recognize in the Russians of our time. Leo the Deacon, a noted writer
of that time, mentions that they fought in a compact body, and seemed
like a wall of iron, bristling with lances, glittering with shields,
whence rang a ceaseless clamor like the waves of the sea. A huge
shield covered them to their feet, and, when they fought in retreat,
they turned this enormous buckler on their backs and became (p. 035)
invulnerable. The fury of the battle frenzied them. They were never
seen to surrender. When victory was lost they stabbed themselves, for
they believed that those who died by the hand of an enemy were
condemned to serve him in the life after death. The emperors of
Byzantium were glad to secure their services, and the _ross_, as they
called them, often formed the body-guard. In the Byzantine expedition
against Crete, 700 Russians served in the army.
The Norsemen readily adapted themselves to the habits, customs, and
language of the people among whom they settled. We find the Norse
names of Rurik, Oleg, and Igor, but after the last named their
descendants were Russians and bore Russian names.
At Igor's death his son Sviatoslaf was still a minor, whose mother,
Olga, became Regent. She was a woman of determination, whose first
thought was to avenge the death of her husband. The Drevlians, hearing
of her preparations, sent two deputations to appease her: not a man
returned. They were all put to death at her command. Nestor tells us
that Olga herself commanded her warriors at the siege of Korosthenes,
and that she offered to make peace on payment of a tribute of three
pigeons and three sparrows for every house. This was accepted and the
birds were delivered, when she ordered lighted tow to be fastened to
their tails, and when they flew back to the wooden town, they set fire
to the houses and barns. Korosthenes was then captured and a great
number of its inhabitants were slaughtered and the rest were made
slaves.
It seems strange that such a woman should have been the first of (p. 036)
Rurik's house to embrace Christianity. There is no doubt that she
visited Constantinople where she astonished the emperor by the force
of her character. She was baptized and received the name of Helen. It
is quite possible that she came to Constantinople for that purpose,
because we read that she refused to be baptized at Kief "for fear of
the pagans." This confirms the Greek records in which it is stated
that a bishop was established in Russia, probably at Kief, in the time
of Oleg.
It is not strange that Christianity should have taken root in Russia
after the frequent wars with the Byzantine Empire, and considering the
commerce carried on between Kief and Constantinople. Missionaries
entered Russia at an early period. Two of them, Cyril and Methodius,
prepared a Slavonic alphabet, in which many Greek letters were used,
and the Bible was translated into that language. There is a tradition
that Askold was baptized after his defeat at Constantinople, and that
this is the reason why the people still worship at his tomb at Kief,
as of that of the first Christian prince. The Norsemen had no taste
for persecution on account of religious belief, but for themselves
they clung to the heathen deities. When Igor swore to observe the
treaty concluded with Emperor Leo VI, he went up to the hill of Perun
and used the ancient Slavonic rites; but the emperor's deputies went
to the church of St. Elias, and there laid their hands upon the Bible
as a token of good faith.
The drujina and warriors did not take kindly to Christianity. They, as
well as the peasants, preferred to worship Perun and Voloss. The same
thing happened elsewhere. Christianity made the greatest progress (p. 037)
in cities, whereas the dwellers on the "heath" remained "heathen."
"When one of the warriors of the prince wished to become a convert,"
says Nestor, "he was not prevented; they simply laughed at him." When
Olga returned from Constantinople, she was anxious that her son, who
was of age and had succeeded to his father, should follow her example.
Sviatoslaf refused; "my men will laugh at me," was his usual answer.
Nestor mentions that he sometimes lost his temper. Christianity did
not make much progress during his reign.
He was a warrior, like his Norse ancestors. In the brief time of eight
years, 964-972, he found time to wage two wars. The first was with the
Khazar empire on the Don. Sviatoslaf captured its capital, the White
City, and received tribute from two tribes of the Caucasus. The second
war did not turn out so well.
From Nestor's account and that of Leo the Deacon, it appears that the
Byzantine emperor, wishing to make use of Sviatoslaf, decided to find
out what sort of man he was. He therefore sent him presents of gold
and fine clothes, but the grandson of Rurik would scarcely look at
them and told his warriors to take them away. When the emperor heard
this, he sent him a fine sword and other weapons; these were accepted
with every token of satisfaction by Sviatoslaf. When the emperor was
informed of the result, he exclaimed: "This must be a fierce man,
because he despises wealth and accepts a sword as tribute."
This did not prevent the emperor, who had a private quarrel with
Peter, Czar of Bulgaria, from urging Sviatoslaf to make war upon (p. 038)
his enemy. The Russian gave a hearty consent, and in a very short time
he captured several fortresses and Peréiaslaf, the capital, fell into
his hands. He determined to transfer his capital there, and when he
returned to Kief, he told his mother of the city on the Danube. "The
place," he said, "is the central point of my territory, and abounds in
wealth. Precious goods, gold, wine, and all kinds of fruit, come from
Greece. Silver and horses are brought from the country of the Czechs
and Hungarians, and the Russians bring money, furs, wax, and slaves."
Meanwhile the emperor of Constantinople was dead; his successor, John
Zimisces was a very different man, who preferred having a weak
Bulgarian ruler as his neighbor, instead of an empire which, even at
that time, extended from Lakes Ladoga and Onega to the Balkans. He,
therefore, made up his mind to oust the Russians. Sviatoslaf had left
Bulgaria, but he returned and reconquered it, when he received a
demand from the new emperor to execute the treaty entered into with
his predecessor, that is, to leave Bulgaria. Sviatoslaf replied
proudly that he expected to visit the emperor at Constantinople before
long, but Zimisces, a brave and able man, took measures to prevent it.
Before Sviatoslaf expected him, Zimisces attacked and defeated the
Russians in the defiles of the Balkan, and soon after stormed and
captured Peréiaslaf. Eight thousand Russians withdrew into the castle,
which they defended heroically. They refused to surrender and, when
the castle was set on fire, they perished in the flames.
When Sviatoslaf heard of this disaster, he advanced against the (p. 039)
emperor. The Greek historian says that the Russian army was 60,000 men
strong, but Nestor gives the number at 10,000. The two armies met and
both fought with desperate valor, but at last the Russians gave way
before the furious charges of the Greek cavalry--the Ironsides--and
withdrew to Dorostol. Zimisces started in pursuit, and laid siege to
the city where the same courage was displayed. After Sviatoslaf drew
his men up out of the city and prepared to give battle, Zimisces
proposed to him to decide the issue by a personal fight, but the offer
was declined. "I know better than my enemy what I have to do," said
Sviatoslaf. "If he is weary of life, there are a thousand ways by
which he can end his days." The battle ended in defeat for the
Russians who, Leo the Deacon tells us, left 15,500 dead, and 20,000
shields on the battlefield. Sviatoslaf was compelled to come to terms.
Zimisces permitted him and what remained of his army to return to
Russia, after he had sworn by Perun and Voloss that he would never
again invade the empire, but would help in defending it against its
enemies. If he broke his oath, he wished that he might "become as
yellow as gold, and perish by his own arms." Zimisces showed the
nobility of a brave man. He sent messengers to a warlike tribe
requesting a free passage for the Russians; but this tribe was anxious
to seize the opportunity. Sviatoslaf and his men were attacked near
the Cataracts of the Dnieper; he was killed, but most of his men
escaped. (A.D. 972.)
[Illustration: Vladimir] (p. 040)
IV--SAINT VLADIMIR AND IAROSLAF THE GREAT. (p. 041)
Sviatoslaf had divided the empire among his three sons; he left
Novgorod to Vladimir, the eldest; Oleg, the second, was made prince of
the Drevlians, and the youngest, Iaropolk, received Kief. As happens
often, none of the three was satisfied with his share, and civil wars
followed. Oleg was killed by Iaropolk, whereupon the youngest son of
Sviatoslaf was slain by his brother Vladimir, who thus became the sole
heir and successor to his father. His first act was to make war upon
Poland. He compelled it to restore Red Russia or Old Gallicia, a
territory in our time divided into seven governments, or provinces. He
also reduced two revolted tribes, and forced the Lithuanians and
Livonians to pay tribute.
At the beginning of his reign, Vladimir showed an unusual devotion to
the old Slav gods. He erected idols on the sandy cliffs of Kief; that
of Perun had a head of silver and a beard of gold. It seems that after
some time he became displeased with this religion and, Nestor tells
us, he grew anxious to know what religion was the best. He, therefore,
sent deputies to Bulgaria to study the Moslem or Mohammedan creed, and
to the Khazars, who occupied the plain between the Bug and the (p. 042)
Volga, to make inquiries about the Jewish faith. From the Poles and
Germans he wanted to know all about the Roman Catholic Church, and at
Constantinople he expected to learn of the Greek faith. When these
deputies returned and reported to him, Vladimir selected the Greek
Church, which choice was approved by his drujina; "if the Greek
religion had not been the best, your grandmother Olga, the wisest of
mortals, would not have adopted it," said they. Thus Vladimir became a
convert; but his method of showing it was rather peculiar.
He might have been baptized by the bishop of Kief; or, if he had
applied at Constantinople, the emperor would gladly have sent him a
high prelate to perform the service. Instead of this, Vladimir
collected an army and marched against Kherson,--the last city in
Russia held by the Byzantine. It was taken by means of treachery, and
from this city Vladimir sent to Constantinople to demand in marriage
the sister of the two emperors Basil and Constantine. Although the
emperors did not like the proposed connection, they consented because
they feared an invasion, but made it a condition that Vladimir should
be baptized. The ceremony was performed at Kherson; soon after the
bride arrived and the marriage took place in the same city. When he
returned to Kief, he carried with him the priests and sacred ornaments
taken from the churches of Kherson.
Upon his return to Kief, he began missionary work by his own peculiar
methods. His first orders were to pull down the idols; during the
execution the people wept, moaned, and wrung their hands. Perun's
image was handsomely flogged and thrown into the Dnieper. Since it (p. 043)
was made of wood, it soon came to the surface, which was looked upon
as a miracle by the people who rushed down to worship it. But
Vladimir's soldiers gave it another bath, and this time it was caught
by the current and drifted away. The cliff where it stood is still
known at Kief as "the devil's leap," and the spot where Perun floated
ashore, is shown to visitors.
After thus getting rid of the idols, Vladimir commanded the people of
Kief, men, women, and children, to plunge into the Dnieper, which had
been consecrated for the occasion, that they might be baptized. When
they had obeyed his order, the priests read the service, so that after
entering into the river as heathen, they left it as Christians. The
people of Novgorod were converted in the same swift and practical
manner, since no attention was paid to their objections.
Heathen temples were next converted into churches, which were
decorated by Greek artists. Vladimir erected at Kief the church of St.
Basil, on the place where Perun's image had stood. Numerous other
churches were built; he also founded schools where the Bible was
taught in the Slav language. At first the people objected to send
their children, because they looked upon reading and writing as magic.
But Vladimir had persuasive ways, and was not likely to be deterred by
such opposition. Nestor admired him very much. He says that Vladimir
was a different man after he had been converted; that he was so afraid
of committing a sin, that he hesitated to inflict capital punishment,
until the bishop reminded him that crime must be punished. He also
divided his income among the churches, and thus became the Saint (p. 044)
Vladimir of Russia. Popular ballads keep alive the memory of the first
Christian prince. He is often mentioned in them as "The Beautiful Sun"
of Kief.
It cannot be supposed that the Russian people were converted at once
into good Christians by Vladimir's forceful method. Several centuries
were to pass away before the peasants could be induced to part with
their heathen customs. The priests preferred to let them remain under
a Christian name. There is something mystic in the Slav character. He
nurses the belief in magicians and sorcerers, which has never been
uprooted. It is seen at present in the worship of the _eikon_ or
saint's image.
Vladimir died in 1015. He, too, divided Russia among his numerous
sons. One of them, Iaroslaf, received Novgorod, where he began to
interfere with the rights of the people. A deputation of leading
citizens came to him with a protest. He ordered their arrest and
condemned them to death. Meanwhile Vladimir's other heirs had indulged
in the usual quarrels and wars, until it seemed as if Sviatopolk, a
nephew, would become the sole ruler. Iaroslaf then called the
principal people of Novgorod together, and threw himself upon their
generosity. They forgave him and promised their support. They kept
their word, and after a long and bloody war he entered Kief as his
father's successor.
Iaroslaf was unfortunate in a war with the Byzantine Empire. The
Russian fleet was badly defeated in the Bosphorus; 8,000 men were
killed, and 800 prisoners were taken to Constantinople.
Of greater importance was Iaroslaf's work at home. He built (p. 045)
churches and monasteries; St. Sophia church was the pride of Kief; the
monastery of The Catacombs still draws pilgrims from all parts of
Russia. Kief became known as "the city of four hundred churches." He
also founded a school for three hundred boys at Novgorod, thereby
showing that Russia at that time was second to no European nation.
Kief, under his reign, was one of the most prosperous cities. This was
due to her situation on the Dnieper and her trade with the Byzantine
Empire, to the great fertility of the Black Earth land, and to
Iaroslaf's connection by marriage with the reigning families of
Europe. Of his daughters Elizabeth was the wife of the King of Norway,
Anne of the King of France, and Anastasia of the King of Hungary; his
sister Mary was married to the King of Poland, and his sons had
married into royal families. Merchants from Holland, Germany, Hungary,
and Scandinavia were established at Kief. The Dnieper was alive with
merchant vessels, and she counted eight markets. It is evident that
Iaroslaf took pains to protect and advance commerce. He had coins
minted with his Slav name on one side, and his Christian name Ioury
(George), on the other.
Perhaps his greatest work is the code of laws established by him,
known as the _Russkaïa Pravda_ or Russian Right. Though necessarily
primitive, it was a long step in advance of that time. It followed
chiefly the ideas of right and wrong according to the conceptions of
the Scandinavians.