In 1737 Queen Caroline died; on her deathbed she recommended Butler to the

favour of her husband. George seemed to think his obligation sufficiently

discharged by appointing Butler in 1738 to the bishopric of Bristol, the

poorest see in the kingdom. The severe but dignified letter to Walpole, in

which Butler accepted the preferment, showed that the slight was felt and

resented. Two years later, however, the bishop was presented to the rich

deanery of St Paul's, and in 1746 was made clerk of the closet to the king.

In 1747 the primacy was offered to Butler, who, it is said, declined it, on

the ground that "it was too late for him to try to support a falling

church." The story has not the best authority, and though the desponding

tone of some of Butler's writings may give it colour, it is not in harmony

with the rest of his life, for in 1750 he accepted the see of Durham,

vacant by the death of Edward Chandler. His charge to the clergy of the

diocese, the only charge of his known to us, is a weighty and valuable

address on the importance of external forms in religion. This, together

with the fact that over the altar of his private chapel at Bristol he had a

cross of white marble, gave rise to an absurd rumour that the bishop had

too great a leaning towards Romanism. At Durham he was very charitable, and

expended large sums in building and decorating his church and residence.

His private expenses were exceedingly small. Shortly after his translation

his constitution began to break up, and he died on the 16th of June 1752,

at Bath, whither he had removed for his health. He was buried in the

cathedral of Bristol, and over his grave a monument was erected in 1834,

with an epitaph by Southey. According to his express orders, all his MSS.

were burned after his death. Bishop Butler was never married. His personal

appearance has been sketched in a few lines by Hutchinson:--"He was of a

most reverend aspect; his face thin and pale; but there was a divine

placidness which inspired veneration, and expressed the most benevolent

mind. His white hair hung gracefully on his shoulders, and his whole figure

was patriarchal."

Butler was an earnest and deep-thinking Christian, melancholy by

temperament, and grieved by what seemed to him the hopelessly irreligious

condition of his age. In his view not only the religious life of the

nation, but (what he regarded as synonymous) the church itself, was in an

almost hopeless state of decay, as we see from his first and only charge to

the diocese of Durham and [v.04 p.0883] from many passages in the

_Analogy_. And though there was a complete remedy just coming into notice,

in the Evangelical revival, it was not of a kind that commended itself to

Butler, whose type of mind was opposed to everything that savoured of

enthusiasm. He even asked John Wesley, in 1739, to desist from preaching in

his diocese of Bristol, and in a memorable interview with the great

preacher remarked that any claim to the extraordinary gifts of the Holy

Spirit was "a horrid thing, a very horrid thing, sir." Yet Butler was

keenly interested in those very miners of Kingswood among whom Wesley

preached, and left £500 towards building a church for them. It is a great

mistake to suppose that because he took no great part in politics he had no

interest in the practical questions of his time, or that he was so immersed

in metaphysics as to live in the clouds. His intellect was profound and

comprehensive, thoroughly qualified to grapple with the deepest problems of

metaphysics, but by natural preference occupying itself mainly with the

practical and moral. Man's conduct in life, not his theory of the universe,

was what interested him. The _Analogy_ was written to counteract the

practical mischief which he considered wrought by deists and other

freethinkers, and the _Sermons_ lay a good deal of stress on everyday

Christian duties. His style has frequently been blamed for its obscurity

and difficulty, but this is due to two causes: his habit of compressing his

arguments into narrow compass, and of always writing with the opposite side

of the case in view, so that it has been said of the _Analogy_ that it

raises more doubts than it solves. One is also often tempted away from the

main course of the argument by the care and precision with which Butler

formulates small points of detail.

His great work, _The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the

Course and Constitution of Nature_, cannot be adequately appreciated unless

taken in connexion with the circumstances of the period at which it

appeared. It was intended as a defence against the great tide of deistical

speculation (see DEISM), which in the apprehension of many good men seemed

likely to sweep away the restraints of religion and make way for a general

reign of licence. Butler did not enter the lists in the ordinary way. Most

of the literature evoked by the controversy on either side was devoted to

rebutting the attack of some individual opponent. Thus it was Bentley

versus Collins, Sherlock versus Woolston, Law versus Tindal. The _Analogy_,

on the contrary, did not directly refer to the deists at all, and yet it

worked more havoc with their position than all the other books put

together, and remains practically the one surviving landmark of the whole

dispute. Its central motive is to prove that all the objections raised

against revealed or supernatural religion apply with equal force to the

whole constitution of nature, and that the general analogy between the

principles of divine government, as set forth by the biblical revelation,

and those observable in the course of nature, leads us to the warrantable

conclusion that there is one Author of both. Without altogether eschewing

Samuel Clarke's _a priori_ system, Butler relies mainly on the inductive

method, not professing to give an absolute demonstration so much as a

probable proof. And everything is brought into closest relation with "that

which is the foundation of all our hopes and of all our fears; all our

hopes and fears which are of any consideration; I mean a Future Life."

Butler is a typical instance of the English philosophical mind. He will

admit no speculative theory of things. To him the universe is no

realization of intelligence, which is to be deciphered by human thought; it

is a constitution or system, made up of individual facts, through which we

thread our way slowly and inductively. Complete knowledge is impossible;

nay, what we call knowledge of any part of the system is inherently

imperfect. "We cannot have a thorough knowledge of any part without knowing

the whole." So far as experience goes, "to us probability is the very guide

of life." Reason is certainly to be accepted; it is pur natural light, and

the only faculty whereby we can judge of things. But it gives no completed

system of knowledge and in matters of fact affords only probable

conclusions. In this emphatic declaration, that knowledge of the course of

nature is merely probable, Butler is at one with Hume, who was a most

diligent student of the bishop's works. What can come nearer Hume's

celebrated maxim--"Anything may be the cause of anything else," than

Butler's conclusion, "so that any one thing whatever may, for aught we know

to the contrary, be a necessary condition to any other"?

It is this strong grasp or the imperfect character of our knowledge of

nature and of the grounds for its limitation that makes Butler so

formidable an opponent to his deistical contemporaries. He will permit no

anticipations of nature, no _a priori_ construction of experience. "The

constitution of nature is as it is," and no system of abstract principles

can be allowed to take its place. He is willing with Hume to take the

course of experience as the basis of his reasoning, seeing that it is

common ground for himself and his antagonists. In one essential respect,

however, he goes beyond Hume. The course of nature is for him an unmeaning

expression unless it be referred to some author; and he therefore makes

extensive use of the teleological method. This position is assumed

throughout the treatise, and as against the deists with justice, for their

whole argument rested upon the presupposition of the existence of God, the

perfect Ruler of the world.

The premises, then, with which Butler starts are the existence of God, the

known course of nature, and the necessary limitation of our knowledge. What

does he wish to prove? It is not his intention _to prove God's perfect

moral government over the world or the truth of religion_. His work is in

no sense a philosophy of religion. His purpose is entirely defensive; he

wishes to answer objections that have been brought against religion, and to

examine certain difficulties that have been alleged as insuperable. And

this is to be effected in the first place by showing that from the

obscurities and inexplicabilities we meet with in nature we may reasonably

expect to find similar difficulties in the scheme of religion. If

difficulties be found in the course and constitution of nature, whose

author is admitted to be God, surely the existence of similar difficulties

in the plan of religion can be no valid objection against its truth and

divine origin. That this is at least in great part Butler's object is plain

from the slightest inspection of his work. It has seemed to many to be an

unsatisfactory mode of arguing and but a poor defence of religion; and so

much the author is willing to allow. But in the general course of his

argument a somewhat wider issue appears. He seeks to show not only that the

difficulties in the systems of natural and revealed religion have

counterparts in nature, but also that the facts of nature, far from being

adverse to the principles of religion, are a distinct ground for inferring

their probable truth. He endeavours to show that the balance of probability

is entirely in favour of the scheme of religion, that this probability is

the natural conclusion from an inspection of nature, and that, as religion

is a matter of practice, we are bound to adopt the course of action which

is even probably the right one. If, we may imagine him saying, the precepts

of religion are entirely analogous in their partial obscurity and apparent

difficulty to the ordinary course of nature disclosed to us by experience,

then it is credible that these precepts are true; not only can no

objections be drawn against them from experience, but the balance of

probability is in their favour. This mode of reasoning from what is known

of nature to the probable truth of what is contained in religion is the

celebrated method of analogy.

Although Butler's work is peculiarly one of those which ought not to be

exhibited in outline, for its strength lies in the organic completeness

with which the details are wrought into the whole argument, yet a summary

of his results will throw more light on the method than any description

can.

Keeping clearly in view his premises--the existence of God and the limited

nature of knowledge--Butler begins by inquiring into the fundamental

pre-requisite of all natural religion--the immortality of the soul.

Evidently the stress of the whole question is here. Were man not immortal,

religion would be of little value. Now, Butler does not attempt to prove

the truth of the doctrine; that proof comes from another quarter. The only

questions he asks are--Does experience forbid us to admit immortality as a

possibility? Does experience furnish any probable reason for inferring that

immortality is a fact? To the first of these a negative, to the second an

affirmative answer is returned. All the analogies of our life here lead us

to conclude that we shall continue to live after death; and neither from

experience nor from the reason of the thing can any argument against the

possibility of this be drawn. Immortality, then, is not unreasonable; it is

probable. If, he continues, we are to live after death, it is of importance

for us to consider on what our future state may depend; for we may be

either happy or miserable. Now, whatever speculation may say as to God's

purpose being necessarily universal benevolence, experience plainly shows

us that our present happiness and misery depend upon our conduct, and are

not distributed indiscriminately. Therefore no argument can be brought from

experience against the possibility of our future happiness and misery

likewise depending upon conduct. The whole analogy of nature is in favour

of such a dispensation; it is therefore reasonable or probable. Further, we

are not only under a government in which actions considered simply as such

are rewarded and punished, but it is known from experience that virtue and

vice are followed by their natural consequents--happiness and misery. And

though the distribution of these rewards is not perfect, all hindrances are

plainly temporary or accidental. It may therefore be concluded that the

balance of probability is in favour of God's government in general being a

moral scheme, where virtue and vice are respectively rewarded and punished.

It need not be objected to the justice of [v.04 p.0884] this arrangement

that men are sorely tempted, and may very easily be brought to neglect that

on which their future welfare depends, for the very same holds good in

nature. Experience shows man to be in a state of trial so far as regards

the present; it cannot, therefore, be unreasonable to suppose that we are

in a similar state as regards the future. Finally, it can surely never be

advanced as an argument against the truth of religion that there are many

things in it which we do not comprehend, when experience exhibits to us

such a copious stock of incomprehensibilities in the ordinary course and

constitution of nature.

It cannot have escaped observation, that in the foregoing course of

argument the conclusion is invariably from experience of the present order

of things to the reasonableness or probability of some other system--of a

future state. The inference in all cases passes beyond the field of

experience; that it does so may be and has been advanced as a conclusive

objection against it. See for example a passage in Hume, _Works_ (ed.

1854), iv. 161-162, cf. p. 160, which says, in short, that no argument from

experience can ever carry us beyond experience itself. However well

grounded this reasoning may be, it altogether misses the point at which

Butler aimed, and is indeed a misconception of the nature of analogical

argument. Butler never attempts to _prove_ that a future life regulated

according to the requirements of ethical law is a reality; he only desires

to show that the conception of such a life is not irreconcilable with what

we know of the course of nature, and that consequently it is _not

unreasonable_ to suppose that there is such a life. Hume readily grants

this much, though he hints at a formidable difficulty which the plan of the

_Analogy_ prevented Butler from facing, the proof of the existence of God.

Butler seems willing to rest satisfied with his opponents' admission that

the being of God is proved by reason, but it would be hard to discover how,

upon his own conception of the nature and limits of reason, such a proof

could ever be given. It has been said that it is no flaw in Butler's

argument that he has left atheism as a possible mode of viewing the

universe, because his work was not directed against the atheists. It is,

however, in some degree a defect; for his defence of religion against the

deists rests on a view of reason which would for ever preclude a

demonstrative proof of God's existence.

If, however, his premises be granted, and the narrow issue kept in view,

the argument may be admitted as perfectly satisfactory. From what we know

of the present order of things, it is not unreasonable to suppose that

there will be a future state of rewards and punishments, distributed

according to ethical law. When the argument from analogy seems to go beyond

this, a peculiar difficulty starts up. Let it be granted that our happiness

and misery in this life depend upon our conduct--are, in fact, the rewards

and punishments attached by God to certain modes of action, the natural

conclusion from analogy would seem to be that our future happiness or the

reverse will probably depend upon our actions in the future state. Butler,

on the other hand, seeks to show that analogy leads us to believe that our

future state will depend upon our present conduct. His argument, that the

punishment of an imprudent act often follows after a long interval may be

admitted, but does not advance a single step towards the conclusion that

imprudent acts will be punished hereafter. So, too, with the attempt to

show that from the analogy of the present life we may not unreasonably

infer that virtue and vice will receive their respective rewards and

punishments hereafter; it may be admitted that virtuous and vicious acts

are naturally looked upon as objects of reward or punishment, and treated

accordingly, but we may refuse to allow the argument to go further, and to

infer a perfect distribution of justice dependent upon our conduct here.

Butler could strengthen his argument only by bringing forward prominently

the absolute requirements of the ethical consciousness, in which case he

would have approximated to Kant's position with regard to this very

problem. That he did not do so is, perhaps, due to his strong desire to use

only such premises as his adversaries the deists were willing to allow.

As against the deists, however, he may be allowed to have made out his

point, that the substantial doctrines of natural religion are not opposed

to reason and experience, and may be looked upon as credible. The positive

proof of them is to be found in revealed religion, which has disclosed to

us not only these truths, but also a further scheme not discoverable by the

natural light. Here, again, Butler joins issue with his opponents. Revealed

religion had been declared to be nothing but a republication of the truths

of natural religion (Matthew Tindal, _Christianity as Old as the

Creation_), and all revelation had been objected to as impossible. To show

that such objections are invalid, and that a revelation is at least not

impossible, Butler makes use mainly of his doctrine of human ignorance.

Revelation had been rejected because it lay altogether beyond the sphere of

reason and could not therefore be grasped by human intelligence. But the

same is true of nature; there are in the ordinary course of things

inexplicabilities; indeed we may be said with truth to know nothing, for

there is no medium between perfect and completed comprehension of the whole

system of things, which we manifestly have not, and mere faith grounded on

probability. Is it unreasonable to suppose that in a revealed system there

should be the same superiority to our intelligence? If we cannot explain or

foretell by reason what the exact course of events in nature will be, is it

to be expected that we can do so with regard to the wider scheme of God's

revealed providence? Is it not probable that there will be many things not

explicable by us? From our experience of the course of nature it would

appear that no argument can be brought against the possibility of a

revelation. Further, though it is the province of reason to test this

revealed system, and though it be granted that, should it contain anything

immoral, it must be rejected, yet a careful examination of the particulars

will show that there is no incomprehensibility or difficulty in them which

has not a counterpart in nature. The whole scheme of revealed principles

is, therefore, not unreasonable, and the analogy of nature and natural

religion would lead us to infer its truth. If, finally, it be asked, how a

system professing to be revealed can substantiate its claim, the answer is,

by means of the historical evidences, such as miracles and fulfilment of

prophecy.

It would be unfair to Butler's argument to demand from it answers to

problems which had not in his time arisen, and to which, even if they had

then existed, the plan of his work would not have extended. Yet it is at

least important to ask how far, and in what sense, the _Analogy_ can be

regarded as a positive and valuable contribution to theology. What that

work has done is to prove to the consistent deist that no objections can be

drawn from reason or experience against natural or revealed religion, and,

consequently, that the things objected to are not incredible and may be

proved by external evidence. But the deism of the 17th century is a phase

of thought that has no living reality now, and the whole aspect of the

religious problem has been completely changed. To a generation that has

been moulded by the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, by the historical

criticism of modern theology, and by all that has been done in the field of

comparative religion, the argument of the _Analogy_ cannot but appear to

lie quite outside the field of controversy. To Butler the Christian

religion, and by that he meant the orthodox Church of England system, was a

moral scheme revealed by a special act of the divine providence, the truth

of which was to be judged by the ordinary canons of evidence. The whole

stood or fell on historical grounds. A speculative construction of religion

was abhorrent to him, a thing of which he seems to have thought the human

mind naturally incapable. The religious consciousness does not receive from

him the slightest consideration. The _Analogy_, in fact, has and can have

but little influence on the present state of theology; it was not a book

for all time, but was limited to the problems of the period at which it

appeared.

Throughout the whole of the _Analogy_ it is manifest that the interest

which lay closest to Butler's heart was the ethical. His whole cast of

thinking was practical. The moral nature of man, his conduct in life, is

that on account of which alone an inquiry into religion is of importance.

The systematic account of this moral nature is to be found in the famous

_Sermons preached at the Chapel of the Rolls_, especially in the first

three. In these sermons Butler has made substantial contributions to

ethical science, and it may be said with confidence, that in their own

department nothing superior in value appeared during the long interval

between Aristotle and Kant. To both of these great thinkers he has certain

analogies. He resembles the first in his method of investigating the end

which human nature is intended to realize; he reminds of the other by the

consistency with which he upholds the absolute supremacy of moral law.

In his ethics, as in his theology, Butler had constantly in view a certain

class of adversaries, consisting partly of the philosophic few, partly of

the fashionably educated many, who all participated in one common mode of

thinking. The keynote of this tendency had been struck by Hobbes, in whose

philosophy man was regarded as a mere selfish sensitive machine, moved

solely by pleasures and pains. Cudworth and Clarke had tried to place

ethics on a nobler footing, but their speculations were too abstract for

Butler and not sufficiently "applicable to the several particular relations

and circumstances of life."

His inquiry is based on teleological principles. "Every work, both of

nature and art, is a system; and as every particular thing both natural and

artificial is for some use or purpose out of or beyond itself, one may add

to what has been already brought into the idea of a system its

conduciveness to this one or more ends." Ultimately this view of nature, as

the sphere of the realization of final causes, rests on a theological

basis; but Butler does not introduce prominently into his ethics the

specifically theological groundwork, and may be thought willing to ground

his principle on experience. The ethical question then is, as with

Aristotle, what is the [Greek: telos] of man? The answer to this question

is to be obtained by an analysis of the facts of human nature, whence,

Butler thinks, "it will as fully appear that this our nature, _i.e._

constitution, is adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a watch it appears

that its nature, _i.e._ constitution or system, is adapted to measure

time." Such analysis had been already attempted by Hobbes, and the result

he came to was that man naturally is adapted only for a life of

selfishness,--his end is the procuring of pleasure and the avoidance of

pain. A closer examination, however, shows that this at least is false. The

truth of the counter propositions, that man is [Greek: phusei politikos],

that the full development of his being is impossible apart from society,

becomes manifest on examination of the facts. For while self-love plays a

most important part in the human economy, there is no less evidently a

natural principle of benevolence. Moreover, among the particular [v.04

p.0885] passions, appetites and desires there are some whose tendency is as

clearly towards the general good as that of others is towards the

satisfaction of the self. Finally, that principle in man which reflects

upon actions and the springs of actions, unmistakably sets the stamp of its

approbation upon conduct that tends towards the general good. It is clear,

therefore, that from this point of view the sum of practical morals might

be given in Butler's own words--"that mankind is a community, that we all

stand in a relation to each other, that there is a public end and interest

of society, which each particular is obliged to promote." But deeper

questions remain.

The threefold division into passions and affections, self-love and

benevolence, and conscience, is Butler's celebrated analysis of human

nature as found in his first sermon. But by regarding benevolence less as a

definite desire for the general good as such than as kind affection for

particular individuals, he practically eliminates it as a regulative

principle and reduces the authorities in the polity of the soul to

two--conscience and self-love.

But the idea of human nature is not completely expressed by saying that it

consists of reason and the several passions. "Whoever thinks it worth while

to consider this matter thoroughly should begin by stating to himself

exactly the idea of a system, economy or constitution of any particular

nature; and he will, I suppose, find that it is one or a whole, made up of

several parts, but yet that the several parts, even considered as a whole,

do not complete the idea, unless in the notion of a whole you include the

relations and respects which these parts have to each other." This fruitful

conception of man's ethical nature as an organic unity Butler owes directly

to Shaftesbury and indirectly to Aristotle; it is the strength and

clearness with which he has grasped it that gives peculiar value to his

system.

The special relation among the parts of our nature to which Butler alludes

is the subordination of the particular passions to the universal principle

of reflection or conscience. This relation is the peculiarity, the _cross_,

of man; and when it is said that virtue consists in following nature, we

mean that it consists in pursuing the course of conduct dictated by this

superior faculty. Man's function is not fulfilled by obeying the passions,

or even cool self-love, but by obeying conscience. That conscience has a

natural supremacy, that it is superior in kind, is evident from the part it

plays in the moral constitution. We judge a man to have acted wrongly,

_i.e._ unnaturally, when he allows the gratification of a passion to injure

his happiness, _i.e._ when he acts in accordance with passion and against

self-love. It would be impossible to pass this judgment if self-love were

not regarded as superior in kind to the passions, and this superiority

results from the fact that it is the peculiar province of self-love to take

a view of the several passions and decide as to their relative importance.

But there is in man a faculty which takes into consideration all the

springs of action, including self-love, and passes judgment upon them,

approving some and condemning others. From its very nature this faculty is

supreme in authority, if not in power; it reflects upon all the other

active powers, and pronounces absolutely upon their moral quality.

Superintendency and authority are constituent parts of its very idea. We

are under obligation to obey the law revealed in the judgments of this

faculty, for it is the law of our nature. And to this a religious sanction

may be added, for "consciousness of a rule or guide of action, in creatures

capable of considering it as given them by their Maker, not only raises

immediately a sense of duty, but also a sense of security in following it,

and a sense of danger in deviating from it." Virtue then consists in

following the true law of our nature, that is, conscience. Butler, however,

is by no means very explicit in his analysis of the functions to be

ascribed to conscience. He calls it the Principle of Reflection, the Reflex

Principle of Approbation, and assigns to it as its province the motives or

propensions to action. It takes a view of these, approves or disapproves,

impels to or restrains from action. But at times he uses language that

almost compels one to attribute to him the popular view of conscience as

passing its judgments with unerring certainty on individual acts. Indeed

his theory is weakest exactly at the point where the real difficulty

begins. We get from him no satisfactory answer to the inquiry, What course

of action is approved by conscience? Every one, he seems to think, knows

what virtue is, and a philosophy of ethics is complete if it can be shown

that such a course of action harmonizes with human nature. When pressed

still further, he points to justice, veracity and the common good as

comprehensive ethical ends. His whole view of the moral government led him

to look upon human nature and virtue as connected by a sort of

pre-established harmony. His ethical principle has in it no possibility of

development into a system of actual duties; it has no content. Even on the

formal side it is a little difficult to see what part conscience plays. It

seems merely to set the stamp of its approbation on certain courses of

action to which we are led by the various passions and affections; it has

in itself no originating power. How or why it approves of some and not of

others is left unexplained. Butler's moral theory, like those of his

English contemporaries and successors, is defective from not perceiving

that the notion of duty can have real significance only when connected with

the will or practical reason, and that only in reason which wills itself

have we a principle capable of development into an ethical system. It has

received very small consideration at the hands of German historians of

ethics.

AUTHORITIES.--See T. Bartlett, _Memoirs of Butler_ (1839). The standard

edition of Butler's works is that in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1844). Editions of

the _Analogy_ are very numerous; that by Bishop William Fitzgerald (1849)

contains a valuable Life and Notes. W. Whewell published an edition of the

_Three Sermons_, with Introduction. Modern editions of the _Works_ are

those by W.E. Gladstone (2 vols. with a 3rd vol. of _Studies Subsidiary_,

1896), and J.H. Bernard, (2 vols. in the English Theological Library,

1900). For the history of the religious works contemporary with the

_Analogy_, see Lechler, _Gesch. d. Engl. Deismus_; M. Pattison, in _Essays

and Reviews_; W. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_, vols., ii. and iii.;

L. Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_; J.H. Overton and F.

Relton, _The English Church from the Accession of George I. to the End of

the 18th Century_.

(R. AD.; A. J. G.)

BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862- ), American educator, was born at Elizabeth,

New Jersey, on the 2nd of April 1862. He graduated at Columbia College in

1882, was a graduate fellow in philosophy there from 1882 to 1884, when he

took the degree of Ph.D., and then studied for a year in Paris and Berlin.

He was an assistant in philosophy at Columbia in 1885-1886, tutor in

1886-1889, adjunct professor of philosophy, ethics and psychology in

1889-1890, becoming full professor in 1890, and dean of the faculty of

philosophy in 1890-1902. From 1887 until 1891 he was the first president of

the New York college for the training of teachers (later the Teachers'

College of Columbia University), which he had personally planned and

organized. In 1891 he founded and afterwards edited the _Educational

Review_, an influential educational magazine. He soon came to be looked

upon as one of the foremost authorities on educational matters in America,

and in 1894 was elected president of the National Educational Association.

He was also a member of the New Jersey state board of education from 1887

to 1895, and was president of the Paterson (N.J.) board of education in

1892-1893. In 1901 he succeeded Seth Low as president of Columbia

University. Besides editing several series of books, including "The Great

Educators" and "The Teachers' Professional Library," he published _The

Meaning of Education_ (1898), a collection of essays; and two series of

addresses, _True and False Democracy_ (1907), and _The American as he is_

(1908).

BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612-1680), English poet, author of

_Hudibras_, son of Samuel Butler, a small farmer, was baptized at

Strensham, Worcestershire, on the 8th of February 1612. He was educated at

the King's school, Worcester, under Henry Bright, the record of whose zeal

as a teacher is preserved by Fuller (_Worthies_, Worcestershire). After

leaving school he served a Mr Jeffereys of Earl's Croome, Worcestershire,

in the capacity of justice's clerk, and is supposed to have thus gained his

knowledge of law and law terms. He also employed himself at Earl's Croome

in general study, and particularly in painting, which he is said to have

thought of adopting as a profession. It is probable, however, that art has

not lost by his change of mind, for, according to one of his editors, in

1774 his pictures "served to stop windows and save the tax; indeed they

were not fit for much else." He was then recommended to Elizabeth, countess

of Kent. At her home at Wrest, Bedfordshire, he had access to a good

library, and there too he met Selden, who sometimes employed him as his

secretary. But his third sojourn, with Sir Samuel Luke at Cople Hoo,

Bedfordshire, was not only apparently the longest, but also much the most

important in its effects on his career and works. We are nowhere informed

in what capacity Butler served Sir Samuel Luke, or how he came to reside in

the house of a noted Puritan and Parliament man. In the family of this

"valiant Mamaluke," who, whether he was or was not the original of

Hudibras, was certainly a rigid Presbyterian, "a colonel in the army of the

Parliament, scoutmaster-general for Bedfordshire and governor of Newport

Pagnell," Butler must have had the most abundant opportunities of studying

from the life those who were to be the victims of his satire; he is

supposed to have taken some hints for his caricature from Sir Henry

Rosewell of Ford Abbey, Devonshire. But we know nothing positive of him

until the Restoration, when he was appointed secretary to Richard Vaughan,

2nd earl of Carbery, lord president of the principality of Wales, who made

him steward of Ludlow Castle, an office which he held from January 1661

[v.04 p.0886] to January 1662. About this time he married a rich lady,

variously described as a Miss Herbert and as a widow named Morgan. His

wife's fortune was afterwards, however, lost.

Early in 1663 _Hudibras: The First Part: written in the Time of the Late

Wars_, was published, but this, the first genuine edition, had been

preceded in 1662 by an unauthorized one. On the 26th of December Pepys

bought it, and though neither then nor afterwards could he see the wit of

"so silly an abuse of the Presbyter knight going to the wars," he

repeatedly testifies to its extraordinary popularity. A spurious second

part appeared within the year. This determined the poet to bring out the

second part (licensed on the 7th of November 1663, printed 1664), which if

possible exceeded the first in popularity. From this time till 1678, the

date of the publication of the third part, we hear nothing certain of

Butler. On the publication of _Hudibras_ he was sent for by Lord Chancellor

Hyde (Clarendon), says Aubrey, and received many promises, none of which

was fulfilled. He is said to have received a gift of £300 from Charles II.,

and to have been secretary to George Villiers, 2nd duke of Buckingham, when

the latter was chancellor of the university of Cambridge. Most of his

biographers, in their eagerness to prove the ill-treatment which Butler is

supposed to have received, disbelieve both these stories, perhaps without

sufficient reason. Butler's satire on Buckingham in his _Characters_

(_Remains_, 1759) shows such an intimate knowledge that it is probable the

second story is true. Two years after the publication of the third part of

_Hudibras_ he died, on the 25th of September 1680, and was buried by his

friend Longueville, a bencher of the Middle Temple, in the churchyard of St

Paul's, Covent Garden. He was, we are told, "of a leonine-coloured hair,

sanguine, choleric, middle-sized, strong." A portrait by Lely at Oxford and

others elsewhere represent him as somewhat hard-featured.

Of the neglect of Butler by the court something must be said. It must be

remembered that the complaints on the subject supposed to have been uttered

by the poet all occur in the spurious posthumous works, that men of letters

have been at all times but too prone to complain of lack of patronage, that

Butler's actual service was rendered when the day was already won, and that

the pathetic stories of the poet starving and dying in want are

contradicted by the best authority--Charles Longueville, son of the poet's

friend--who asserted that Butler, though often disappointed, was never

reduced to anything like want or beggary and did not die in any person's

debt. But the most significant notes on the subject are Aubrey's,[1] that

"he might have had preferments at first, but would not accept any but very

good, so at last he had none at all, and died in want"; and the memorandum

of the same author, that "satirical wits disoblige whom they converse with,

&c., consequently make to themselves many enemies and few friends, and this

was his manner and case."

Three monuments have been erected to the poet's memory--the first in

Westminster Abbey in 1721, by John Barber, mayor of London, who is

spitefully referred to by Pope for daring to connect his name with

Butler's. In 1786 a tablet was placed in St Paul's, Covent Garden, by

residents of the parish. This was destroyed in 1845. Later, another was set

up at Strensham by John Taylor of that place. Perhaps the happiest epitaph

on him is one by John Dennis, which calls Butler "a whole species of poets

in one."

_Hudibras_ itself, though probably quoted as often as ever, has dropped

into the class of books which are more quoted than read. In reading it, it

is of the utmost importance to comprehend clearly and to bear constantly in

mind the purpose of the author in writing it. This purpose is evidently not

artistic but polemic, to show in the most unmistakable characters the

vileness and folly of the anti-royalist party. Anything like a regular

plot--the absence of which has often been deplored or excused--would have

been for this end not merely a superfluity but a mistake, as likely to

divert the attention and perhaps even enlist some sympathy for the heroes.

Anything like regular character-drawing would have been equally unnecessary

and dangerous--for to represent anything but monsters, some alleviating

strokes must have been introduced. The problem, therefore, was to produce

characters just sufficiently unlike lay-figures to excite and maintain a

moderate interest, and to set them in motion by dint of a few incidents not

absolutely unconnected,--meanwhile to subject the principles and manners of

which these characters were the incarnation to ceaseless satire and

raillery. The triumphant solution of the problem is undeniable, when it has

once been enunciated and understood. Upon a canvas thus prepared and

outlined, Butler has embroidered a collection of flowers of wit, which only

the utmost fertility or imagination could devise, and the utmost patience

of industry elaborate. In the union of these two qualities he is certainly

without a parallel, and their combination has produced a work which is

unique. The poem is of considerable length, extending to more than ten

thousand verses, yet Hazlitt hardly exaggerates when he says that "half the

lines are got by heart"; indeed a diligent student of later English

literature has read great part of _Hudibras_ though he may never have

opened its pages. The tableaux or situations, though few and simple in

construction, are ludicrous enough. The knight and squire setting forth on

their journey; the routing of the bear-baiters; the disastrous renewal of

the contest; Hudibras and Ralph in the stocks; the lady's release and

conditional acceptance of the unlucky knight; the latter's deliberations on

the means of eluding his vow; the Skimmington; the visit to Sidrophel, the

astrologer; the attempt to cajole the lady, with its woeful consequences;

the consultation with the lawyer, and the immortal pair of letters to which

this gives rise, complete the argument of the whole poem. But the story is

as nothing; throughout we have little really kept before us but the sordid

vices of the sectaries, their hypocrisy, their churlish ungraciousness,

their greed of money and authority, their fast and loose morality, their

inordinate pride. The extraordinary felicity of the means taken to place

all these things in the most ridiculous light has never been questioned.

The doggerel metre, never heavy or coarse, but framed as to be the very

voice of mocking laughter, the astounding similes and disparates, the

rhymes which seem to chuckle and to sneer of themselves, the wonderful

learning with which the abuse of learning is rebuked, the subtlety with

which subtle casuistry is set at nought can never be missed. Keys like

those of L'Estrange are therefore of little use. It signifies nothing

whether Hudibras was Sir Samuel Luke of Bedfordshire or Sir Henry Rosewell

of Devonshire, still less whether Ralph's name in the flesh was Robinson or

Pendle, least of all that Orsin was perhaps Mr Gosling, or Trulla possibly

Miss Spencer. Butler was probably as little indebted to mere copying for

his characters as for his ideas and style. These latter are in the highest

degree original. The first notion of the book, and only the first notion,

Butler undoubtedly received from _Don Quixote_. His obligations to the

_Satyre Ménippée_ have been noticed by Voltaire, and though English writers

have sometimes ignored or questioned them, are not to be doubted. The art,

perhaps the most terrible of all the weapons of satire, of making

characters without any great violation of probability represent themselves

in the most atrocious and despicable light, was never perhaps possessed in

perfection except by Pithou and his colleagues and by Butler. Against these

great merits some defects must certainly be set. As a whole, the poem is no

doubt tedious, if only on account of the very blaze of wit, which at length

almost wearies us by its ceaseless demands on our attention. It should,

however, be remembered that it was originally issued in parts, and

therefore, it may be supposed, intended to be read in parts, for there can

be little doubt that the second part was written before the first was

published. A more real defect, but one which Butler shares with all his

contemporaries, is the tendency to delineate humours instead of characters,

and to draw from the outside rather than from within.

Attempts have been made to trace the manner and versification of _Hudibras_

to earlier writers, especially in Cleveland's satires and in the _Musarum

Deliciae_ of Sir John Mennis (Pepys's Minnes) and Dr James Smith

(1605-1667). But if it had few [v.04 p.0887] ancestors it had an abundant

offspring. A list of twenty-seven direct imitations of _Hudibras_ in the

course of a century may be found in the Aldine edition (1893). Complete

translations of considerable excellence have been made into French (London,

1757 and 1819) by John Townley (1697-1782), a member of the Irish Brigade;

and into German by D.W. Soltau (Riga, 1787); specimens of both may be found

in R. Bell's edition. Voltaire tried his hand at a compressed version, but

not with happy results.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Butler's works published during his life include, besides

_Hudibras_: _To the Memory of the most renowned Du Vall: A Pindaric Ode_

(1671); and a prose pamphlet against the Puritans, _Two Letters, one from

J. Audland ... to W. Prynne, the other Prynne's Answer_ (1672). In

1715-1717 three volumes, entitled _Posthumous Works in Prose and Verse ...

with a key to Hudibras by Sir Roger l'Estrange ..._ were published with

great success. Most of the contents, however, are generally rejected as

spurious. The poet's papers, now in the British Museum (Addit. MSS.

32,625-6), remained in the hands of his friend William Longueville, and

after his death were left untouched until 1759, when Robert Thyer, keeper

of the public library at Manchester, edited two volumes of verse and prose

under the title of _Genuine Remains in Verse and Prose of Mr Samuel

Butler_. This collection contained _The Elephant in the Moon_, a satire on

the Royal Society; a series of sketches in prose, _Characters_; and some

satirical poems and prose pamphlets. Another edition, _Poetical Remains_,

was issued by Thyer in 1827. In 1726 Hogarth executed some illustrations to

_Hudibras_, which are among his earliest but not, perhaps, happiest

productions. In 1744 Dr Zachary Grey published an edition of _Hudibras_,

with copious and learned annotations; and an additional volume of _Critical

and Historical and Explanatory Notes_ in 1752. Grey's has formed the basis

of all subsequent editions.

Other pieces published separately and ascribed to Butler are: _A Letter

from Mercurius Civicus to Mercurius Rusticus, or London's Confession but

not repentance ..._ (1643), represented in vol. iv. of Somers's tracts;

_Mola Asinarum, on the unreasonable and insupportable burthen now pressed

... upon this groaning nation ..._ (1659), included in his posthumous

works, which is supposed to have been written by John Prynne, though Wood

ascribes it to Butler; _The Acts and monuments of our late parliament ..._

(1659, printed 1710), of which a continuation appeared in 1659; a

"character" of Charles I. (1671); _A New Ballad of King Edward and Jane

Shore ..._ (1671); _A Congratulatory poem ... to Sir Joseph Sheldon ..._

(1675); _The Geneva Ballad, or the occasional conformist display'd_ (1674);

_The Secret history of the Calves head club, compleat ..._ (4th edition,

1707); _The Morning's Salutation, or a friendly conference between a

puritan preacher and a family of his flock ..._ (reprinted, Dublin, 1714).

Two tracts of his appear in Somers's _Tracts_, vol. vii.; he contributed to

_Ovid's Epistles translated by several hands_ (1680); and works by him are

included in _Miscellaneous works, written by ... George Duke of Buckingham

... also State Poems ... (by various hands)_ (1704); and in _The Grove ..._

(1721), a poetic miscellany, is a "Satyr against Marriage," not found in

his works.

The life of Butler was written by an anonymous author, said by William

Oldys to be Sir James Astrey, and prefixed to the edition of 1704. The

writer professes to supplement and correct the notice given by Anthony à

Wood in _Athenae Oxonienses_. Dr Threadneedle Russel Nash, a Worcestershire

antiquarian, supplied some additional facts in an edition of 1793. See the

Aldine edition of the _Poetical Works of Samuel Butler_ (1893), edited by

Reginald Brimley Johnson, with complete bibliographical information. There

is a good reprint of _Hudibras_ (edited by Mr A.R. Waller, 1905) in the

_Cambridge Classics_.

[1] _Letters written by Eminent Persons ... and Lives of Eminent Men_, by

John Aubrey, Esq. (2 vols., 1813).

BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839), English classical scholar and schoolmaster, and

bishop of Lichfield, was born at Kenilworth on the 30th of January 1774. He

was educated at Rugby, and in 1792 went to St John's College, Cambridge.

Butler's classical career was a brilliant one. He obtained three of Sir

William Browne's medals, for the Latin (1792) and Greek (1793, 1794) odes,

the medal for the Greek ode in 1792 being won by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.

In 1793 Butler was elected to the Craven scholarship, amongst the

competitors being John Keate, afterwards headmaster of Eton, and Coleridge.

In 1796 he was fourth senior op time and senior chancellor's classical

medallist. In 1797 and 1798 he obtained the members' prize for Latin essay.

He took the degree of B.A. in 1796, M.A. 1799, and D.D. 1811. In 1797 he

was elected a fellow of St John's, and in 1798 became headmaster of

Shrewsbury school. In 1802 he was presented to the living of Kenilworth, in

1807 to a prebendal stall in Lichfield cathedral, and in 1822 to the

archdeaconry of Derby; all these appointments he held with his

headmastership, but in 1836 he was promoted to the bishopric of Lichfield

(and Coventry, which was separated from his diocese in the same year). He

died on the 4th of December 1839. It is in connexion with Shrewsbury school

that Butler will be chiefly remembered. During his headmastership its

reputation greatly increased, and in the standard of its scholarship it

stood as high as any other public school in England. His edition of

Aeschylus, with the text and notes of Stanley, appeared 1809-1816, and was

somewhat severely criticized in the _Edinburgh Review_, but Butler was

prevented by his elevation to the episcopate from, revising it. He also

wrote a _Sketch of Modern and Ancient Geography_ (1813, frequently

reprinted) for use in schools, and brought out atlases of ancient and

modern geography. His large library included a fine collection of Aldine

editions and Greek and Latin MSS.; the Aldines were sold by auction, the

MSS. purchased by the British Museum.

Butler's life has been written by his grandson, Samuel Butler, author of

_Erewhon_ (_Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Butler_, 1896); see also Baker's

_History of St John's College, Cambridge_ (ed. J.E.B. Mayor, 1869); Sandys,

_Hist. Class. Schol._ (ed. 1908), vol. iii. p. 398.

BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902), English author, son of the Rev. Thomas Butler,

and grandson of the foregoing, was born at Langar, near Bingham,

Nottinghamshire, on the 4th of December 1835. He was educated at Shrewsbury

school, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He took a high place in the

classical tripos of 1858, and was intended for the Church. His opinions,

however, prevented his carrying out this intention, and he sailed to New

Zealand in the autumn of 1859. He owned a sheep run in the Upper Rangitata

district of the province of Canterbury, and in less than five years was

able to return home with a moderate competence, most of which was

afterwards lost in unlucky investments. The Rangitata district supplied the

setting for his romance of _Erewhon, or Over the Range_ (1872), satirizing

the Darwinian theory and conventional religion. _Erewhon_ had a sequel

thirty years later (1901) in _Erewhon Revisited_, in which the narrator of

the earlier romance, who had escaped from Erewhon in a balloon, finds

himself, on revisiting the country after a considerable interval, the

object of a topsy-turvy cult, to which he gave the name of "Sunchildism."

In 1873 he had published a book of similar tendency, _The Fair Haven_,

which purported to be a "work in defence of the miraculous element in our

Lord's ministry upon earth" by a fictitious J.P. Owen, of whom he wrote a

memoir. Butler was a man of great versatility, who pursued his

investigations in classical scholarship, in Shakespearian criticism,

biology and art with equal independence and originality. On his return from

New Zealand he had established himself at Clifford's Inn, and studied

painting, exhibiting regularly in the Academy between 1868 and 1876. But

with the publication of _Life and Habit_ (1877) he began to recognize

literature as his life work. The book was followed by three others,

attacking Darwinism--_Evolution Old and New, or the Theories of Buffon, Dr

Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck as compared with that of Mr C. Darwin_ (1879);

_Unconscious Memory_ (1880), a comparison between the theory of Dr E.

Hering and the _Philosophy of the Unconscious_ of Dr E. von Hartmann; and

_Luck or Cunning_ (1886). He had a thorough knowledge of northern Italy and

its art. In _Ex Voto_ (1888) he introduced many English readers to the art

of Tabachetti and Gaudenzio Ferrari at Varallo. He learnt nearly the whole

of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ by heart, and translated both poems (1898

and 1900) into colloquial English prose. In his _Authoress of the Odyssey_

(1897) he propounded two theories: that the poem was the work of a woman,

who drew her own portrait in Nausicaa; and that it was written at Trapani,

in Sicily, a proposition which he supported by elaborate investigations on

the spot. In another book on the _Shakespeare Sonnets_ (1899) he aimed at

destroying the explanations of the orthodox commentators.

Butler was also a musician, or, as he called himself, a Handelian, and in

imitation of the style of Handel he wrote in collaboration with H. Festing

Jones a secular oratorio, _Narcissus_ (1888), and had completed his share

of another, _Ulysses_, at the time of his death on the 18th of June 1902.

His other works include: _Life and Letters_ (1896) of Dr Samuel Butler, his

[v.04 p.0888] grandfather, headmaster of Shrewsbury school and afterwards

bishop of Lichfield; _Alps and Sanctuaries_ (1881); and two posthumous

works edited by R.A. Streatfeild, _The Way of All Flesh_ (1903), a novel;

and _Essays on Life, Art and Science_ (1904).

See _Samuel Butler, Records and Memorials_ (1903), by R.A. Streatfeild, a

collection printed for private circulation, the most important article

included being one by H. Festing Jones originally published in _The Eagle_

(Cambridge, December 1902).

BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848), Irish historian of philosophy, was born

at Annerville, near Clonmel in Ireland, probably in 1814. His father was a

Protestant, his mother a Roman Catholic, and he was brought up as a

Catholic. As a boy he was imaginative and poetical, and some of his early

verses were remarkable. While yet at Clonmel school he became a Protestant.

Later he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a brilliant career.

He specially devoted himself to literature and metaphysics, and was noted

for the beauty of his style. In 1834 he gained the ethical moderatorship,

newly instituted by Provost Lloyd, and continued in residence at college.

In 1837 he decided to enter the Church, and in the same year he was elected

to the professorship of moral philosophy, specially founded for him through

Lloyd's exertions. About the same time he was presented to the prebend of

Clondahorky, Donegal, and resided there when not called by his professorial

duties to Dublin. In 1842 he was promoted to the rectory of Raymochy. He

died on the 5th of July 1848. His _Sermons_ (2 vols., 1849) were remarkably

brilliant and forceful. The _Lectures on the History of Ancient

Philosophy_, edited by W. Hepworth Thompson (2 vols., 1856; 2nd ed., 1 vol.

1875), take a high place among the few British works on the history of

philosophy. The introductory lectures, and those on the early Greek

thinkers, though they evidence wide reading, do not show the complete

mastery that is found in Schwegler or Zeller; but the lectures on Plato are

of considerable value. Among his other writings were papers in the _Dublin

University Magazine_ (1834-1837); and "Letters on Development" (in the

_Irish Ecclesiastical Journal_, 1845), a reply to Newman's famous _Essay on

the Development of Christian Doctrine_.

See _Memoir of W.A. Butler_, prefixed by Rev. J. Woodward to first series

of _Sermons_.

BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838- ), British soldier, entered the army as

an ensign in 1858, becoming captain in 1872 and major in 1874. He took part

with distinction in the Red River expedition (1870-71) and the Ashanti

operations of 1873-74 under Wolseley, and received the C.B. in 1874. He

served with the same general in the Zulu War (brevet lieut.-colonel), the

campaign of Tel-el-Kebir, after which he was made an aide-de-camp to the

queen, and the Sudan 1884-85, being employed as colonel on the staff 1885,

and brigadier-general 1885-1886. In the latter year he was made a K.C.B. He

was colonel on the staff in Egypt 1890-1892, and brigadier-general there

until 1892, when he was promoted major-general and stationed at Aldershot,

after which he commanded the southeastern district. In 1898 he succeeded

General Goodenough as commander-in-chief in South Africa, with the local

rank of lieutenant-general. For a short period (Dec. 1898-Feb. 1899),

during the absence of Sir Alfred Milner in England, he acted as high

commissioner, and as such and subsequently in his military capacity he

expressed views on the subject of the probabilities of war which were not

approved by the home government; he was consequently ordered home to

command the western district, and held this post until 1905. He also held

the Aldershot command for a brief period in 1900-1901. Sir William Butler

was promoted lieutenant-general in 1900. He had long been known as a

descriptive writer, since his publication of _The Great Lone Land_ (1872)

and other works, and he was the biographer (1899) of Sir George Colley. He

married in 1877 Miss Elizabeth Thompson, an accomplished painter of

battle-scenes, notably "The Roll Call" (1874), "Quatre Bras" (1875),

"Rorke's Drift" (1881), "The Camel Corps" (1891), and "The Dawn of

Waterloo" (1895).

BUTLER, a borough and the county-seat of Butler county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., on Conoquenessing Creek, about 30 m. N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890)

8734; (1900) 10,853, of whom 928 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,728.

It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo,

Rochester & Pittsburg, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and is

connected with Pittsburg by two electric lines. It is built on a small hill

about 1010 ft. above sea-level, and commands extensive views of the

surrounding valley. The Butler County hospital (1899) is located here. A

fair is held in Butler annually. Oil, natural gas, clay, coal and iron

abound in the vicinity, and the borough has various manufactures, including

lumber, railway cars (especially of steel), paint, silk, bricks,

plate-glass, bottles and oil-well tools. The value of the city's factory

products increased from $1,403,026 in 1900 to $6,832,007 in 1905, or

386.9%, this being much the greatest rate of increase shown by any city in

the state having in 1900 a population of 8000 or more. Butler was selected

as the site for the county-seat of the newly-formed county in 1802, was

laid out in 1803, and was incorporated in the same year. The county and the

borough were named in honour of General Richard Butler, a soldier in the

War of Independence and leader of the right wing of General St Clair's

army, which was sent against the Indians in 1791 and on the 4th of November

was defeated, Butler being killed in the engagement.

BUTLER (through the O. Fr. _bouteillier_, from the Late Lat.

_buticularius_, _buticula_, a bottle), a domestic servant who superintends

the wine-cellar and acts as the chief male servant of a household; among

his other duties are the conduct of the service of the table and the

custody of the plate. The butler of a royal household was an official of

high rank, whose duties, though primarily connected with the supply of wine

for the royal table, varied in the different courts in which the office

appears. In England, as superintendent of the importation of wine, a duty

was payable to him (see BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE); the butlership of Ireland,

_Pincerna Hiberniae_, was given by John, king of England, to Theobald

Walter, who added the name of Butler to his own; it then became the surname

of his descendants, the earls, dukes and marquesses of Ormonde (see BUTLER,

family, above).

BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE. In England there was an ancient right of the crown

to purveyance or pre-emption, _i.e._ the right of buying up provisions and

other necessities for the royal household, at a valuation, even without the

consent of the owner. Out of this right originated probably that of taking

customs, in return for the protection and maintenance of the ports and

harbours. One such customs due was that of "prisage," the right of taking

one tun of wine from every ship importing from ten to twenty tuns, and two

tuns from every ship importing more than twenty tuns. This right of prisage

was commuted, by a charter of Edward I. (1302), into a duty of two

shillings on every tun imported by merchant strangers, and termed

"butlerage," because paid to the king's butler. Butlerage ceased to be

levied in 1809, by the Customs Consolidation Act of that year.

BUTO, the Greek name of the Egyptian goddess Uto (hierogl. _W'zy·t_),

confused with the name of her city Buto (see BUSIRIS). She was a

cobra-goddess of the marshes, worshipped especially in the city of Buto in

the north-west of the Delta, and at another Buto (Hdt. ii. 75) in the

north-east of the Delta, now Tell Nebesheh. The former city is placed by

Petrie at Tell Ferain, a large and important site, but as yet yielding no

inscriptions. This western Buto was the capital of the kingdom of Northern

Egypt in prehistoric times before the two kingdoms were united; hence the

goddess Buto was goddess of Lower Egypt and the North. To correspond to the

vulture goddess (Nekhbi) of the south she sometimes is given the form of a

vulture; she is also figured in human form. As a serpent she is commonly

twined round a papyrus stem, which latter spells her name; and generally

she wears the crown of Lower Egypt. The Greeks identified her with Leto;

this may be accounted for partly by the resemblance of name, partly by the

myth of her having brought up Horus in a floating island, resembling the

story of Leto and Apollo on Delos. Perhaps the two myths influenced each

other. Herodotus describes the temple and other sacred [v.04 p.0889] places

of (the western) Buto, and refers to its festival, and to its oracle, which

must have been important though nothing definite is known about it. It is

strange that a city whose leading in the most ancient times was fully

recognized throughout Egyptian history does not appear in the early lists

of nome-capitals. Like Thebes, however (which lay in the 4th nome of Upper

Egypt, its early capital being Hermonthis), it eventually became, at a very

late date, the capital of a nome, in this case called Phtheneto, "the land

of (the goddess) Buto." The second Buto (hierogl. _'Im·t_) was capital from

early times of the 19th nome of Lower Egypt.

See Herodotus ii. 155; _Zeitschr. f. ägyptische Sprache_ (1871), I; K.

Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, _s.v._ "Buto"; D.G. Hogarth,

_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxiv. I; W.M.F. Petrie, _Ehnasya_, p. 36;

_Nebesheh and Defenneh_.

(F. LL. G.)

BUTRINTO, a seaport and fortified town of southern Albania, Turkey, in the

vilayet of Iannina; directly opposite the island of Corfu (Corcyra), and on

a small stream which issues from Lake Vatzindro or Vivari, into the Bay of

Butrinto, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. Pop.(1900) about 2000. The town,

which is situated about 2 m. inland, has a small harbour, and was formerly

the seat of an Orthodox bishop. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the

ancient _Buthrotum_, from which the modern town derives its name. The ruins

consist of a Roman wall, about a mile in circumference, and some remains of

both later and Hellenic work. The legendary founder of the city was

Helenus, son of Priam, and Virgil (_Aen._ iii. 291 sq.) tells how Helenus

here established a new Trojan kingdom. Hence the names _New Troy_ and _New

Pergamum_, applied to Buthrotum, and those of _Xanthus_ and _Simoïs_, given

to two small streams in the neighbourhood. In the 1st century B.C.

Buthrotum became a Roman colony, and derived some importance from its

position near Corcyra, and on the main highway between Dyrrachium and

Ambracia. Under the Empire, however, it was overshadowed by the development

of Dyrrachium and Apollonia. The modern city belonged to the Venetians from

the 14th century until 1797. It was then seized by the French, who in 1799

had to yield to the Russians and Turks.

BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879), Irish lawyer and Nationalist leader, was born at

Glenfin, Donegal, in 1813, his father being the Episcopalian rector of

Stranorlar. Having won high honours at Trinity, Dublin, he was appointed

professor of political economy in 1836. In 1838 he was called to the bar,

and not only soon obtained a good practice, but became known as a

politician on the Protestant Conservative side, and an opponent of

O'Connell. In 1844 he was made a Q.C. He figured in nearly all the

important Irish law cases for many years, and was engaged in the defence of

Smith O'Brien in 1848, and of the Fenians between 1865 and 1869. In 1852 he

was returned to parliament by Youghal as a Liberal-Conservative, and

retained this seat till 1865; but his views gradually became more liberal,

and he drifted away from his earlier opinions. His career in parliament was

marred by his irregular habits, which resulted in pecuniary embarrassment,

and between 1865 and 1870 he returned again to his work at the law courts.

The result, however, of the disestablishment of the Irish Church was to

drive Butt and other Irish Protestants into union with the Nationalists,

who had always repudiated the English connexion; and on 19th May 1870, at a

large meeting in Dublin, Butt inaugurated the Home Rule movement in a

speech demanding an Irish parliament for local affairs. On this platform he

was elected in 1871 for Limerick, and found himself at the head of an Irish

Home Rule party of fifty-seven members. But it was an ill-assorted union,

and Butt soon found that he had little or no control over his more

aggressive followers. He had no liking for violent methods or for

"obstruction" in parliament; and his leadership gradually became a nullity.

His false position undoubtedly assisted in breaking down his health, and he

died in Dublin on the 5th of May 1879.

BUTT. (1) (From the Fr. _botte_, _boute_; Med. Lat. _butta_, a wine

vessel), a cask for ale or wine, with a capacity of about two hogsheads.

(2) (A word common in Teutonic languages, meaning short, or a stump), the

thick end of anything, as of a fishing-rod, a gun, a whip, also the stump

of a tree. (3) (From the Fr. _but_, a goal or mark, and _butte_, a target,

a rising piece of ground, &c.), a mark for shooting, as in archery, or, in

its modern use, a mound or bank in front of which are placed the targets in

artillery or musketry practice. This is sometimes called a "stop-butt," its

purpose being to secure the ground behind the targets from stray shots. The

word is used figuratively of a person or object at which derision or abuse

are levelled.

BUTTE, the largest city of Montana, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Silver

Bow county. It is situated in the valley of Deer Lodge river, near its

head, at an altitude of about 5700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3363; (1890) 10,723;

(1900) 30,470, of whom 10,210 were foreign-born, including 2474 Irish, 1518

English-Canadians, and 1505 English; (1910 census) 39,165. It is served by

the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget

Sound, the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, and the Oregon Short Line railways.

Popularly the name "Butte" is applied to an area which embraces the city,

Centerville, Walkerville, East Butte, South Butte and Williamsburg. These

together form one large and more or less compact city. Butte lies in the

centre of the greatest copper-mining district in the world; the surrounding

hills are honey-combed with mines, and some mines are in the very heart of

the city itself. The best known of the copper mines is the Anaconda. The

annual output of copper from the Butte district almost equals that from all

the rest of the country together; the annual value of copper, gold and

silver aggregates more than $60,000,000. Although mining and its allied

industries of quartz crushing and smelting dominate all other industries in

the place, there are also foundries and machine shops, iron-works, tile

factories, breweries and extensive planing mills. Electricity, used in the

mines particularly, is brought to Butte from Cañon Ferry, 75 m. to the N.;

from the plant, also on the Missouri river, of the Helena Power

Transmission Company, which has a great steel dam 85 ft. high and 630 ft.

long across the river, and a 6000-h.p. substation in Butte; and from the

plant of the Madison River Power Company, on Madison river 7½ m. S.E. of

Norris, whence power is also transmitted to Bozeman and Belgrade, Gallatin

county, to Ruby, Madison county, and to the Greene-Campbell mine near

Whitehall, Jefferson county. In 1910 Butte had only one large smelter, and

the smoke nuisance was thus abated. The city is the seat of the Montana

School of Mines (1900), and has a state industrial school, a high school

and a public library (rebuilt in 1906 after a fire) with more than 32,000

volumes. The city hall, Federal building and Silver Bow county court house

are among the principal buildings. Butte was first settled as a placer

mining camp in 1864. It was platted in 1866; its population in 1870 was

only 241, and for many years its growth was slow. Prosperity came, however,

with the introduction of quartz mining in 1875, and in 1879 a city charter

was granted. In the decade from 1890 to 1900 Butte's increase in population

was 184.2%.

BUTTE (O. Fr. _butte_, a hillock or rising ground), a word used in the

western states of North America for a flat-topped hill surrounded by a

steep escarpment from which a slope descends to the plain. It is sometimes

used for "an elevation higher than a hill but not high enough for a

mountain." The butte capped by a horizontal platform of hard rock is

characteristic of the arid plateau region of the west of North America.

[Illustration: Plant of _Ranunculus bulbosus_, showing determinate

inflorescence.]

BUTTER (Lat. _butyrum_, Gr. [Greek: bouturon], apparently connected with

[Greek: bous], cow, and [Greek: turos], cheese, but, according to the _New

English Dictionary_, perhaps of Scythian origin), the fatty portion of the

milk of mammalian animals. The milk of all mammals contains such fatty

constituents, and butter from the milk of goats, sheep and other animals

has been and may be used; but that yielded by cow's milk is the most

savoury, and it alone really constitutes the butter of commerce. The milk

of the various breeds of cattle varies widely in the proportion of fatty

matter it contains; its richness in this respect being greatly influenced

by season, nature of food, state of the animals' health and other

considerations. Usually the cream is skimmed off the surface of the milk

for making butter, but by some the churning is performed on the milk itself

without waiting for the [v.04 p.0890] separation of the cream. The

operation of churning causes the rupture of the oil sacs, and by the

coalescence of the fat so liberated butter is formed. Details regarding

churning and the preparation of butter generally will be found under DAIRY

AND DAIRY FARMING.

BUTTERCUP, a name applied to several species of the genus _Ranunculus_

(_q.v._), characterized by their deeply-cut leaves and yellow, broadly

cup-shaped flowers. _Ranunculus acris_ and _R. bulbosus_ are erect, hairy

meadow plants, the latter having the stem swollen at the base, and

distinguished also by the furrowed flower-stalks and the often smaller

flowers with reflexed, not spreading, sepals. _R. repens_, common on waste

ground, produces long runners by means of which it rapidly covers the

ground. The plants are native in the north temperate to arctic zones of the

Old World, and have been introduced in America.

BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL (1831-1901), American soldier, was born in Utica, New

York. He graduated at Union College in 1849, and when the Civil War broke

out he became colonel of the 12th New York militia regiment. On the 14th of

May 1861 he was transferred to the regular army as a lieutenant-colonel,

and in September he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He served in

Virginia in 1861 and in the Peninsular campaign of 1862, and was wounded at

Games' Mill. He took part in the campaign of second Bull Run (August 1862),

and in November became major-general U.S.V. and in July 1863 colonel U.S.A.

At Fredericksburg he commanded the V. corps, in which he had served since

its formation. After General Hooker succeeded Burnside, Butterfield was

appointed chief of staff, Army of the Potomac, and in this capacity he

served in the Chancellorsville and Gettysburg campaigns. Not being on good

terms with General Meade he left the staff, and was soon afterwards sent as

chief of staff to Hooker, with the XI. and XII. corps (later combined as

the XX.) to Tennessee, and took part in the battle of Chattanooga (1863),

and the Atlanta campaign of the following year, when he commanded a

division of the XX. corps. His services were recognized by the brevets of

brigadier-general and major-general in the regular army. He resigned in

1870, and for the rest of his life was engaged in civil and commercial

pursuits. In 1862 he wrote a manual of _Camp and Outpost Duty_ (New York,

1862). General Butterfield died at Cold Spring, N.Y., on the 17th of July

1901.

A _Biographical Memorial_, by his widow, was published in 1904.

BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM (1814-1900), English architect, was born in London,

and educated for his profession at Worcester, where he laid the foundations

of his knowledge of Gothic architecture. He settled in London and became

prominent in connexion with the Cambridge Camden Society, and its work in

the improvement of church furniture and art. His first important building

was St Augustine's, Canterbury (1845), and his reputation was made by All

Saints', Margaret Street, London (1859), followed by St Alban's, Holborn

(1863), the new part of Merton College, Oxford (1864), Keble College,

Oxford (1875), and many houses and ecclesiastical buildings. He also did

much work as a restorer, which has been adversely criticized. He was a keen

churchman and intimately associated with the English church revival. He had

somewhat original views as to colour in architecture, which led to rather

garish results, his view being that any combination of the natural colours

of the materials was permissible. His private life was retiring, and he

died unmarried on the 23rd of February 1900.

BUTTERFLY AND MOTH (the former from "butter" and "fly," an old term of

uncertain origin, possibly from the nature of the excrement, or the yellow

colour of some particular species; the latter akin to O. Eng. _mod_, an

earth-worm), the common English names applied respectively to the two

groups of insects forming the scientific order Lepidoptera (_q.v._).

BUTTER-NUT, the product of _Caryocar nuciferum_, a native of tropical South

America. The large nuts, known also as saowari or suwarow nuts, are the

hard stone of the fruit and contain an oily nutritious seed. The genus

_Caryocar_ contains ten species, in tropical South America, some of which

form large trees affording a very durable wood, useful for shipbuilding.

[Illustration: A, leaf of Butterwort (_Pinguicula vulgaris_) with left

margin inflected over a row of small flies. (After Darwin.) B, glands from

surface of leaf by which the sticky liquid is secreted and by means of

which the products of digestion are absorbed.]

BUTTERWORT, the popular name of a small insectivorous plant, _Pinguicula

vulgaris_, which grows in wet, boggy land. It is a herb with a rosette of

fleshy, oblong leaves, 1 to 3 in. long, appressed to the ground, of a pale

colour and with a sticky surface. Small insects settle on the leaves and

are caught in the viscid excretion. This, like the excretion of the sundew

and other insectivorous plants, contains a digestive ferment (or enzyme)

which renders the nitrogenous substances of the body of the insect soluble,

and capable of absorption by the leaf. In this way the plant obtains

nitrogenous food by means of its leaves. The leaves bear two sets of

glands, the larger borne on usually unicellular pedicels, the smaller

almost sessile (fig. B). When a fly is captured, the viscid excretion

becomes strongly acid and the naturally incurved margins of the leaf curve

still further inwards, rendering contact between the insect and the

leaf-surface more complete. The plant is widely distributed in the north

temperate zone, extending into the arctic zone.

BUTTERY (from O. Fr. _boterie_, Late Lat. _botaria_, a place where liquor

is stored, from _butta_, a cask), a place for storing wine; later, with a

confusion with "butter," a pantry or storeroom for food; especially, at

colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, the place where food other than meat,

especially bread and butter, ale and wines, &c., are kept.

BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL (1764-1829), German philologist, was born at

Frankfort-On-Main in 1764. He was educated in his native town and at the

university of Göttingen. In 1789 he obtained an appointment in the library

at Berlin, and for some years he edited _Speners Journal_. In 1796 he

became professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, a post which he

held for twelve years. In 1806 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences,

and in 1811 was made secretary of the Historico-Philological Section. He

died in 1829. Buttmann's writings gave a great impetus to the scientific

study of the Greek language. His _Griechische Grammatik_ (1792) went

through many editions, and was translated into English. His _Lexilogus_, a

valuable study on some words of difficulty occurring principally in the

poems of Homer and Hesiod, was published in 1818-1825, and was translated

into English. Buttmann's other works were _Ausführliche griechische

Sprachlehre_ (2 vols., 1819-1827); _Mythologus_, a collection of essays

(1828-1829); and editions of some classical authors, the most important

being _Demosthenes in Midiam_ (1823) and the continuation of Spalding's

_Quintilian_.

[v.04 p.0891] BUTTON (Fr. _bouton_, O. Fr. _boton_, apparently from the

same root as _bouter_, to push), a small piece of metal or other material

which, pushed through a loop or button-hole, serves as a catch between

different parts of a garment, &c. The word is also used of other objects

which have a projecting knob-like character, _e.g._ button-mushrooms, the

button of an electric bell-push, or the guard at the tip of a fencing foil;

or which resemble a button in size and shape, as the button of metal

obtained in assaying operations. At first buttons were apparently used for

purposes of ornamentation; in _Piers Plowman_ (1377) mention is made of a

knife with "botones ouergylte," and in Lord Berner's translation of

_Froissart's Chronicles_ (1525) of a book covered with crimson velvet with

"ten botons of syluer and gylte." While this use has continued, especially

in connexion with women's dress, they began to be employed as fastenings at

least as early as the 15th century. As a term of comparison for something

trivial or worthless, the word is found in the 14th century. Buttons of

distinctive colour or pattern, or bearing a portrait or motto, are often

worn, especially in the United States, as a decoration, or sign of

membership of a society or of adherence to a political party; among the

most honoured of such buttons are those worn by members of the military

order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, organized in 1865 by

officers who had fought in the Civil War. Chinese officials wear a button

or knob on their hats as a mark of rank, the grade being denoted by its

colour and material (see MANDARIN).

Many varieties of buttons are used on clothing, but they may be divided

into two main classes according to the arrangement by which they are

attached to the garment; in one class they are provided with a shank which

may consist of a metal loop or of a tuft of cloth or similar material,

while in the other they are pierced with holes through which are passed

threads. To these two classes roughly correspond two broad differences in

the method of manufacture, according as the buttons are composite and made

up of two or more pieces, or are simply shaped disks of a single material;

some composite buttons, however, are provided with holes, and simple metal

buttons sometimes have metal shanks soldered or riveted on them. From an

early period buttons of the former kind were made by needlework with the

aid of a mould or former, but about 1807 B. Sanders, a Dane who had been

ruined by the bombardment of Copenhagen, introduced an improved method of

manufacturing them at Birmingham. His buttons were formed of two disks of

metal locked together by having their edges turned back on each other and

enclosing a filling of cloth or pasteboard; and by methods of this kind,

carried out by elaborate automatic machinery, buttons are readily produced,

presenting faces of silk, mohair, brocade or other material required to

harmonize with the fabric on which they are used. Sanders's buttons at

first had metal shanks, but about 1825 his son invented flexible shanks of

canvas or other substance through which the needle could pass freely in any

direction. The mechanical manufacture of covered buttons was started in the

United States in 1827 by Samuel Williston, of Easthampton, Mass., who in

1834 joined forces with Joel and Josiah Hayden, of Haydenville.

The number of materials that have been used for making buttons is very

large--metals such as brass and iron for the cheaper kinds, and for more

expensive ones, gold and silver, sometimes ornamented with jewels, filigree

work, &c.; ivory, horn, bone and mother-of-pearl or other nacreous products

of shell-fish; vegetable ivory and wood; glass, porcelain, paper, celluloid

and artificial compositions; and even the casein of milk, and blood. Brass

buttons were made at Birmingham in 1689, and in the following century the

metal button industry underwent considerable development in that city.

Matthew Boulton the elder, about 1745, introduced great improvements in the

processes of manufacture, and when his son started the Soho works in 1767

one of the departments was devoted to the production of steel buttons with

facets, some of which sold for 140 guineas a gross. Gilt buttons also came

into fashion about the same period. In this "Augustan age" of the

Birmingham button industry, when there was a large export trade, the

profits of manufacturers who worked on only a modest scale amounted to

£3000 and £4000 a year, and workmen earned from £2 to £4 a week. At one

time the buttons had each to be fashioned separately by skilled artisans,

but gradually the cost of production was lessened by the adoption of

mechanical processes, and instead of being turned out singly and engraved

or otherwise ornamented by hand, they came to be stamped out in dies which

at once shape them and impress them with the desired pattern. Ivory buttons

are among the oldest of all. Horn buttons were made at Birmingham at least

by 1777; towards the middle of the igth century Emile Bassot invented a

widely-used process for producing them from the hoofs of cattle, which were

softened by boiling. Pearl buttons are made from pearl oyster shells

obtained from various parts of the world, and after being cut out by

tubular drills are shaped and polished by machinery. Buttons of vegetable

ivory can be readily dyed. Glass buttons are especially made in Bohemia, as

also are those of porcelain, which were invented about 1840 by an

Englishman, R. Prosser of Birmingham. In the United States few buttons were

made until the beginning of the 19th century, when the manufacture of metal

buttons was started at Waterbury, Conn., which is now the centre of that

industry. In 1812 Aaron Benedict began to make ivory and horn buttons at

the same place. Buttons of vegetable ivory, now one of the most important

branches of the American button industry, were first made at Leeds, Mass.,

in 1859 by an Englishman, A.W. Critchlow, and in 1875 commercial success

was attained in the production of composition buttons at Springfield, Mass.

Pearl buttons were made on a small scale in 1855, but their manufacture

received an enormous impetus in the last decade of the 19th century, when

J.F. Boepple began, at Muscatine, Iowa, to utilize the unio or "niggerhead"

shells found along the Mississippi. By 1905 the annual output of these

"fresh-water pearl" buttons had reached 11,405,723 gross, worth $3,359,167,

or 36.6% of the total value of the buttons produced in the United States.

In the same year the mother-of-pearl buttons ("ocean pearl buttons")

numbered 1,737,830 gross, worth $1,511,107, and the two kinds together

constituted 44% of the number, and 53.9% of the value, of the button

manufactures of the United States. (See _U.S.A. Census Reports, 1900,

Manufactures_, part iii. pp. 315-327.)

BUTTRESS (from the O. Fr. _bouteret_, that which bears a thrust, from

_bouter_, to push, cf. Eng. "butt" and "abutment"), masonry projecting from

a wall, provided to give additional strength to the same, and also to

resist the thrust of the roof or wall, especially when concentrated at any

one point. In Roman architecture the plans of the building, where the

vaults were of considerable span and the thrust therefore very great, were

so arranged as to provide cross-walls, dividing the aisles, as in the case

of the Basilica of Maxentius, and, in the Thermae of Rome, the subdivisions

of the less important halls, so that there were no visible buttresses. In

the baths of Diocletian, however, these cross-walls rose to the height of

the great vaulted hall, the tepidarium, and their upper portions were

decorated with niches and pilasters. In a palace at Shuka in Syria,

attributed to the end of the 2nd century A.D., where, in consequence of the

absence of timber, it was necessary to cover over the building with slabs

of stones, these latter were carried on arches thrown across the great

hall, and this necessitated two precautions, viz. the provision of an

abutment inside the building, and of buttresses outside, the earliest

example in which the feature was frankly accepted. In Byzantine work there

were no external buttresses, the plans being arranged to include them in

cross-walls or interior abutments. The buttresses of the early Romanesque

churches were only pilaster strips employed to break up the wall surface

and decorate the exterior. At a slightly later period a greater depth was

given to the lower portion of the buttresses, which was then capped with a

deep sloping weathering. The introduction of ribbed vaulting, extended to

the nave in the 12th century, and the concentration of thrusts on definite

points of the structure, rendered the buttress an absolute necessity, and

from the first this would seem to have been recognized, and the

architectural treatment already given to the Romanesque buttress received

[v.04 p.0892] a remarkable development. The buttresses of the early English

period have considerable projection with two or three sets-off sloped at an

acute angle dividing the stages and crowned by triangular heads; and

slender columns ("buttress shafts") are used at the angle. In later work

pinnacles and niches are usually employed to decorate the summits of the

buttresses, and in the still later Perpendicular work the vertical faces

are all richly decorated with panelling.

BUTYL ALCOHOLS, C_4H_9OH. Four isomeric alcohols of this formula are known;

two of these are primary, one secondary, and one tertiary (see ALCOHOLS).

Normal butyl alcohol, CH_3·(CH_2)_2·CH_2OH, is a colourless liquid, boiling

at 116.8°, and formed by reducing normal butyl aldehyde with sodium, or by

a peculiar fermentation of glycerin, brought about by a schizomycete.

Isobutyl alcohol, (CH_3)_2CH·CH_2OH, the butyl alcohol of fermentation, is

a primary alcohol derived from isobutane. It may be prepared by the general

methods, and occurs in fusel oil, especially in potato spirit. It is a

liquid, smelling like fusel oil and boiling at 108.4° C. Methyl ethyl

carbinol, CH_3·C_2H_5·CHOH, is the secondary alcohol derived from n-butane.

It is a strongly smelling liquid, boiling at 99°. Trimethyl carbinol or

tertiary butyl alcohol, (CH_3)_3·COH, is the simplest tertiary alcohol, and

was obtained by A. Butlerow in 1864 by acting with zinc methyl on acetyl

chloride (see ALCOHOLS). It forms rhombic prisms or plates which melt at

25° and boil at 83°, and has a spiritous smell, resembling that of camphor.

BUTYRIC ACID, C_4H_8O_2. Two acids are known corresponding to this formula,

_normal butyric acid_, CH_3·CH_2·CH_2·COOH, and _isobutyric acid_,

(CH_3)_2·CH·COOH. Normal butyric acid or fermentation butyric acid is found

in butter, as an hexyl ester in the oil of _Heracleum giganteum_ and as an

octyl ester in parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_); it has also been noticed in

the fluids of the flesh and in perspiration. It may be prepared by the

hydrolysis of ethyl acetoacetate, or by passing carbon monoxide over a

mixture of sodium acetate and sodium ethylate at 205° C. (A. Geuther,

_Ann._, 1880, 202, p.306), C_2H_5ONa + CH_3COONa + CO = H·CO_2Na +

CH_3·CH_2·CH_2·COONa. It is ordinarily prepared by the fermentation of

sugar or starch, brought about by the addition of putrefying cheese,

calcium carbonate being added to neutralize the acids formed in the

process. A. Fitz (_Ber._, 1878, 11 p. 52) found that the butyric

fermentation of starch is aided by the direct addition of _Bacillus

subtilis_. The acid is an oily liquid of unpleasant smell, and solidifies

at -19° C.; it boils at 162.3° C., and has a specific gravity of 0.9746 (0°

C.). It is easily soluble in water and alcohol, and is thrown out of its

aqueous solution by the addition of calcium chloride. Potassium bichromate

and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide and acetic acid, while

alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to carbon dioxide. The calcium

salt, Ca(C_4H_7O_2)_2·H_2O, is less soluble in hot water than in cold.

_Isobutyric acid_ is found in the free state in carobs (_Ceratonia

siliqua_) and in the root of _Arnica dulcis_, and as an ethyl ester in

croton oil. It may be artificially prepared by the hydrolysis of

isopropylcyanide with alkalies, by the oxidation of isopropyl alcohol with

potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid (I. Pierre and E. Puchot, _Ann. de

chim. et de phys._, 1873, [4] 28, p. 366), or by the action of sodium

amalgam on methacrylic acid, CH_2·C(CH_3)·COOH. It is a liquid of somewhat

unpleasant smell, boiling at 155.5° C. Its specific gravity is 0.9697 (0°).

Heated with chromic acid solution to 140° C., it gives carbon dioxide and

acetone. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to

[alpha]-oxyisobutyric acid, (CH_3)_2·C(OH)·COOH, whilst concentrated nitric

acid converts it into dinitroisopropane. Its salts are more soluble in

water than those of the normal acid.

BUXAR, or BAXAR, a town of India, in the district of Shahabad, Bengal, on

the south bank of the Ganges, and on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901)

13,945. There is a dismantled fort of small size which was important from

its commanding the Ganges. A celebrated victory was gained here on the 23rd

of October 1764 by the British forces under Major (afterwards Sir Hector)

Munro, over the united armies of Shuja-ud-Dowlah and Kasim Ali Khan. The

action raged from 9 o'clock till noon, when the enemy gave way. Pursuit

was, however, frustrated by Shuja-ud-Dowlah sacrificing a part of his army

to the safety of the remainder. A bridge of boats had been constructed over

a stream about 2 m. distant from the field of battle, and this the enemy

destroyed before their rear had passed over. Through this act 2000 troops

were drowned, or otherwise lost; but destructive as was this proceeding, it

was, said Major Munro, "the best piece of generalship Shuja-ud-Dowlah

showed that day, because if I had crossed the rivulet with the army, I

should either have taken or drowned his whole army in the Karamnasa, and

come up with his treasure and jewels, and Kasim Ali Khan's jewels, which I

was informed amounted to between two and three millions."

BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707-1772), English arithmetician, was born on the 20th

of March 1707 at Elmton, near Chesterfield, in Derbyshire. Although his

father was schoolmaster of the parish, and his grandfather had been the

vicar, his education had been so neglected that he could not write; and his

knowledge, except of numbers, was extremely limited. How he came first to

know the relative proportions of numbers, and their progressive

denominations, he did not remember; but on such matters his attention was

so constantly riveted, that he frequently took no cognizance of external

objects, and when he did, it was only with reference to their numbers. He

measured the whole lordship of Elmton, consisting of some thousand acres,

simply by striding over it, and gave the area not only in acres, roods and

perches, but even in square inches. After this, he reduced them into square

hairs'-breadths, reckoning forty-eight to each side of the inch. His memory

was so great, that in resolving a question he could leave off and resume

the operation again at the same point after the lapse of a week, or even of

several months. His perpetual application to figures prevented the smallest

acquisition of any other knowledge. His wonderful faculty was tested in

1754 by the Royal Society of London, who acknowledged their satisfaction by

presenting him with a handsome gratuity. During his visit to the metropolis

he was taken to see the tragedy of _Richard III._ performed at Drury Lane

theatre, but his whole mind was given to the counting of the words uttered

by David Garrick. Similarly, he set himself to count the steps of the

dancers; and he declared that the innumerable sounds produced by the

musical instruments had perplexed him beyond measure. He died in 1772.

A memoir appeared in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June 1754, to which,

probably through the medium of a Mr Holliday, of Haughton Hall,

Nottinghamshire, Buxton had contributed several letters. In this memoir,

his age is given as forty-nine, which points to his birth in 1705; the date

adopted above is on the authority of Lysons' _Magna Britannia_

(Derbyshire).

BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL (1786-1845), English philanthropist, was born in

Essex on the 1st of April 1786, and was educated at Trinity College,

Dublin, where, in spite of his early education having been neglected, hard

work made him one of the first men of his time, with a high reputation as a

speaker. In 1807 he married Hannah Gurney, sister of the celebrated

Elizabeth Fry. As his means were not sufficient to support his family, he

entered in 1808 the brewery of Truman, Hanbury & Company, of which his

uncles, the Hanburys, were partners. He devoted himself to business with

characteristic energy, became a partner in 1811, and soon had the whole

concern in his hands. In 1816 he brought himself into notice by his speech

on behalf of the Spitalfields weavers, and in 1818 he published his able

_Inquiry into Prison Discipline_. The same year he was elected M.P. for

Weymouth, a borough for which he continued to sit till 1837. In the House

of Commons he had a high reputation as an able and straightforward speaker,

devoted to philanthropic schemes. Of these plans the most important was

that for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies. Buxton devoted

his life to this object, and through defeat and opposition, despite the

attacks of enemies and the remonstrances of faint-hearted friends, he

remained true to it. Not till 1833 was he successful, and even then only

partially, for he was compelled to admit into the bill some clauses against

which his better judgment had decided. In 1837 he ceased to [v.04 p.0893]

sit in the House of Commons. He travelled on the continent in 1839 to

recruit his health, which had given way, and took the opportunity of

inspecting foreign prisons. He was made a baronet in 1840, and then devoted

himself to a plan for ameliorating the condition of the African natives.

The failure of the Niger expedition of 1841 was a blow from which he never

recovered. He died on the 19th of February 1845.

See _Memoir and Correspondence of Sir T.F. Buxton_ (1848), by his third

son, Charles Buxton (1823-1871), a well-known philanthropist and member of

parliament.

BUXTON, a market town and fashionable health-resort in the High Peak

parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the London &

North-Western and Midland railways, 36 m. N.W. by N. of Derby. Pop. of

urban district (1901) 10,181. It occupies a high position, lying between

1000 and 1150 ft. above sea-level, in an open hollow, surrounded at a

distance by hills of considerable elevation, except on the south-east side,

where the Wye, which rises about half a mile away, makes its exit. The old

town (High Buxton) stands a little above the new, and consists of one wide

street, and a considerable market-place with an old cross. The new town is

the richer portion. The Crescent is a fine range of buildings in the Doric

style, erected by the duke of Devonshire in 1779-1788. It contains hotels,

a ballroom, a bank, a library and other establishments, and the surrounding

open grounds are laid out in terraces and gardens. The Old Hall hotel at

the west end of the Crescent stands on the site of the mansion built in

1572 by the earl of Shrewsbury in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, which was

the residence of Mary queen of Scots when she visited the town. The mineral

waters of Buxton, which have neither taste nor smell, are among the most

noted in England, and are particularly efficacious in cases of rheumatism

and gout. There are numerous public and private baths, the most important

of which are those in the establishment at the eastern end of the Crescent.

The springs supply hot and cold water at a very short distance from each

other, flowing at the rate of 60 gallons a minute. The former possesses a

uniform temperature of 82° Fahr., and the principal substances in solution

are bicarbonate of calcium, bicarbonate of magnesium, chloride of sodium,

chloride of magnesium and silica acid. There is also a chalybeate spring

known as St Anne's well, situated at the S.W. corner of the Crescent, the

water of which when mixed with that of the other springs proves purgative.

The Devonshire hospital, formerly known as the Bath Charity, is a

benevolent institution, supported by voluntary subscriptions. Every year

some thousands of poor patients are treated free of cost; and the hospital

was enlarged for their accommodation, a dome being added which is of

greater circumference than any other in Europe. In 1894 the duke of

Devonshire erected a handsome pump-room at St Anne's well. The Buxton

season extends from June to October, and during that period the town is

visited by thousands, but it is also popular as a winter resort. The Buxton

Gardens are beautifully laid out, with ornamental waters, a fine

opera-house, pavilion and concert hall, theatre and reading rooms. Electric

lighting has been introduced, and there is an excellent golf course. The

Cavendish Terrace forms a fine promenade, and the neighbourhood of the town

is rich in objects of interest. Of these the chief are Poole's Hole, a vast

stalactite cave, about half a mile distant; Diamond Hill, which owes its

name to the quartz crystals which are not uncommon in its rocks; and Chee

Tor, a remarkable cliff, on the banks of the Wye, 300 ft. high. Ornaments

are manufactured by the inhabitants from alabaster and spar; and excellent

lime is burned at the quarries near Poole's Hole. Buxton is an important

centre for horse-breeding, and a large horse-fair is held annually.

Although the annual rainfall, owing to the situation of the town towards

the western flank of the Pennine Hills, is about 49 in., the air is

particularly dry owing to the high situation and the rapidity with which

waters drain off through the limestone. The climate is bracing and healthy.

The waters were known and used by the Romans, but to a limited extent, and

no remains of their baths survive. Roman roads connected the place with

Derby, Brough in Edale and Manchester. Buxton (Bawdestanes, Bue-stanes),

formed into a civil parish from Bakewell in 1895, has thus claims to be

considered one of the oldest English spas. It was probably the "Bectune"

mentioned in Domesday. After the departure of the Romans the baths seem to

have been long neglected, but were again frequented in the 16th century,

when the chapel of St Anne was hung round with the crutches of those who

were supposed to owe their cure to her healing powers; these interesting

relics were destroyed at the Reformation. The baths were visited at least

four times by Mary queen of Scots, when a prisoner in charge of George,

earl of Shrewsbury, other famous Elizabethan visitors being Lord Burleigh,

the earl of Essex, and Robert, earl of Leicester. At the close of the 18th

century the duke of Devonshire, lord of the manor (whose ancestor Sir Ralph

de Gernons was lord of Bakewell in 1251), spent large sums of money on

improvements in the town. In 1781 he began to build the famous Crescent,

and since that time Buxton has steadily increased in favour as an inland

watering-place. In 1813 a weekly market on Saturday and four annual fairs

were granted. These were bought by the local authorities from the duke of

Devonshire in 1864.

See Gough's edition of Camden's _Britannia_; Stephen Glover, _History of

the County of Derby_ (Derby, 1829); W. Bemrose, _Guide to Buxton_ (London,

1869).

BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1564-1629), German Hebrew and Rabbinic

scholar, was born at Kamen in Westphalia on the 25th of December 1564. The

original form of the name was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived

the family crest, which bore the figure of a goat (Ger. _Bock_, he-goat).

After the death of his father, who was minister of Kamen, Buxtorf studied

at Marburg and the newly-founded university of Herborn, at the latter of

which C. Olevian (1536-1587) and J.P. Piscator (1546-1625) had been

appointed professors of theology. At a later date Piscator received the

assistance of Buxtorf in the preparation of his Latin translation of the

Old Testament, published at Herborn in 1602-1603. From Herborn Buxtorf went

to Heidelberg, and thence to Basel, attracted by the reputation of J.J.

Grynaeus and J.G. Hospinian (1515-1575). After a short residence at Basel

he studied successively under H.B. Bullinger (1504-1575) at Zürich and Th.

Beza at Geneva. On his return to Basel, Grynaeus, desirous that the

services of so promising a scholar should be secured to the university,

procured him a situation as tutor in the family of Leo Curio, son of

Coelius Secundus Curio, well-known for his sufferings on account of the

Reformed faith. At the instance of Grynaeus, Buxtorf undertook the duties

of the Hebrew chair in the university, and discharged them for two years

with such ability that at the end of that time he was unanimously appointed

to the vacant office. From this date (1591) to his death in 1629 he

remained in Basel, and devoted himself with remarkable zeal to the study of

Hebrew and rabbinic literature. He received into his house many learned

Jews, that he might discuss his difficulties with them, and he was

frequently consulted by Jews themselves on matters relating to their

ceremonial law. He seems to have well deserved the title which was

conferred upon him of "Master of the Rabbins." His partiality for Jewish

society brought him, indeed, on one occasion into trouble with the

authorities of the city, the laws against the Jews being very strict.

Nevertheless, on the whole, his relations with the city of Basel were

friendly. He remained firmly attached to the university which first

recognized his merits, and declined two invitations from Leiden and Saumur

successively. His correspondence with the most distinguished scholars of

the day was very extensive; the library of the university of Basel contains

a rich collection of letters, which are valuable for a literary history of

the time.

WORKS.--_Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum_ (1602; 7th ed., 1658); _Synagoga

Judaica_ (1603 in German; afterwards translated into Latin in an enlarged

form), a valuable repertory of information regarding the opinions and

ceremonies of the Jews; _Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum cum brevi Lexico

Rabbinico Philosophico_ (1607; reprinted at Glasgow, 1824); his great

Rabbinical Bible, _Biblic Hebraica cum Paraphr. Chald. et Commentariis

Rabbinorum_ (2 vols., 1618; 4 vols., 1618-1619), containing, in addition to

the Hebrew [v.04 p.0894] text, the Aramaic Paraphrases of Targums,

punctuated after the analogy of the Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel (a

proceeding which has been condemned by Richard Simon and others), and the

Commentaries of the more celebrated Rabbis, with various other treatises;

_Tiberias, sive Commentarius Masoreticus_ (1620; quarto edition, improved

and enlarged by J. Buxtorf the younger, 1665), so named from the great

school of Jewish criticism which had its seat in the town of Tiberias. It

was in this work that Buxtorf controverted the views of Elias Levita

regarding the late origin of the Hebrew vowel points, a subject which gave

rise to the controversy between Louis Cappel and his son Johannes Buxtorf

(_q.v._). Buxtorf did not live to complete the two works on which his

reputation chiefly rests, viz. his great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum,

et Rabbinicum_, and the _Concordantiae Bibliorum Hebraicorum_, both of

which were edited by his son. They are monuments of untiring labour and

industry. The lexicon was republished at Leipzig in 1869 with some

additions by Bernard Fischer, and the concordance was assumed by Julius

Fürst as the basis of his great Hebrew concordance, which appeared in 1840.

For additional information regarding his writings see _Athenae Rauricae_,

pp. 444-448; articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopädie_, and

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._; J.P. Niceron's _Mémoires_, vol. xxxi. pp.

206-215; J.M. Schroeckh's _Kirchengeschichte_, vol. v. (Post-Reformation

period), pp. 72 seq. (Leipzig, 1806); G.W. Meyer's _Geschichte der

Schrift-Erklärung_, vol. iii. (Göttingen, 1804); and E. Kautsch, _Johannes

Buxtorf der Ältere_ (1879).

BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1599-1664), son of the preceding, was born

at Basel on the 13th of August 1599, and when still a boy attained

considerable proficiency in the classical languages. Entering the

university at the age of twelve, he was only sixteen when he obtained his

master's degree. He now gave himself up to theological and especially to

Semitic studies, concentrating later on rabbinical Hebrew, and reading

while yet a young man both the Mishna and the Jerusalem and Babylonian

Gemaras. These studies he further developed by visits to Heidelberg, Dort

(where he made the acquaintance of many of the delegates to the synod of

1619) and Geneva, and in all these places acquired a great reputation. In

1622 he published at Basel a _Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum_, as a

companion work to his father's great Rabbinical Bible. He declined the

chair of logic at Lausanne, and in 1624 was appointed general deacon of the

church at Basel. On the death of his father in 1629, he was unanimously

designated his successor in the Hebrew professorship. From this date until

his death in 1664 he remained at Basel, declining two offers which were

made to him from Groningen and Leiden, to accept the Hebrew chair in these

two celebrated schools. In 1647 the governing body of the university

founded, specially for him, a third theological professorship, that of

"Commonplaces and Controversies," which Buxtorf held for seven years along

with the Hebrew chair. When, however, the professorship of the Old

Testament became vacant in 1654 by the death of Theodor Zwinger, Buxtorf

resigned the chair of theology and accepted that of the Old Testament

instead. He was four times married, his three first wives dying shortly

after marriage and the fourth predeceasing her husband by seven years. His

children died young, with the exception of two boys, the younger of whom,

Jakob (1645-1704), became his father's colleague, and then his successor,

in the chair of Hebrew. The same distinction fell to the lot of his nephew

Johann (1663-1732).