BUSHBUCK (_Boschbok_,) the South African name of a medium-sized red

antelope (_q.v._), marked with white lines and spots, belonging to a local

race of a widely spread species, _Tragelaphus scriptus_. The males alone

have rather small, spirally twisted horns. There are several allied

species, sometimes known as harnessed antelopes, which are of a larger

size. Some of these such as the situtunga (_T. spekei_) have the hoofs

elongated for walking on swampy ground, and hence have been separated as

_Limnotragus_.

BUSHEL (from the O. Fr. _boissiel_, cf. med. L. _bustellus, busellus_, a

little box), a dry measure of capacity, containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It

has been in use for measuring corn, potatoes, &c., from a very early date;

the value varying locally and with the article measured. The "imperial

bushel", legally established in Great Britain in 1826, contains 2218.192

cub.in., or 80 lb of distilled water, determined at 62° F., with the

barometer at 30 in. Previously, the standard bushel used was known as the

"Winchester bushel", so named from the standard being kept in the town hall

at Winchester; it contained 2150.42 cub. in. This standard is the basis of

the bushel used in the United States and Canada; but other "bushels" for

use in connexion with certain commodities have been legalized in different

states.

BUSHIDO (Japanese for "military-knight-ways"), the unwritten code of laws

governing the lives of the nobles of Japan, equivalent to the European

chivalry. Its maxims have been orally handed down, together with a vast

accumulation of traditional etiquette, the result of centuries of

feudalism. Its inception is associated with the uprise of feudal

institutions under Yoritomo, the first of the Shoguns, late in the 12th

century, but bushido in an undeveloped form existed before then. The

samurai or nobles of Japan entertained the highest respect for truth. "A

_bushi_ has no second word" was one of their mottoes. And their sense of

honour was so high as to dictate suicide where it was offended.

See Inazo Nitobe, _Bushido: The Soul of Japan_ (1905); also JAPAN: _Army_.

BUSHIRE, or BANDER BUSHIRE, a town of Persia, on the northern shore of the

Persian Gulf, in 28° 59' N., 50° 49' E. The name is pronounced Boosheer,

and not Bew-shire, or Bus-hire; modern Persians write it Bushehr and, yet

more incorrectly, Abushehr, and translate it as "father of the city," but

it is most probably a contraction of Bokht-ardashir, the name given to the

place by the first Sassanian monarch in the 3rd century. In a similar way

Riv-ardashir, a few miles south of Bushire, has become Rishire (Reesheer).

In the first half of the 18th century, when Bushire was an unimportant

fishing village, it was selected by Nadir Shah as the southern port of

Persia and dockyard of the navy which he aspired to create in the Persian

Gulf, and the British commercial factory of the East India Company,

established at Gombrun, the modern Bander Abbasi, was transferred to it in

1759. At the beginning of the 19th century it had a population of 6000 to

8000, and it is now the most important port in the Persian Gulf, with a

population of about 25,000. It used to be under the government of Fars, but

is (since about 1892) the seat of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports,

who is responsible to the central government, and has under his

jurisdiction the principal ports of the Gulf and their dependencies. The

town, which is of a triangular form, occupies the northern extremity of a

peninsula 11 m. long and 4 broad, and is encircled by the sea on all sides

except the south. It is fortified on the land side by a wall with 12 round

towers. The houses being mostly built of a white conglomerate stone of

shells and coral which forms the peninsula, gives the city when viewed from

a distance a clean and handsome appearance, but on closer inspection the

streets are found to be very narrow, irregular, ill-paved and filthy.

Almost the only decent buildings are the governor's palace, the British

residency and the houses of some well-to-do merchants. The sea immediately

east of the town has a considerable depth, but its navigation is impeded by

sand-banks and a bar north and west of the town, which can be passed only

by vessels drawing not more than 9 ft. of water, except at spring tides,

when there is a rise of from 8 to 10 ft. Vessels drawing more than 9 ft.

must anchor in the roads miles away to the west. The climate is very hot in

the summer months and unhealthy. The water is very bad, and that fit for

drinking requires to be brought from wells distant 1½ to 3 m. from the city

wall.

Bushire carries on a considerable trade, particularly with India, Java and

Arabia. Its principal imports are cotton and woollen goods, yarn, metals,

sugar, coffee, tea, spices, cashmere shawls, &c., and its principal exports

opium, wool, carpets, horses, grain, dyes and gums, tobacco, rosewater, &c.

The importance of Bushire has much increased since about 1862. It is now

not only the headquarters of the English naval squadron in the Persian

Gulf, and the land terminus of the Indo-European telegraph, but it also

forms the chief station in the Gulf of the British Indian Steam Navigation

Company, which runs its vessels weekly between Bombay and Basra. Consulates

of Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia and Turkey and several European

mercantile houses are established at Bushire, and [v.04 p.0871]

notwithstanding the drawbacks of bad roads to the interior, insufficient

and precarious means of transport, and want of security, the annual value

of the Bushire trade since 1890 averaged about £1,500,000 (one-third being

for exports, two-thirds for imports), and over two-thirds of this was

British. Of the 278,000 tons of shipping which entered the port in 1905,

244,000 were British.

During the war with Persia (1856-57) Bushire surrendered to a British force

and remained in British occupation for some months. At Rishire, some miles

south of Bushire and near the summer quarters of the British resident and

the British telegraph buildings, there are extensive ruins among which

bricks with cuneiform inscriptions have been found, showing that the place

was a very old Elamite settlement.

(A. H.-S.)

BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, a people of South Africa, so named by the British

and Dutch colonists of the Cape. They often call themselves _Saan_ [Sing.

_Sá_], but this appears to be the Hottentot name. If they have a national

name it is _Khuai_, probably "small man," the title of one group. This

_Khuai_ has, however, been translated as the Bushman word for _tablier

égyptien_ (see below), adopted as the racial name because that malformation

is one of their physical characteristics. The Kaffirs call them Abatwa, the

Bechuana Masarwa (Maseroa). There is little reason to doubt that they

constitute the aboriginal element of the population of South Africa, and

indications of their former presence have been found as far north at least

as the Nyasa and Tanganyika basins. "It would seem," writes Sir H.H.

Johnston (_British Central Africa_, p. 52), "as if the earliest known race

of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa was akin to the

Bushman-Hottentot type of negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the

centre, similar to those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for

weighting their digging-sticks (the _graaf stock_ of the Boers), have been

found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika." The dirty yellow colour of the

Bushmen, their slightly slanting eyes and prominent cheek-bones had induced

early anthropologists to dwell on their resemblance to the Mongolian races.

This similarity has been now recognized as quite superficial. More recently

a connexion has been traced between the Bushmen and the Pygmy peoples

inhabiting the forests of Central Africa. Though the matter cannot be

regarded as definitely settled, the latest researches rather tend to

discredit this view. In fact it would appear that the two peoples have

little in common save diminutive proportions and a nomadic and predatory

form of existence. Owing to the discovery of steatopygous figurines in

Egyptian graves, a theory has been advanced that the Egyptians of the early

dynasties were of the same primitive pygmy negroid stock as the Bushmen.

But this is highly speculative. The physical characteristics of Egyptian

skulls have nothing of the Bushman in them. Of the primitive pygmy negroid

stock the Hottentots (_q.v._), once considered the parent family, are now

regarded as an offshoot of mixed Bantu-Bushman blood from the main Bushman

race.

It seems probable that the Bushmen must be regarded as having extended

considerably to the north of the area occupied by them within the memory of

white men. Evidence has been produced of the presence of a belated

Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group as far north as the district between

Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza. They were probably driven south by the

Bantu tribes, who eventually outflanked them and confined them to the less

fertile tracts of country. Before the arrival of Europeans in South Africa

the Bushman race appears to have been, what it so essentially is to-day, a

nomadic race living in widely scattered groups. The area in which the

Bushmen are now found sporadically may be defined as extending from the

inner ranges of the mountains of Cape Colony, through the central Kalahari

desert to near Lake Ngami, and thence north-westward to the districts about

the Ovambo river north of Damaraland. In short, they have been driven by

European and Kaffir encroachments into the most barren regions of South

Africa. A few remain in the more inaccessible parts of the Drakensberg

range about the sources of the Vaal. Only in one or two districts are they

found in large numbers, chiefly in Great Bushman Land towards the Orange

river. A regularly planned and wholesale destruction of the Bushmen on the

borders of Cape Colony in the earlier years of European occupation reduced

their numbers to a great extent; but this cruel hunting of the Bushmen has

ceased. In retaliation the Bushmen were long the scourge of the farms on

the outer borders of the colony, making raids on the cattle and driving

them off in large numbers. On the western side of the deserts they are

generally at enmity with the Koranna Hottentots, but on the eastern border

of the Kalahari they have to some extent fraternized with the earliest

Bechuana migrants. Their language, which exists in several dialects, has in

common with Hottentot, but to a greater degree, the peculiar sounds known

as "clicks." The Hottentot language is more agglutinative, the Bushman more

monosyllabic; the former recognizes a gender in names, the latter does not;

the Hottentots form the plural by a suffix, the Bushmen by repetition of

the name; the former count up to twenty, the latter can only number two,

all above that being "many." F.C.Selous records that Koranna Hottentots

were able to converse fluently with the Bushmen of Bechuanaland.

The most striking feature of the Bushman's physique is shortness of

stature. Gustav Fritsch in 1863-1866 found the average height of six grown

men to be 4 ft. 9 in. Earlier, but less trustworthy, measurements make them

still shorter. Among 150 measured by Sir John Barrow during the first

British occupation of Cape Colony the tallest man was 4 ft. 9 in., the

tallest woman 4 ft. 4 in. The Bushmen living in Bechuanaland measured by

Selous in the last quarter of the 19th century were, however, found to be

of nearly average height. Few persons were below 5 ft.; 5 ft. 4 in. was

common, and individuals of even 6 ft. were not unknown. No great difference

in height appears to exist between men and women. Fritsch's average from

five Bushman women was one-sixth of an inch more than for the men. The

Bushmen, as already stated, are of a dirty yellow colour, and of generally

unattractive countenance. The skull is long and low, the cheek-bones large

and prominent. The eyes are deeply set and crafty in expression. The nose

is small and depressed, the mouth wide with moderately everted lips, and

the jaws project. The teeth are not like badly cut ivory, as in Bantu, but

regular and of a mother-of-pearl appearance. In general build the Bushman

is slim and lean almost to emaciation. Even the children show little of the

round outlines of youth. The amount of fat under the skin in both sexes is

remarkably small; hence the skin is as dry as leather and falls into strong

folds around the stomach and at the joints. The fetor of the skin, so

characteristic of the negro, is not found in the Bushman. The hair is weak

in growth, in age it becomes grey, but baldness is rare. Bushmen have

little body-hair and that of a weak stubbly nature, and none of the fine

down usual on most skins. On the face there is usually only a scanty

moustache. A hollowed back and protruding stomach are frequent

characteristics of their figure, but many of them are well proportioned,

all being active and capable of enduring great privations and fatigue.

Considerable steatopygy often exists among the women, who share with the

Hottentot women the extraordinary prolongation of the nymphae which is

often called "the Hottentot apron" or _tablier_. Northward the Bushmen

appear to improve both in general condition and in stature, probably owing

to a tinge of Bantu blood. The Bushman's clothing is scanty: a triangular

piece of skin, passed between the legs and fastened round the waist with a

string, is often all that is worn. Many men, however, and nearly all the

women, wear the _kaross_, a kind of pelisse of skins sewn together, which

is used at night as a wrap. The bodies of both sexes are smeared with a

native ointment, _buchu_, which, aided by accretions of dust and dirt, soon

forms a coating like a rind. Men and women often wear sandals of hide or

plaited bast. They are fond of ornament, and decorate the arms, neck and

legs with beads, iron or copper rings, teeth, hoofs, horns and shells,

while they stick feathers or hares' tails in the hair. The women sometimes

stain their faces with red pigment. They carry tobacco in goats' horns or

in the shell of a land tortoise, while boxes of ointment [v.04 p.0872] or

amulets are hung round neck or waist. A jackal's tail mounted on a stick

serves the double purpose of fan and handkerchief. For dwellings in the

plains they have low huts formed of reed mats, or occupy a hole in the

earth; in the mountain districts they make a shelter among the rocks by

hanging mats on the windward side. Of household utensils they have none,

except ostrich eggs, in which they carry water, and occasionally rough

pots. For cooking his food the Bushman needs nothing but fire, which he

obtains by rubbing hard and soft wood together.

Bushmen do not possess cattle, and have no domestic animals except a few

half-wild dogs, nor have they the smallest rudiments of agriculture. Living

by hunting, they are thoroughly acquainted with the habits and movements of

every kind of wild animal, following the antelope herds in their

migrations. Their weapon is a bow made of a stout bough bent into a sharp

curve. It is strung with twisted sinew. The arrow, which is neatly made of

a reed, the thickness of a finger, is bound with thread to prevent

splitting, and notched at the end for the string. At the point is a head of

bone, or stone with a quill barb; iron arrow-blades obtained from the Bantu

are also found. The arrow is usually 2 to 3 ft. long. The distance at which

the Bushman can be sure of hitting is not great, about twenty paces. The

arrows are always coated with a gummy poisonous compound which kills even

the largest animal in a few hours. The preparation is something of a

mystery, but its main ingredients appear to be the milky juice of the

_Amaryllis toxicaria_, which is abundant in South Africa, or of the

_Euphorbia arborescens_, generally mixed with the venom of snakes or of a

large black spider of the genus _Mygale_; or the entrails of a very deadly

caterpillar, called N'gwa or 'Kaa, are used alone. One authority states

that the Bushmen of the western Kalahari use the juice of a chrysalis which

they scrape out of the ground. From their use of these poisons the Bushmen

are held in great dread by the neighbouring races. They carry, too, a club

some 20 in. long with a knob as big as a man's fist. Assegais and knives

are rare. No Bushman tribe south of Lake Ngami is said to carry spears. A

rude implement, called by the Boers _graaf stock_ or digging stick,

consisting of a sharpened spike of hard wood over which a stone, ground to

a circular form and perforated, is passed and secured by a wedge, forms

part of the Bushman equipment. This is used by the women for uprooting the

succulent tuberous roots of the several species of creeping plants of the

desert, and in digging pitfalls. These perforated stones have a special

interest in indicating the former extension of the Bushmen, since they are

found, as has been said, far beyond the area now occupied by them. The

Bushmen are famous as hunters, and actually run down many kinds of game.

Living a life of periodical starvation, they spend days at a time in search

of food, upon which when found they feed so gluttonously that it is said

five of them will eat a whole zebra in a few hours. They eat practically

anything. The meat is but half cooked, and game is often not completely

drawn. The Bushman eats raw such insects as lice and ants, the eggs of the

latter being regarded as a great delicacy. In hard times they eat lizards,

snakes, frogs, worms and caterpillars. Honey they relish, and for

vegetables devour bulbs and roots. Like the Hottentot, the Bushman is a

great smoker.

The disposition of the Bushman has been much maligned; the cruelty which

has been attributed to him is the natural result of equal brutalities

practiced upon him by the other natives and the early European settlers. He

is a passionate lover of freedom, and, like many other primitive people,

lives only for the moment. Unlike the Hottentot he has never willingly

become a slave, and will fight to the last for his personal liberty. He has

been described as the "anarchist of South Africa." Still, when he becomes a

servant, he is usually trustworthy. His courage is remarkable, and Fritsch

was told by residents who were well qualified to speak that supported by a

dozen Bushmen they would not be afraid of a hundred Kaffirs. The terror

inspired by the Bushmen has indeed had an effect in the deforestation of

parts of Cape Colony, for the colonists, to guard against stealthy attacks,

cut down all the bush far round their holdings. Mission-work among the

Bushmen has been singularly unsuccessful. But in spite of his savage

nature, the Bushman is intelligent. He is quick-witted, and has the gift of

imitating extraordinarily well the cries of bird and beast. He is musical,

too, and makes a rough instrument out of a gourd and one or more strings.

He is fond of dancing; besides the ordinary dances are the special dances

at certain stages of the moon, &c. One of the most interesting facts about

the Bushman is his possession of a remarkable delight in graphic

illustration; the rocks of the mountains of Cape Colony and of the

Drakensberg and the walls of caves anciently inhabited by them have many

examples of Bushman drawings of men, women, children and animals

characteristically sketched. Their designs are partly painted on rock, with

four colours, white, black, red and yellow ochre, partly engraved in soft

sandstone, partly chiselled in hard stone. Rings, crosses and other signs

drawn in blue pigment on some of the rocks, and believed to be one or two

centuries old, have given rise to the erroneous speculation that these may

be remains of a hieroglyphic writing. A discovery of drawings of men and

women with antelope heads was made in the recesses of the Drakensberg in

1873 (J.M. Orpen in _Cape Monthly Magazine_, July 1874). A few years later

Selous discovered similar rock-paintings in Mashonaland and Manicaland.

Little is known of the family life of the Bushmen. Marriage is a matter

merely of offer and acceptance ratified by a feast. Among some tribes the

youth must prove himself an expert hunter. Nothing is known of the laws of

inheritance. The avoidance of parents-in-law, so marked among Kaffirs, is

found among Bushmen. Murder, adultery, rape and robbery are offences

against their code of morals. As among other African tribes the social

position of the women is low. They are beasts of burden, carrying the

children and the family property on the journeys, and doing all the work at

the halting-place. It is their duty also to keep the encampment supplied

with water, no matter how far it has to be carried. The Bushman mother is

devoted to her children, who, though suckled for a long time, yet are fed

within the first few days after birth upon chewed roots and meat, and

taught to chew tobacco at a very early age. The child's head is often

protected from the sun by a plaited shade of ostrich feathers. There is

practically no tribal organization. Individual families at times join

together and appoint a chief, but the arrangement is never more than

temporary. The Bushmen have no concrete idea of a God, but believe in evil

spirits and supernatural interference with man's life. All Bushmen carry

amulets, and there are indications of totemism in their refusal to eat

certain foods. Thus one group will not eat goat's flesh, though the animal

is the commonest in their district. Others reverence antelopes or even the

caterpillar N'gwa. The Bushman cuts off the joints of the fingers as a sign

of mourning and sometimes, it seems, as an act of repentance. Traces of a

belief in continued existence after death are seen in the cairns of stone

thrown on the graves of chiefs. Evil spirits are supposed to hide beneath

these sepulchral mounds, and the Bushman thinks that if he does not throw

his stone on the mounds the spirits will twist his neck. The whole family

deserts the place where any one has died, after raising a pile of stones.

The corpse's head is anointed, then it is smoke-dried and laid in the grave

at full length, stones or earth being piled on it. There is a Bushman

belief that the sun will rise later if the dead are not buried with their

faces to the east. Weapons and other Bushman treasures are buried with the

dead, and the hut materials are burnt in the grave.

The Bushmen have many animal myths, and a rich store of beast legends. The

most prominent of the animal mythological figures is that of the mantis,

around which a great cycle of myths has been formed. He and his wife have

many names. Their adopted daughter is the porcupine. In the family history

an ichneumon, an elephant, a monkey and an eland all figure. The Bushmen

have also solar and lunar myths, and observe and name the stars. Canopus

alone has five names. Some of the constellations have figurative names.

Thus they call Orion's Belt "three she-tortoises hanging on a stick," and

Castor and [v.04 p.0873] Pollux "the cow-elands." The planets, too, have

their names and myths, and some idea of the astonishing wealth of this

Bushman folklore and oral literature may be formed from the fact that the

materials collected by Bleek and preserved in Sir George Grey's library at

Cape Town form eighty-four stout MS. volumes of 3600 pages. They comprise

myths, fables, legends and even poetry, with tales about the sun and moon,

the stars, the crocodile and other animals; legends of peoples who dwelt in

the land before the Bushmen arrived from the north; songs, charms, and even

prayers, or at least incantations; histories, adventures of men and

animals; tribal customs, traditions, superstitions and genealogies. A most

curious feature in Bushman folklore is the occurrence of the speeches of

various animals, into which the relater of the legend introduces particular

"clicks," supposed to be characteristic of the animals in whose mouths they

are placed.

See G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_ (London, 1905); Mark

Hutchinson, "Bushman Drawings," in _Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, 1882, p. 464;

Sir H.H. Johnston, _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, 1883, p. 463; Dr H. Welcker,

_Archiv f. Anthrop._ xvi.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their Language,"

_Jour. R. Asial. Soc._ xviii. part i.; Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen

Südafrikas_ (Breslau, 1872); W.H.I. Bleek, _Bushman Folklore_ (1875);

J.L.P. Erasmus, _The Wild Bushman_, MS. note (1899); F.C. Selous, _African

Nature Notes and Reminiscences_ (1908), chap. xx.; S. Passarge, _Die

Buschmanner der Kalahari_ (Berlin, 1907).

BUSHNELL, HORACE (1802-1876), American theologian, was born in the village

of Bantam, township of Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 14th of April 1802.

He graduated at Yale in 1827, was associate editor of the New York _Journal

of Commerce_ in 1828-1829, and in 1829 became a tutor at Yale. Here he at

first took up the study of law, but in 1831 he entered the theological

department of Yale College, and in 1833 was ordained pastor of the North

Congregational church in Hartford, Conn., where he remained until 1859,

when on account of long-continued ill-health he resigned his pastorate.

Thereafter he had no settled charge, but, until his death at Hartford on

the 17th of February 1876, he occasionally preached and was diligently

employed as an author. While in California in 1856, for the restoration of

his health, he took an active interest in the organization, at Oakland, of

the college of California (chartered in 1855 and merged in the university

of California in 1869), the presidency of which he declined. As a preacher,

Dr Bushnell was a man of remarkable power. Not a dramatic orator, he was in

high degree original, thoughtful and impressive in the pulpit. His

theological position may be said to have been one of qualified revolt

against the Calvinistic orthodoxy of his day. He criticized prevailing

conceptions of the Trinity, the atonement, conversion, and the relations of

the natural and the supernatural. Above all, he broke with the prevalent

view which regarded theology as essentially intellectual in its appeal and

demonstrable by processes of exact logical deduction. To his thinking its

proper basis is to be found in the feelings and intuitions of man's

spiritual nature. He had a vast influence upon theology in America, an

influence not so much, possibly, in the direction of the modification of

specific doctrines as in "the impulse and tendency and general spirit which

he imparted to theological thought." Dr Munger's estimate may be accepted,

with reservations, as the true one: "He was a theologian as Copernicus was

an astronomer; he changed the point of view, and thus not only changed

everything, but pointed the way toward unity in theological thought. He was

not exact, but he put God and man and the world into a relation that

thought can accept while it goes on to state it more fully with ever

growing knowledge. Other thinkers were moving in the same direction; he led

the movement in New England, and wrought out a great deliverance. It was a

work of superb courage. Hardly a theologian in his denomination stood by

him, and nearly all pronounced against him." Four of his books were of

particular importance: _Christian Nurture_ (1847), in which he virtually

opposed revivalism and "effectively turned the current of Christian thought

toward the young"; _Nature and the Supernatural_ (1858), in which he

discussed miracles and endeavoured to "lift the natural into the

supernatural" by emphasizing the super-naturalness of man; _The Vicarious

Sacrifice_ (1866), in which he contended for what has come to be known as

the "moral view" of the atonement in distinction from the "governmental"

and the "penal" or "satisfaction" theories; and _God in Christ_ (1849)

(with an introductory "Dissertation on Language as related to Thought"), in

which he expressed, it was charged, heretical views as to the Trinity,

holding, among other things, that the Godhead is "instrumentally

three--three simply as related to our finite apprehension, and the

communication of God's incommunicable nature." Attempts, indeed, were made

to bring him to trial, but they were unsuccessful, and in 1852 his church

unanimously withdrew from the local "consociation," thus removing any

possibility of further action against him. To his critics Bushnell formally

replied by writing _Christ in Theology_ (1851), in which he employs the

important argument that spiritual facts can be expressed only in

approximate and poetical language, and concludes that an adequate dogmatic

theology cannot exist. That he did not deny the divinity of Christ he

proved in _The Character of Jesus, forbidding his possible Classification

with Men_ (1861). He also published _Sermons for the New Life_ (1858);

_Christ and his Salvation_ (1864); _Work and Play_ (1864); _Moral Uses of

Dark Things_ (1868); _Women's Suffrage, the Reform against Nature_ (1869);

_Sermons on Living Subjects_ (1872); and _Forgiveness and Law_ (1874). Dr

Bushnell was greatly interested in the civic interests of Hartford, and was

the chief agent in procuring the establishment of the public park named in

his honour by that city.

An edition of his works, in eleven volumes, appeared in 1876-1881; and a

further volume, gathered from his unpublished papers, as _The Spirit in

Man: Sermons and Selections_, in 1903. New editions of his _Nature and the

Supernatural, Sermons for the New Life_, and _Work and Play_, were

published the same year. A full bibliography, by Henry Barrett Learned, is

appended to his _Spirit in Man_. Consult Mrs M.B. Cheneys _Life and Letters

of Horace Bushnell_ (New York, 1880; new edition, 1903), and Dr Theodore T.

Mungers _Horace Bushnell, Preacher and Theologian_ (Boston, 1899); also a

series of papers in the _Minutes of the General Association of Connecticut_

(_Bushnell Centenary_) (Hartford, 1902).

(W. WR.)

B[=U][S.][=I]R[=I] [Ab[=u] 'Abdall[=a]h Muhammad ibn Sa'[=i]d

ul-B[=u][s.][=i]r[=i]] (1211-1294), Arabian poet, lived in Egypt, where he

wrote under the patronage of Ibn Hinna, the vizier. His poems seem to have

been wholly on religious subjects. The most famous of these is the

so-called "Poem of the Mantle." It is entirely in praise of Mahomet, who

cured the poet of paralysis by appearing to him in a dream and wrapping him

in a mantle. The poem has little literary value, being an imitation of Ka'b

ibn Zuhair's poem in praise of Mahomet, but its history has been unique

(cf. I. Goldziher in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, vol. xxxi. pp.

304 ff.). Even in the poet's lifetime it was regarded as sacred. Up to the

present time its verses are used as amulets; it is employed in the

lamentations for the dead; it has been frequently edited and made the basis

for other poems, and new poems have been made by interpolating four or six

lines after each line of the original. It has been published with English

translation by Faizullabhai (Bombay, 1893), with French translation by R.

Basset (Paris, 1894), with German translation by C.A. Ralfs (Vienna, 1860),

and in other languages elsewhere.

For long list of commentaries, &c., cf. C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der Arab.

Litteratur_ (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 264-267.

(G. W. T.)

BUSIRIS, in a Greek legend preserved in a fragment of Pherecydes, an

Egyptian king, son of Poseidon and Lyssianassa. After Egypt has been

afflicted for nine years with famine, Phrasius, a seer of Cyprus, arrived

in Egypt and announced that the cessation of the famine would not take

place until a foreigner was yearly sacrificed to Zeus or Jupiter. Busiris

commenced by sacrificing the prophet, and continued the custom by offering

a foreigner on the altar of the god. It is here that Busiris enters into

the circle of the myths and _parerga_ of Heracles, who had arrived in Egypt

from Libya, and was seized and bound ready to be killed and offered at the

altar of Zeus in Memphis. Heracles burst the bonds which bound him, and,

seizing his club, slew Busiris with his son Amphidamas and his herald

Chalbes. [v.04 p.0874] This exploit is often represented on vase paintings

from the 6th century B.C. and onwards, the Egyptian monarch and his

companions being represented as negroes, and the legend is referred to by

Herodotus and later writers. Although some of the Greek writers made

Busiris an Egyptian king and a successor of Menes, about the sixtieth of

the series, and the builder of Thebes, those better informed by the

Egyptians rejected him altogether. Various esoterical explanations were

given of the myth, and the name not found as a king was recognized as that

of the tomb of Osiris. Busiris is here probably an earlier and less

accurate Graecism than Osiris for the name of the Egyptian god Usiri, like

Bubastis, Buto, for the goddesses Ubasti and Uto. Busiris, Bubastis, Buto,

more strictly represent Pusiri, Pubasti, Puto, cities sacred to these

divinities. All three were situated in the Delta, and would be amongst the

first known to the Greeks. All shrines of Osiris were called _P-usiri_, but

the principal city of the name was in the centre of the Delta, capital of

the 9th (Busirite) nome of Lower Egypt; another one near Memphis (now

Abusir) may have helped the formation of the legend in that quarter. The

name Busiris in this legend may have been caught up merely at random by the

early Greeks, or they may have vaguely connected their legend with the

Egyptian myth of the slaying of Osiris (as king of Egypt) by his mighty

brother Seth, who was in certain aspects a patron of foreigners. Phrasius,

Chalbes and Epaphus (for the grandfather of Busiris) are all explicable as

Graecized Egyptian names, but other names in the legend are purely Greek.

The sacrifice of foreign prisoners before a god, a regular scene on temple

walls, is perhaps only symbolical, at any rate for the later days of

Egyptian history, but foreign intruders must often have suffered rude

treatment at the hands of the Egyptians, in spite of the generally mild

character of the latter.

See H. v. Gartringen, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, for the

evidence from the side of classical archaeology.

(F. LL. G.)

BUSK, GEORGE (1807-1886), British surgeon, zoologist and palaeontologist,

son of Robert Busk, merchant of St Petersburg, was born in that city on the

12th of August 1807. He studied surgery in London, at both St Thomas's and

St Bartholomew's hospitals, and was an excellent operator. He was appointed

assistant-surgeon to the Greenwich hospital in 1832, and served as naval

surgeon first in the _Grampus_, and afterwards for many years in the

_Dreadnought_; during this period he made important observations on cholera

and on scurvy. In 1855 he retired from service and settled in London, where

he devoted himself mainly to the study of zoology and palaeontology. As

early as 1842 he had assisted in editing the _Microscopical Journal_; and

later he edited the _Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_

(1853-1868) and the _Natural History Review_ (1861-1865). From 1856 to 1859

he was Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology in the

Royal College of Surgeons, and he became president of the college in 1871.

He was elected F.R.S. in 1850, and was an active member of the Linnean,

Geological and other societies, and president of the Anthropological

Institute (1873-1874); he received the Royal Society's Royal medal and the

Geological Society's Wollaston and Lyell medals. Early in life he became

the leading authority on the Polyzoa; and later the vertebrate remains from

caverns and river-deposits occupied his attention. He was a patient and

cautious investigator, full of knowledge, and unaffectedly simple in

character. He died in London on the 10th of August 1886.

BUSKEN-HUET, CONRAD (1826-1886), Dutch literary critic, was born at the

Hague on the 28th of December 1826. He was trained for the Church, and,

after studying at Geneva and Lausanne, was appointed pastor of the Walloon

chapel in Haarlem in 1851. In 1863 conscientious scruples obliged him to

resign his charge, and Busken-Huet, after attempting journalism, went out

to Java in 1868 as the editor of a newspaper. Before this time, however, he

had begun his career as a polemical man of letters, although it was not

until 1872 that he was made famous by the first series of his _Literary

Fantasies_, a title under which he gradually gathered in successive volumes

all that was most durable in his work as a critic. His one novel,

_Lidewijde_, was written under strong French influences. Returning from the

East Indies, Busken-Huet settled for the remainder of his life in Paris,

where he died in April 1886. For the last quarter of a century he had been

the acknowledged dictator in all questions of Dutch literary taste.

Perfectly honest, desirous to be sympathetic, widely read, and devoid of

all sectarian obstinacy, Busken-Huet introduced into Holland the light and

air of Europe. He made it his business to break down the narrow prejudices

and the still narrower self-satisfaction of his countrymen, without

endangering his influence by a mere effusion of paradox. He was a brilliant

writer, who would have been admired in any language, but whose appearance

in a literature so stiff and dead as that of Holland in the 'fifties was

dazzling enough to produce a sort of awe and stupefaction. The posthumous

correspondence of Busken-Huet has been published, and adds to our

impression of the vitality and versatility of his mind.

(E. G.)

BUSKIN (a word of uncertain origin, existing in many European languages, as

Fr. _brousequin_, Ital. _borzacchino_, Dutch _brozeken_, and Span,

_borceguí_), a half-boot or high shoe strapped under the ankle, and

protecting the shins; especially the thick-soled boot or _cothurnus_ in the

ancient Athenian tragedy, used to increase the stature of the actors, as

opposed to the _soccus_, "sock," the light shoe of comedy. The term is thus

often used figuratively of a tragic style.

BUSLAEV, FEDOR IVANOVICH (1818-1898), Russian author and philologist, was

born on the 13th of April 1818 at Kerensk, where his father was secretary

of the district tribunal. He was educated at Penza and Moscow University.

At the end of his academical course, 1838, he accompanied the family of

Count S.G. Strogonov on a tour through Italy, Germany and France, occupying

himself principally with the study of classical antiquities. On his return

he was appointed assistant professor of Russian literature at the

university of Moscow. A study of Jacob Grimm's great dictionary had already

directed the attention of the young professor to the historical development

of the Russian language, and the fruit of his studies was the book _On the

Teaching of the National Language_ (Moscow, 1844 and 1867), which even now

has its value. In 1848 he produced his work _On the Influence of

Christianity on the Slavonic Language_, which, though subsequently

superseded by Franz von Miklosich's _Christliche Terminologie_, is still

one of the most striking dissertations on the development of the Slavonic

languages. In this work Buslaev proves that long before the age of Cyril

and Methodius the Slavonic languages had been subject to Christian

influences. In 1855 he published _Palaeographical and Philological

Materials for the History of the Slavonic Alphabets_, and in 1858 _Essay

towards an Historical Grammar of the Russian Tongue_, which, despite some

trivial defects, is still a standard work, abounding with rich material for

students, carefully collected from an immense quantity of ancient records

and monuments. In close connexion with this work in his _Historical

Chrestomathy of the Church-Slavonic and Old Russian Tongues_ (Moscow,

1861). Buslaev also interested himself in Russian popular poetry and old

Russian art, and the result of his labours is enshrined in _Historical

Sketches of Russian Popular Literature and Art_ (St Petersburg, 1861), a

very valuable collection of articles and monographs, in which the author

shows himself a worthy and faithful disciple of Grimm. His _Popular Poetry_

(St Petersburg, 1887) is a valuable supplement to the _Sketches_. In 1881

he was appointed professor of Russian literature at Moscow, and three years

later published his _Annotated Apocalypse_ with an atlas of 400 plates,

illustrative of ancient Russian art.

See S.D. Sheremetev, _Memoir of F.I. Buslaev_ (Moscow, 1899).

(R. N. B.)

BUSS, FRANCES MARY (1827-1894), English schoolmistress, was born in London

in 1827, the daughter of the painter-etcher R.W. Buss, one of the original

illustrators of _Pickwick_. She was educated at a school in Camden Town,

and continued there as a teacher, but soon joined her mother in keeping a

school in Kentish Town. In 1848 she was one of the original attendants at

lectures at the new Queen's College for Ladies. In 1830 her [v.04 p.0875]

school was moved to Camden Street, and under its new name of the North

London Collegiate School for Ladies it rapidly increased in numbers and

reputation. In 1864 Miss Buss gave evidence before the Schools Inquiry

Commission, and in its report her school was singled out for exceptional

commendation. Indeed, under her influence, what was then pioneer work of

the highest importance had been done to put the education of girls on a

proper intellectual footing. Shortly afterwards the Brewers' Company and

the Clothworkers' Company provided funds by which the existing North London

Collegiate School was rehoused and a Camden School for Girls founded, and

both were endowed under a new scheme, Miss Buss continuing to be principal

of the former. She and Miss Beale of Cheltenham became famous as the chief

leaders in this branch of the reformed educational movement; she played an

active part in promoting the success of the Girls' Public Day School

Company, encouraging the connexion of the girls' schools with the

university standard by examinations, working for the establishment of

women's colleges, and improving the training of teachers; and her energetic

personality was a potent force among her pupils and colleagues. She died in

London on the 24th of December 1894.

BUSSA, a town in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, on the west

bank of the Niger, in 10° 9' N., 4° 40' E. It is situated just above the

rapids which mark the limit of navigability of the Niger by steamer from

the sea. Here in 1806 Mungo Park, in his second expedition to trace the

course of the Niger, was attacked by the inhabitants, and drowned while

endeavouring to escape. During 1894-1898 its possession was disputed by

Great Britain and France, the last-named country acknowledging by the

convention of June 1898 the British claim, which carried with it the

control of the lower Niger. It is now the capital of northern Borgu (see

NIGERIA, and BORGU).

BUSSACO (or BUSACO), SERRA DE, a mountain range on the frontiers of the

Aveiro, Coimbra, and Vizeu districts of Portugal, formerly included in the

province of Beira. The highest point in the range is the Ponta de Bussaco

(1795 ft.), which commands a magnificent view over the Serra da Estrella,

the Mondego valley and the Atlantic Ocean. Luso (pop. 1661), a village

celebrated for its hot mineral springs, is the nearest railway station, on

the Guarda-Figueira da Foz line, which skirts the northern slopes of the

Serra. Towards the close of the 19th century the Serra de Bussaco became

one of the regular halting-places for foreign, and especially for British,

tourists, on the overland route between Lisbon and Oporto. Its hotel, built

in the Manoellian style--a blend of Moorish and Gothic--encloses the

buildings of a secularized Carmelite monastery, founded in 1268. The

convent woods, now a royal domain, have long been famous for their cypress,

plane, evergreen oak, cork and other forest trees, many of which have stood

for centuries and attained an immense size. A bull of Pope Gregory XV.

(1623), anathematizing trespassers and forbidding women to approach, is

inscribed on a tablet at the main entrance; another bull, of Urban VIII.

(1643), threatens with excommunication any person harming the trees. In

1873 a monument was erected, on the southern slopes of the Serra, to

commemorate the battle of Bussaco, in which the French, under Marshal

Masséna, were defeated by the British and Portuguese, under Lord

Wellington, on the 27th of September 1810.

BUSSY, ROGER DE RABUTIN, COMTE DE (1618-1693), commonly known as

BUSSY-RABUTIN, French memoir-writer, was born on the 13th of April 1618 at

Epiry, near Autun. He represented a family of distinction in Burgundy (see

SÉVIGNÉ, MADAME DE), and his father, Léonor de Rabutin, was

lieutenant-general of the province of Nivernais. Roger was the third son,

but by the death of his elder brothers became the representative of the

family. He entered the army when he was only sixteen and fought through

several campaigns, succeeding his father in the office of _mestre de camp_.

He tells us himself that his two ambitions were to become "honnête homme"

and to distinguish himself in arms, but the luck was against him. In 1641

he was sent to the Bastille by Richelieu for some months as a punishment

for neglect of his duties in his pursuit of gallantry. In 1643 he married a

cousin, Gabrielle de Toulongeon, and for a short time he left the army. But

in 1645 he succeeded to his father's position in the Nivernais, and served

under Condé in Catalonia. His wife died in 1646, and he became more

notorious than ever by an attempt to abduct Madame de Miramion, a rich

widow. This affair was with some difficulty settled by a considerable

payment on Bussy's part, and he afterwards married Louise de Rouville. When

Condé joined the party of the Fronde, Bussy joined him, but a fancied

slight on the part of the prince finally decided him for the royal side. He

fought with some distinction both in the civil war and on foreign service,

and buying the commission of _mestre de camp_ in 1655, he went to serve

under Turenne in Flanders. He served there for several campaigns and

distinguished himself at the battle of the Dunes and elsewhere; but he did

not get on well with his general, and his quarrelsome disposition, his

overweening vanity and his habit of composing libellous _chansons_ made him

eventually the enemy of most persons of position both in the army and at

court. In the year 1659 he fell into disgrace for having taken part in an

orgy at Roissy near Paris during Holy Week, which caused great scandal.

Bussy was ordered to retire to his estates, and beguiled his enforced

leisure by composing, for the amusement of his mistress, Madame de

Montglas, his famous _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_. This book, a series

of sketches of the intrigues of the chief ladies of the court, witty

enough, but still more ill-natured, circulated freely in manuscript, and

had numerous spurious sequels. It was said that Bussy had not spared the

reputation of Madame, and the king, angry at the report, was not appeased

when Bussy sent him a copy of the book to disprove the scandal. He was sent

to the Bastille on the 17th of April 1665, where he remained for more than

a year, and he was only liberated on condition of retiring to his estates,

where he lived in exile for seventeen years. Bussy felt the disgrace

keenly, but still bitterer was the enforced close of his military career.

In 1682 he was allowed to revisit the court, but the coldness of his

reception there made his provincial exile seem preferable, and he returned

to Burgundy, where he died on the 9th of April 1693.

The _Histoire amoureuse_ is in its most striking passages adapted from

Petronius, and, except in a few portraits, its attractions are chiefly

those of the scandalous chronicle. But his _Mémoires_, published after his

death, are extremely lively and characteristic, and have all the charm of a

historical romance of the adventurous type. His voluminous correspondence

yields in variety and interest to few collections of the kind, except that

of Madame de Sévigné, who indeed is represented in it to a great extent,

and whose letters first appeared in it. The literary and historical

student, therefore, owes Bussy some thanks.

The best edition of the _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_ is that of Paul

Boiteau in the Bibliothèque Elzévirienne (3 vols., Paris, 1856-1859). The

_Mémoires_ (2 vols., 1857) and _Correspondance_ (6 vols., 1858-1859) were

edited by Ludovic Lalanne. Bussy wrote other things, of which the most

important, his _Genealogy of the Rabutin Family_, remained in MS. till

1867, while his _Considérations sur la guerre_ was first published in

Dresden in 1746. He also wrote, for the use of his children, a series of

biographies, in which his own life serves a moral purpose.

BUSTARD (corrupted from the Lat. _Avis tarda_, though the application of

the epithet[1] is not easily understood), the largest British land-fowl,

and the _Otis tarda_ of Linnaeus, which formerly frequented the champaign

parts of Great Britain from East Lothian to Dorsetshire, but of which the

native race is now extirpated. Its existence in the northern locality just

named rests upon Sir Robert Sibbald's authority (_circa_ 1684), and though

Hector Boethius (1526) unmistakably described it as an inhabitant of the

Merse, no later writer than the former has adduced any evidence in favour

of its Scottish domicile. The last examples of the native race were

probably two killed in 1838 near Swaffham, in Norfolk, a district in which

for some years previously a few hen-birds of the species, the remnant of a

plentiful stock, had maintained their existence, though no cock-bird had

latterly been known to bear them company. In Suffolk, where the

neighbourhood of Icklingham formed its chief haunt, an [v.04 p.0876] end

came to the race in 1832; on the wolds of Yorkshire about 1826, or perhaps

a little later; and on those of Lincolnshire about the same time. Of

Wiltshire, George Montagu, author of an _Ornithological Dictionary_,

writing in 1813, says that none had been seen in their favourite haunts on

Salisbury Plain for the last two or three years. In Dorsetshire there is no

evidence of an indigenous example having occurred since that date, nor in

Hampshire nor Sussex since the opening of the 19th century. From other

English counties, as Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire and Berkshire, it

disappeared without note being taken of the event, and the direct cause or

causes of its extermination can only be inferred from what, on testimony

cited by Henry Stevenson (_Birds of Norfolk_, ii. pp. 1-42), is known to

have led to the same result in Norfolk and Suffolk. In the latter the

extension of plantations rendered the country unfitted for a bird whose shy

nature could not brook the growth of covert that might shelter a foe, and

in the former the introduction of improved agricultural implements, notably

the corn-drill and the horse-hoe, led to the discovery and generally the

destruction of every nest, for the bird's chosen breeding-place was in wide

fields--"brecks," as they are locally called--of winter-corn. Since the

extirpation of the native race the bustard is known to Great Britain only

by occasional wanderers, straying most likely from the open country of

Champagne or Saxony, and occurring in one part or another of the United

Kingdom some two or three times every three or four years, and chiefly in

midwinter.

An adult male will measure nearly 4 ft. from the tip of the bill to the end

of the tail, and its wings have an expanse of 8 ft. or more,--its weight

varying (possibly through age) from 22 to 32 lb. This last was that of one

which was recorded by the younger Naumann, the best biographer of the bird

(_Vögel Deutschlands_, vii. p. 12), who, however, stated in 1834 that he

was assured of the former existence of examples which had attained the

weight of 35 or 38 lb. The female is considerably smaller. Compared with

most other birds frequenting open places, the bustard has

disproportionately short legs, yet the bulk of its body renders it a

conspicuous and stately object, and when on the wing, to which it readily

takes, its flight is powerful and sustained. The bill is of moderate

length, but, owing to the exceedingly flat head of the bird, appears longer

than it really is. The neck, especially of the male in the breeding-season,

is thick, and the tail, in the same sex at that time of year, is generally

carried in an upright position, being, however, in the paroxysms of

courtship turned forwards, while the head and neck are simultaneously

reverted along the back, the wings are lowered, and their shorter feathers

erected. In this posture, which has been admirably portrayed by Joseph Wolf

(_Zool. Sketches_, pl. 45), the bird presents a very strange appearance,

for the tail, head and neck are almost buried amid the upstanding feathers

before named, and the breast is protruded to a remarkable extent. The

bustard is of a pale grey on the neck and white beneath, but the back is

beautifully barred with russet and black, while in the male a band of deep

tawny-brown--in some examples approaching a claret-colour--descends from

either shoulder and forms a broad gorget on the breast. The secondaries and

greater wing-coverts are white, contrasting vividly, as the bird flies,

with the black primaries. Both sexes have the ear-coverts somewhat

elongated--whence doubtless is derived the name _Otis_ (Gr. [Greek:

ôtis])--and the male is adorned with a tuft of long, white, bristly plumes,

springing from each side of the base of the mandible. The food of the

bustard consists of almost any of the plants natural to the open country it

loves, but in winter it will readily forage on those which are grown by

man, and especially coleseed and similar green crops. To this vegetable

diet much animal matter is added when occasion offers, and from an

earthworm to a field-mouse little that lives and moves seems to come amiss

to its appetite.

Though not many birds have had more written about them than the bustard,

much is unsettled with regard to its economy. A moot point, which will most

likely always remain undecided, is whether the British race was migratory

or not, though that such is the habit of the species in most parts of the

European continent is beyond dispute. Equally uncertain as yet is the

question whether it is polygamous or not--the evidence being perhaps in

favour of its having that nature. But one of the most singular properties

of the bird is the presence in some of the fully-grown males of a pouch or

gular sac, opening under the tongue. This extraordinary feature, first

discovered by James Douglas, a Scottish physician, and made known by

Eleazar Albin in 1740, though its existence was hinted by Sir Thomas Browne

sixty years before, if not by the emperor Frederick II, has been found

wanting in examples that, from the exhibition of all the outward marks of

virility, were believed to be thoroughly mature; and as to its function and

mode of development judgment had best be suspended, with the understanding

that the old supposition of its serving as a receptacle whence the bird

might supply itself or its companions with water in dry places must be

deemed to be wholly untenable. The structure of this pouch--the existence

of which in some examples has been well established--is, however, variable;

and though there is reason to believe that in one form or another it is

more or less common to several exotic species of the family _Otididae_, it

would seem to be as inconstant in its occurrence as in its capacity. As

might be expected, this remarkable feature has attracted a good deal of

attention (_Journ. für Ornith._, 1861, p. 153; _Ibis_, 1862, p. 107; 1865,

p. 143; _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1865, p. 747; 1868, p. 741; 1869, p. 140; 1874,

p. 471), and the later researches of A.H. Garrod show that in an example of

the Australian bustard (_Otis australis_) examined by him there was,

instead of a pouch or sac, simply a highly dilated oesophagus--the

distension of which, at the bird's will, produced much the same appearance

and effect as that of the undoubted sac found at times in the _O. tarda_.

The distribution of the bustards is confined to the Old World--the bird so

called in the fur-countries of North America, and thus giving its name to a

lake, river and cape, being the Canada goose (_Bernicla canadensis_). In

the Palaearctic region we have the _O. tarda_ already mentioned, extending

from Spain to Mesopotamia at least, and from Scania to Morocco, as well as

a smaller species, _O. tetrax_, which often occurs as a straggler in, but

was never an inhabitant of, the British Islands. Two species, known

indifferently by the name of houbara (derived from the Arabic), frequent

the more southern portions of the region, and one of them, _O. macqueeni_,

though having the more eastern range and reaching India, has several times

occurred in north-western Europe, and once even in England. In the east of

Siberia the place of _O. tarda_ is taken by the nearly-allied, but

apparently distinct, _O. dybovskii_, which would seem to occur also in

northern China. Africa is the chief stronghold of the family, nearly a

score of well-marked species being peculiar to that continent, all of which

have been by later systematists separated from the genus _Otis_. India,

too, has three peculiar species, the smaller of which are there known as

floricans, and, like some of their African and one of their European

cousins, are remarkable for the ornamental plumage they assume at the

breeding-season. Neither in Madagascar nor in the Malay Archipelago is

there any form of this family, but Australia possesses one large species

already named. From Xenophon's days (_Anab._ i. 5) to our own the flesh of

bustards has been esteemed as of the highest flavour. The bustard has long

been protected by the game-laws in Great Britain, but, as will have been

seen, to little purpose. A few attempts have been made to reinstate it as a

denizen of this country, but none on any scale that would ensure success.

Many of the older authors considered the bustards allied to the ostrich, a

most mistaken view, their affinity pointing apparently towards the cranes

in one direction and the plovers in another.

(A. N.)

[1] It may be open to doubt whether _tarda_ is here an adjective. Several

of the medieval naturalists used it as a substantive.

BUSTO ARSIZIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, 21 m.

N.W. by rail from the town of Milan. Pop. (1901) 19,673. It contains a fine

domed church, S. Maria di Piazza, built in 1517 after the designs of

Bramante: the picture over the high altar is one of Gaudenzio Ferrari's

best works. The church of S. Giovanni Battista is a good baroque edifice of

1617; by it stands a fine 13th-century campanile. Busto Arsizio is an

active manufacturing town, the cotton factories being [v.04 p.0877]

especially important. It is a railway junction for Novara and Seregno.

BUTADES, of Sicyon, wrongly called DIBUTADES, the first Greek modeller in

clay. The story is that his daughter, smitten with love for a youth at

Corinth where they lived, drew upon the wall the outline of his shadow, and

that upon this outline her father modelled a face of the youth in clay, and

baked the model along with the clay tiles which it was his trade to make.

This model was preserved in Corinth till Mummius sacked that town. This

incident led Butades to ornament the ends of roof-tiles with human faces, a

practice which is attested by numerous existing examples. He is also said

to have invented a mixture of clay and ruddle, or to have introduced the

use of a special kind of red clay (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxv. 12[43]). The

period at which he flourished is unknown, but has been put at about 600

B.C.

BUTCHER, one who slaughters animals, and dresses and prepares the carcass

for purposes of food. The word also is applied to one who combines this

trade with that of selling the meat, and to one who only sells the meat.

The O.Fr. _bochier_ or _bouchier_, modern _boucher_, from which "butcher"

is derived, meant originally a killer of goats and a seller of goats'

flesh, from the O.Fr. _boc_, a he-goat; cf. Ital. _beccaio_, from _becco_,

a goat.

BUTE, JOHN STUART, 3RD EARL OF (1713-1792), English prime minister, son of

James, 2nd earl, and of Lady Jane Campbell, daughter of the 1st duke of

Argyll, was born on the 25th of May 1713; he was educated at Eton and

succeeded to the earldom (in the peerage of Scotland; created for his

grandfather Sir James Stuart in 1703) on his father's death in 1723. He was

elected a representative peer for Scotland in 1737 but not in the following

parliaments, and appears not to have spoken in debate. In 1738 he was made

a knight of the Thistle, and for several years lived in retirement in Bute,

engaged in agricultural and botanical pursuits. From the quiet obscurity

for which his talents and character entirely fitted him Bute was forced by

a mere accident. He had resided in England since the rebellion of 1745, and

in 1747, a downpour of rain having prevented the departure of Frederick,

prince of Wales, from the Egham races, Bute was summoned to his tent to

make up a whist party; he immediately gained the favour of the prince and

princess, became the leading personage at their court, and in 1750 was

appointed by Frederick a lord of his bedchamber. After the latter's death

in 1751 his influence in the household increased. To his close intimacy

with the princess a guilty character was commonly assigned by contemporary

opinion, and their relations formed the subject of numerous popular

lampoons, but the scandal was never founded on anything but conjecture and

the malice of faction. With the young prince, the future king, Bute's

intimacy was equally marked; he became his constant companion and

confidant, and used his influence to inspire him with animosity against the

Whigs and with the high notions of the sovereign's powers and duties found

in Bolingbroke's _Patriot King_ and Blackstone's _Commentaries_. In 1775 he

took part in the negotiations between Leicester House and Pitt, directed

against the duke of Newcastle, and in 1757 in the conferences between the

two ministers which led to their taking office together. In 1756, by the

special desire of the young prince, he was appointed groom of the stole at

Leicester House, in spite of the king's pronounced aversion to him.

On the accession of George III. in 1760, Bute became at once a person of

power and importance. He was appointed a privy councillor, groom of the

stole and first gentleman of the bedchamber, and though merely an

irresponsible confidant, without a seat in parliament or in the cabinet, he

was in reality prime minister, and the only person trusted with the king's

wishes and confidence. George III. and Bute immediately proceeded to

accomplish their long-projected plans, the conclusion of the peace with

France, the break-up of the Whig monopoly of power, and the supremacy of

the monarchy over parliament and parties. Their policy was carried out with

consummate skill and caution. Great care was shown not to alienate the Whig

leaders in a body, which would have raised up under Pitt's leadership a

formidable party of resistance, but advantage was taken of disagreements

between the ministers concerning the war, of personal jealousies, and of

the strong reluctance of the old statesmen who had served the crown for

generations to identify themselves with active opposition to the king's

wishes. They were all discarded singly, and isolated, after violent

disagreements, from the rest of the ministers. On the 25th of March 1761

Bute succeeded Lord Holderness as secretary of state for the northern

department, and Pitt resigned in October on the refusal of the government

to declare war against Spain.

On the 3rd of November Bute appeared in his new capacity as prime minister

in the House of Lords, where he had not been seen for twenty years. Though

he had succeeded in disarming all organized opposition in parliament, the

hostility displayed against him in the nation, arising from his Scottish

nationality, his character as favourite, his peace policy and the

resignation of the popular hero Pitt, was overwhelming. He was the object

of numerous attacks and lampoons. He dared not show himself in the streets

without the protection of prize-fighters, while the jack-boot (a pun upon

his name) and the petticoat, by which the princess was represented, were

continually being burnt by the mob or hanged upon the gallows. On the 9th

of November, while proceeding to the Guildhall, he narrowly escaped falling

into the hands of the populace, who smashed his coach, and he was treated

with studied coldness at the banquet. In January 1762 Bute was compelled to

declare war against Spain, though now without the advantages which the

earlier decision urged by Pitt could have secured, and he supported the

war, but with no zeal and no definite aim beyond the obtaining of a peace

at any price and as soon as possible. In May he succeeded the duke of

Newcastle as first lord of the treasury, and he was created K.G. after

resigning the order of the Thistle. In his blind eagerness for peace he

conducted on his own responsibility secret negotiations for peace with

France through Viri, the Sardinian minister, and the preliminary treaty was

signed on the 3rd of November at Fontainebleau. The king of Prussia had

some reason to complain of the sudden desertion of his ally, but there is

no evidence whatever to substantiate his accusation that Bute had

endeavoured to divert the tsar later from his alliance with Prussia, or

that he had treacherously in his negotiations with Vienna held out to that

court hopes of territorial compensation in Silesia as the price of the

abandonment of France; while the charge brought against Bute in 1765 of

having taken bribes to conclude the peace, subsequently after investigation

pronounced frivolous by parliament, may safely be ignored. A parliamentary

majority was now secured for the minister's policy by bribery and threats,

and with the aid of Henry Fox, who deserted his party to become leader of

the Commons. The definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 10th of

February 1763, and a wholesale proscription of the Whigs was begun, the

most insignificant adherents of the fallen party, including widows, menial

servants and schoolboys, incurring the minister's mean vengeance. Later,

Bute roused further hostility by his cider tax, an ill-advised measure

producing only £75,000 a year, imposing special burdens upon the farmers

and landed interest in the cider counties, and extremely unpopular because

extending the detested system of taxation by excise, regarded as an

infringement of the popular liberties. At length, unable to contend any

longer against the general and inveterate animosity displayed against him,

fearing for the consequences to the monarchy, alarmed at the virulent

attacks of the _North Briton_, and suffering from ill-health, Bute resigned

office on the 8th of April. "Fifty pounds a year," he declared, "and bread

and water were luxury compared with what I suffer." He had, however, before

retiring achieved the objects for which he had been entrusted with power.

He still for a short time retained influence with the king, and intended to

employ George Grenville (whom he recommended as his successor) as his

agent; but the latter insisted on possessing the king's whole confidence,

and on the failure of Bute in August 1763 to procure his dismissal and to

substitute a ministry led by Pitt and the duke of Bedford, Grenville

demanded and obtained Bute's withdrawal from the court. He resigned

accordingly the office of privy purse, and took leave of George III. [v.04

p.0878] on the 28th of September. He still corresponded with the king, and

returned again to London next year, but in May 1765, after the duke of

Cumberland's failure to form an administration, Grenville exacted the

promise from the king, which appears to have been kept faithfully, that

Bute should have no share and should give no advice whatever in public

business, and obtained the dismissal of Bute's brother from his post of

lord privy seal in Scotland. Bute continued to visit the princess of Wales,

but on the king's arrival always retired by a back staircase.

The remainder of Bute's life has little public interest. He spoke against

the government on the American question in February 1766, and in March

against the repeal of the Stamp Act. In 1768 and 1774 he was again elected

a representative peer for Scotland, but took no further part in politics,

and in 1778 refused to have anything to do with the abortive attempt to

effect an alliance between himself and Chatham. He travelled in Italy,

complained of the malice of his opponents and of the ingratitude of the

king, and determined "to retire from the world before it retires from me."

He died on the 10th of March 1792 and was buried at Rothesay in Bute.

Though one of the worst of ministers, Bute was by no means the worst of men

or the despicable and detestable person represented by the popular

imagination. His abilities were inconsiderable, his character weak, and he

was qualified neither for the ordinary administration, of public business

nor for the higher sphere of statesmanship, and was entirely destitute of

that experience which sometimes fills the place of natural aptitude. His

short administration was one of the most disgraceful and incompetent in

English history, originating in an accident, supported only by the will of

the sovereign, by gross corruption and intimidation, the precursor of the

disintegration of political life and of a whole series of national

disasters. Yet Bute had good principles and intentions, was inspired by

feelings of sincere affection and loyalty for his sovereign, and his

character remains untarnished by the grosser accusations raised by faction.

In the circle of his family and intimate friends, away from the great world

in which he made so poor a figure, he was greatly esteemed. Samuel Johnson,

Lord Mansfield, Lady Hervey, Bishop Warburton join in his praise. For the

former, a strong opponent of his administration, he procured a pension of

£300 a year. He was exceptionally well read, with a refined taste for books

and art, and purchased the famous _Thomason Tracts_ now in the British

Museum. He was learned in the science of botany, and formed a magnificent

collection and a botanic garden at Luton Hoo, where Robert Adam built for

him a splendid residence. He engraved privately about 1785 at enormous

expense _Botanical Tables containing the Different Familys of British

Plants_, while _The Tabular Distribution of British Plants_ (1787) is also

attributed to him. Bute filled the offices of ranger of Richmond Forest,

governor of the Charterhouse, chancellor of Marischal College, Aberdeen

(1761), trustee of the British Museum (1765), president of the Society of

Antiquaries of Scotland (1780) and commissioner of Chelsea hospital.

By his marriage with Mary, daughter of Edward Wortley Montagu of Wortley,

Yorkshire, who in 1761 was created Baroness Mount Stuart of Wortley, and

through whom he became possessed of the enormous Wortley property, he had,

besides six daughters, five sons, the eldest of whom, John, Lord Cardiff

(1744-1814), succeeded him as 4th earl and was created a marquess in 1796.

John, Lord Mount Stuart (1767-1794), the son and heir of the 1st marquess,

died before his father, and consequently in 1814 the Bute titles and

estates came to his son John (1793-1848) as 2nd marquess. The latter was

succeeded by his only son John Patrick (1847-1900), whose son John (b.

1881) inherited the title in 1900.

BUTE, the most important, though not the largest, of the islands

constituting the county of the same name, in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland,

about 18 m. S.W. of Greenock and 40 m., by water, from Glasgow. It is

bounded on the N. and W. by the lovely Kyles of Bute, the narrow winding

strait which separates it from Argyllshire, on the E. by the Firth of

Clyde, and on the S. and S.W. by the Sound of Bute, about 6 m. wide, which

divides it from Arran. Its area is about 49 sq. m., or 31,161 acres. It

lies in a N.W. to S.E. direction, and its greatest length from Buttock

Point on the Kyles to Garroch Head on the Firth of Clyde is 15½ m. Owing to

indentations its width varies from 1-1/3 m. to 4½ m. There are piers at

Kilchattan, Craigmore, Port Bannatyne and Rothesay, but Rothesay is

practically the harbour for the whole island. Here there is regular

communication by railway steamers from Craigendoran, Prince's Pier

(Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay, and by frequent vessels from the

Broomielaw Bridge in Glasgow and other points on the Clyde. Pop. (1891)

11,735; (1901) 12,162.

The principal hills are in the north, where the chief are Kames Hill (911

ft.) and Kilbride Hill (836 ft.). The streams are mostly burns, and there

are six lochs. Loch Fad, about 1 m. S. of Rothesay, 2½ m. long by 1/3 m.

wide, was the source of the power used in the Rothesay cotton-spinning

mill, which was the first establishment of the kind erected in Scotland. In

1827 on its western shore Edmund Kean built a cottage afterwards occupied

by Sheridan Knowles. It now belongs to the marquess of Bute. From Loch

Ascog, fully 1 m. long, Rothesay derives its water supply. The other lakes

are Loch Quien, Loch Greenan, Dhu Loch and Loch Bull. Glen More in the

north and Glen Callum in the south are the only glens of any size. The

climate is mild and healthful, fuchsias and other plants flowering even in

winter, and neither snow nor frost being of long continuance, and less rain

falling than in many parts of the western coast. Some two-thirds of the

area, mostly in the centre and south, are arable, yielding excellent crops

of potatoes for the Glasgow market, oats and turnips; the rest consists of

hill pastures and plantations. The fisheries are of considerable value.

There is no lack of sandstone, slate and whinstone. Some coal exists, but

it is of inferior quality and doubtful quantity. At Kilchattan a superior

clay for bricks and tiles is found, and grey granite susceptible of high

polish.

The island is divided geologically into two areas by a fault running from

Rothesay Bay in a south-south-west direction by Loch Fad to Scalpsie Bay,

which, throughout its course, coincides with a well-marked depression. The

tract lying to the north-west of this dislocation is composed of the

metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands. The Dunoon phyllites form a

narrow belt about a mile and a half broad crossing the island between Kames

Bay and Etterick Bay, while the area to the north is occupied by grits and

schists which may be the western prolongations of the Beinn Bheula group.

Near Rothesay and along the hill slopes west of Loch Fad there are parallel

strips of grits and phyllites. That part of the island lying to the east of

this dislocation consists chiefly of Upper Old Red Sandstone strata,

dipping generally in a westerly or south-westerly direction. At the extreme

south end, between Kilchattan and Garroch Head, these conglomerates and

sandstones are overlaid by a thick cornstone or dolomitic limestone marking

the upper limit of the formation, which is surmounted by the cement-stones

and contemporaneous lavas of Lower Carboniferous age. The bedded volcanic

rocks which form a series of ridges trending north-west comprise

porphyritic basalts, andesite, and, near Port Luchdach, brownish trachyte.

Near the base of the volcanic series intrusive igneous rocks of

Carboniferous age appear in the form of sills and bosses, as, for instance,

the oval mass of olivine-basalt on Suidhe Hill. Remnants of raised beaches

are conspicuous in Bute. One of the well-known localities for arctic shelly

clays occurs at Kilchattan brick-works, where the dark red clay rests on

tough boulder-clay and may be regarded as of late glacial age.

As to the origin of the name of Bute, there is some doubt. It has been held

to come from _both_ (Irish for "a cell"), in allusion to the cell which St

Brendan erected in the island in the 6th century; others contend that it is

derived from the British words _ey budh_ (Gaelic, _ey bhiod_), "the island

of corn" (_i.e._ food), in reference to its fertility, notable in contrast

with the barrenness of the Western Isles and Highlands. Bute was probably

first colonized by the vanguard of Scots who came over from Ireland, and at

intervals the Norsemen also secured a footing for longer or shorter

periods. In those days the Butemen were also called Brandanes, after the

Saint. Attesting the antiquity of the island, "Druidical" monuments,

barrows, cairns and cists are numerous, as well as the remains of ancient

chapels. In virtue of a charter granted by James IV. in 1506, the numerous

small proprietors took the title of "baron," which became hereditary in

their families. Now the title is practically extinct, the lands conferring

it having with very few exceptions passed [v.04 p.0879] by purchase into

the possession of the marquess of Bute, the proprietor of nearly the whole

island. His seat, Mount Stuart, about 4½ m. from Rothesay by the shore

road, is finely situated on the eastern coast. Port Bannatyne (pop. 1165),

2 m. north by west of Rothesay, is a flourishing watering-place, named

after Lord Bannatyne (1743-1833), a judge of the court of session, one of

the founders of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1784. Near to it

is Kames Castle, where John Sterling, famous for Carlyle's biography, was

born in 1806. Kilchattan, in the south-east of the island, is a favourite

summer resort. Another object of interest is St Blane's Chapel,

picturesquely situated about ½ m. from Dunagoil Bay. Off the western shore

of Bute, ¾ m. from St Ninian's Point, lies the island of Inchmarnock, 2 m.

in length and about ¾ m. in width.

See J. Wilson, _Account of Rothesay and Bute_ (Rothesay, 1848); and J.K.

Hewison, _History of Bute_ (1894-1895).

BUTE, or BUTESHIRE, an insular county in the S.W. of Scotland, consisting

of the islands of Bute, from which the county takes its name, Inchmarnock,

Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae, Arran, Holy Island and Pladda, all lying in

the Firth of Clyde, between Ayrshire on the E. and Argyllshire on the W.

and N. The area of the county is 140,307 acres, or rather more than 219 sq.

m. Pop. (1891) 18,404; (1901) 18,787 (or 86 to the sq. m.). In 1901 the

number of persons who spoke Gaelic alone was 20, of those speaking Gaelic

and English 2764. Before the Reform Bill of 1832, Buteshire, alternately

with Caithness-shire, sent one member to parliament--Rothesay at the same

time sharing a representative with Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Irvine.

Rothesay was then merged in the county, which since then has had a member

to itself. Buteshire and Renfrewshire form one sheriffdom, with a

sheriff-substitute resident in Rothesay who also sits periodically at

Brodick and Millport. The circuit courts are held at Inveraray. The county

is under school-board jurisdiction, and there is a secondary school at

Rothesay. The county council subsidizes technical education in agriculture

at Glasgow and Kilmarnock. The staple crops are oats and potatoes, and

cattle, sheep and horses are reared. Seed-growing is an extensive industry,

and the fisheries are considerable. The Rothesay fishery district includes

all the creeks in Buteshire and a few in Argyll and Dumbarton shires, the

Cumbraes being grouped with the Greenock district. The herring fishery

begins in June, and white fishing is followed at one or other point all the

year round. During the season many of the fishermen are employed on the

Clyde yachts, Rothesay being a prominent yachting centre. The exports

comprise agricultural produce and fish, trade being actively carried on

between the county ports of Rothesay, Millport, Brodick and Lamlash and the

mainland ports of Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Ardrossan and Wemyss Bay,

with all of which there is regular steamer communication throughout the

year.

BUTHROTUM. (1) An ancient seaport of Illyria, corresponding with the modern

Butrinto (_q.v._). (2) A town in Attica, mentioned by Pliny the Elder

(_Nat. Hist._ iv. 37).

BUTLER, the name of a family famous in the history of Ireland. The great

house of the Butlers, alone among the families of the conquerors, rivalled

the Geraldines, their neighbours, kinsfolk and mortal foes. Theobald

Walter, their ancestor, was not among the first of the invaders. He was the

grandson of one Hervey Walter who, in the time of Henry I., held Witheton

or Weeton in Amounderness, a small fee of the honour of Lancaster, the

manor of Newton in Suffolk, and certain lands in Norfolk. In the great

inquest of Lancaster lands that followed a writ of 1212, this Hervey, named

as the father of Hervey Walter, is said to have given lands in his fee of

Weeton to Orm, son of Magnus, with his daughter Alice in marriage. Hervey

Walter, son of this Hervey, advanced his family by matching with Maude,

daughter of Theobald de Valognes, lord of Parham, whose sister Bertha was

wife of Ranulf de Glanville, the great justiciar, "the eye of the king."

When Ranulf had founded the Austin Canons priory of Butley, Hervey Walter,

his wife's brother-in-law, gave to the house lands in Wingfield for the

soul's health of himself and his wife Maude, of Ranulf de Glanville and

Bertha his wife, the charter, still preserved in the Harleian collection,

being witnessed by Hervey's younger sons, Hubert Walter, Roger and Hamon.

Another son, Bartholomew, witnessed a charter of his brother Hubert,

1190-1193. That these nephews of the justiciar profited early by their

kinship is seen in Hubert Walter's foundation charter of the abbey of West

Dereham, wherein he speaks of "dominus Ranulphus de Glanvilla et domina

Bertha uxor eius, qui nos nutrierunt." Hubert, indeed, becoming one of his

uncle's clerks, was so much in his confidence that Gervase of Canterbury

speaks of the two as ruling the kingdom together. King Richard, whom he

accompanied to the Holy Land, made him bishop of Salisbury and (1193)

archbishop of Canterbury. "Wary of counsel, subtle of wit," he was the

champion of Canterbury and of England, and the news of his death drew the

cry from King John that "now, for the first time, am I king in truth."

Between these two great statesmen Theobald Walter, the eldest brother of

the archbishop, rose and flourished. Theobald is found in the _Liber Niger_

(c. 1166) as holding Amounderness by the service of one knight. In 1185 he

went over sea to Waterford with John the king's son, the freight of the

harness sent after him being charged in the Pipe Roll. Clad in that harness

he led the men of Cork when Dermot MacCarthy, prince of Desmond, was put to

the sword, John rewarding his services with lands in Limerick and with the

important fief of Arklow in the vale of Avoca, where he made his Irish seat

and founded an abbey. Returning to England he accompanied his uncle Randulf

to France, both witnessing a charter delivered by the king at Chinon when

near to death. Soon afterwards, Theobald Walter was given by John that

hereditary office of butler to the lord of Ireland, which makes a surname

for his descendants, styling himself _pincerna_ when he attests John's

charter to Dublin on the 15th of May 1192. J. Horace Round has pointed out

that he also took a fresh seal, the inscription of which calls him Theobald

Walter, Butler of Ireland, and henceforward he is sometimes surnamed Butler

(_le Botiller_). When John went abroad in 1192, Theobald was given the

charge of Lancaster castle, but in 1194 he was forced to surrender to his

brother Hubert, who summoned it in King Richard's name. Making his peace

through Hubert's influence, he was sheriff of Lancashire for King Richard,

who regranted to him all Amounderness. His fortunes turned with the king's

death. The new sovereign, treating his surrender of the castle as

treachery, took the shrievalty from him, disseised him of Amounderness and

sold his cantreds of Limerick land to William de Braose. But the great

archbishop soon found means to bring his brother back to favour, and on the

2nd of January 1201-2 Amounderness, by writ of the king, is to be restored

to Theobald Walter, _dilecto et fideli nostra_, Within a year or two

Theobald left England to end his days upon his Arklow fief, busying himself

with religious foundations at Wotheney in Limerick, at Arklow and at

Nenagh. At Wotheney he is said to have been buried shortly before the 12th

of February 1205-6, when an entry in the Close Roll is concerned with his

widow. This widow, Maude, daughter of Robert le Vavasor of Denton, was

given up to her father, who, buying the right of marrying her at a price of

1200 marks and two palfreys, gave her to Fulk fitz-Warine. Theobald, the

son and heir of Theobald and Maude, a child of six years old, was likewise

taken into the keeping of his grandfather Robert, but letters from the

king, dated the 2nd of March 1205-6, told Robert, "as he loved his body,"

to surrender the heir at once to Gilbert fitz-Reinfrid, the baron of

Kendal.

Adding to its possessions by marriages the house advanced itself among the

nobility of Ireland. On the 1st of September 1315, its chief, Edmund Walter

_alias_ Edmund the Butler, for services against the Scottish raiders and

Ulster rebels, had a charter of the castle and manors of Carrick,

Macgriffyn and Roscrea to hold to him and his heirs _sub nomine et honore

comitis de Karryk_. This charter, however, while apparently creating an

earldom, failed, as Mr Round has explained, to make his issue earls of

Carrick. But James, the son and heir of Edmund, having married in 1327

Eleanor de Bohun, daughter of Humfrey, [v.04 p.0880] earl of Hereford and

Essex, high constable of England, by a daughter of Edward I., was created

an Irish earl on the 2nd of November 1328, with the title of Ormonde.

From the early years of the 14th century the Ormonde earls, generation by

generation, were called to the chief government of Ireland as lords-keeper,

lords-lieutenant, deputies or lords-justices, and unlike their hereditary

enemies the Geraldines they kept a tradition of loyalty to the English

crown and to English custom. Their history is full of warring with the

native Irish, and as the sun stood still upon Gibeon, even so, we are told,

it rested over the red bog of Athy while James the White Earl was staying

the wild O'Mores. More than one of the earls of Ormonde had the name of a

scholar, while of the 6th earl, master of every European tongue and

ambassador to many courts, Edward IV. is said to have declared that were

good breeding and liberal qualities lost to the world they might be found

again in John, earl of Ormonde. The earls were often absent from Ireland on

errands of war or peace. James, the 5th earl, had the English earldom of

Wiltshire given him in 1449 for his Lancastrian zeal. He fought at St

Albans in 1455, casting his harness into a ditch as he fled the field, and

he led a wing at Wakefield. His stall plate as a knight of the Garter is

still in St George's chapel. Defeated with the earl of Pembroke at

Mortimer's Cross and taken prisoner after Towton, his fate is uncertain,

but rumour said that he was beheaded at Newcastle, and a letter addressed

to John Paston about May 1461 sends tidings that "the Erle of Wylchir is

hed is sette on London Brigge."

To his time belongs a document illustrating a curious tradition of the

Butlers. His petition to parliament when he was conveying Buckinghamshire

lands to the hospital of St Thomas of Acres in London, recites that he does

so "in worship of that glorious martyr St Thomas, sometime archbishop of

Canterbury, of whose blood the said earl of Wiltshire, his father and many

of his ancestors are lineally descended." But the pedigrees in which

genealogists have sought to make this descent definite will not bear

investigation. The Wiltshire earldom died with him and the Irish earldom

was for a time forfeited, his two brothers, John and Thomas, sharing his

attainder. John was restored in blood by Edward IV.; and Thomas, the 7th

earl, summoned to the English parliament in 1495 as Lord Rochford, a title

taken from a Bohun manor in Essex, saw the statute of attainder annulled by

Henry VII.'s first parliament. He died without male issue in 1515. Of his

two daughters and co-heirs Anne was married to Sir James St. Leger, and

Margaret to Sir William Boleyn of Blickling, by whom she was mother of Sir

James and Sir Thomas Boleyn. The latter, the father of Anne Boleyn, was

created earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde in 1529.

In Ireland the heir male of the Ormonde earls, Sir Piers Butler--"red

Piers"--assumed the earldom of Ormonde in 1515 and seized upon the Irish

estates. Being a good ally against the rebel Irish, the government

temporized with his claim. He was an Irishman born, allied to the wild

Irish chieftains by his mother, a daughter of the MacMorrogh Kavanagh; the

earldom had been long in the male line; all Irish sentiment was against the

feudal custom which would take it out of the family, and the two co-heirs

were widows of English knights. In 1522, styled "Sir Piers Butler

pretending himself to be earl of Ormonde," he was made chief governor of

Ireland as lord deputy, and on the 23rd of February 1527/8, following an

agreement with the co-heirs of the 7th earl, whereby the earldom of Ormonde

was declared to be at the king's disposal, he was created earl of Ossory.

But the Irish estates, declared forfeit to the crown in 1536 under the Act

of Absentees, were granted to him as "earl of Ossory and Ormonde." Although

the Boleyn earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire was still alive, there can be no

doubt that Piers Butler had a patent of the Ormonde earldom about the 22nd

of February 1537/8, from which date his successors must reckon their

peerage. His son and heir, James the Lame, who had been created Viscount

Thurles on the 2nd of January 1535/6, obtained an act of parliament in

1543/4 which, confirming the grant to his father of the earldom, gave him

the old "pre-eminence" of the ancient earldom of 1328.

Earl James was poisoned at a supper in Ely House in 1546, and Thomas the

Black Earl, his son and heir, was brought up at the English court,

professing the reformed religion. His sympathies were with the Irish,

although he stood staunchly for law and order, and for the great part of

his life he was wrestling with rebellion. His lands having been harried by

hit hereditary enemies the Desmond Geraldines, Elizabeth gave him his

revenge by appointing him in 1580 military governor of Munster, with a

commission to "banish and vanquish these cankered Desmonds," then in open

rebellion. In three months, by his own account, he had put to the sword 46

captains, 800 notorious traitors and 4000 others, and, after four years'

fighting, Gerald, earl of Desmond, a price on his head, was taken and

killed. Dying in 1614 without lawful issue, Thomas was succeeded by his

nephew Walter of Kilcash, who had fought beside him against the Burkes and

O'Mores. But Sir Robert Preston, afterwards created earl of Desmond,

claimed a great part of the Ormonde lands in right of his wife, the Black

Earl's daughter and heir. In spite of the loyal services of Earl Walter,

King James supported the claimant, and the earl, refusing to submit to a

royal award, was thrown into gaol, where he lay for eight years in great

poverty, his rents being cut off. Although liberated in 1625 he was not

acknowledged heir to his uncle's estates until 1630. His son, Viscount

Thurles, being drowned on a passage to England, a grandson succeeded him.

This grandson, James Butler, is perhaps the most famous of the long line of

Ormondes. By his marriage with his cousin Elizabeth Preston, the Ormonde

titles were once more united with all the Ormonde estates. A loyal soldier

and statesman, he commanded for the king in Ireland, where he was between

the two fires of Catholic rebels and Protestant parliamentarians. In

Ireland he stayed long enough to proclaim Charles II. in 1649, but defeated

at Rathmines, his garrisons broken by Cromwell, he quitted the country at

the end of 1650. At the Restoration he was appointed lord-lieutenant, his

estates having been restored to him with the addition of the county

palatine of Tipperary, taken by James I. from his grandfather. In 1632 he

had been created a marquess. The English earldom of Brecknock was added in

1660 and an Irish dukedom of Ormonde in the following year. In 1682 he had

a patent for an English dukedom with the same title. Buckingham's intrigues

deprived him for seven years of his lord-lieutenancy, and a desperate

attempt was made upon his life in 1670, when a company of ruffians dragged

him from his coach in St James's Street and sought to hurry him to the

gallows at Tyburn. His son's threat that, if harm befell his father he

would pistol Buckingham, even if he were behind the king's chair, may have

saved him from assassination. At the accession of James II. he was once

more taken from active employment, and "Barzillai, crowned with honour and

with years" died at his Dorsetshire house in 1688. He had seen his

great-great-uncle the Black Earl, who was born in 1532, and a

great-grandson was playing beside him a few hours before his death. His

brave son Ossory, "the eldest hope with every grace adorned," died eight

years before him, and he was succeeded by a grandson James, the second duke

of Ormonde, who, a recognized leader of the London Jacobites, was attainted

in 1715, his honours and estates being forfeited. The duke lived thirty

years in exile, chiefly at Avignon, and died in the rebellion year of 1745

without surviving issue. His younger brother Charles, whom King William had

created Lord Butler of Weston in the English peerage and earl of Arran in

the Irish, was allowed to purchase the Ormonde estates. On the earl's death

without issue in 1758 the estates were enjoyed by a sister, passing in

1760, by settlement of the earl of Arran, to John Butler of Kilcash,

descendant of a younger brother of the first duke. John dying six years

later was succeeded by Walter Butler, a first cousin, whose son John,

heir-male of the line of Ormonde, became earl of Ormonde and Ossory and

Viscount Thurles in 1791, the Irish parliament reversing the attainder of

1715. Walter, son and heir of the restored earl, was given an English

peerage as Lord Butler of Llanthony (1801) and an Irish marquessate of

Ormonde (1816), titles that died with him. This Lord Ormonde in 1810 [v.04

p.0881] sold to the crown for the great sum of £216,000 his ancestral right

to the prisage of wines in Ireland. For his brother and heir, created Lord

Ormonde of Llahthony at the coronation of George IV., the Irish marquessate

was revived in 1825 and descended in the direct line.

The earls of Carrick (Ireland 1748), Viscounts Ikerrin (Ireland 1629),

claim descent from a brother of the first Ormonde earl, while the viscounts

Mountgarret (Ireland 1550) spring from a younger son of Piers, the Red Earl

of Ossory. The barony of Caher (Ireland 1543), created for Sir Thomas

Butler of Chaier or Caher-down-Eske, a descendant in an illegitimate branch

of the Butlers, fell into abeyance among heirs general on the death of the

2nd baron in 1560. It was again created, after the surrender of their

rights by the heirs general, in 1583 for Sir Theobald Butler (d. 1596), and

became extinct in 1858 on the death of Richard Butler, 13th baron and 2nd

viscount Caher, and second earl of Glengall. Buttler von Clonebough,

_genannt_ Haimhausen, count of the Holy Roman Empire, descends from the 3rd

earl of Ormonde, the imperial title having been revived in 1681 in memory

of the services of a kinsman, Walter, Count Butler (d. 1634), the dragoon

officer who carried out the murder of Wallenstein.

See Lancashire Inquests, 1205-1307; Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society,

xlviii.; Chronicles of Matthew Paris, Roger of Hoveden, Giraldus

Cambrensis, &c.; _Dictionary of National Biography_; G.E.C.'s _Complete

Peerage_; Carte's Ormonde papers; Paston Letters; Rolls of parliament; fine

rolls, liberate rolls, pipe rolls, &c.

(O. BA.)

BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773), English Roman Catholic priest and hagiologist,

was born in Northampton on the 24th of October 1710. He was educated at the

English college, Douai, where on his ordination to the priesthood he held

successively the chairs of philosophy and divinity. He laboured for some

time as a missionary priest in Staffordshire, held several positions as

tutor to young Roman Catholic noblemen, and was finally appointed president

of the English seminary at St Omer, where he remained till his death on the

15th of May 1773. Butler's great work, _The Lives of the Saints_, the

result of thirty years' study (4 vols., London, 1756-1759), has passed

through many editions and translations (best edition, including valuable

notes, Dublin, 12 vols. 1779-1780). It is a popular and compendious

reproduction of the _Acta Sanctorum_, exhibiting great industry and

research, and is in all respects the best work of its kind in English

literature.

See _An Account of the Life of A.B. by C.B._, _i.e._ by his nephew Charles

Butler (London, 1799); and Joseph Gillow's _Bibliographical Dictionary of

English Catholics_, vol. i.

BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893), American lawyer, soldier and

politician, was born in Deerfield, New Hampshire, on the 5th of November

1818. He graduated at Waterville (now Colby) College in 1838, was admitted

to the Massachusetts bar in 1840, began practice at Lowell, Massachusetts,

and early attained distinction as a lawyer, particularly in criminal cases.

Entering politics as a Democrat, he first attracted general attention by

his violent campaign in Lowell in advocacy of the passage of a law

establishing a ten-hour day for labourers; he was a member of the

Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1853, and of the state senate in

1859, and was a delegate to the Democratic national conventions from 1848

to 1860. In that of 1860 at Charleston he advocated the nomination of

Jefferson Davis and opposed Stephen A. Douglas, and in the ensuing campaign

he supported Breckinridge.

After the Baltimore riot at the opening of the Civil War, Butler, as a

brigadier-general in the state militia, was sent by Governor John A.

Andrew, with a force of Massachusetts troops, to reopen communication

between the Union states and the Federal capital. By his energetic and

careful work Butler achieved his purpose without fighting, and he was soon

afterwards made major-general, U.S.V. Whilst in command at Fortress Monroe,

he declined to return to their owners fugitive slaves who had come within

his lines, on the ground that, as labourers for fortifications, &c., they

were contraband of war, thus originating the phrase "contraband" as applied

to the negroes. In the conduct of tactical operations Butler was almost

uniformly unsuccessful, and his first action at Big Bethel, Va., was a

humiliating defeat for the National arms. Later in 1861 he commanded an

expeditionary force, which, in conjunction with the navy, took Forts

Hatteras and Clark, N.C. In 1862 he commanded the force which occupied New

Orleans. In the administration of that city he showed great firmness and

severity. New Orleans was unusually healthy and orderly during the Butler

régime. Many of his acts, however, gave great offence, particularly the

seizure of $800,000 which had been deposited in the office of the Dutch

consul, and an order, issued after some provocation, on May 15th, that if

any woman should "insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the

United States, she shall be regarded and shall be held liable to be treated

as a woman of the town plying her avocation." This order provoked protests

both in the North and the South, and also abroad, particularly in England

and France, and it was doubtless the cause of his removal in December 1862.

On the 1st of June he had executed one W.B. Mumford, who had torn down a

United States flag placed by Farragut on the United States mint; and for

this execution he was denounced (Dec. 1862) by President Davis as "a felon

deserving capital punishment," who if captured should be reserved for

execution. In the campaign of 1864 he was placed at the head of the Army of

the James, which he commanded creditably in several battles. But his

mismanagement of the expedition against Fort Fisher, N.C., led to his

recall by General Grant in December.

He was a Republican representative in Congress from 1867 to 1879, except in

1875-1877. In Congress he was conspicuous as a Radical Republican in

Reconstruction legislation, and was one of the managers selected by the

House to conduct the impeachment, before the Senate, of President Johnson,

opening the case and taking the most prominent part in it on his side; he

exercised a marked influence over President Grant and was regarded as his

spokesman in the House, and he was one of the foremost advocates of the

payment in "greenbacks" of the government bonds. In 1871 he was a defeated

candidate for governor of Massachusetts, and also in 1879 when he ran on

the Democratic and Greenback tickets, but in 1882 he was elected by the

Democrats who got no other state offices. In 1883 he was defeated on

renomination. As presidential nominee of the Greenback and Anti-Monopolist

parties, he polled 175,370 votes in 1884, when he had bitterly opposed the

nomination by the Democratic party of Grover Cleveland, to defeat whom he

tried to "throw" his own votes in Massachusetts and New York to the

Republican candidate. His professional income as a lawyer was estimated at

$100,000 per annum shortly before his death at Washington, D.C., on the

11th of January 1893. He was an able but erratic administrator and soldier,

and a brilliant lawyer. As a politician he excited bitter opposition, and

was charged, apparently with justice, with corruption and venality in

conniving at and sharing the profits of illicit trade with the Confederates

carried on by his brother at New Orleans and by his brother-in-law in the

department of Virginia and North Carolina, while General Butler was in

command.

See James Parton, _Butler in New Orleans_ (New York, 1863), which, however,

deals inadequately with the charges brought against Butler; and _The

Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major-General B.F. Butler:

Butler's Book_ (New York, 1893), to be used with caution as regards facts.

BUTLER, CHARLES (1750-1832), British lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was

born in London on the 14th of August 1750. He was educated at Douai, and in

1775 entered at Lincoln's Inn. He had considerable practice as a

conveyancer, and after the passing of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791

was called to the bar. In 1832 he took silk, and was made a bencher of

Lincoln's Inn. He died on the 2nd of June in the same year. His literary

activity was enormous, and the number of his published works comprises

about fifty volumes. The most important of them are the _Reminiscences_

(1821-1827); _Horae Biblicae_ (1797), which has passed through several

editions; _Horae Juridicae Subsecivae_ (1804); _Book of the Roman Catholic

Church_ (1825), which was directed against Southey and excited [v.04

p.0882] some controversy; lives of Erasmus, Grotius, Bossuet, Fénelon. He

also edited and completed the _Lives of the Saints_ of his uncle, Alban

Butler, Fearne's _Essay on Contingent Remainders_ and Hargrave's edition of

_Coke upon Littleton's Laws of England_ (1775).

A complete list of Butler's works is contained in Joseph Gillow's

_Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics_, vol. i. pp. 357-364.

BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853), English schoolmaster and divine, was born in

London and educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he

afterwards became fellow, in the capacity first of mathematical lecturer,

and afterwards of classical tutor. He was elected a public examiner of the

university in 1804, and in the following year was one of the select

preachers. As head master of Harrow (1805-1829) his all-round knowledge,

his tact and his skill as an athlete rendered his administration successful

and popular. On his retirement he settled down at Gayton, Northamptonshire,

a living which had been presented to him by his college in 1814. In 1836 he

became chancellor of the diocese of Peterborough, and in 1842 was appointed

dean of Peterborough. His few publications include some notes of Harrow,

entitled _Harrow, a Selection of Lists of the School between 1770 and 1828_

(Peterborough, 1849).

His eldest son, GEORGE BUTLER (1819-1890), was principal of Liverpool

College (1866-1882) and canon of Winchester. In 1852 he married Josephine

Elizabeth, daughter of John Grey of Dilston. She died on the 30th of

December 1906 (see her _Autobiography_, 1909). Mrs Josephine Butler, as she

was commonly called afterwards, was a woman of intense moral and spiritual

force, who devoted herself to rescue work, and specially to resisting the

"state regulation of vice" whether by the C.D. Acts in India or by any

system analogous to that of the continent in England.

His youngest son, the Rev. Dr HENRY MONTAGU BUTLER, became one of the

best-known scholars of his day. Born in 1833, and educated at Harrow and

Trinity, Cambridge, he was senior classic in 1855 and was elected a fellow

of his college. In 1859 he became head master of Harrow, as his father had

been, and only resigned on being made dean of Gloucester in 1885. In 1886

he was elected master of Trinity, Cambridge. His publications include

various volumes of sermons, but his reputation rests on his wide

scholarship, his remarkable gifts as a public speaker, and his great

practical influence both as a headmaster and at Cambridge. He married first

(1861), Georgina Elliot, and secondly (1888) Agneta Frances Ramsay (who in

1887 was senior classic at Cambridge), and had five sons and two daughters.

BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752), English divine and philosopher, bishop of

Durham, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, on the 18th of May 1692. His

father, a linen-draper of that town, was a Presbyterian, and it was his

wish that young Butler should be educated for the ministry in that church.

The boy was placed under the care of the Rev. Philip Barton, master of the

grammar school at Wantage, and remained there for some years. He was then

sent to Samuel Jones's dissenting academy at Gloucester, and afterwards at

Tewkesbury, where his most intimate friend was Thomas Seeker, who became

archbishop of Canterbury.

While at this academy Butler became dissatisfied with the principles of

Presbyterianism, and after much deliberation resolved to join the Church of

England. About the same time he began to study with care Samuel Clarke's

celebrated _Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God_, which had

been published as the Boyle Lectures a few years previously. With great

modesty and secrecy Butler, then in his twenty-second year, wrote to the

author propounding certain difficulties with regard to the proofs of the

unity and omnipresence of the Divine Being. Clarke answered his unknown

opponent with a gravity and care that showed his high opinion of the

metaphysical acuteness displayed in the objections, and published the

correspondence in later editions of the _Demonstration_. Butler

acknowledged that Clarke's reply satisfied him on one of the points, and he

subsequently gave his adhesion to the other. In one of his letters we

already find the germ of his famous dictum that "probability is the guide

of life."

In March 1715 he entered at Oriel College, Oxford, but for some time found

it uncongenial and thought of migrating to Cambridge. But he made a close

friend in one of the resident fellows, Edward Talbot, son of William

Talbot, then bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Salisbury and Durham. In

1718 he took his degree, was ordained deacon and priest, and on the

recommendation of Talbot and Clarke was nominated preacher at the chapel of

the Rolls, where he continued till 1726. It was here that he preached his

famous _Fifteen Sermons_ (1726), including the well-known discourses on

human nature. In 1721 he had been given a prebend at Salisbury by Bishop

Talbot, who on his translation to Durham gave Butler the living of

Houghton-le-Skerne in that county, and in 1725 presented him to the wealthy

rectory of Stanhope. In 1726 he resigned his preachership at the Rolls.

For ten years Butler remained in perfect seclusion at Stanhope. He was only

remembered in the neighbourhood as a man much loved and respected, who used

to ride a black pony very fast, and whose known benevolence was much

practised upon by beggars. Archbishop Blackburne, when asked by Queen

Caroline whether he was still alive, answered, "He is not dead, madam, but

buried." In 1733 he was made chaplain to Lord Chancellor Talbot, elder

brother of his dead friend Edward, and in 1736 prebendary of Rochester. In

the same year he was appointed clerk of the closet to the queen, and had to

take part in the metaphysical conversation parties which she loved to

gather round her. He met Berkeley frequently, but in his writings does not

refer to him. In 1736 also appeared his great work, _The Analogy of

Religion_.