PART I.--REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B.C._Helps to Latin Translation at Sight

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HELPS TO

LATIN TRANSLATION AT SIGHT

by the

REV. EDMUND LUCE

With an Introductory Note

by the

REV. THE HON. E. LYTTELTON, M.A.

Headmaster of Eton

'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento;

Hae tibi'erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem.

Parcere subiectis, et debellare superbos.'

VERGIL, _Aeneid_, vi. 851 3

'Fecisti patriam diversis gentibus unam,

Profuit iniustis te dominante capi.

Dumque offers victis proprii consortia iuris,

Urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat.'

RUTILIUS, i. 63-6

ETON COLLEGE

SPOTTISWOODE & CO., LIMITED

1908

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Whatever controversies may be astir as to the precise objects of a

classical training, it will hardly be disputed that if that teaching has

been successful the pupils will sooner or later be able to make out an

ordinary passage of 'unseen' Latin or Greek. It is a test to which the

purely linguistic teacher must obviously defer: while the master, who

aims at imparting knowledge of the subject-matter must acknowledge, if

his boys flounder helplessly in unprepared extracts, that they could

have learnt about ancient life better through translations.

In, addition to the value of unseen translation, as a test of teaching

it constitutes an admirable thinking exercise. But so numerous are the

various books of extracts already published that I should have seen

nothing to be gained from the appearance of a new one like the present

volume were it not, as far as I know, different in two important

respects from others. It contains six Demonstrations of _how_ sentences

are to be attacked: and further, the passages are chosen so that if a

boy works through the book he can hardly fail to gain some outline

knowledge of Roman Republican history.

As to the Demonstrations, their value will be evident if it is realised

that failure in this sort of translation means failure to analyse: to

split up, separate, distinguish the component parts of an apparently

jumbled but really ordered sentence. A beginner must learn to trust the

solvent with which we supply him; and the way to induce him to trust it

is to show it to him at work. That is what a Demonstration will do if

only the learner will give it a fair chance.

In regard to the historical teaching contained in the extracts, there

can be little doubt that the present tendency of classical teaching is

towards emphasising the subject-matter as well as the language. It is

felt that as training in political principles the reading of Greek and

Roman authors offers unique advantages, such as many English boys can

appreciate, who are deaf to the literary appeal. The choice therefore of

historical extracts in chronological order is an attempt to recognise

both the two great aims of classical teaching at once. At any rate there

is no reason to suppose that the linguistic exercise is in any way

impaired by being combined with a little history.

I should like to direct attention also to the notes given on the

extracts, and the purpose they are meant to serve. If no notes had

been given some of the passages which are important or interesting

historically would have been found too difficult for the boys for whom

they are intended. Moreover, most of the notes concern the historical

aspect of the extract to which they belong, and are part of the scheme

by which the subject-matter of the passage is emphasised. Although the

passages themselves are not strictly graduated, the help given in

translation becomes less and less as the boy goes through the book; and

it is obvious that those extracts which illustrate the later periods of

Roman History will be found more difficult than the legends and stories

which belong to an earlier age. In cases where no help at all is

desired, the Miscellaneous Passages (which are without notes) may be

used.

E. LYTTELTON.

ETON: _April 1908_.

EDITOR'S PREFACE

The aim of the present book is to help boys to translate at sight. Of

the many books of unseen translation in general use few exhibit

continuity of plan as regards the subject-matter, or give any help

beyond a short heading. The average boy, unequal to the task before him,

is forced to draw largely upon his own invention, and the master, in

correcting written unseens, has seldom leisure to do more than mark

mistakes--a method of correction almost useless to the boy, unless

accompanied by full and careful explanation when the written work is

given back.

Now that less time is available for Latin and Greek, new methods of

teaching them must be adopted if they are to hold their own in our

public schools. When Lord Dufferin could say, 'I am quite determined, so

far as care and forethought can prevent it, that the ten best years of

my boy's life shall not be spent (as mine were) in nominally learning

two dead languages without being able to translate an ordinary paragraph

from either without the aid of a dictionary;' and Dr. Reid could write,

'It is not too much to say that a large number of boys pass through our

schools without ever dreaming that an ancient writer could pen three

consecutive sentences with a connected meaning: chaos is felt to be

natural to ancient literature: no search is made for sense, and the

Latin or Greek book is looked upon as a more or less fortuitous

concourse of words;' when Dr. Rouse can assert, 'The public schoolboy at

nineteen is unable to read a simple Latin or Greek book with ease, or to

express a simple series of thoughts without atrocious blunders: he has

learnt from his classics neither accuracy nor love of beauty and

truth'--it is obvious that, for the average boy, the system of

perfunctorily prepared set-books and dashed-off unseens is a failure.

The experience of every teacher who is also an examiner, and who has had

to deal with public schoolboys, will confirm this; but during

twenty-five years' teaching and examining of boys in almost every stage,

I have found that translation at sight, taught upon the plan of this

book, not only produces a good result, but teaches a boy how to grapple

with the bare text of a Latin author better than the habitual practice

of translating at sight without any help at all. If the average boy is

to be taught how to translate, his interest must be awakened and

sustained, and the standard of routine work made as high as possible.

The clever boys are, as a rule, well provided for; but, even for them,

the methods of this book have been found to be the shortest road to

accuracy and style in translation. Moreover by this means they have

gained a firsthand acquaintance with Latin literature and the sources of

Roman history.

It is impossible here to enter into 'the question of the close and

striking correspondence between the history, the literature, and the

language of Rome. It was not until the history of Rome threw its mantle

over her poetry that the dignity of the poet was recognised and

acknowledged. . . . In the same way the life of the Roman people is

closely bound up with the prose records, and the phenomena of the Roman

Empire lend a human interest to all representative Roman writers.'[1]

Considerations of this kind form a sufficient justification of the

method here adopted of employing the historical records of Rome as a

basis of teaching.

In this book the Introduction (pp. 1-14) is written to teach a boy how

to arrive at the meanings of words (_Helps to Vocabulary_, pp. 1-5); how

to find out the thought of a sentence through analysis and a knowledge

of the order of words in Latin (_Helps to-Translation_, pp. 5-12); how

to reproduce in good English the exact meaning and characteristics of

his author (_Helps to Style_, pp. 13-14).

In the Demonstrations (pp. 15-58) the boy is taught to notice all

allusions that give him a clue to the sense of the passage, to grapple

with the difficulties of construction, to break up sentences, and to

distinguish between the principal and the subordinate thoughts both in

prose and verse.

The Passages have been carefully selected, and contain accounts of

nearly all the important events and illustrious men of the period of

history to which they belong. They are chronologically arranged and

divided into six periods, covering Roman history from B.C. 753 to B.C.

44, leaving the Augustan and subsequent period to be dealt with in a

second volume. The translation help given in the notes is carefully

graduated. The notes to Parts I., II., III. (marked D, pp. 60-107) are

thus intended to help younger boys to deal with passages which would in

some cases be too difficult for them; less help in translation is given

in Parts IV. and V. (marked C, pp. 108-159); while the notes to Part VI.

(marked B, pp. 160-236) are mainly concerned with historical

explanation, illustration, or allusion.

The Miscellaneous Passages (pp. 238-271), chosen for me by my

brother-in-law, Mr. A. M. Goodhart (Assistant Master at Eton College),

are added to provide occasional passages in which no help is given. It

is hoped that these, which deal with subjects of general interest, and

include a somewhat wide range of authors, may give variety to the book,

and supply more verse passages than the historical character of the rest

would admit. For the sake of variety, or to economise time, some of the

passages may be translated _viva voce_ at the discretion of the master.

The Appendices (pp. 274-363) may be referred to when a boy finds himself

in doubt about the value of a Conjunction (I.), the force of a Prefix

(II.), the meaning of a Suffix (III.), the Life and Times of his Author

(VI.), or the historical significance of a date (VII.). In Appendix V.

a Demonstration is given to show how a boy, after sufficient practice in

translation by the help of analysis, may to some extent learn to think

in Latin, and so to follow the Latin order in arriving at the thought.

The important question of what maps should accompany the book will be

best solved by providing each boy with a copy of Murray's Small

Classical Atlas, edited by G. B. Grundy, which will be found to be

admirably adapted to the purpose. By the kindness of Mr. John Murray,

two plans (Dyrrachium and Pharsalus), not at present included in the

Atlas, have been specially drawn to illustrate passages on pp. 216 and

218, and are placed opposite the text.

As far as possible I have acknowledged my indebtedness to the Editors

whose editions of the classics have been consulted. For the historical

explanations I am under special obligation to the histories of Ihne and

Mommsen, to the 'Life of Cicero' by the Master of Balliol, and to the

'Life of Caesar' by Mr. Warde Fowler. I have also to thank Messrs.

Macmillan for allowing me to quote from Dr. Potts' 'Aids to Latin

Prose,' and from Professor Postgate's _Sermo Latinus_. For the prose

passages the best texts have been consulted, while for Livy,

Weissenborn's text edited by Müller (1906) has been followed throughout.

As regards the verse passages, the text adopted is, wherever possible,

that of Professor Postgate's recension of the _Corpus Poetarum

Latinorum_. For the Short Lives I have found useful 'The Student's

Companion to Latin Authors' (Middleton and Mills), but I owe much more

to the works of Teuffel, Cruttwell, Sellar, Tyrrell, and Mackail.

The Head Master of Eton, besides expressing his approval of the book,

has kindly offered to write an Introductory Note. He has also given me

an exceptional opportunity of testing more than half the historical

passages by allowing them to be used in proof, until the book was ready,

for the weekly unseen translation in the three blocks of fifth form,

represented by the letters, B, C, D. The criticisms and suggestions made

by Classical Masters at Eton, who have used the passages week by week,

have been very valuable, and, in particular, my thanks are due to Mr.

Impey, Mr. Tatham, Mr. Macnaghten, Mr. Wells, and Mr. Ramsay. My thanks

are also due to the Lower Master, Mr. F. H. Rawlins, for kindly reading

the MS. of the Introduction, Demonstrations, and Appendices I.-IV., and

for giving me the benefit of his wide experience.

To my brother-in-law, Mr. A. M. Goodhart, I owe it that I undertook to

write the book; without his advice it would never have seen the light,

and he has given me most valuable help and encouragement at every stage.

As regards the choice of type and style of printing, I owe a special

debt of thanks to Mr. W. Hacklett (manager of Messrs. Spottiswoode's

Eton branch), whose unceasing care and attention has been invaluable in

seeing the book through the press. I must also acknowledge the patience

and skill of Messrs. Spottiswoode's London staff in carrying out the

many alterations which I have found to be inseparable from the task of

bringing each passage and its notes into the compass of a single page.

In conclusion I should like to say that it has been my aim throughout to

adhere to what is best in Roman literature, and to omit passages the

choice of which can only be justified by regarding their literary form

apart from their moral value. Latin literature contains so much that is

at once excellent in style and noble in thought that it seems a grave

mistake to exalt the one at the expense of the other.

_Maxima debetur puero reverentia._

EDMUND LUCE.

WINDSOR: _April 1908_.

[Footnote 1: The late Professor Goodhart.]

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introductory Note v

Editor's Preface vii

List Of Passages For Translation xv

Index Of Authors xxiii

INTRODUCTION. HOW TO TRANSLATE AT SIGHT 1-14

I. Helps to VOCABULARY 1-5

II. Helps to TRANSLATION 5-12

III. Helps to STYLE 13-14

DEMONSTRATIONS IN UNSEEN TRANSLATION 15-58

PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION AT SIGHT 59-236

(1) _Illustrating Roman History._--

Part I.--Regal Period, B.C. 753-509 60-66

Part II.--Early Republic, B.C. 509-366 67-88

Part III.--The Conquest of Italy, B.C. 366-266 89-107

Part IV.--Contest with Carthage, B.C. 264-202 108-146

Part V.--Formation of Empire beyond Italy,

in Europe and Africa, B.C. 200-133 147-159

Part VI.--Period of Civil Strife in Italy,

and Foreign Wars, ending in Revolution, B.C. 133-44 160-236

(2) _Miscellaneous Passages_ 237-271

APPENDICES:--

I. List of Important Conjunctions 274-276

II. List of Important Prefixes 277-281

III. List of Important Suffixes 282-286

IV. Groups of Cognate Words 287-288

V. How to Think in Latin 289-292

VI. Short Lives of Roman Authors 293-345

VII. Chronological Outlines of Roman History

and Literature 347-363

INDEX 365-368

PLAN OF DYRRACHIUM _opposite page_ 216

PLAN OF PHARSALUS " " 218

LIST OF PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION.

+DEMONSTRATIONS.+

PAGE

16 Fierce encounter with the Germans Caesar, _B. G._ i. 52

24 The Music of Arion Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 83

32 A rash promise rashly believed Livy xxv. 19

40 Rashness justly punished Livy xxv. 19

48 The Happy Life Vergil, _Georg._ ii. 490

54 The Tomb of Archimedes Cicero, _Tusc._ v. 23. 64

+Part I.--The Regal Period, 753-509 B.C.+

60 The Vision of Anchises Vergil, _Aen._ vi. 777

61 A. The Passing of Romulus Livy i. 16

B. The Mystery explained Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 379

62 A. The Gate of Janus Livy i. 19

B. " " Vergil, _Aen._ vii. 607

63 The Sibylline Books A. Gellius i. 19

64 A. Sextus Tarquinius at Gabii Livy i. 54

B. The Fall of Gabii Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 543

65 The Position of Rome Cicero, _de Rep._ ii. 3

66 The Praise of Italy Vergil, _Georg._ ii. 136

+Part II.--The Early Republic, 509-366 B.C.+

67 A. Horatius Vergil, _Aen._ viii. 646

B. " Livy ii. 10

68 Horatius Livy ii. 10

69 A. Mucius Scaevola Livy ii. 12

B. " " Martial, i. 21

70 Battle of Lake Regillus Livy ii. 20

71 Tribunes of the People Livy ii. 32

72 Coriolanus Livy ii. 40

73 Destruction of the Fabii Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 175

74 A. Cincinnatus Florus i. 11. 12

B. 'In the brave days of old' Ovid, _Fasti_ iii. 729

75 The Decemvirate. XII. Tables Livy iii. 32, 34

76 Verginia's Death not in vain Livy iii. 49

77 Cossus wins the Spolia Opima Livy iv. 19

78 First Pay given to Citizen Soldiers Livy iv. 59

79 A. Lament over Veii Propertius v. 10. 27

B. The Rise of the Alban Lake Cicero, _de Div._ i. 44. 100

80 The Conquest of Veii Livy v. 21

81 The Battle of the Allia Livy v. 38

82 A. The Battle of the Allia Livy v. 38

B. July 18th, a Dies Nefastus Lucan, _Phars._ vii. 407

83 Roman Dignity and Courage Livy v. 41

84 A. Manlius Capitolinus and the

Sacred Geese Verg. _Aen._ viii. 652

B. The Fate of Manlius Val. Max. vi. _de Sev._

85 Camillus, Parens Patriae Livy v. 49

86 A. Migration to Veii abandoned Livy v. 55

B. Juno forbids Rebuilding of Troy Horace, _Od._ iii. 3. 57

87 First Plebeian Consul Livy vi. 35

88 Origin of the Floralia Ovid, _Fasti_ v. 237

+Part III.--The Conquest of Italy, 366-266 B.C.+

89 Manlius and his son Torquatus Cicero, _de Off._ iii. 112

90 An Important Epoch Livy vii. 29

91 Battle of Mt. Gaurus.

M. Valerius Corvus Livy vii. 33

92 A. Self-sacrifice of Decius Mus Propertius, iii. 11. 63

B. The Dream of the Consuls Val. Max. i. _de Somn._

93 The Battle of Mt. Vesuvius Livy viii. 10

94 The Dictator and his Master

of the Horse Livy viii. 30

95 The Caudine Forks Livy ix. 2

96 " " The Yoke Livy ix. 5

97 Rome repudiates the Treaty Cicero, _de Off._ iii. 109

98 Battle of Bovianum Livy ix. 44

99 Battle of Sentinum Livy x. 28

100 Aims of Pyrrhus. Battle of Heraclea Justinus xviii. 1

101 Fabricius the Just Cicero, _de Off._ iii. 86

102 Appius the Blind Cicero, _de Sen._ 16, 37

103 A. The Battle of Asculum Florus i. 18. 9

B. The Battle near Beneventum Florus i. 18. 11

104 In Praise of Pyrrhus Justinus xxv. 5

105 A. Manius Curius Dentatus Cicero, _de Sen._ 55

B. " " " Juvenal xi. 78

C. " " " Horace, _Od._ i. 12. 41

106 In Praise of Tarentum Horace, _Od._ ii. 6. 9

107 The Praise of Italy Vergil, _Georg._ ii. 155

+Part IV.--The Contest with Carthage, 264-202 B.C.+

108 The Vision of Anchises Vergil, _Aen._ vi. 836

109 The Foundation of Carthage Justinus, xviii. 5

110 Aeneas views the Building

of Carthage Vergil, _Aen._ i. 419

111 Regulus, a Roman Martyr Cicero, _de Off._ iii. 99

112 A. Naval Victory near Mylae (Adapted)

B. Honour conferred on Duilius Cicero, _de Sen._ 44

113 Carthaginian Victory off Drepana Cicero, _N. D._ ii. 3. 7

114 A. Lutatius' Victory off

Aegates Insulae Nepos, _Hamilcar_ i.

B. " " " Sil. Ital. vi. 653

115 A. Importance of Second Punic War Livy xxi. 1

B. Oath of the Boy Hannibal Livy xxi. 1

116 'The paths of glory lead but

to the grave' Juvenal x. 147

117 Character of Hannibal Livy xxi. 4

118 The Siege of Saguntum Livy xxi. 7

119 A. The Dream of Hannibal Cicero, _de Div._ i. 24. 49

B. The Interpretation Sil. Ital. iii. 198

120 From the Pyrenees to the Rhone Livy xxi. 28

121 From the Rhone to Italy Livy xxi. 30

122 The Descent of the Alps Livy xxi. 36

123 A. The Battle at the Trebia Frontinus,

_Strat._ ii. 5. 23

B. The River bars the Retreat Sil. Ital. iv. 570

124 The Battle of Lake Trasimene Livy xxii. 4

125 " " " " " Livy xxii. 5

126 The Death of Flaminius Sil. Ital. v. 644

127 Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator Cicero, _de Sen._ 10

128 Fabius and his Master of the Horse Livy xxii. 29

129 Cannae.

Destruction of the Roman Infantry Livy xxii. 47

130 Cannae.

'Paulus animae magnae prodigus' Livy xxii. 49

131 A. Maharbal urges Hannibal to march

on Rome Livy xxii. 51

B. Scipio forbids Nobles Frontinus,

to abandon Italy _Strat._ iv. 7. 39

132 A. Rome's Heroes Horace, _Od._ i. 12. 37

B. The Dream of Propertius Propertius iii. 3. 1

133 A. Capua aspires to rival Rome Horace, _Epod._ xvi. 1

B. Decius Magius defies Hannibal Livy xxiii. 10

134 A. 'Capua became Hannibal's Cannae' Florus ii. 6. 21

B. The Punishment of Rebel Capua Livy xxvi. 16

135 Marcellus at Nola Livy xxiii. 16

136 Cicero's Description of Syracuse Cicero,

_in Verr._ ii. 4. 117

137 Engineering Skill of Archimedes Livy xxiv. 34

138 Marcellus laments over Syracuse Livy xxv. 24

139 The Death of Marcellus Livy xxvii. 27

140 Character of Scipio Africanus Maior Livy xxvi. 19

141 Scipio takes New Carthage Livy xxvi. 45

142 Nero's March to the Metaurus Livy xxvii. 43

143 The Metaurus Horace, _Od._ iv. 4. 29

144 Hannibal leaves Italy Livy xxx. 19

145 Zama. Before the Battle Livy xxx. 31

146 Zama. The Order of Battle Frontinus,

_Strat._ ii. 3. 16

+Part V.--Formation of Empire beyond Italy, in Europe and Africa,

200-133 B.C.+

147 Battle of Cynoscephalae Livy xxxiii. 9

148 Flamininus proclaims Freedom

of Greece Livy xxxiii. 32

149 A. Battle of Thermopylae Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 4.

B. Battle of Magnesia Florus i. 24

150 Deaths of Three Great Men Livy xxxix. 51

151 M. Porcius Cato Nepos, _Cato_ ii.

152 " " Horace, _Od._ ii. 15

153 Pydna (Aemilius Paulus) Livy xliv. 41

154 " " " Livy xliv. 41

155 Destruction of Carthage Florus ii. 15. 11

156 Destruction of Corinth Vell. Paterc. i. 13

157 The Lusitanian Hannibal Florus ii. 17. 13

158 Destruction of Numantia Florus ii. 18. 11

159 Rome the Invincible Horace, _Od._ iv. 4. 49

+Part VI.--Civil Strife in Italy, and Foreign Wars, ending in

Revolution, 133-44 B.C.+

160 The Gracchi Sallust, _Iug._ 42

161 A. On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus Cicero, _de Off._ i. 76

B. On Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus Cicero, _Tusc._ iii. 20. 48

C. On C. Gracchus as an Orator Cicero, _Brutus_ 125

162 The Betrayal of Jugurtha Sallust, _Iug._ 113

163 A. Arpinum. Birthplace of Cicero

and Marius Juvenal viii. 237

B. Cicero on Marius Cicero, _Marius_

164 Teutones annihilated at

Aquae Sextiae Florus iii. 3

165 A. Marius' Flight from Sulla Lucan, _Phars._ ii. 67

B. Marius outlived his fame Juvenal x. 278

166 Cicero on Civil Strife Cicero, _in Cat._ iii. 10

167 Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus Vell. Paterc. ii. 13

168 A. Outbreak of the Social War

at Asculum Florus iii. 18. 3

B. The Sabellian father's

advice to his sons Juvenal xiv. 179

169 A. Defeat and Death of Rutilius Ovid, _Fasti_ vi. 563

B. The Lex Plautia Papiria Cicero, _pro Arch._ iv. 7

C. Cicero's first and only Campaign Cicero, _Phil._ xii. 11. 27

D. The Battle near Asculum Florus iii. 18. 14

170 Sulla's Character and Bearing Sallust, _Iug._ 95

171 A. Mithridates' Youth and

Early Training Justinus xxxvii. 2

B. His Preparations for Conquest Justinus xxxvii. 3. 4

172 The Battle of Chaeronea Frontinus,

_Strat._ ii. 3. 17

173 A. Capture of Athens and the Piraeus Vell. Paterc. ii. 23

B. Battle of Orchomenus Frontinus,

_Strat._ ii. 8. 12

C. Peace of Dardanus Vell. Paterc. ii. 23

174 A. Battles of Sacriportus and

the Colline Gate Lucan, _Phars._ ii. 134

B. " " " Vell. Paterc. ii. 27

175 A. Death of the Younger Marius.

Sulla Felix Vell. Paterc. ii. 27

B. The Sullan Proscriptions Lucan, _Phars._ ii.

176 A. Sulla appointed Dictator Vell. Paterc. ii. 28

B. Sulla lays down his Dictatorship Suetonius, _Iul._ 77

C. Death of Sulla Val. Max. ix. 3. 8

177 A. Limitation of Tribune's

Right of Veto Cicero, _de Leg._ iii. 9. 22

B. Abolition of Corn Distributions Sallust, _Hist._,

_Or. M. Lep._

C. Judicial Functions restored

to Senators Vell. Paterc. ii. 32

D. A Sumptuary Law A. Gellius ii. 24. 11

178 Speech of Lepidus against Sulla Sallust, _Hist._,

_Or. M. Lep._

179 Sertorius and his Fawn A. Gellius, xv. 22

180 A. A New Hannibal Florus iii. 22. 2

B. The Death of Sertorius Vell. Paterc. ii. 30

181 Lucullus' Character and Early Career Cicero, _Acad._ ii. 1

182 A. A Soldier of Lucullus Horace, _Ep._ ii. 2. 26

B. The Wealth of Lucullus Horace, _Ep._ i. 6. 40

183 Spartacus and his Gladiators Florus iii. 20. 3

184 Lucullus Ponticus Cicero, _pro L. Man._ 20

185 Pompeius' Character and Career Cicero, _pro L. Man._ 29

186 The Man Caesar Suetonius, _Iul._ 45

187 Caesar and the Pirates Suetonius, _Iul._ 4

188 A Roman Citizen maltreated Cicero, _in Verr._ ii. 5. 62

189 The Lex Gabinia Vell. Paterc. ii. 31

190 Pompeius clears the Seas of Pirates Cicero, _pro L. Man._ 34

191 Pompeius subdues Mithridates

and Tigranes Vell. Paterc. ii. 37

192 A. Caesar Curule Aedile Suetonius, _Iul._ 10

B. Caesar Propraetor

in Further Spain Suetonius, _Iul._ 18

193 Cicero declaims against Catiline Cicero, _in Cat._ i. 1

194 The End of Catiline Sallust, _Cat._ 61

195 Caesar forms First Triumvirate Vell. Paterc. ii. 44

196 'That day he overcame the Nervii' Caesar, _B. G._ ii. 25

197 Naval Battle with the Veneti Caesar, _B. G._ iii. 14

198 Caesar's Bridge across the Rhine Caesar, _B. G._ iv. 17

199 Cassivellaunus Caesar, _B. G._ v. 19

200 The Gallic uprising. Vercingetorix Caesar, _B. G._ vii. 14

201 Siege of Gergovia Caesar, _B. G._ vii. 50

202 Siege of Alesia Caesar, _B. G._ vii. 84

203 Cicero's Banishment Vell. Paterc. ii. 45

204 Cicero's Return Cicero, _ad Att._ iv. 1

205 In Praise of Caesar Cicero, _de Prov. Cons._ 33

206 'Quem deus vult perdere,

prius dementat' Florus iii. 11. 1

207 Carrhae: after the Battle Lucan, _Phars._ i. 98

" " Horace, _Od._ iii. 5. 5

" " Ovid, _Fasti_ vi. 465

208 Cicero's humane Administration Cicero, _ad Att._ v. 21

211 Caesar crosses the Rubicon Lucan, _Phars._ i. 213

212 Caesar's defence before the Senate Caesar, _B. C._ i. 32

213 The Campaign round Lerida Lucan, _Phars._ iv. 167

214 A. Siege of Massilia Lucan, _Phars._ iii. 388

B. " " Caesar, _B. C._ ii. 14

215 The Death of Curio Lucan, _Phars._ iv. 799

216 Dyrrachium Caesar, _B. C._ iii. 47

217 Eve of Pharsalus. Pompeius' Dream Lucan, _Phars._ vii. 7

218 Pompeius ill-advised at Pharsalus Caesar, _B. C._ iii. 92

219 A. Pharsalus and Cannae compared Lucan, _Phars._ vii. 397

B. Battlefields of Pharsalus

and Philippi Vergil, _Georg._ i. 489

220 How Pompeius died Caesar, _B. C._ iii. 103

221 Cato's Eulogy on Pompeius Lucan, _Phars._ ix. 190

222 The Grave of Pompeius Lucan, _Phars._ viii. 789

223 'Atrox Animus Catonis' A. Pollio, _B. Afr._ 88

224 A. Cato Uticensis Vell. Paterc. ii. 35

B. " " Lucan, _Phars._ ii. 374

225 Caesar dines with Cicero Cicero, _ad Att._ xiii. 52

226 The Death of Caesar Suetonius, _Iul._ 82

227 A. In Praise of Caesar Cicero, _Phil._ ii. 45

B. " " Lucan, _Phars._ i. 143

C. Apotheosis of Caesar Suetonius, _Iul._ 88

230 A. Peroration of Second Philippic Cicero, _Phil._ ii. 46

B. On the Murder of Cicero Martial, iii. 66

231 A. Cicero as Orator and Poet Juvenal x. 114

B. Cicero as Advocate Catullus xlix.

232 The Death of Cicero Livy, _fr._

233 A. In Praise of Cicero Vell. Paterc. ii. 66

B. " " Livy _fr._

234 Laus Italiae Propertius iii. 22

235 Laus Romae Claudian,

_de Cons. Stil._ iii. 150

236 'Quod cuncti gens una sumus' Prudentius,

_c. Symm._ ii. 583

+Miscellaneous Passages.+

238 A. Propempticon Vergilio Horace, _Od._ i. 3

B. " " Horace, _Od._ i. 3

239 A. Propempticon Maecio Celeri Statius, _Sil._ ii. 2. 1

B. " " Statius, _Sil._ ii. 2. 42

240 A. Seneca Seneca, _Ep._ xv. 8

B. " Seneca, _Medea_ 920

241 A. Criticism of Poets Horace, _Ep._ ii. 1. 50

B. " " Terence Caesar, _ap. Sueton._

C. Ovid on his Contemporaries Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10. 41

242 A. A Storm at Sea Ovid, _Tr._ i. 2. 19

B. The Passing of Romulus Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 493

C. Thunder and Hail Pacuvius _ap. Cic._

D. The Argo in a Gale Val. Fl. _Arg._ viii. 328

243 A. Lesbia's Sparrow Catullus iii.

B. 'My Parrot, an obtrusive bird' Statius, _Sil._ ii. 4

C. The Lap-dog and its Portrait Martial i. 109

244 A. The Roman Satirists Quintilian x. 1. 93

B. A Criticism of Lucilius Horace, _Sat._ i. 4. 1

C. Why Juvenal wrote Satire Juvenal i. 19

D. Juvenal's Subject Juvenal i. 81

245 A. Virtue defined Lucilius, _fr._

B. Poor men of mighty deeds Juvenal xi. 90

C. Persius in praise of his Tutor Persius v. 19

246 A. Objections to a permanent Theatre Livy, _Epit._ 48

B. Scenic Arrangements Suetonius _ap. Serv._

C. The Awnings Lucretius iv. 75

D. The Law of Otho Livy, _Epit._ 99

E. Usurpers of Equestrian Privileges Horace, _Epod._ iv. 11

247 A. The Web of Fate Catullus lxiv. 311

B. The Skill of Arachne Ovid, _Met._ vi. 19

C. The Pastime of Circe Vergil, _Aen._ vii. 10

248 A. The Monster approaches Andromeda Ovid, _Met._ iv. 671

B. How Perseus won his Bride Ovid, _Met._ iv. 721

249 A. Andromeda Manilius, _Astr._ v. 567

B. The Death of the Monster Manilius, _Astr._ v. 595

250 A. The School of Flavius Horace, _Sat._ i. 6. 71

B. Ovid at School Ovid. _Tr._ iv. 10. 15

C. The Schoolmaster's Life Juvenal vii. 222

D. Early School Martial xiv. 223

E. Homogeneous Divisions Quintilian i. 2. 23

F. Plagosus Orbilius Martial ix. 68. 1

251 A. Books Ovid, _Tr._ i. 1. 1

B. " Tibullus iii. 1. 9

C. " Martial i. 2

252 A. Arethusa Ovid, _Met._ v. 585

B. " Ovid, _Met._ v. 614

253 A. Hylas Propertius i. 20. 17

B. " Val. Fl. _Arg._ iii. 581

254 The Portmanteau Fish Plautus, _Rud._ iv. 3. 58

255 A. 'Humani nihil a me alienum puto' Terence, _Haut._ i. 1. 15

B. Cicero on Terence Suetonius, _vit. Ter._ 34

C. Defence of Contaminatio Terence, _Haut._ prol. 16

256 A. The Song of the Nightingale Pliny, _H. N._ x. 81

B. A Corinthian Statuette Pliny, _Ep._ iii. 6

257 A. Helps to Style Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 9

B. Importance of Concentration Quintilian,

_Inst. Or._ x. 3. 28

258 A. De Simonide Phaedrus iv. 23

B. Mons Parturiens Phaedrus iv. 24

C. Truth will out Phaedrus, _App._ 22

259 A. The Golden Age Tibullus i. 3. 35

B. Birthday Wishes Tibullus ii. 2

260 A. On the delights of Hunting

with a Note-book Pliny, _Ep._ i. 6

B. Oenone Paridi Ovid, _Her._ v. 17

C. The Hunting Party Vergil, _Aen._ iv. 129

261 A. A Roman Day Martial iv. 8

B. The Simple Life Horace, _Sat._ i. 6. 110

262 A. In Praise of Agricola Tacitus, _Agr._ 46

B. Britain: its Climate and Products Tacitus, _Agr._ 12

263 A. Trimalchio's Supper Petronius 50

B. " " Petronius 51

264 I. Pronunciation: H Quintilian i. 5. 20

" H Catullus lxxxiv.

II. A Street Cry Cicero, _Div._ ii. 40. 84

III. K, Q, C Ter. Maurus

IV. U Plautus, _Men._ 555

265 I. Proverbial Expressions Caesar, _B. C._ ii. 27

II. " " Cicero, _Phil._ xii. 5

III. " " Horace, _Ep._ i. 2. 40

IV. " " Juvenal ii. 83

V. " " Livy xxi. 10

VI. " " Lucretius ii. 79

VII. " " Martial i. 32

VIII. " " Plautus, _Bacch._ i. 2. 36

IX. " " Terence, _Eun._ prol. 41

X. " " Terence, _Ph._ ii. 4. 14

XI. " " Pub. Syrus

XII. " " Seneca, _de Brev. Vit._ i. 2

XIII. " " Tacitus, _Agr._ 30

XIV. " " Varro, _de Re Rust._ iii. 1

XV. " " Vergil, _Aen._ vi. 95

XVI. " " Vergil, _Aen._ i. 461

266 A. 'Whom the gods love die young' Quintilian,

_Inst. Or._ vi. 1. 9

B. Servius Sulpicius to Cicero. Cicero, _ad Fam._ iv. 5

267 A. Catullus at his Brother's Grave Catullus ci.

B. To Calvus on his Wife's Death Catullus xcvi.

C. Cornelia's Plea to her Husband Propertius iv. 11. 1

D. Mors Tibulii Ovid, _Am._ iii. 9

268 Apophoreta Martial

269 " Martial

270 Epitaphs and Inscriptions.

I. On Naevius Naevius

II. On Ennius Ennius

III. On Pacuvius Pacuvius

IV. On Plautus Plautus

V. On Tibullus Domitius Marsus

VI. In tumulo hominis felicis Ausonius, _Epit._ 36

VII. Thermopylae Cicero, _Tusc._ i. 42. 101

271 Epilogue.

A. Horace Horace, _Od._ iii. 30

B. Ovid Ovid, _Met._ xv. 871

C. Martial Martial iv. 89

INDEX OF AUTHORS

Asinius Pollio, 223

Aulus Gellius, 63, 177, 179

Ausonius, 270

Caesar, 16, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 212, 214, 216,

218, 220, 241, 265

Catullus, 231, 243, 247, 264, 267

Cicero, 54, 65, 79, 89, 97, 101, 102, 105, 111, 112, 113, 119, 127,

136, 161, 163, 166, 169, 177, 181, 184, 185, 188, 190, 193, 204,

205, 208, 225, 227, 230, 264, 265, 266, 270

Claudian, 235

Domitius Marsus, 270

Ennius, 270

Florus, 74, 103, 134, 149, 155, 157, 158, 164, 168, 169, 180, 183, 206

Frontinus, 123, 131, 146, 149, 172, 173

Horace, 86, 105, 106, 132, 133, 143, 152, 159, 182, 207, 238, 241,

244, 246, 250, 261, 265, 271

Justinus, 100, 104, 109, 171

Juvenal, 105, 116, 163, 165, 168, 231, 244, 246, 250, 265

Livy, 32, 40, 61, 62, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78,

80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 115,

117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134,

135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 153,

154, 232, 233, 246, 265

Lucan, 82, 165, 174, 175, 207, 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 219, 221,

222, 224, 227

Lucilius, 245

Lucretius, 246, 265

Manilius, 249

Martial, 69, 230, 243, 250, 251, 261, 265, 268, 269, 271

Naevius, 270

Nepos, 114, 151

Ovid, 24, 61, 64, 73, 74, 88, 169, 207, 241, 242, 247, 248, 250,

251, 252, 260, 267, 271

Pacuvius, 242, 270

Persius, 245

Petronius, 263

Phaedrus, 258

Plautus, 254, 264, 265

Pliny the Elder, 256

Pliny the Younger, 256, 257, 260

Propertius, 79, 92, 132, 234, 253, 267

Prudentius, 236

Publilius Syrus, 265

Quintilian, 244, 250, 257, 264, 266

Sallust, 160, 162, 170, 177, 178, 194

Seneca, 240, 265

Silius Italicus, 114, 119, 123, 126

Statius, 239, 243

Suetonius, 176, 186, 187, 192, 226, 227, 246, 255

Tacitus, 262, 265

Terence, 255, 265

Terentianus Maurus, 264

Tibullus, 251, 259

Valerius Flaccus, 242, 253

Valerius Maximus, 84, 92, 176

Varro, 265

Velleius Paterculus, 156, 167, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 180, 189,

191, 195, 203, 224, 233

Vergil, 48, 60, 62, 66, 67, 84, 107, 108, 110, 219, 247, 260, 265

INTRODUCTION

+1. Heading.+--The selections in this book are in most cases

intelligible apart from their context. In cases where this is not so,

you will find it a valuable exercise to endeavour to arrive at the

context for yourself. In all cases, however, you should pay attention to

the +Heading+, which will give you a useful clue to the meaning of the

passage,

+2. Author.+--When you see the author's name, try to remember what you

know about him. For example, +Livy+, the historian of Rome and friend of

Augustus, the contemporary of Vergil and Ovid. The short Lives, pp.

293-345, will tell you the chief facts about the authors from whom the

selections are taken, and will give you a brief summary of their chief

works. Also, if you refer to Appendix VII., pp. 347-363, you will gain

some idea of the time in which the authors lived and of their

contemporaries.

+3. Read the Passage through, carefully.+--As you read--

(1) Notice all +allusions+ and +key-words+ that may help you to the

sense of the passage.

(2) +Pay special attention to the opening sentence.+ In translating a

passage much depends on getting the first sentence right.

(3) Notice especially the connectives which introduce sentences and

clauses +marked off by commas+. In this way you will be able to

distinguish between a +Principal Sentence+ and a +Subordinate Clause+.

(For List of Conjunctions see Appendix I. pp. 274-276.)

HELPS TO VOCABULARY.

+4. Through English Derivatives.+--English derivatives, if used in the

proper way, may give you valuable help in inferring meanings. The reason

why you must generally +not+ translate the Latin word by the derived

English word is that, as you probably know, many English derivatives

have come from Latin words which had wholly or in part lost their

earlier classical meaning, or from Latin words not found at all in

classical Latin. Yet in such cases the English word may be far from

useless. You must take care to let it suggest to you the original or

root-meaning, leaving the correct meaning of the Latin, whether the same

as the English word or not, to be determined by the context.

For example, +sê-cûr-us+ does not mean _secure_, but (like _secure_ in

Shakespeare and Milton) _care-less_.

'This happy night the Frenchmen are _secure_,

Having all day caroused and banqueted.'

SHAKESPEARE, _Hen. VI._ Part 1. II. i. 11.

+In-crêd-ib-il-is+, on the other hand, often cannot be better translated

than by _incredible_, and +im-plâcâ-bilis+ by _implacable_.

Notice, too, how often in the case of verbs the +supine stem+ will

suggest to you the meaning of the Latin through some English derivative,

which the present stem conceals.

For example:--

+pingo+ +pictum+ _picture_ suggests _to paint_.

+caveo+ +cautum+ _caution_ " " _beware_.

+colo+ +cultum+ _culture_ " " _till_.

+fallo+ +falsum+ _false_ " " _deceive_.

+5. Through French Derivatives.+--Sometimes, when you cannot think of an

English derivative, a French word that you know will help you to the

meaning of the Latin.

For example:--

_L._ _F._

+pontem+ +pont+ suggests _bridge_.

+gustum+ +goût+ " _taste_.

+prâtum+ +pré+ " _meadow_.

+tâlem+ +tel+ " _such_.

+b[)i]b[)e]re+ +boire+ " _to drink_.

But, in order to make French derivatives a real help to you, you must

know something of the origin of the French language and of the chief

rules that govern the pronunciation (and therefore the spelling) of

French. Without going too much into detail, it may help you to remember

that--

(1) +French+ has taken many words from +colloquial Latin+, which in the

days of Cicero was very different from classical Latin.

For example:--

_Literary Latin._ _Popular Latin._ _French._

+equus+ +caballus+ +cheval+ _horse_.

+pugna+ +batalia+ +bataille+ _battle_.

+os+ +bucca+ +bouche+ _mouth_.

(2) +Unaccented+ syllables are usually dropped.

For example:--

+cérv-um+ +cerf+ _stag_.

+bonitátem+ +bonté+ _goodness_.

(3) The general tendency of French is towards smoothness and

contraction.

For example:--

_L._ _F._

+bestiam+ +bête+ _beast_.

+fact-um+ +fait+ _deed_.

+spiss-um+ +épais+ _thick_.

+coll-um+ +cou+ _neck_.

In fact, bearing in mind the caution given you, it is an excellent rule

to try to think out the meaning of the Latin by the help of English and

French derivatives.

+6. Compound Words.+--When you come to a word which you cannot

translate, and in regard to which English and French derivatives do not

help you, +break up the word+, if a compound, into its simple elements

of +Prefix+, +Stem+, +Suffix+. Then from the meaning of its root or stem

and from the force of the prefix and suffix, and by the help of the

context, try to arrive at an English word to suit the sense.

In order to be able to do this you should have some knowledge of--

(1) A few simple rules for the +vowel changes of verbs in composition+.

Thus:

+a+ before two consonants (except +ng+) often changes to +e+.

_E.g._ s{a}cr-o, con-s{e}cr-o; d{a}mn-o, con-d{e}mn-o.

+a+ before one consonant and before +ng+ often changes to +i+.

_E.g._ f{a}c-io, ef-f{i}c-io; c{[)a]}d-o, ac-c{i}d-o;

t{a}ng-o, con-t{i}ng-o.

But gr{[)a]}d-ior, ag-gr{[)e]}d-ior.

+a+ before +l+ and another consonant changes to +u+.

_E.g._ s{a}lt-are, in-s{u}lt-are.

+[)e]+ changes to +[)i]+ (but not +e+ before two consonants) and +ae+

to +i+.

_E.g._ t{e}n-ere, ob-t{i}n-ere; qu{ae}r-ere, in-qu{i}r-ere.

+au+ changes to +u+.

_E.g._ cl{au}d-ere, in-cl{u}d-ere.

(2) +Prefixes:+--To help you to detach the prefix more readily, notice

these simple euphonic changes, all of which result in making the

pronunciation smoother and easier. Thus:--

(i.) +The last consonant of a Latin prefix is often made the same as, or

similar to, the first consonant of the stem.+

_E.g._ {ad}-fero = affero; {ob}-pono = {op}-pono;

{com}(={cum})-tendo = {con}-tendo.

(ii.) +The final consonant of a prefix is often dropped before two

consonants.+

_E.g._ {ad}-scendo = {a}-scendo.

Notice also that the prepositional prefixes to verbs express different

ideas in different combinations.

Thus, sometimes the prefix has a somewhat +literal prepositional+ force.

_E.g._ {per}-currere = to run +through+.

But sometimes an +intensive+ force.

_E.g._ {per}-terrere = to +thoroughly+ frighten.

In all such cases you must be partly guided by the context.

(For List of Important Prefixes, see Appendix II. pp. 277--281.)

(3) +Suffixes+ (other than grammatical inflexions).

A knowledge of the most important suffixes will often help you to the

correct meaning of a Latin word, the root of which is familiar to you.

Thus from the [Rt]ag = _drive, move_, we have--

by addition of +-tor+ (= _agent or doer_ of an action),

+actor+ = _a doer_, _agent_.

" " " +-men+ (= _acts or results of acts_),

+agmen+ = _a course_, _line of march_, &c.

" " " +-ilis+ (= _belonging to, able to_),

+agilis+ = _easily moved_, _agile_.

" " " +-ito+ (= _forcible or repeated action_),

+agito+ = _put in action_, _agitate_.

(For List of Important Suffixes, see Appendix III. pp. 282--286.)

(4) +Cognates+, that is, words +related in meaning+ through a common

root. You will find it very useful to make for yourself lists of cognate

words.

Thus from the [Rt]+gna, gno+ = _know_, we have--

+gna-rus+ = _knowing_.

+i-gnarus+ (= +in + gnarus+) = _ignorant_.

+nos-co+ (= +gno-sco+) = _to get a knowledge of_.

+i-gno-sco+ = _not to know_, _pardon_.

+no-bilis+ (= +gno-bilis+) = _that can be known_, _famous_, _noble_.

+no-men+ (= +gno-men+) = _a name_.

To group together in this manner words of common origin and words

closely associated in meaning is one of the best ways in which you can

increase your vocabulary.

(For additional Examples of Cognates, see Appendix IV. pp. 287-8.)

HELPS TO TRANSLATION.

You have now read the passage through carefully, and thought out the

vocabulary to the best of your ability. Begin then to translate the

opening sentence, and pay great attention to these

+7. General Rules.+--(1) Underline the +Principal Verb+, +Subject+ (if

expressed), and +Object+ (if any).

(2) If the sentence contains +only one finite verb+, all you have to do

is to group round Subject, or Verb, or Object the words and phrases that

belong to each of the three.

(3) Translate the sentence literally. Do this mentally, without writing

it down.

(4) Then write down the best translation you can.

For example:--

+At GERMANI celeriter, consuetudine sua phalange facta, IMPETUS

gladiorum EXCEPERUNT.+

_But the Germans quickly formed into a phalanx, as was their custom,

and received the attacks of the swords_ (i.e. of the Romans with

drawn swords).

(5) If the sentence contains one or more subordinate clauses, +consider

each subordinate clause as if it were bracketed off separately+, and

then deal with each clause as if it were a principal sentence, finding

out its Subject, Verb, Object, and adding to each its enlargements. Then

return to the sentence as a whole, and group round its Subject,

Predicate, and Object the various subordinate clauses which belong to

each.

+8. Help through Analysis.+--Very often analysis will help you to find

out the +proper relation of the subordinate clauses+ to the three parts

of the Principal Sentence. You need not always analyse on paper, but do

it +always in your mind+. You will find an example of a simple method of

analysis at the close of Demonstrations I and IV, pp. 23, 47.

When analysing, notice carefully that:--

(1) An enlargement of a Noun may be

(a) An adjective +TERTIAM aciem.+

(b) A noun in apposition +Publius Crassus ADULESCENS.+

(d) A participle or participial +nostris LABORANTIBUS.+

phrase

(e) An adjectival clause +Publius Crassus QUI EQUITATUI

PRAEERAT.+

(2) An enlargement of a Verb may be

(a) An adverb +CELERITER exceperunt.+

(b) A prepositional phrase +EX CONSUETUDINE SUA exceperunt.+

(d) An adverbial clause +ID CUM ANIMADVERTISSET,

Publius Crassus misit.+

+9. Help through Punctuation.+--Though only the full-stop was used by

the ancients, the punctuation marks which are now used in all printed

texts should be carefully noticed, especially in translating long and

involved sentences.

Thus in Demonstrations III and IV notice how the subordinate clauses are

for the most part enclosed in commas.

+10. Help through Scansion and Metre.+--A knowledge of this is

indispensable in translating verse. To scan the lines will help you to

determine the grammatical force of a word, and a knowledge of metre will

enable you to grasp the poet's meaning as conveyed by the position which

he assigns to the various words, and the varying emphasis which results

from variation of metre. For example:--

(1) _A grammatical help._--You know that final +-a+ is _short_ in nom.

and voc. sing. 1st Decl., and in neut. plural, and is _long_ in abl.

sing. 1st Decl. and 2nd Imperat. 1st Conj.

Thus in Demonstration II (p. 24) you can easily determine the

grammatical form of finals in +-a+.

In Sentence IV +agn[)a]+, in VI +cerv[)a]+, in VIII +iunct[)a]

columb[)a]+, in IX +Cynthi[)a]+ are all short and nom. sing.

In Sentence V +umbrâ unâ+ are long and abl. sing. in agreement.

(2) _A help to the poet's meaning._--The more you know of the principles

of scansion, the better able you will be to understand and appreciate

the skill with which a great poet varies his metre and chooses his

words.

+11. Help through a Study of the Period in Latin.+--One great difference

between English and Latin Prose is that, while modern English is to a

great extent a language of short, detached sentences, Latin +expresses

the sense by the passage as a whole+, and holds the climax in suspense

until the delivery of the last word. 'This mode of expression is called

a +PERIOD+ (a +circu[)i]tus+ or +amb[)i]tus verborum+), because the

reader, in order to collect together the words of the Principal

Sentence, must make a _circuit_, so to say, round the inserted

clauses,'[2] 'Latin possesses what English does not, a mode of

expression by means of which, +round one main idea are grouped all its

accessory ideas+, and there is thus formed a single harmonious whole,

called the +PERIOD+.'[3]

[Footnote 2: Potts, _Hints_, p. 82.]

[Footnote 3: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p. 45.]

A +PERIOD+ then is a sentence containing only one main idea (the

Principal Sentence) and several Subordinate Clauses. The Periodic style

is generally used for History and Description, and is best seen in

Cicero and Livy.

The following is a good example of the PERIOD in Latin:--

[4]+VOLSCI exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum

tentassent, praeter cetera adversa loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam

congressi, iniquiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur,

ad preces a certamine versi, dedito imperatore traditisque armis,

sub iugum missi, cum singulis vestimentis ignominiae cladisque pleni

DIMITTUNTUR.+

_The +VOLSCIANS+ found that now they were severed from every

other hope, there was but little in prolonging the conflict.

In addition to other disadvantages they had engaged on a spot

ill-adapted for fighting and worse for flight. Cut to pieces

on every side they abandoned the contest and cried for quarter.

After surrendering their commander and delivering up their arms,

they passed under the yoke, and with one garment each +WERE SENT+

to their homes covered with disgrace and defeat._

[Footnote 4: Potts, _Hints_, p. 85.]

Notice here that

(1) There is only one main idea, that of _the ignominious return of the

Volscians to their homes_.

(2) The rest describes the attendant circumstances of the surrender and

of the causes that led to it.

(3) In English we should translate by at least four separate sentences.

(4) The Latin contains only forty-eight words, while the English

contains eighty-one.

Professor Postgate ('Sermo Latinus,' p. 45) gives the following example

of the way in which a Latin +PERIOD+ may be built up:--

+BALBUS vir optimus, dux clârissimus et multis mihi beneficiis carus,

rogitantibus Arvernis ut populi Romani mâiestâtem ostentâret

suîque simul imperi monumentum eis relinqueret, MÛRUM laterîcium,

vîginti pedes lâtum, sexâginta altitûdine et ita in immensum

porrectum ut vix tuis ipse oculis crêderes tantum esse, nêdum aliis

persuâderes, non sine adverso suo rûmore ut qui principâtum

adfectaret AEDIFICAVIT.+

_+BALBUS+, an excellent man and most distinguished commander,

who had endeared himself to me by numerous kindnesses,

was requested by the Arverni to make a display of the power

and greatness of Rome, and at the same time to leave behind him

a memorial of his own government. He accordingly +BUILT+ a +WALL+

of bricks, twenty feet wide, sixty high, and extending to such

a prodigious length that you could hardly trust your own eyes

that it was so large, still less induce others to believe it.

But he did not escape the malign rumour that he had designs

upon the imperial crown._

Here, as in the previous example,

(1) There is only one main idea,

+BALBUS MURUM AEDIFICAVIT+.

(2) The rest consists of--

(a) Enlargements of +BALBUS+--+vir optimus ... carus+;

placed, therefore, directly _after_ +BALBUS+.

(b) Enlargements of +MURUM+--+laterîcium ... persuaderes+;

placed, therefore, directly _after_ +MURUM+.

+rogitantibus ... relinqueret+ = the _cause_ of the building of

the wall.

+(murum) non sine ... adfectaret+ = the _attendant circumstances_

of the building of the wall; placed, therefore, _before_

+AEDIFICAVIT+.

(3) In English we must translate by at least three separate sentences,

and, where necessary, translate participles as finite verbs, and change

dependent clauses into independent sentences.

It has been well said: 'An English sentence does not often exhibit the

structure of the Period. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and

beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect

is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:--

"High on a throne of royal state, which far

Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,

Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand

Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,

Satan exalted sat."'

MILTON, _Paradise Lost_, ii. 1-5.

+12. Help through a Knowledge of the Order of Words in Latin.+--If you

study the examples already given of the Period you will see that the

+Order of Words in English+ differs very much from the +Order of Words

in Latin+.

Dr. Abbott writes as follows: 'The main difference between English and

Latin is that in English the _meaning_ depends mainly on the _order_ of

words, and the _emphasis_ mainly on the _voice_, while in Latin the

_meaning_ depends almost entirely on the _inflexions_, and the

_emphasis_ upon the _order_.'

Thus, if we take the English sentence, _Caesar conquered the Gauls_, we

cannot invert the order of _Caesar_ and _Gauls_ without entirely

changing the meaning. In Latin, however, we may write (since each Latin

word has its own proper inflexion, serving almost as a label)

+Caesar vicit Gallos+: +Gallos Caesar vicit+: +Caesar Gallos vicit+,

without any change of meaning except that of shifting the emphasis from

one word to another.

The usual order of words in a Latin Prose Sentence may be said to be

(1) Particles, or phrases of connection (with some exceptions, _e.g._

+vero+, +autem+, +quidem+, +enim+, which stand second).

(2) Subject.

(3) Words, phrases, clauses, as enlargements of Subject.

(4) Adverbial enlargements of Predicate (though an Ablative Absolute

must generally stand first).

(5) Indirect Object (if any) and its enlargements.

(6) Direct Object (if any) and its enlargements.

(7) The Principal Verb.

To take a simple example:--

[5]+LIVIUS, imperator fortissimus, quamquam adventus hostium

non ubi oportuit nuntiatus est, PERICULUM illa sua in rebus dubiis

audacia facile EVASIT.+

_+LIVIUS+, a most excellent commander, although the enemy's

arrival was not reported when it should have been, easily

+ESCAPED+ the +DANGER+ by his well-known daring in perilous

positions._

[Footnote 5: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p. 38.]

To take another example:--

[6]+Archimedis EGO quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse

omnino negarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis,

INDAGAVI SEPULCRUM.+

_When I was Quaestor, +I WAS ABLE TO TRACE OUT+ the +TOMB+ of

Archimedes, overgrown and hedged in with brambles and brushwood.

The Syracusans knew nothing of it, and denied its existence._

[Footnote 6: Demonstration VI. Sent. 1. p. 55.]

Notice here the following special points of order:--

(1) The two most important positions in the sentence are the beginning

and the end.

(2) Special emphasis is expressed by placing a word in an unusual or

prominent position.

E.g. here, the unusual position of +Archimedis+ and +sepulcrum+.

(3) In the middle of the sentence the arrangement is such that the words

most closely connected in meaning stand nearest together.

E.g. here, +ignoratum ... dumetis+ is all logically connected with the

object +sepulcrum+, which for the sake of emphasis is put in an unusual

position at the end of the sentence.

+13. Additional Hints.+--(1) Remember that Latin is often +concrete+

where English is +abstract+.

E.g.--

+ingeniosi+ (men of genius) = _genius_.

+eruditi+ } (learned men) = _learning_.

+docti+ }

+viri summo ingenio praediti, saepe invidia opprimuntur.+

_The most exalted genius is frequently overborne by envy._

+omnes immemorem benefici oderunt.+

_The world regards ingratitude with hatred._

(2) The same Latin word may stand for different English words. Take, for

example, the various uses of the word +RES+ in the following passage of

Livy, xlv. 19:--

[7]+Ut RES docuit . . . animo gestienti REBUS secundis . . .

speculator RERUM quae a fratre agerentur . . . REM prope prolapsam

restituit . . . aliis alia regna crevisse REBUS dicendo.+

_As the +FACT+ showed . . . spirits running riot from +PROSPERITY+

. . . to watch the +COURSE+ pursued by his brother . . . he restored

what was almost a lost +CAUSE+ . . . by saying that kingdoms grow

by various +MEANS+._

[Footnote 7: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p. 34.]

In translating +RES+, +avoid at all costs+ the word +THING+, or

+THINGS+, and let the context guide you to the appropriate English word.

(3) You may often translate a +Latin Active by an English Passive+.

Latin prefers the Active because it is more direct and vivid.

For example:--

+Liberas aedes coniurati sumpserunt.+

_An empty house had been occupied by the conspirators._

(4) Use great care in translating Latin +Participles+, and make clear in

your translation the relation of the participial enlargements to the

action of the main Verb.

For example:--

concessive: +Romani, non ROGATI, auxilium offerunt.+

_The Romans, +though they were not asked+, offer help._

final: +Fortuna superbos interdum RUITURA levat.+

_Fortune sometimes raises the proud, only +to dash

them down+._

causal: +S. Ahala Sp. Maelium regnum APPETENTEM interemit.+

_S. Ahala killed Sp. Maelius +for aiming at+ the royal

power._

Notice also:--

+Pontem captum incendit+

_He took and burned the bridge._

+Nescio quem prope adstantem interrogavi.+

_I questioned someone who was standing by._

+Haec dixit moriens+

_He said this while dying._

+Nuntiata clades+

_The news of the disaster._

(5) In translating, try to bring out the exact force of the +Ablative

Absolute+, by which a Latin writer shows the time or circumstances of

the action expressed by the Predicate. The Ablative Absolute is an

adverbial enlargement of the Predicate, and is not grammatically

dependent on any word in the sentence. It is, therefore, called

+absolutus+ (i.e. _freed from_ or _unconnected_). It should very seldom

be translated literally. Your best plan will be to consider carefully

what the Ablative Absolute seems to suggest about the action of the

Principal Verb.

For example:--

+Capta Troia, Graeci domum redierunt.+

_The Greeks returned home after the capture of Troy._

+Regnante Romulo, Roma urbs erat parva.+

_When Romulus was reigning, Rome was a small city._

+Exercitu collecto in hostes contenderunt.+

_They collected an army and marched against the enemy._

+Nondum hieme confecta in fines Nerviorum contendit.+

_Though the winter was not yet over, he hastened to the territory

of the Nervii._

+Tum salutato hostium duce, ad suos conversus, subditis equo

calcaribus, Germanorum ordines praetervectus est, neque expectatis

legatis, nec respondente ullo.+

_Thereupon, after saluting the enemy's general, he turned to his

companions, and setting spurs to his horse, rode past the ranks

of the Germans, without either waiting for his staff, or receiving

an answer from anyone._

HELPS TO STYLE.

Though Style cannot perhaps be taught, it can certainly be formed and

improved. There are several ways of improving your Style. For example:--

+14. Through the Best English Literature.+--+Read good Literature+, the

best English Authors in prose and verse. You will know something,

perhaps, of Shakespeare and Scott, of Macaulay and Tennyson. Though you

may not be able to attack the complete works of any great author, you

ought not to have any difficulty in finding good books of selections

from the English Classics.

+15. Through good Translations.+--Study a few +good English Versions+ of

passages from the best Latin writers. You may often have a good version

of the passage you translate read to you in your Division after your

mistakes have been pointed out to you, and to this you should pay great

attention. You will thus learn eventually to suit your style to the

Author you are translating, while at the same time you render the

passage closely and accurately.

+16. Be Clear.+--Remember that the first characteristic of a good style

is +clearness+--that is, to say what you mean and to mean what you say.

Quintilian, the great critic, says that the aim of the translator should

be, not that the reader may understand if he will, but that he _must_

understand whether he will or not. The more you read the greatest

Authors the more you will see that, as Coleridge says, 'there is a

reason assignable not only for every word, but for the position of every

word.'

+17. Be Simple.+--With clearness goes simplicity--that is, use no word

you do not understand, +avoid fine epithets+, and do not choose a phrase

for its sound alone, but for its sense.

+18. Avoid Paraphrase.+--You are asked to translate, not to give a mere

general idea of the sense. What you have to do is to +think out the

exact meaning+ of every word in the sentence, and to express this in as

good and correct English as you can.

+19. Pay attention to Metaphors.+--The subject of Metaphor is of great

importance in good translation. You will find that every language

possesses its own special Metaphors in addition to those which are

common to most European languages. As you become familiar with Latin

Authors you must try to +distinguish the Metaphors common+ to English

and Latin and those +belonging only+ to English or to Latin.

For example:--

(1) Metaphors +identical+ in Latin and English--

+Progreditur res publica naturali quodam itinere et cursu.+

_The State advances in a natural path and progress._

(2) Metaphors +differing+ in Latin and English--

+cedant arma togae+

_let the sword yield to the pen._

+ardet acerrime coniuratio+

_the conspiracy is at its height._

+rex factus est+

_he ascended the throne._

+conticuit+

_he held his peace._

+20. Careful Translation a Help to Style.+--In conclusion. Nothing will

help your style more than to +do your translations as well as you

possibly can+, and to +avoid repeating the same mistakes+. The Latins

themselves knew the value of translation as a help to style.

For example, Pliny the Younger says:--

'As useful as anything is the practice of translating either your Greek

into Latin or your Latin into Greek. By practising this you will acquire

propriety and dignity of expression, an abundant choice of the beauties

of style, power in description, and gain in the imitation of the best

models a facility of creating such models for yourself. Besides, what

may escape you when you read, cannot escape you when you translate.'

DEMONSTRATIONS

UNSEEN TRANSLATION

NOTE

The use of a personal mode of address in the following Demonstrations

is explained by the fact that they are written primarily for the use

of boys. It is hoped, however, that they may be found useful to masters

also, and that the fulness with which each passage is treated may supply

some helpful suggestions.

DEMONSTRATION I.

_Fierce encounter with the Germans._

(a) Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis pugnatum est. |II| At Germani

celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, impetus gladiorum

exceperunt. |III| Reperti sunt complures nostri milites, qui in

phalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper

vulnerarent. |IV| Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque in

fugam conversa esset, a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorum

nostram aciem premebant. |V| Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus

adulescens, qui equitatui praeerat, quod expeditior erat quam hi qui

inter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio

misit. |VI| Ita proelium restitutum est. ||

CAESAR.

_Fierce encounter with the Germans._

(b) Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis +pugnatum est+. {II} At +Germani+

celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, +impetus+ gladiorum

+exceperunt+. {III} +Reperti sunt+ complures nostri +milites+ [_qui

in phalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper

vulnerarent_.] {IV} [_Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque

in IV fugam conversa esset,_] a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine

suorum nostram +aciem premebant+. {V} [_Id cum animadvertisset

+Publius Crassus+ adulescens,_] [_qui equitatui praeerat,_]

[_quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur,_]

tertiam +aciem+ laborantibus nostris subsidio +misit+. {VI} Ita

proelium +restitutum est+.

CAESAR.

DEMONSTRATION I.

CAESAR, _B. G._ i. 52. _Reiectis pilis ... restitutum est._

_Heading and Author._--This tells you enough for working purposes, even

if you do not remember the outline facts of Caesar's campaign against

Ariovistus, the chief of the Germans, called in by the Gauls in their

domestic quarrels, who conquered and ruled them until he was himself

crushed by the Romans.

_Read through the passage carefully._--As you do this, notice all

allusions and key-words that help you to the sense of the passage,

_e.g._ +Germani+, +nostri milites+, +Publius Crassus+. The general sense

of the passage should now be so plain (_i.e._ an incident in a battle

between the Germans and the Romans) that you may begin to translate

sentence by sentence.

+I.+ +Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis pugnatum est.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Reiectis+ = +re + iacio+ = _throw back_ or _away_. The context will

tell you which is the better meaning for +re-+. Notice the force of all

prefixes in composition, whether separate or inseparable as here. For

+re-+, see pp. 280, 281. [[Appendix II.II: Separable Particles]]

+pilis+ = the +pîlum+, the distinctively _Roman_ missile weapon.

+cominus+ = +comminus+: _i.e._ +con (= cum) + manus+ = _hand to hand._

N.B.--In composition _a_ often becomes _i_, cf. +iacio+, +re-icio+; and

cf. +e-minus+ = _at a distance_.

(ii.) _Translation._--

+PUGNATUM EST+. The only finite verb in the sentence, and the principal

one. The form shows you it is a so-called impersonal verb, and therefore

the subject must be sought from the verb itself in connection with the

context. Here, clearly, you must translate _the battle was fought_.

+cominus+ tells us _how_, i.e. _hand to hand_.

+reiectis pilis+. You will recognise this as an _ablative absolute_

phrase. But do not translate this literally _their javelins having been

thrown away_, for this is not English. Let the principal verb and the

sense generally guide you to the force of the phrase. Thus you can see

here that the Roman soldiers had no use for their javelins, and so threw

them away as a useless encumbrance. (The context tells us that the Roman

soldiers had no time to hurl their javelins against the foe.) You can

now translate the whole sentence--_(and so) the Romans threw away their

javelins and fought hand to hand with swords_.

+II.+ +At Germani celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta,

impetus gladiorum exceperunt.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+ex consuetudine sua + = _according to their custom_. You will probably

have met with +consuetudo+, or +consuesco+, or +suesco+. Our own word

_custom_ comes from it through the French _coutume_. For this use of

+ex+ cf. +ex sententia+, +ex voluntate+.

+phalange+ = _phalanx_. If you learn Greek, you will readily think of

the famous Macedonian phalanx.

+impetus+ = _attacks_ = +in + peto+ (= _aim at_). Cf. our _impetus_,

_impetuous_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains only one finite verb, the

principal one.

+EXCEPERUNT+ = _(they) received_. _Who_ received? Clearly

+GERMANI+ = _the Germans_. Received _what_?

+IMPETUS+ = _the attacks_. +impetûs+ must be Acc. Plur.

All you now have to do is to assign to their proper places the words and

phrases that remain. Of these

1. +celeriter+ }

2. +ex consuetudine sua+ }

3. +phalange facta+ }

modify the action of +exceperunt+, telling us _when_ and _how_

they received, and

4. +gladiorum+

belongs to +impetûs+.

Now translate the whole sentence. _But the Germans quickly formed into a

phalanx, as was their custom, and received the attacks of the swords_

(i.e. _of the Romans with drawn swords_).

+III.+ +Reperti sunt complures nostri milites, qui in phalangas

insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper vulnerarent.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+insilirent+ = +in + salio+ = _leap-on_. And cf. our _insult_. Notice

the usual phonetic change of vowel from _a_ to _i_. (English derivatives

will often help you to the meaning of a Latin word, though, for reasons

that are explained to you in the Introduction, pp. 1, 2, § 4, you must

let them lead you up to the _root-meaning_ of the Latin word rather than

to an exact translation.)

+revellerent+ = +re + vello+ = _pluck-away_. If you forget the meaning

of +vello+, the supine +vulsum+ through some English derivative--e.g.

_re-vulsion_, _con-vulsion_--will probably help you to the root-meaning.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains four finite verbs. As you

read it through, underline the principal verb, clearly +REPERTI SUNT+,

and bracket +qui+ to +vulnerarent+. You cannot doubt which verbs to

include in your bracket, for +qui+, which is a subordinate conjunction

as well as a relative pronoun, serves as a sure signpost. Also

+revellerent+ and +vulnerarent+ are joined by +et--et+ to +insilirent+,

so your bracket includes all from +qui+ to +vulnerarent+. The commas in

the passage will often help you to the beginning and end of a

subordinate clause. Now begin with the principal verb +REPERTI SUNT+ and

its subject +complures nostri MILITES+, _many of our soldiers were

found_.

+qui ... vulnerarent+. This subordinate clause describes, just as an

adjective does, _the character_ of these +complures nostri+, so that

+qui = tales ut+--i.e. _brave enough to leap upon the phalanxes, and

pluck away the shields (of the Germans) and wound them from above_.

+IV.+ +Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque in fugam conversa

esset, a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorum nostram aciem

premebant.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+[)a]cies+ = _line of battle_.

[Rt]+ac+ = _sharp_ (cf. +âcer+), perhaps thought of as the _edge_ of a

sword.

+cornu+ = _horn_; so, figuratively, _the wing of an army_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains three finite verbs.

Underline +PREMEBANT+, clearly the principal verb, and bracket +cum+ to

+conversa esset+. Here the signpost is the subordinate conjunction

+cum+. Next find the subject of +premebant+: obviously no word from +a

dextro+ to +aciem+ can be the subject; it is implied in

+premebant+--i.e. _they_, which as context shows = +Germani+. Now find

the object = +nostram aciem+ = _our line_.

Thus you have as the backbone of the whole sentence:--

_They (the Germans) were pressing our line._

All the rest of the sentence will now take its proper place, as in some

way modifying the action of +premebant+.

Thus:--

+cum ... conversa esset+ tells us _when_ they were pressing.

+a dextro cornu+ " " _where_ " "

+vehementer+ " " _how_ " "

+multitudine suorum+ " " _how or why_ " "

N.B.--+suorum+, reflexive, must be identical with the subject of

+premebant+.

Now translate _{Though}{When} the enemy's line had been routed

and put to flight on their left wing, on their right wing, owing to

their great numbers, they were pressing hard upon our line._

+V.+ +Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatui

praeerat, quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur,

tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+animadvertisset+ = +animum + ad + verto+ = _to turn the mind to, to

observe_.

+adulescens+ = here like our _junior_, to distinguish him from his

father, Marcus Crassus the triumvir.

+expeditior+ = _more free_ (+ex + pes+ = _foot-free_; so +impeditus+ =

_hampered_, _hindered_).

+versabantur+--(+verso+ frequent. of +verto+) = _turn this way and

that_; so +verso-r+ dep. = _turn oneself_, _engage in_, _be_, according

to the context.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence is more involved, 'periodic'[8] in

style. You will see on p. 23 how much help can be given by a more

detailed analysis. [[Demonstration I: Table]]

[Footnote 8: See Introduction, pp. 7-9, § 11.]

[[Introduction 11. Help through a Study of the Period in Latin.]]

Now, as before, bracket the subordinate clauses thus:--

+1.+ +Id ... adulescens+

+2.+ +qui ... praeerat+

+3.+ +quod ... versabantur+

and then the only principal verb is +MISIT+. Underline this. Next

underline the principal subject, clearly +P. CRASSUS+, which is also the

subject of clause 1. Then, _outside the brackets_, the only possible

object is +ACIEM+: underline this.

Now analyse, as on p. 23. [[Demonstration I: Table]]

(a) Write down +CRASSUS+, +MISIT+, +ACIEM+.

(b) Place alongside these their proper enlargements.

A2, A3 in example on p. 23.

You should now be able to translate without any difficulty; only take

care to arrange the enlargements so as to make the best sense and the

best English. Thus: _When Publius Crassus the younger, who was in

command of the cavalry, had observed this, he sent the third line to the

help of our men who were hard pressed, as he was more free to act than

those who were engaged in action._

+VI.+ +Ita proelium restitutum est.+ _In this way the battle was

restored._

_Final Hints._

Remember that +one passage mastered+ is worth a great many hurriedly

translated. So before you leave this passage notice carefully in the

I. _Vocabulary._--

(i.) Any words that are quite new to you. Look them out in the

dictionary, and notice their derivation and use; if you do not do this

you will find the same word new to you the next time you meet with it.

(ii.) _English Derivatives._--As you have seen, these will often help

you to the root-meaning of a word. Thus:--

+reiectis+ = _reject, throw away_

+insilirent+ = _insult, jump on_

and in the case of verbs, as these two examples show, derivatives are

most easily found from the _supine_ stem.

N.B.--This must be done very carefully, because many such English

derivatives have come from Latin words after they had wholly, or in

part, lost their classical meaning, or from Latin words not found at all

in classical Latin.

A great many other English words are derived from the Latin of this

passage--e.g. _pugnacious_, (with) _celerity_, _fact_, _except_,

_military_, _manual_, _super_-sede, _vulnerable_, _hostile_, _sinister_,

uni-_corn_, and many others.

(iii.) _Prefixes._--Notice especially the force of prepositions and

inseparable particles in composition, e.g.:--

+re-+ in +re-iectis+, +re-vellerent+, +restitutum+.

+in-+ in +impetus+, +insilirent+.

+ex-+ in +exceperunt+, +expeditior+.

(iv.) _Simple Phonetic Changes in Composition_, e.g.:--

+a+ to +i+ in +insilirent+, +cominus+ (+con + manus+).

(v.) _Groups of Related Words._

Thus +acies+ [Rt]+ac+ = _sharp_, is related to +[)a]c-er+, sharp;

+[)a]c-ervus+, a heap; +[)a]c-utus+, sharp, &c.

+expeditior+ [Rt]+ped+ = _tread, go_, is related to +pes+, a foot;

+impedio+ = entangle; +impedimentum+ = hindrance, etc.

II. _Historical and other Allusions._--

(i.) Read a summary of Caesar's campaign against Ariovistus.

(ii.) _Terms relating to War._--Thus notice:--

+pilum+, the distinctively _Roman_ infantry weapon, and see a good

illustration.

_phalanx_; cf. the Roman +testudo+.

+tertiam aciem+--_i.e._ the line of reserves, kept for just such

emergencies. Read, if necessary, some short account of the +triplex

acies+, the usual Roman order of battle.

III. _Some Authorities._--

(i.) _Caesar_, Allen and Greenough, published by Ginn & Co. (an

admirable edition).

(ii.) Froude's _Caesar_, p. 50.

(iii.) Mommsen's _History of Rome_, vol. iv. p. 295.

(iv.) Napoleon's _Caesar_, vol. ii. cap. 4, and vol. ii. p. 405.

DEMONSTRATION I.

CAESAR, _B. G._ i. 52: '_Reiectis pilis ... restitutum est._'

SENTENCE

Kind of Sentence

CONNECTIVE

SUBJECT

_Simple_

_Enlarged_

PREDICATE

_Simple_

_Enlarged_

OBJECT

_Simple_

_Enlarged_

A. Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatui

praeerat, quod expeditior rat quam hi ui inter aciem versabantur,

tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit.

PRINCIPAL (complex)

+CRASSUS+

1. Publius

2. adulescens

3. qui ... praeerat

+MISIT+

1. Id cum ... adulescens (= _when_)

2. quod ... versabantur (= _why_)

3. laborantibus ... subsidio (= _how_)

+ACIEM+

tertiam

A1. Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens

Subordinate

_adverbial_ to +MISIT+ in +A+

cum

Crassus

Publius

animadvertisset

A2. qui equitatui praeerat

Subordinate

_adjectival_ to +CRASSUS+ in +A+

qui

qui (= Crassus)

praeerat

equitatui

A3. quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur

Subordinate

_adverbial_ to +MISIT+ in +A+

quod

(Crassus)

erat expeditior

quam ... hi versabantur

DEMONSTRATION II.

_The Music of Arion._

(a) Quod mare non novit, quae nescit Ariona tellus? I

Carmine currentes ille tenebat aquas. II

Saepe, sequens agnam, lupus est a voce retentus; III

Saepe avidum fugiens restitit agna lupum; IV 4

Saepe canes leporesque umbra cubuere sub una, V

Et stetit in saxo proxima cerva leae: VI

Et sine lite loquax cum Palladis alite cornix VII

Sedit, || et accipitri iuncta columba fuit. VIII 8

Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vocalis Arion, IX

Tamquam fraternis obstupuisse modis. 10

OVID.

_The Music of Arion._

(b) Quod +mare+ non +novit+, quae +nescit Ariona tellus+? I

Carmine currentes +ille tenebat aquas+. II

Saepe, sequens agnam, +lupus est+ a voce +retentus+; III

Saepe avidum fugiens +restitit agna+ lupum; IV 4

Saepe +canes leporesque+ umbra +cubuere+ sub una, V

Et +stetit+ in saxo proxima +cerva+ leae: VI

Et sine lite loquax cum Palladis alite +cornix+ VII

+Sedit+, et accipitri +iuncta columba fuit+. VIII 8

+Cynthia+ saepe tuis +fertur+, vocalis Arion, IX

Tamquam fraternis +obstupuisse+ modis. 10

OVID.

DEMONSTRATION II.

OVID, _Fasti_ ii. 83-92 (Hallam's Edition).

_Heading and Author._--The heading will probably suggest to you the

well-known story of Arion and the Dolphin, and the name of the author,

Ovid, will lead you to expect a beautiful version of the legend.

_Read the Passage carefully._--As you read, notice all allusions that

help you to the sense of the passage. Thus the first line (which you can

no doubt translate at once) tells of the fame of Arion, and the

succeeding lines describe the charm of his music.

_The Form of the Passage: Elegiac Verse._--Scan[9] as you read, and mark

the quantity in the verse of all finals in +-a+. You will see the value

of this, as you translate.

[Footnote 9: See Introduction, pp. 6, 7, § 10.]

[[Introduction 10. Help through Scansion and Metre]]

You can now begin to translate, taking one complete sentence at a time.

+I.+ +Quod mare non nôvit, quae nescit [)A]rî[)o]n[)a] tellûs?+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--You will know all the words here, but observe

+nôvit+ = _knows_, not _knew_, for +nôvi+ means _I have become

acquainted with, I have learned_, and [therefore] _I know_; and notice

also the important cognates from the [Rt]#gno-#, #gnô-#, +-gna+, +-gno+,

#gi-gnô-skô# = _I learn to know_, cf. our _know_, _ken_, _can_,

_con_--#no-os# (_mind_), +-gna-rus+ = _know-ing_; +no-sco+

(= +gno-sco+).

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains no subordinates; the two

finite verbs, +nôvit+, +nescit+, are both principal.

Next, the form of the sentence, with the question-mark at the end, shows

that +mare+ must be the subject of +nôvit+, and +tellus+ of +nescit+.

(+[)A]rî[)o]n[)a]+ cannot be nominative, for the suffix +-a+ is the

usual Greek 3rd decl. Acc. Sing., where Latin has +-em+.) Also +quod+

and +quae+ are clearly interrogative and adjectival; so translate:--

_What sea does not know, what land is ignorant of Arion?_

N.B.--Try to render this line a little more poetically.

+II.+ +Carmine currentes ille tenêbat aquâs.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--You will know all these simple words.

(ii.) _Translation._--Here again there are no subordinates. The

principal verb is +tenebat+, the subject +ille+, and the object +aquas+;

so translate:--

_He used to stay the running waters by his song._

N.B.--Notice force of Imperfect in +tenebat+.

+III.+ +Saepe, sequens agnam, lupus est a voce retentus;+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--All you need notice here is the force of +re-+ in

+retentus+ = _held back_, cf. our _re_-tain.

(ii.) _Translation._--Before you translate, notice Ovid's frequent use

of _parataxis_, _i.e._ placing one thought side by side with another

thought, _without any connective_, even although one thought is, in

sense, clearly subordinate to another. This is one of the ways in which

all great poets _heighten the effect_ of what they say, and many

examples of it are to be found in Ovid's best elegiac verse. As you look

through this passage you will find:

(a) Lines 1, 2, 3, 4 each form a complete sentence.

(b) In the whole passage there is not _one_ subordinate conjunction.

The principal verb is +retentus est+, the subject +lupus+. +Sequens

agnam+ describes +lupus+, and +saepe+ and +a voce+ tell us _when_ and

_why_ the wolf _was stayed_.

_Often has the wolf in pursuit of the lamb been stayed at the sound._

(For this use of +a+ or +ab+ to express _origin_ or _source_ cf. Ovid,

_Fasti_, v. 655 [V. 709]: _Pectora traiectus Lynceo Castor_ +ab ense+.)

+IV.+ +Saepe avidum f[)u]giens restitit agn[)a] lupum.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Restitit+ = _stood still_; +re + si-st-o+, _i.e._ from [Rt]sta-,

strengthened by reduplication; cf. #hi-stê-mi#. Contrast carefully

meaning of +re-sto+, = _stand firm_ or _be left_.

(ii.) _Translation._--Again a very simple sentence. The principal verb

is +restitit+, the subject +agn[)a]+; +fugiens avidum lupum+ enlarges

the subject +[)a]gna+, and +saepe+ tells us when the lamb _stood still_.

_Often has the lamb, when fleeing from the hungry wolf, stood still

(stopped short in its flight)._

N.B.--Notice the _parallelism_ in this couplet, where the parallel lines

express the same idea. This is a characteristic feature of Hebrew

poetry, e.g.:

'Seek ye the Lord while He may be found:

Call ye upon Him while He is near.'

Is. lv. 6.

and is frequently employed by Ovid.[10]

[Footnote 10: E.g.:

Plena fuit vobis omni concordia vita,

Et stetit ad finem longa tenaxque fides.

_Amores_ ii. 6. 13-14.]

+V.+ +Saepe c[)a]nes lep[)o]resque umbrâ c[)u]buêre sub unâ.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Lep[)o]res+ = _hares_. As this is closely connected by +-que+ with

+c[)a]nes+, you are not likely to confuse it with +l[)e]por+ (+lepos+;

cf. #lampô#) = _a charm_, _grace_.

+Cubuere+ = _lay down_. Cp. +-cumbo+ in composition, and our

_recumbent_, _succumb_, and _cub_-icle.

(ii.) _Translation._--Another simple sentence about which there can be

no doubt. The metre shows that +umbrâ+ must be taken with +sub unâ+:--

_Often have the dogs and the hares reclined beneath the same shade._

+VI.+ +Et stetit in saxo proxim[)a] cerv[)a] leae.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Leae+ = _lioness_. +Lea+ (poetical form of +leaena+) suggests +leo+.

(ii.) _Translation._--The metre shows +proxim[)a]+ must be taken with

+cerv[)a]+. But to translate _the nearest stag (hind)_ makes nonsense,

and renders +leae+ untranslatable, while _the hind very close to the

lioness_ makes good sense.

_And the hind has stood still on the crag close beside the lioness._

+VII.+ +Et s[)i]ne lîte l[)o]quax cum Palladis âlite cornix sêdit.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Lîte+ = _strife_. To _litigate_ = contest in law (+lit + agere+) may

help you to the root-meaning.

+Loquax+ = _talkative_, clearly connected with +l[)o]q-uor+, and

_loq_-uacious. +Alite+ = _a bird_, lit. _winged_; cf. +âl-a+, a _wing_.

+Cornix+ = _a crow_, probably from [Rt]#kar#; cf. our _croak_, and

#korax#, +cor-vus+, a _raven_.

+Palladis.+ You have no doubt heard of #Pallas Athênê#, the virgin

goddess of war and of wisdom.

(ii.) _Translation._--The force of the illustration lies in the strong

contrast between the chattering, tale-bearing crow and the wise, silent

owl sacred to the goddess of wisdom. Two such opposites, under the spell

of Arion's music, forget to quarrel, though for the time in close

company.

_And the chattering crow has without strife sat in company with the bird

of Pallas._

+VIII.+ +Et accipitri iunct[)a] c[)o]lumb[)a] fuit.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Accipitri+ = _hawk_ (a general name for birds of prey), probably from

[Rt]#pet-#, +pet-+ = _move quickly_; cf. #pet-omai# = _fly about_;

+p[)e]t-o+ = _fall upon_, _attack_, _seek_.

So +accipiter+ = +ac + p[)e]t-+, _swift + flying_; cf. #ôkupteros# =

_swift-winged_.

(ii.) _Translation._--The metre shows that +columb[)a]+ and +iunct[)a]+

must be taken together:--

_And the dove has-been-joined-to (has consorted with) the hawk._

+IX.+

+Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vôcalis [)A]rîôn,

Tamquam fraternis obst[)u]puisse m[)o]dis.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Cynthia+ = _Diana_ (_Artemis_), so called from Mt. Cynthus, in Delos,

where she and Apollo were born.

+Fertur+ = _is said_, _asserted_; cf. +f[)e]runt+ = _they say_.

+Vôcalis+ = _tuneful_, clearly from same root as +vox+, +v[)o]c-o+,

&c., of our _vocal_. For change of quantity cf. +rex+, +rêgis+, from

+r[)e]go+.

+Obst[)u]puisse+ = _to have been spell-bound_; +st[)u]p-eo+,

+st[)u]p-idus+, and our _stupefy_, _stupid_ will suggest the

root-meaning.[11]

+M[)o]dis+ = _measures_, especially of verse, or, as here, of music.

[Footnote 11: Notice this word, which is often employed to express

the ideas of _entránce_, _enthrall_, _strike dumb_, _amaze_.]

(ii.) _Translation._--You will remember that Apollo, the god who brings

back light and sunshine in spring, is also the god of music and of

poetry. Ovid skilfully implies that Arion's playing was so beautiful

that even Diana, Apollo's own sister, mistakes Arion's playing for her

brother's.

This sentence takes up a whole couplet, but is in form quite simple.

Thus +fertur+ is the incomplete predicate, and +obstupuisse saepe tuis

modis tamquam fraternis+ completes the predicate, _i.e._ tells us all

that is said of the subject +Cynthia+.

+Vôcalis [)A]rîon+ is clearly vocative, or nominative of address.

_O tuneful Arion, often is Cynthia said to have been spell-bound by thy

strains, as by those of her brother (Apollo)._

_Final Suggestions._

You have now learnt how to translate this passage, but you must do more

before you can master it. Thus in these simple but beautiful lines

notice:--

(i.) _Vocabulary._--This is easy and familiar, but even if you know the

meaning of the words study their _cognates_--_i.e._ related words--as

pointed out to you in the vocabulary, _e.g._ under +nôvit+, p. 25,

sentence I. [[Demonstration II.ii]]

(ii.) _English Derivatives._--Remember that often, where you cannot

think of an English derivative, some very familiar _French_ word will

help you to the root-meaning of the Latin. Thus:--

Latin. French. English.

+Carmine+ _Charme_ _Charm_ (_Song_)

+Agnam+ _Agneau_ _Lamb_

+Lupus+ _Loup_ _Wolf_

+Cerva+ _Cerf_ _Stag_ (_Hind_)

and notice that where the English word, e.g. _charm_, differs in

spelling from the Latin, it is because it comes to us through a French

channel. Cf. _feat_ from Fr. _fait_ = L. _factum_.

(iii.) _Allusions and Parallel Passages._--In verse these are often

numerous and important. Poetry is naturally full of imagery, and borrows

from many sources. Thus, for ll. 1-8, compare Hor. _Od._ I. xii. 5:

'Aut in umbrosis Heliconis oris

. . . .

Arte materna rapidos morantem

Fluminum lapsus . . .'

and Verg. _G._ iv. 510:

'Mulcentem tigris et agentem carmine quercus.'

Shakesp. _Hen. VIII._ III. i.:

'Orpheus with his lute made trees,

And the mountain-tops that freeze,

Bow themselves when he did sing';

or read Tennyson's poem 'Amphion.'

_Lines 5, 6._--Cf. Isaiah xi. 6: 'The wolf also shall dwell with the

lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the

young lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead

them.'

(iv.) _Hints for Verses._--Ovid is the acknowledged master of elegiac

verse. Therefore, whenever you have a passage of his elegiacs to

translate, you should, if possible, learn it by heart. (The Arion story

as told by Ovid is well worth a place in any collection of _Ediscenda_.)

If you cannot do this, notice useful phrases and turns of expression,

e.g.:--

_Line 1._--A question, instead of a bare statement, where no answer is

expected.

Cf. 'Quod crimen dicis praeter amasse meum?'

(Dido to Aeneas, Ov. _Her._ vii. 164.)

_Lines 3, 4._--Parataxis and repetition of idea.

_Line 9._--+Vocalis Arion+, apostrophe.

_Line 2._--Simplicity; alliteration.

(v.) _The Poem as Literature._--Ovid here depicts in language purposely

exaggerated the power of music over the hearts of men, and even over

nature, animate and inanimate. This gives point to the strong contrast

in the lines which follow, where greed dominates all the feelings.

Shakespeare refers to the love of music as a test of character:--

'The man that hath no music in himself,

Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,

Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils.'

DEMONSTRATION III.

PART I.

_A rash promise rashly believed._

Hannibali alia in his locis bene gerendae rei fortuna oblata est. |I|

M. Centenius fuit cognomine Paenula, insignis inter primipili

centuriones et magnitudine corporis et animo. |II| Is perfunctus

militia, per P. Cornelium Sullam praetorem in senatum introductus, petit

a Patribus, uti sibi quinque milia militum darentur: |III| se peritum et

hostis et regionum, brevi operae pretium facturum et, quibus artibus ad

id locorum nostri et duces et exercitus capti forent, iis adversus

inventorem usurum. |IV| Id non promissum magis stolide, quam stolide

creditum, tamquam eaedem militares et imperatoriae artes essent! |V|

Data pro quinque octo milia militum; pars dimidia cives, pars socii.

|VI| Et ipse aliquantum voluntariorum in itinere ex agris concivit, ac

prope duplicato exercitu in Lucanos pervenit, ubi Hannibal, nequiquam

secutus Claudium, substiterat. |VII|

LIVY.

_A rash promise rashly believed._

Hannibali alia in his locis bene gerendae rei +fortuna oblata est. {I}

M. Centenius fuit+ cognomine Paenula, insignis inter primipili

centuriones et magnitudine corporis et animo. {II} +Is+ perfunctus

militia, per P. Cornelium Sullam praetorem in senatum introductus, petit

a Patribus, [uti sibi quinque milia militum darentur]. {III} +Centenius

dixit+ _se peritum et hostis et regionum, brevi operae pretium facturum:

et, [quibus artibus ad id locorum nostri et duces et exercitus capti

forent], iis adversus inventorem usurum_. {IV} +Id+ non +promissum+

magis stolide, quam stolide +creditum+: [tamquam eaedem militares et

imperatoriae artes essent!] {V} +Data+ pro quinque octo +milia+ militum;

{VI} +pars+ dimidia cives, +pars+ socii. Et +ipse aliquantum+

voluntariorum in itinere ex agris +concivit+, ac prope duplicato

exercitu, in Lucanos +pervenit+, [ubi Hannibal, nequiquam secutus

Claudium, substiterat].

LIVY.

DEMONSTRATION III.

LIVY, xxv. 19.

_Read the passage through carefully._ As you read--

(i.) Make all the use you can of your previous knowledge of History,

Geography, and Antiquities.

Thus, +Hannibali+ suggests an episode in the Second Punic War.

+M. Centenius+ is clearly the unfortunate subject of the episode.

+in Lucanos ... substiterat+ helps to fix the date as later than

+Cannae+, 216 B.C.

(ii.) Observe carefully all phrases that will require special care in

translating--_e.g._ +bene gerendae rei+--+inter primipili

centuriones+--+perfunctus militia+--+operae pretium+--+ad id locorum+.

You will now have a sufficient general idea of the form and general

sense of the passage, and may begin to translate sentence by sentence.

+I.+ +Hannibali alia in his locis bene gerendae rei fortuna oblata est.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+oblata+, cf. _ob-lation_ = _an offering_ and _of-fer_.

(ii.) _Translation._--

+oblata est+ shows that the subject must be +fortuna+, with which +alia+

must agree, and +gerendae rei+ is dependent genitive. So you may at once

translate literally _Another fortune (chance) of carrying-on the matter

well in these parts was offered to Hannibal_. But you must not be

satisfied with this, for though literally correct it is neither good

History nor good English. So render: _In this district Hannibal had

another chance presented to him of achieving a success_.

Here notice especially the use of the word +res+,[12] a remarkable

example of the tendency of Roman writers to employ the ordinary and

simple vocabulary wherever possible _instead of inventing a new word_.

As a writer well says, '+Res+ is, so to say, a blank cheque, to be

filled up from the context to the requisite amount of meaning.' Cf.

'+Consilium erat quo fortuna rem daret, eo inclinare vires+,' where

+res+ = _victory_.

[Footnote 12: Cf. Introduction, p. 11.] [[Introduction 13 (2)]]

+II.+ +M. Centenius fuit cognomine Paenula, insignis inter primipili

centuriones et magnitudine corporis et animo.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+primipili+ = the chief centurion of the +triarii+ (the third, veteran

line of the legion), the +primipilus+, or +primus pilus+. So Livy vii.

41, '+primus centurio erat, quem nunc (centurionem) primi pili

appellant+.'

+cognomine+, _i.e._ +co-nomen+, a name _added_ to the +nomen+, a title,

epithet, _e.g._:

+Publius+ = the distinctive +praenomen+.

+Scipio+ = +nomen+, designating his +gens+.

+Africanus+ = +cognomen+.

(ii.) _Translation._--The form of this sentence is quite simple. The

subject is +M. Centenius+, with which +insignis+ agrees. _There was a

certain M. Centenius, by surname Penula, distinguished among the

first-rank_ (or _chief_) _centurions_ (of the Triarii) _both for his

great bodily size and courage._

+III.+ +Is perfunctus militia, per P. Cornelium Sullam praetorem in

senatum introductus, petit a Patribus, uti sibi quinque milia militum

darentur.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+perfunctus+, cf. _function_, and notice force of +per+ = discharge

_completely_.

(ii.) _Translation._--The principal verb is clearly +petit+, and +is+ is

the only possible subject (= +Centenius+), with which +introductus+

agrees. There is one subordinate clause, introduced by +ut+, telling us

the object of his request.

Translate, first literally, _He having discharged completely his

military service, being introduced into the Senate by P. C. Sulla, the

Praetor, asks the Fathers that 5000 soldiers should be given him_. Now

improve this: get rid at all costs of the _having_ and _being_, which

are not English, and change the _asks_ into the past tense of narration.

Thus:--

_After he had completed his term of service, and had been introduced to

the Senate by P. Corn. Sulla, the Praetor, he petitioned the Fathers

that 5000 soldiers should be given him._

+IV.+ +Se peritum et hostis et regionum, brevi operae pretium facturum:

et, quibus artibus ad id locorum nostri et duces et exercitus capti

forent, iis adversus inventorem usurum.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+peritum+, cf. _ex-peri-enced_. [Rt]+par-+, +per-+, _pierce_, _go

through_; so, +ex-per-ior+, +per-iculum+, in sense of a _trial_.

+operae pretium+ = lit. '_what will pay for the trouble_,' _i.e. worth

while_, _i.e._ worth the _time_ (or _labour_) spent upon it.

+artibus--ars.+ [Rt]+ar+ = _fit_, _join_ = skill in joining something,

skill in producing; so, _artist_, _artisan_, _artifice_, etc.

+ad id locorum+[13] = _to that point of time_. The ideas of _place_ and

_time_ readily interchange; so, +in loco+ = at the right _place_ or

_time_.

[Footnote 13: Cf. Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 63 _Tamen is_ +ad id

locorum+ _talis vir_ = _Such was his character up to this time_.]

(ii.) _Translation._--The form of the sentence shows that it is

_reported speech_, and not the actual words of the speaker +Centenius+,

who is still the principal subject, and +dixit+, _understood_, the

principal verb, and +se peritum ... usurum+ the object of +dixit+. You

should now be able to translate without any difficulty, and the logical

common-sense rules for the conversion of Or. Recta into Or. Obliqua

explain the mood of the verb +capti forent+ in the subordinate clause

introduced by +quibus+.

Literally: _Centenius said that he, experienced in both the enemy and

the districts, would soon make it worth (their) while: and that he would

use against their inventor those arts by which up to that time both our

leaders and our armies had been overcome._ Notice that the long relative

clause +quibus artibus ... forent+ is in Latin placed before the

antecedent +iis+.

You will readily see that this must be improved in several points.

Thus:--

(a) +Use Oratio Recta+--more graphic and better suited to our idiom.

(b) _arts_. Change this to some more suitable military term--e.g.

_tactics_.

_He was well acquainted (he said) both with the enemy and the country,

and would shortly make it worth their while, and would employ against

their originator those very tactics by which both our leaders and our

armies had up to that time been baffled._

+V.+ +Id non promissum magis stolide, quam stolide creditum: tamquam

eaedem militares et imperatoriae artes essent!+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+stolide+, cf. _stolid_ = dull, foolish.

(ii.) _Translation._--The finite copula +est+ is, as often, omitted; the

two principal verbs are +promissum (est)+ and +creditum (est)+ linked by

the comparative particles +magis--quam+, and the subject is +id+;

+tamquam--essent!+ is a subordinate clause modifying the two principal

verbs, and expressing contemptuous wonder.

Cf. '+tamquam clausa sit Asia, sic nihil perfertur ad nos+.'

You can now translate

Literally: _That was promised not more foolishly than it was foolishly

believed, just as if the arts of a soldier and of a general were the

same._

Here you can make several improvements; avoid the repetition of

_foolishly_, and use a better term than _arts_, and perhaps break up the

sentence into two short ones. Thus:--

_The folly of the promise was not greater than that of the credit it

received. Just as though the qualities of a soldier and of a general

were the same!_

+VI.+ +Data pro quinque octo milia militum; pars dimidia cives, pars

socii.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+dimidia+ [Rt]+med-+, +mid-+ = _middle_, so +dimidius+ = +dis + medius+.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence is very simple: notice that here,

too, +sunt+ and +erant+ are omitted.

_Eight thousand soldiers were given him instead of five: half were

citizens, half allies._

+VII.+ +Et ipse aliquantum voluntariorum in itinere ex agris concivit,

ac prope duplicate exercitu, in Lucanos pervenit, ubi Hannibal,

nequiquam secutus Claudium, substiterat.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+aliquantum+ = _considerable_, used in the neuter as a noun, with a

partitive genitive +voluntariorum+. Cf. use of +satis+, +parum+, etc.

+concivit+ = _raised_, lit. roused, stirred up. Cf. +ci-eo+, and our

_ex-cite_, _in-cite_.

+substiterat+ = _had halted_. +si-st-o+ is only a form of +sto+

strengthened by reduplication (cf. #histêmi#) with a causal force. Cf.

+restitit+, p. 27, sentence iv. [[Demonstration II:iv]]

(ii.) _Translation._--The principal subject is clearly +ipse+; there are

two principal verbs, +concivit+ and +pervenit+, coupled by +ac+, and one

subordinate clause, +ubi ... substiterat+, introduced by +ubi+, and

modifying +pervenit+.

The sense is so clear that you may translate at once into good

English:--

_Moreover he himself raised a considerable number of volunteers in the

country during his march; and so, with his numbers nearly doubled, he

reached Lucania, where Hannibal, after his fruitless chase of Claudius,

had halted._

The following version was shown up by a boy of fifteen in a recent

scholarship examination:

'Hannibal in _carrying on his successful campaign met with some

different luck in this district_. Marcus Centenius, whose cognomen was

Penula, was famous among the centurions of the first rank for his huge

limbs and great courage. This man, after having accomplished his years

of military training, on being introduced into the Senate by the Prætor

P. Cornelius Sulla, requested the Patricians to give him 5000 soldiers.

He said that he was well acquainted both with the enemy's tactics and

the district round about, and in a short time _would convert the

engagement into a prize for the State_: moreover, he added, I will

employ the same tactics against the _enemy_ as those by which our

generals and troops have been captured in these parts. This was

_faithfully_ believed as it was _faithfully_ promised: the tactics of

the soldiers and of the commanders were so much alike! He received 8000

men instead of 5000: half of them were Roman citizens, half allies:

moreover he himself _got_ some volunteers while on the march in the

country districts and so almost doubled his army: he thus reached the

territory of the Lucani, where Hannibal after a fruitless pursuit after

Claudius, had taken up his position.'

This version is neither bad nor good. The style is, on the whole fair,

knowledge of vocabulary very fair, and the rendering generally accurate.

It will, however, be of use to you as an object lesson: so notice

carefully the following points:--

I. _Style._

_Sentence IV._--

(i.) The Oratio Obliqua of the original he renders partly as Reported

Speech and partly as Oratio Recta. This is, of course, to be avoided.

Contrast the rendering given under Sentence IV.

_Sentence III._--

(ii.) +Is perfunctus ... darentur.+ He uses too many participles.

Contrast version under Sentence III.

_Sentences VI., VII._--

(iii.) He translates +data pro quinque ... substiterat+ by one long

sentence, instead of breaking it up into two at least.

II. _Vocabulary._

_Sentence IV._--

+Se peritum ... usurum.+ He confuses +pretium+ with +praemium+, +operae+

with +rei publicae+ (?). He should have been familiar with the phrase

+operae pretium+.

+inventorem+ he renders by _enemy_; perhaps a careless mistake, as if

the word were +inimicum+ (which after all does not = +hostem+).

_Sentence V._--

+stolide+ he renders by _faithfully_. A moment's thought given to the

English word _stolid_ should have put him on the right track.

_Sentence VII._--

+concivit+ he renders by _got_, vague and inappropriate. He fails to

bring out the root-meaning of +cieo+ = _to stir up_.

III. _Construction._

_Sentence I._--

This is very bad. _Analysis_ would at once have shown him that the

logical order of the sentence was

+Alia fortuna bene gerendae rei oblata est Hannibali in his locis+,

though he might not see that +in his locis+ must be closely connected

with +oblata est+.

_Sentence IV._--

+brevi operae pretium facturum.+ Very bad: due probably to not carefully

weighing the meaning of each word.

You will now see that a strict attention to analysis and to the

root-meanings of words really familiar would have enabled this candidate

to send up a good version.

DEMONSTRATION IV.

PART II.

_Rashness justly punished._

Haud dubia res est, quippe inter Hannibalem ducem et centurionem;

exercitusque, alterum vincendo veteranum, alterum novum totum, magna ex

parte etiam tumultuarium et semiermem. |I| Ut conspecta inter se agmina

sunt, et neutra pars detrectavit pugnam, extemplo instructae acies. |II|

Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas, concitata et,

donec dux stetisset, Romana acie. |III| Postquam is non pro vetere fama

solum, sed etiam metu futuri dedecoris, si sua temeritate contractae

cladi superesset, obiectans se hostium telis cecidit, fusa extemplo est

Romana acies. |IV| Sed adeo ne fugae quidem iter patuit omnibus viis ab

equite insessis, ut ex tanta multitudine vix mille evaserint, ceteri

passim alii alia peste absumpti sint. |V|

LIVY.

_Rashness justly punished._

[Transcriber's Note:

The braces around the "Postquam..." clause are in the original.]

+Haud dubia res est+, [quippe inter Hannibalem ducem et centurionem;

exercitusque, alterum vincendo veteranum, alterum novum totum, magna ex

parte etiam tumultuarium et semiermem.] {I} [Ut conspecta inter se

agmina sunt, et neutra pars detrectavit pugnam], extemplo +instructae

acies+. {II} +Pugnatum+ tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas,

concitata et, [donec dux stetisset], Romana acie. {III} {Postquam is non

pro vetere fama solum, sed etiam metu futuri dedecoris, [si sua

temeritate contractae cladi superesset], obiectans se hostium telis

cecidit}, +fusa+ extemplo +est Romana acies+. {IV} Sed adeo ne fugae

quidem +iter patuit+ omnibus viis ab equite insessis, [ut ex tanta

multitudine vix mille evaserint, ceteri passim alii alia peste absumpti

sint]. {V}

LIVY.

DEMONSTRATION IV.

LIVY, xxv. 19.

_Read through the Passage carefully._--The context will be familiar to

you, as this piece is a continuation of Demonstration III; but, none

the less, read the passage through very carefully. Notice, for example,

the use of +quippe+, the various uses and meanings of +ut+, +alterum ...

alterum+, +alii alia+.

You can now begin to translate.

+I.+ +Haud dubia res est, quippe inter Hannibalem ducem et centurionem;

exercitusque, alterum vincendo veteranum, alterum novum totum, magna ex

parte etiam tumultuarium et semiermem.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+quippe+ = +qui + pe+. +pe+ = a form of +que+ (cf. +nempe = nam-pe+ =

indeed) = _since of course_.

+alterum+ (comparative of +al-ius+), cf. +alter+, _alternate_, _either_,

_other_.

In distributive clauses, +alter--alter+ = _the one_, _the other_.

+tumultuarium+ (cf. +tumultus+), used of troops brought _hurriedly_

together; so, _disorderly_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence is quite simple, consisting of one

main statement, +Haud dubia res est+, and an explanatory subordinate

statement of fact introduced by +quippe+. Notice that the influence of

+inter+ extends over the whole of the subordinate clause.

_Literally:_ 'The affair was not doubtful, since, of course, it was

between Hannibal as general and a centurion, and between armies, the one

grown old in victory, the other wholly new, and for the most part also

hurriedly raised and half-armed.'

There are several points in which this rendering must be improved.

Thus:--

(a) _Affair_ for +res+ is too vague. You will remember what was said

about +res+ in Sentence I. of Part I. pp. 33, 34.

(b) You must try to express more strongly the contrast in generalship

between Hannibal and a mere centurion. Thus:--

'_The +result+ was not doubtful, considering that the contest was

between a general such as Hannibal and a (mere) centurion; and between

two armies, the one grown old in victory, the other consisting entirely

of raw recruits, and for the most part undrilled and half-armed._'

+II.+ +Ut conspecta inter se agmina sunt, et neutra pars detrectavit

pugnam, extemplo instructae acies.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+neuter+ = ne + uter (+uter = eu-ter+ or +quo-ter-us+ = comparative in

form of +quis+), _neither of two_.

+detrectavit+ = _declined_ (+de + traho+, draw-off).

+extemplo+ = _immediately_. +Ex + templum+ (dimin. +tempulum+).

+templum+ [Rt]+tem+ = cut; cf. #temnô# = prop. a _section_. So

(a) a _space marked_ out, a consecrated place, a _temple_.

(b) a _portion of time_; cf. _extempore_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence again is quite simple (in form very

similar to Sentence I.), consisting of one main statement, +extemplo

instructae acies+, and an introductory subordinate statement of _time_

introduced by +ut+ = _when_.

_'When the armies came in sight of each other, and neither side declined

battle, the ranks were at once drawn up in fighting order.'_

[14]+III.+ +Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas,

concitata et, donec dux stetisset, Romana acie.+

[Footnote 14: Weissenborn and Müller read:--Pugnatum tamen, ut in

nulla pari re, _diu_: duas amplius horas con_stitit pugna spe

con_citante, donec dux stetit, Romana_m_ acie_m_.]

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+concitata+ = _stirred-up_, _roused_. +con + ci-eo+; cf. _+ex-cite+_,

_+incite+_, +c[)i]-tus+ = _put in motion_, _swift_, &c.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence is not quite so simple and needs

care. Notice--

(a) +Pugnatum (est).+ The Impersonal Pass. serves as the principal

subject and predicate.

(b) +ut in nulla pari re.+ +ut+ is here not a _conjunction_ but a

relative _adverb_ of manner, referring the assertion +pugnatum duas

amplius horas+ to the particular circumstance--_i.e._ of a battle fought

under very unequal conditions. This use of +ut+ = _considering_ occurs

frequently--_e.g._ +consultissimus vir ut in illa quisquam esse aetate

poterat+ (Livy). Cf. also p. 124, l. 19. [[Selection C17, "ut in re

trepida"]]

sure that you understand the logical connection of the thought conveyed

by this sentence, you may consult the detailed analysis on page 47.

_In spite of its being such an unequal match, the battle was maintained

for more than two hours; the Roman army (as well as [+et+] the enemy's)

being roused (to great exertions) so long as their leader survived._

+IV.+ +Postquam is non pro vetere fama solum, sed etiam metu futuri

dedecoris, si sua temeritate contractae cladi superesset, obiectans se

hostium telis cecidit, fusa extemplo est Romana acies.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+dedecoris+ = of _dis-grace_, for +de+ in composition = separation, and

so _removal_ of the fundamental idea. Cf. _un-_, _dis-_, _e.g._

+dis-par+ = _un_-equal.

+contractae+ = _brought on_, _caused_. +con + traho+ = _bring about_,

_cause_.

(ii.) _Translation._--The meaning of this sentence should be quite plain

to you if you notice carefully that

(a) the principal verb is +fusa est+, and the principal subject +Romana

acies+, and

(b) that +Postquam ... cecidit+ is a subordinate clause of _time_

modifying the action of the principal verb +fusa est+.

It would perhaps be well to translate at first literally:--

_After that he, not only out of regard for_ (+pro+) _his old fame, but

also from fear of future disgrace, if he should survive a disaster

brought about by his own rashness, exposing himself to the weapons of

the enemy fell, the Roman army was at once routed._

You will see that this rendering, though verbally correct, is not

English, and must be considerably altered before it can be called a good

translation. Thus:--

(a) _It is too long._ You can remedy this by taking +postquam ...

cecidit+ as one complete sentence, and +fusa ... acies+ as another.

(b) _Exposing himself._ Better _exposed himself to ... and_. Notice here

the strictly accurate use of the Pres. participle in Latin.

inexact idiom '_he promised to come_' (Lat. '_that he would come_').

[Footnote 15: _i.e._ needless repetition (#tauto legein# = to say

the same thing).]

_At last, both for the sake of his old renown and from the fear of

disgrace should he survive a disaster brought on by his own rashness, he

threw himself among the enemy's darts and was slain. The Roman army was

routed in a moment._ --Church and B.

+V.+ +Sed adeo ne fugae quidem iter patuit omnibus viis ab equite

insessis, ut ex tanta multitudine vix mille evaserint, ceteri passim

alii alia peste absumpti sint.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+p[)a]tuit+ = _was open_. Cf. +p[)a]te-facio+ = _to make open_;

+p[)a]t-ulus+ = _open_, _spread out_; +p[)a]t-era+ = _a broad,

flat dish_. English, _patent_.

+insessis+ = _occupied_; +in + sed-eo+ = _sit upon_--so, _occupy_.

+passim+ = _hither and thither_, _far and wide_, formed from +passus+

(+pando+), _expand_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence resembles in form Sentence IV., with

one principal verb +patuit+, and a principal subject +iter+, and a

subordinate clause of _result_, +ut ... absumpti sint+, modifying the

action of the principal verb +patuit+. You may conveniently break up

this sentence into two, by beginning a new sentence with +Ceteri+.

Thus:--

_So completely closed against them was every chance of escape, all the

roads being beset by cavalry, that out of so numerous a host hardly a

thousand escaped. The rest perished as they fled, some by one death and

some by another._

Before laying aside these two passages, you should pay attention to the

following points:--

(i.) _Vocabulary._--Besides carefully noticing _new_ words, try to form

groups of _cognates_ (i.e. _related words_). One of the best ways to

enlarge your vocabulary is to group together _words of common origin_,

and to add to each, where you can, derivative and cognate English words.

To take a few examples from this passage:--

Word. Meaning. English

Derivative.

+ALIUS+ = _another_ (of many).

+ali-enus+ = _that belong to another_ alien, alienate.

+ali-quot+ = _some, several_ aliquot (parts).

+al-ter+ = _other of two_ alter, alternate.

+ali-bi+ = _elsewhere_ alibi.

etc.

+SENATUS+ = _the Council Senate.

of the Elders_

+sen-ex+ = _old_

+sen-ior+ = _older_ senior, sire, sir.

+sen-ile+ = _belonging to old people_ sen-ile.

+sen-ectus+ = _old age_.

etc.

+ITER+ = (+i-tiner+) = _a going_ itin-erant.

+amb-it-io+ = _a going round, ambition.

canvassing_

+comes+ = _a comrade_. a Count

(+cum + eo+) (Fr. Comte).

+in-it-ium+ = _a going in, a beginning_ initial.

+sed-it-io+ = _a going apart, sedition_ sedition.

etc.

(ii.) _Useful Phrases for Latin Prose._--You should try gradually to put

together your own phrase-book. You will find this much more useful to

you than any ready-made collection. A good and simple plan is to have a

special note-book for this purpose. Mark in the text as you read useful

phrases, and in your note-book write the Latin on the right-hand page

and a good idiomatic rendering on the left. For example, from this

passage you might collect the following:--

English.

Latin.

_A chance of achieving a success._

+fortuna bene gerendae rei.+

_After completing his term of service._

+perfunctus militia.+

_Would make it worth their while._

+operae pretium facturum.+

_Up to that time._

+ad id locorum.+

_The result was not doubtful._

+haud dubia res est.+

_Though the fight was so unequal._

+ut in nulla pari re.+

_Some by one death and some by another._

+alii alia peste.+

(iii.) +HANNIBAL.+--Read some good short estimate of Hannibal as a

patriot, statesman, and soldier--such as may be found in Mommsen's or

Ihne's _History of Rome_. If you have time, you will find much to

interest you in the _Hannibal_ ('Heroes of the Nations') by O'Connor

Morris.

DEMONSTRATION IV.

SENTENCE

Kind of Sentence

CONNECTIVE

SUBJECT

_Simple_

_Enlarged_

PREDICATE

_Simple_

_Enlarged_

OBJECT

_Simple_

_Enlarged_

_Sentence III._

Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas; concitata et,

donec dux stetisset, Romana acie.

Complex

tamen

+(THE BATTLE)+

+PUGNATUM (EST)+

1. duas amplius horas (_time_)

2. ut in nulla pari re (_manner_)

3. concitata ... Romana acie (_manner_)

_Sentence IV._

A. Postquam is non pro vetere fama solum, sed etiam metu futuri

dedecoris, si sua temeritate contractae cladi superesset, obiectans se

hostium telis cecidit, fusa extemplo est Romana acies.

Complex

Postquam

+ACIES+

Romana

+FUSA EST+

1. extemplo (_time_)

2. Postquam is ... cecidit (_time_)

A1. Postquam is ... cecidit

Subordinate

_adv._ to +FUSA EST+ in A

Postquam

non pro vetere ... +OBIECTANS+ telis

cecidit

A2. si sua ... superesset

Subordinate

_adv._ to +OBIECTANS+ in A1

(he)

superesset

cladi

sua temeritate contractae

DEMONSTRATION V.

_The Happy Life._

(a) Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, I

Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum

Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari! ||

Fortunatus et ille, deos qui novit agrestes, II

Panaque, Silvanumque senem, Nymphasque sorores! || 5

Illum non populi fasces, non purpura regum III

Flexit et infidos agitans discordia fratres,

Aut coniurato descendens Dacus ab Histro,

Non res Romanae, perituraque regna; || neque ille IV

Aut doluit miserans inopem aut invidit habenti. || 10

VERGIL.

_The Happy Life._

(b) +Felix+, (qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, I

Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum

Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari!)

+Fortunatus+ et +ille+, (deos qui novit agrestes, II

Panaque, Silvanumque senem, Nymphasque sorores!) 5

+Illum+ non populi +fasces+, non +purpura+ regum III

+Flexit+ et infidos agitans +discordia+ fratres,

Aut coniurato descendens +Dacus+ ab Histro,

Non +res Romanae, perituraque regna+; neque ille IV

Aut +doluit+ miserans inopem aut +invidit habenti+. 10

VERGIL.

DEMONSTRATION V.

VERGIL, _Georg._ ii. 490-499.

_Read the Passage carefully._--Notice as you read the many allusions and

key-words in the passage, _e.g._ +Acherontis+, +Pana+, +Silvanum+,

+Nymphas+, +Dacus ab Istro+, +res Romanae+, +rerum causas+, and +populi

fasces+. These, taken in connection with the main predicates +felix+,

+fortunatus+, +non flexit+, +neque doluit+, +aut invidit+, will readily

suggest to you the main thought of the passage:--

_Happy is Nature's bard who knows and fears not: happy he too who knows

the gods of the country. He is not distressed by ambition, nor wars, nor

pain, nor envy._

+I.+

+Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas,

Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum

Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari!+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+inexorabile+ = _relentless_; lit. _that cannot be moved by entreaty_.

+in+ (_not_) + +ex+ (_easily_) + +orabilis+ (_entreated_).

For +oro+ cf. +ôs+ = _mouth_; +orator+ = _speaker_; +oratio+ = _speech_.

+fatum+ = _fate_, _i.e._ of _death_, as the common lot of all men, the

decree of nature.

+fatum+ = _that which is said_, espec. prophetically. [Rt]+fa+, #pha#.

Cf. +for+ (+fâ-ri+), _speak_; +fâ-ma+, _report_; +fâ-bula+, _a story_;

+in-fans+, _that cannot speak_; +fâ-cundus+, _eloquent_.

+strepitum+ = _roar_; lit. a wild, confused noise, din of any kind; cf.

_obstreperous_.

+Acherontis+ = _Acheron_ = (a) a river in the Lower World; (b) the Lower

World itself. Perh. +Acheron+ = #ho achea rheôn# = the stream of woe;

cf. #Kôkutos# = _Cocytus_, river of _wailing_.

(ii.) _Translation._-- You cannot be in doubt about the principal

subject and predicate. +Felix+ is the only word outside the subordinate

clause from +qui ... avari+. The sense, too, of these lines is clear, so

you may translate at once; but you must take special care to use

dignified and appropriate language:--

_Happy the man who has availed to know the causes of things, and so

trampled under foot all fears and fate's relentless decree, and the roar

of insatiate Acheron._

+II.+

+Fortunatus et ille, deos qui novit agrestes,

Panaque, Silvanumque senem, Nymphasque sorores!+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+agrestes+ = _of the country_; cf. +ager+ (#agros#), +agrarius+,

_agrarian_; +peragro+ (+per + ager+), _travel over_. Perhaps to be

traced to the same root as +ag-o+ = _drive_, +ager+ and #agros# being so

named +a pecore agendo+ (cf. Germ. +trift+ = _pasturage_, +treiben+ =

_drive_).

+Silvanum+ = _Silvanus_ = Latin god of fields and woods (+silva+),

_sylvan_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence closely resembles in form Sentence

I, +Ille Fortunatus+ being the principal subject and predicate.

_He too is blest who knows the gods of the country, Pan, and old

Silvanus, and the sisterhood of the Nymphs._

+III.+

+Illum non populi fasces, non purpura regum

Flexit, et infidos agitans discordia fratres;

Aut coniurato descendens Dacus ab Histro,

Non res Romanae, perituraque regna;+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+fasces+ = _fasces_, i.e. _honours_; +populi+, i.e. _conferred by the

people_.

+fascis+ = a _bundle_, espec. of wood.

+fasces+ = _the lictors' rods_ (_rods_ + _axe_ in certain cases)

carried before the highest magistrates, as an emblem of authority.

+purpura+, _i.e._ the _purple_ robe worn by kings and magistrates.

Cf. [16]'+Purpura Pompeium summi velabit honoris.+'

OV. _Ex Ponto_ IV. iv. 25.

[Footnote 16: 'The purple (the insignia) of the highest office

shall clothe Pompeius.']

+agitans+ = _driving_, i.e. _moving_, _impelling_.

+discordia+ = _discord_. Notice force of +dis-+ = separation, negation;

cf. +dis-crimen+, +dis-par+.

+coniurato+ = _united by oath_, _sworn confederate_.

+Dacus+, the Dacians, akin to the Thracians, N. of Danube, conquered by

Trajan. Cf. modern _Roumanians_.

+Histro+ = the Lower Danube.

(ii.) _Translation._--You will see there is only one principal verb,

+flexit+ (or +flexerunt+), with several principal subjects, +fasces+,

+purpura+, +discordia+, +res Romanae+, +perituraque regna+, and no

subordinate clauses. You may therefore translate at once:--

(a) _Him fasces of the people or purple of kings sway not, not maddening

discord among treacherous brethren, nor the Dacians swarming down from

the leagued Danube, not the Roman State, or realms destined to decay;_

(b) _He is not (1) moved by honours that the people confer, or the

purple of empire, or civil feuds, that make (2) brothers swerve from

brothers' duty; or the Dacian coming down from the Hister, his sworn (2)

ally; no, nor by the great Roman State and the death-throes of subject

kingdoms._

N.B.--(b) is superior to (a) in--

(1) the use of Passive for Active;

(2) the predicative use of +agitans+, +infidos+, +coniurato+.

+IV.+

+neque ille

Aut doluit miserans inopem, aut invidit habenti.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--You will probably know the meanings of the words in

this sentence. Thus the meaning of--

+doluit+ is suggested by +dolor+.

+miserans+ " " +miser+. Cf. _miser-able_.

+inopem+ " " +in + ops+. Cf. _op-ulent_.

+invidit+ " " +invidia+. Cf. _envy_.

(ii.) _Translation._--You have here two principal verbs, +doluit+,

+invidit+, joined by +aut+, and a principal subject +ille+.

Notice that +inopem+ must be the object of the participle +miserans+,

and that +habenti+ is used as a noun.

_He never felt the pang of pity for the poor, or of envy for the rich._

Copy of a rendering shown up by a boy of fifteen in a recent scholarship

examination:--

'Happy is the man who _is able_ to discern the reason of things, and

_controls_ under his feet all changes and inexorable destiny, and the

_groaning_ of greedy Acheron! |I| Blessed also is he who knows the

rustic gods, Pan and old Silvanus, and those sisters, the nymphs! |II|

He is not moved by _the people's axes_, nor by the regal purple, nor by

discord that rouses brothers to _distrust_ each other. He is not moved

by _Dacus_, coming down from the _sacred_ Danube, nor by _the

affairs_ of Rome, and the realms about to perish. |III| He neither

_grieves for nor pities the helpless_, nor does he envy the rich.' |IV|

The above version is fair, but notice the following points:--

_Sentence I._--

_is able ... and controls_. The connection in thought is not shown: 'He

is happy because he _knows_ and [therefore] fears not.'

_groaning_--_i.e._ +gemitum+; +strepitum+ = _roar_, _din_.

_Sentence III._--

_by the people's axes_. This suggests quite a wrong idea; contrast the

version, 'by the honours that the people confer.'

_sacred_. This is quite wrong. +con-iurato+ = _allied by oath_.

_the affairs of Rome_. A very weak, and inadequate rendering.

_Sentence IV._--

_grieves for nor pities_. This quite obscures the point. Vergil says

that a country life, with its absence of poverty, so commonly met with

in a town, saves a man from the necessity of feeling a pang of pity for

the poor.

Before you put aside this passage, try to avail yourself of some of the

following suggestions. Thus:--

I. _For the Poet Vergil_[17] (70 B.C.-19 B.C.).--The chief facts of his

life and the subject of his great poems are clearly and shortly given in

the _Student's Companion to Latin Authors_ (a useful and convenient book

of reference).

[Footnote 17: See Short Lives, p. 343.] [[Appendix VI]]

II. _For the Georgics, Poems on Husbandry._ (The passage for translation

is taken from _Georgic II._ lines 490-499.) See--

(i.) _Student's Companion to Latin Authors_, pp. 157-8.

(ii.) Nettleship's _Vergil_, pp. 37-45.

(iii.) Sellar's _Vergil_, pp. 174-198.

Notice especially the _political purpose_ of the _Georgics_--to help the

policy of Augustus, which aimed at checking the depopulation of the

country districts. Compare the alarming migration from the country to

the towns in England at the present day.

III. _Relation of Lucretius to the Georgics._

(i.) Sellar's _Vergil_, pp. 199-243.

(ii.) Munro's _Lucretius_, Notes on Book i. line 78, and Book iii.

line 449.

Notice in this connection the opening lines of the passage, +Felix qui

potuit ... Acherontis avari+, which may be summarised as follows: 'Happy

he who knows the laws of Nature, and has therefore ceased to fear

natural phenomena and has learnt to despise the fabled terrors of

Hades.' Munro says: 'I feel that by his +Felix qui+ Vergil does mean a

poet-philosopher, who can only be Lucretius.'

Cf. also _Lucretius_, iii. 1-30. His address to Epicurus.

For the thought, cf. Wordsworth's _Happy Warrior_--

'He therefore does not stoop, nor lie in wait

For wealth, or honours, or for worldly state.'

DEMONSTRATION VI.

_The Tomb of Archimedes._

(a) Archimedis ego quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse omnino

negarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis, indagavi

sepulcrum. |II| Tenebam enim quosdam senariolos, quos in eius monumento

esse inscriptos acceperam: qui declarabant in summo sepulcro sphaeram

esse positam cum cylindro. |III| Ego autem, cum omnia collustrarem

oculis--est enim ad portas Agragantinas magna frequentia

sepulcrorum--animadverti columellam non multum e dumis eminentem, in qua

inerat sphaerae figura et cylindri. |IV| Atque ego statim

Syracusanis--erant autem principes mecum--dixi me illud ipsum arbitrari

esse quod quaererem. |V| Immissi cum falcibus multi purgarunt locum.

|VI| Quo cum patefactus esset aditus, accessimus: |VII| apparebat in

sepulcro epigramma, exesis posterioribus partibus versiculorum,

dimidiatis fere. ||

CICERO.

_The Tomb of Archimedes._

(b) {I} Archimedis +ego quaestor+ ignoratum ab Syracusanis, [cum esse

omnino negarent,] saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis,

+indagavi sepulcrum+. {II} +Tenebam+ enim quosdam +senariolos+, [quos in

eius monumento esse inscriptos acceperam]: [qui declarabant in summo

sepulcro sphaeram esse positam cum cylindro.] {III} +Ego+ autem, [cum

omnia collustrarem oculis]--est enim ad portas Agragantinas magna

frequentia sepulcrorum--+animadverti columellam+ non multum e dumis

eminentem, [in qua inerat sphaerae figura et cylindri]. {IV} Atque +ego+

statim Syracusanis--erant autem principes mecum--+dixi+ me illud ipsum

arbitrari esse [quod quaererem]. {V} +Immissi+ cum falcibus multi

+purgarunt locum+. {VI} [Quo cum patefactus esset aditus], +accessimus+:

{VII} +apparebat+ in sepulcro +epigramma+, exesis posterioribus partibus

versiculorum, dimidiatis fere.

CICERO.

DEMONSTRATION VI.

CICERO, _Tusc._ v. 23. 64.

_Read the Passage through carefully._--As you read you will notice many

allusions and key-words, _e.g._ +Archimedes+, +ego quaestor+,

+Syracusanis+, +sepulcrum+, etc. These, taken in connection with the

heading and the author, will suggest to you the main subject of the

passage--the finding of the Tomb of Archimedes by Cicero.

+I.+ +Archimedis ego quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse omnino

negarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis, indagavi

sepulcrum.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Quaestor+ (contr. from +quaesîtor+--+quaero+), i.e. _investigator_,

originally two main functions:--

(a) The preparation of evidence in public prosecutions (this about 240

B.C. transferred to the Tribunes).

(b) Treasurers of State. Of these the +Quaestores urbani+ stayed at

Rome, while the +Quaestores provinciales+ or +militares+ acted as

financial assistants to the _Consuls_ or _Praetors_ for the provinces.

+saeptum+ = _hedged in_; +saepes+ = _a hedge_, _fence_.

+vepribus+ = _with bramble-bushes_.

+dumetis+ = _with brushwood_.

+indagavi+ = _I traced out_. A metaphor from hunting. Cf.

'Dum trepidant alae, saltusque indagine cingunt.'

Verg. _Aen._ iv. 121.

'While the scouts (beaters) are all busy, and are encircling the coverts

with nets.'

(ii.) _Translation._--The form of the sentence is quite simple. The

principal verb is +indagavi+, with subject +ego quaestor+, and object

+sepulcrum+. From +ignoratum ... dumetis+ describes +sepulcrum+, and the

subordinate clause +cum ... negarent+ emphasises +ignoratum a

Syracusanis+. You may now translate

(a) literally: _I, when Quaestor, traced out the tomb of Archimedes, not

known of by the Syracusans, for they said it was not there at all,

hedged in on all sides and covered with brambles and brushwood._

(b) A better rendering: _When I was Quaestor I was able to trace the

tomb of Archimedes, overgrown and hedged in with brambles and brushwood.

The Syracusans knew nothing of it, and entirely denied its existence._

Notice here the improvement made by breaking up the one long sentence

into two.

+II.+ +Tenebam enim quosdam senariolos, quos in eius monumento esse

inscriptos acceperam: qui declarabant in summo sepulcro sphaeram esse

positam cum cylindro.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+senariolos+ = _some lines_, _i.e._ of poetry--dimin. of +senarius+

(+seni+) = _consisting of six each_, especially of the _iambic senarii_.

+sphaeram+ = _a sphere, globe_--#sphaira#.

+cylindro+ = _a cylinder_, #kulindros#.

(ii.) _Translation._--The only principal verb is clearly +tenebam+ (with

subject contained in the verb), and the principal object +senariolos+

(sc. +versus+). From +quos ... cylindro+ we have two subordinate

adjectival clauses enlarging +senariolos+.

_The fact is, I remembered some iambic lines which I had been told were

inscribed on his monument, and which set forth that his tomb was

surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder._

+III.+ +Ego autem, cum omnia collustrarem oculis--est enim ad portas

Agragantinas magna frequentia sepulcrorum--animadverti columellam non

multum e dumis eminentem, in qua inerat sphaerae figura et cylindri.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+collustrarem+ = _I was surveying on all sides_; +con (cum) + lustro+.

+lustro+, perhaps akin to +luc-eo+, +lu-men+;

so, +il-lustris+ = _lighted up_, _illustrious_.

+frequentia+ = _a large number_; cf. +frequens+, [Rt]#phrak#, +farc+;

cf. #phrag-ma# = _a fence_, +farc-io+ = _pack close together_; so,

+con-fer-tus+ = _crowded_, +freq-uens+ = _repeated_, _frequent_.

+columellam+ = _a small column_, dimin. of +columen+, [Rt]cel; cf.

+cel-sus+ = _lofty_; cf. +ex-cello+, +col-umen+ (= +cul-men+) = _the

summit_; cf. _culminate_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence is apparently not quite so simple,

but if you carefully bracket the subordinate clauses you will see that

the only principal verb is +animadverti+, with subject +ego+ and object

+columellam+. Notice next that--

(a) +cum ... oculis+ modifies the principal verb +animadverti+ and is an

adverbial clause of _time_.

(b) The parenthetical clause +est enim ... sepulcrorum+ explains

+collustrarem+.

+columellam+.

You may now translate into your best English, following closely the

thought and the order of the Latin:--

_Well, as I was surveying the whole place (there is a large number of

tombs at[18] the Agrigentine gate) I perceived a small column just

showing above the undergrowth, on which appeared the figure of a sphere

and a cylinder._

[Footnote 18: Var. lect. +ad portas Achradinas+.]

+IV.+ +Atque ego statim Syracusanis--erant autem principes mecum--dixi

me illud ipsum arbitrari esse, quod quaererem.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--The words of this sentence present no difficulty.

(ii.) _Translation._--With the practice you have now had, you may

translate at once; but notice carefully that--

(a) the parenthetical clause +erant ... mecum+ enlarges +Syracusanis+;

and

(b) +quod quaererem+ describes +illud ipsum+.

_So I immediately said to the Syracusans who were with me (some people

of importance) that I thought that was the very thing I was looking

for._

+V.+ +Immissi cum falcibus multi purgarunt locum.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+falcibus+ = _with bill-hooks_; +falx+ perh. akin to +flect-o+ = _bend_,

from its shape. Cf. _falcon_ (from its _hooked_ claws).

+purgarunt+ = _cleared_; +purgo+, contr. from +pur-igo+ = +purum + ago+

= _purge_. Cf. +pur-us+.

(ii.) _Translation._--

_Some men sent in with bill-hooks cleared out the space._

+VI.+ +Quo cum patefactus esset aditus, accessimus.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+patefactus+ = _laid open_: +pateo + facio+. Cf. _patent_.

(ii.) _Translation._--

_As soon as the way was open, we went up to it._

+VII.+ +Apparebat in sepulcro epigramma, exesis posterioribus partibus

versiculorum, dimidiatis fere.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+epigramma+ = _inscription_. Cf. _epi-gram_.

+exesis+ = lit. '_eaten out_'; +ex + edo+. Cf. _ed-ible_.

+dimidiatis+ = _halved_ = +dis + medius+, i.e. _divided into halves_.

(ii.) _Translation._--_There was the inscription on the tomb: the latter

part of each line was gone, nearly half the verse._

_Note._--Notice here the rendering of the Lat. abl. absol., an idiom

foreign to our language except for example in the so-called nom. absol.

of Milton. Cf. Introduction, p. 12 (5). [[Introduction 13 (5)]]

Cicero adds the following reflection:--'_Ita nobilissima Graeciae

civitas, quondam vero etiam doctissima, sui civis unius acutissimi

monumentum ignorasset, nisi ab hoimine Arpinate didicisset._'

_Thus it was that one of the most renowned of Greek cities, and in

ancient times one of the most enlightened, would have remained ignorant

of the monument of the greatest genius it ever produced, if it had not

learnt it from a man born at Arpinum._[19]

[Footnote 19: Also the birthplace of Marius. Cf. p. 163.]

[[Selection B4]]

_Some Suggestions and Authorities._

Before you leave this passage, try to notice some of the following

points, and if possible consult _some_ of these authorities:--

(i.) Read (_e.g._ in Church and Brodribb's translation) Livy's account

of the siege of Syracuse by Marcellus, 214-212 B.C., Book xxiv. cap. 34;

Book xxv. caps. 23-31.

(ii.) Freeman's _History of Sicily_. Notice especially the admirable

plan of Syracuse illustrating the siege by Nicias.

Or _Sicily_--'Story of the Nations' Series.

(iii.) _Some good Life of Archimedes._ The _Encyclopaedia Britannica_

supplies a good short life and refers to Cicero's finding the Tomb of

Archimedes, and to the still extant work of Archimedes on the Sphere and

the Cylinder.

(iv.) For _Cicero's Quaestorship in Sicily_, 75 B.C., consult some Life

of Cicero, _e.g._ Forsyth's, pp. 38-58, where reference is made to this

incident.

(v.) For the _Tusculanae Disputationes_ (conversations between Cicero

and a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject of which is the chief

essentials of happiness) consult the admirable introduction to the

edition by T. W. Dougan, Camb. Press.

PASSAGES

FOR

TRANSLATION AT SIGHT

REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B.C.

_The Vision of Anchises.--The Kings that are to be._

Quin et avo comitem sese Mavortius addet

Romulus, Assaraci quem sanguinis Ilia mater

Educet. Viden' ut geminae stant vertice cristae,

Et pater ipse suo superum iam signat honore? 780

En huius, nate, auspiciis illa incluta Roma

Imperium terris, animos aequabit Olympo,

Septemque una sibi muro circumdabit arces,

Felix prole virum.

. . . . . . .

Quis procul ille autem ramis insignis olivae

Sacra ferens? Nosco crines incanaque menta

Regis Romani; primam qui legibus urbem 810

Fundabit, Curibus parvis et paupere terra

Missus in imperium magnum. Cui deinde subibit,

Otia qui rumpet patriae residesque movebit

Tullus in arma viros et iam desueta triumphis

Agmina. Quem iuxta sequitur iactantior Ancus, 815

Nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.

Vis et Tarquinios reges animamque superbam

Ultoris Bruti fascesque videre receptos?

VERGIL, _Aen._ vi. 777-784, 808-818.

[Linenotes:

777. +Avo+ = _grandsire_, i.e. Numitor, the father of the Vestal

Rhea or Ilia. +Mavortius+ = child of Mavors, old and poetic name for

Mars.

778. +Assaraci+: King of Phrygia and grandfather of Anchises.

779. +geminae cristae.+ The double-crested helm, a distinction of

Mars.

780. +superum+ = _for the world above_, i.e. as a god. Acc. Sing.

808. +ille+ = Numa Pompilius (716-673 B.C.), a native of Cures

(811) in Sabine country, whom the Romans regarded as the founder

(+fundabit+, 811) of their religious and legal institutions.

813. +qui+ = Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), a man of war,

destroyed Alba.

+resides+ = _sluggish_, _lazy_ (_re + sedeo_).

815. +Ancus Martius+ (640-616 B.C.), conqueror of the Latins.

817. +Tarquinios reges+ = (i.) Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 B.C.) of

Tarquinii in Etruria; (ii.) Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 B.C.),

expelled by Brutus. Vergil omits Servius Tullius (578-534 B.C.).

817-818. +animamque ... receptos.+ Brutus, nephew of T. Superbus,

roused Rome to expel the Tarquins and found the Republic: and thus

the +fasces+ (the sign of power) were _recovered_ (+receptos+) by

the people. --Sidgwick.]

ROMULUS, 753-716 B.C.

A. _The Passing of Romulus._

His immortalibus editis operibus cum ad exercitum recensendum contionem

in campo ad Caprae paludem haberet, subito coorta tempestas cum magno

fragore tonitribusque tam denso regem operuit nimbo, ut conspectum eius

contioni abstulerit; nec {5} deinde in terris Romulus fuit. Romana

pubes, sedato tandem pavore, postquam ex tam turbido die serena et

tranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuam sedem regiam vidit, etsi satis

credebat patribus, qui proxumi steterant, sublimem raptum procella,

tamen velut {10} orbitatis metu icta maestum aliquamdiu silentium

obtinuit. Deinde a paucis initio facto deum deo natum, regem parentemque

urbis Romanae salvere universi Romulum iubent; pacem precibus exposcunt,

uti volens propitius suam semper sospitet progeniem. {15}

LIVY, i. 16.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +ad Caprae paludem+ = _near the Goat's pool_.

4. +operuit+ = _enveloped_ (+ob + pario+ = _get for_, _put upon_,

_cover_), cf. opposite +a-per-io+ = _get from_, _uncover_.

5. +abstulerit+ = _auferret_. The event is regarded simply as past,

without reference to other past events.

5-6. +nec deinde ... fuit+, cf. 'Quirinus | Martis equis Acheronta

fugit.' Hor. _Od._ iii. 3. 15.

7. +sêdato+ = _settled_, _calmed_. +Sêd-o+ = _cause to sit_, cf.

+sêd-es+, and our _seat_, _settle_.

11. +orbitatis+ = _of orphanhood_; cf. +orb-us+ = _bereaved_, and

our _orphan_.

15. +volens propitius+, an ellipse of _et_, cf. _optimus maximus_.

+sospitet+ = _he may keep safe_, _preserve_, cf. +sospes+ = _safe_.]

B. _The Mystery explained._

Pulcher et humano maior trabeaque decorus

Romulus in media visus adesse via,

Et dixisse simul: 'Prohibe lugere Quirites,

Nec violent lacrimis numina nostra suis. 4

Tura ferant placentque novum pia turba Quirinum,

Et patrias artes militiamque colant.'

OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 379-384. H. [II. 503-508]

[Linenotes:

1-6. Romulus appears as a god to Proculus Julius, an honourable

man, bidding him tell his people not to mourn for him, but to

worship him as Quirinus, and practise valour and all warlike

virtues.

1. +trabea+ = _in the (striped) robe of state_.

3-5. +Quirites+ (cf. +Quirinus+ = the deified Romulus) = lit.

_spearmen_. Connected with _Cures_ and _curis_ (Sabine word for a

_spear_), used of Roman _citizens_ as opposed to Roman _soldiers_.]

NUMA POMPILIUS, 716-673 B.C.

_The Gate of Janus, open in war but shut in peace._

A. Qui regno ita potitus urbem novam, conditam vi et armis, iure eam

legibusque ac moribus de integro condere parat. Quibus cum inter bella

adsuescere videret non posse, quippe efferari militia animos, mitigandum

ferocem populum armorum {5} desuetudine ratus Ianum ad infimum Argiletum

indicem pacis bellique fecit, apertus ut in armis esse civitatem,

clausus pacatos circa omnes populos significaret.

LIVY, i. 19.

[Linenotes:

1. +Qui+ = Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome.

4-5. +quippe ... animos+ = _since_ (he thought that) _men's tempers

were made savage_ (brutalised) _by warfare_. +efferari+ = orat. obl.

part of Numa's thoughts.

6. +desuetudine+ = _by disuse_, i.e. by a cessation from the use of.

Cf. _de-docêre_ = _unteach_.

+Ianum ... Argiletum+ = (a temple of) Janus at the foot of the

Argiletum, a slope to the N.E. of the Forum. (Prob. = the clayey

ground, from _argilla_ = white clay.)

8. +clausus.+ It was closed for a short time, circ. 238 B.C., and

again by Augustus 29-25 B.C.]

Sunt geminae Belli portae, sic nomine dicunt,

Religione sacrae et saevi formidine Martis:

Centum aerei claudunt vectes aeternaque ferri

Robora, nec custos absistit limine Ianus. 610

Has, ubi certa sedet patribus sententia pugnae,

Ipse Quirinali trabea cinctuque Gabino

Insignis reserat stridentia limina Consul;

Ipse vocat pugnas; sequitur tum cetera pubes,

Aereaque adsensu conspirant cornua rauco.

VERGIL, _Aen._ vii. 607-615.

[Linenotes:

609. +vectes+ = _bolts or bars_, prob. from [Rt]veh = carry. Cf.

_vect-îgal_.

612. +Quir. trabea+ = _in the state robe of Romulus_, i.e. the

striped robe of state, purple, with white stripes across.

+cinctu Gabino+ = _with the Gabine girdle_, formed by girding the

toga tight round the body by one of its loose ends.

613. +reserat+ = _un-bars_. For _s[)e]ro_ = _join_, cf. our _series_.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Ovid, _F._ i. 115-132. Cf. Hor. _Od._ iv. 15. 9.

Verg. _Aen._ i. 293-4.

+Numa Pompilius.+ 'The name of Numa is significant, and denotes an

organiser or _lawgiver_. (For _Numa_ cf. +numerus+, +nummus+, #nomos#.)

As Romulus was the founder of the State and of political and military

order, so the legend regards Numa as the founder of the national

religion.' --Ihne.

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, 534-509 B.C.

_The Purchase of the Sibylline Books._

In antiquis annalibus memoria super libris Sibyllinis haec prodita est.

Anus hospita atque incognita ad Tarquinium Superbum regem adiit, novem

libros ferens, quos esse dicebat divina oracula: eos velle venundare.

Tarquinius pretium percontatus {5} est: mulier nimium immensum poposcit.

Rex, quasi anus aetate desiperet, derisit. Tum illa foculum coram eo cum

igne apposuit, et tres libros ex novem deussit; et, ecquid reliquos sex

eodem pretio emere vellet, regem interrogavit. Sed enim {10} Tarquinius

id multo risit magis dixitque anum iam procul dubio delirare. Mulier

ibidem statim tres libros alios exussit; atque id ipsum denuo placide

interrogavit, an tres reliquos eodem pretio emat. Tarquinius ore iam

serio, atque attentiore animo fit; eam {15} constantiam confidentiamque

non insuper habendam intelligit: libros tres reliquos mercatur nihilo

minore pretio, quam quod erat petitum pro omnibus. . . . Libri tres in

sacrarium conditi Sibyllini appellati. Ad eos, quasi ad oraculum,

quindecimviri {20} adeunt, cum dii immortales publice consulendi sunt.

AULUS GELLIUS (fl. 143 A.D.), i. 19.

[Linenotes:

1, 2. +libris Sibyllinis+, i.e. a collection of prophecies uttered by

the legendary prophetess who lived at Cumae, near Naples.

5. +venundare+ = _to sell_. Cf. _ven-eo_ (= _venum + eo_), _ven-do_,

and our _vendor_.

12. +delirare+ = _to be out of her mind_. Lit. to make a crooked

furrow in ploughing; _de + lira_ (a furrow).

19. +sacrarium+ = _the place for the keeping of holy things_, i.e.

the Capitol. The original Sibylline Books were burnt in the fire on

the Capitol, 82 B.C., but a fresh collection was made by Augustus,

and deposited in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine.

20. +quindecimviri+ (_sacris faciundis_), i.e. a college of priests

who had charge of the Sibylline Books.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Verg. _Aen._ vi., espec. ll. 42-101, for the

Cumaean Sibyl.

+The Sibylline Books.+ 'There existed also Etruscan +libri fatales+

(_Books of Fate_), and these, together with the Sibylline Books, were

kept in the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter. Nothing seemed more natural

than to suppose that Tarquin, who built that temple, purchased also the

sacred books of the Sibyl.' --Ihne.

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, 534-509 B.C.

A. _Sextus Tarquinius at Gabii._

Inde in consilia publica adhiberi. . . . Ita cum sensim ad rebellandum

primores Gabinorum incitaret, ipse cum promptissimis iuvenum praedatum

atque in expeditiones iret, et dictis factisque omnibus ad fallendum

instructis vana accresceret fides, dux ad {5} ultimum belli legitur. Ibi

cum inscia multitudine, quid ageretur, proelia parva inter Romam

Gabiosque fierent, quibus plerumque Gabina res superior esset, tum

certatim summi infimique Gabinorum Sex. Tarquinium dono deum sibi missum

ducem credere. {10} Apud milites vero obeundo pericula ac labores

pariter, praedam munifice largiendo tanta caritate esse, ut non pater

Tarquinius potentior Bomae quam filius Gabiis esset.

LIVY, i. 54.

[Linenotes:

1. +Inde+, i.e. after the tale he told of his father's cruelty had

gained credit with the men of Gabii.

+adhiberi+ = _he was admitted_. Historic Infin.

2. +ad rebellandum+ = _to renew the war_.

4-5. +ad fallendum instructis+ = _were framed to deceive_.

8. +Gabina res+ = _the cause of Gabii_. For +res+ cf. p. 11 (2).

[[Introduction 13 (2)]]

11. +obeundo pariter+ = _by facing alike ..._]

B. _The Sequel: the Fall of Gabii._

Iamque potens misso genitorem appellat amico,

Perdendi Gabios quod sibi monstret iter.

Hortus odoratis suberat cultissimus herbis,

Sectus humum rivo lene sonantis aquae. 4

Illic Tarquinius mandata latentia nati

Accipit, et virga lilia summa metit.

Nuntius ut rediit, decussaque lilia dixit,

Filius 'Agnosco iussa parentis' ait. 8

Nec mora: principibus caesis ex urbe Gabina,

Traduntur ducibus moenia nuda suis.

OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 543-552. H. [II. 701-710]

[Linenotes:

1. +genitorem appellat ...+ = _he calls on his father (to tell

him)_ ...

6. +virga+ = _with a switch_.

+summa+ = _the tallest_.

10. +ducibus suis+, abl., after _nuda_ = _deprived of_.]

+Reference.+ Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1. 23-27. Horace refers to the treaty made

by Tarquinius with Gabii.

+Historic Parallel.+ Compare the extraordinary self-sacrifice of

Zôp[)y]rus, which enabled him to betray Babylon to his master Darius.

Herod, iii. 153-158.

_The Position of Rome, the future Mistress of the World._

Urbi autem locum Romulus incredibili opportunitate delegit. Neque enim

ad mare admovit--quod ei fuit illa manu copiisque facillimum, ut in

agrum Rutulorum Aboriginumve procederet, aut in ostio Tiberino, quem in

locum multis post annis rex {5} Ancus coloniam deduxit, urbem ipse

conderet,--sed hoc vir excellenti providentia sensit ac vidit, non esse

opportunissimos situs maritimos urbibus eis quae ad spem diuturnitatis

conderentur atque imperi. Itaque urbem perennis amnis et aequabilis et

{10} in mare late influentis posuit in ripa, quo posset urbs et accipere

ex mari, quo egeret, et reddere, quo redundaret: ut mihi iam tum

divinasse ille videatur, hanc urbem sedem aliquando et domum summo esse

imperio praebituram: nam hanc rerum tantam {15} potentiam non ferme

facilius alia in parte Italiae posita urbs tenere potuisset. Urbis autem

ipsius is est tractus ductusque muri cum Romuli tum etiam reliquorum

regum sapientia definitus ex omni parte arduis praeruptisque montibus.

Locumque delegit {20} et fontibus abundantem et in regione pestilenti

salubrem.

CICERO, _De Rep._ ii. 3. 5, 6 (selected).

[Linenotes:

3-6. +quod ei fuit ...+ = lit. which he might very easily have done

with that band (of men) and those forces, so that ...

4. +Rutulorum.+ S. of Rome. Turnus their King. Capital, Ardea.

6. +coloniam+, i.e. Ostia, the harbour of Rome and chief naval

station.

7-8. +non esse opportunissimos+, e.g. as exposed to sudden attacks,

and likely to contain a too large foreign element.

12-13. +quo redundaret+ = _its own superabundance_.

17-18. +is tractus ductusque+ = _the plan and direction_.

19. +definitus+ = _bounded_.

20. +arduis praeruptisque montibus.+ 'The amphitheatre of seven

hills which encloses the meadows (afterwards the Campus Martius) in

the bend of the Tiber, varying from 120 to 180 feet above the

stream, offered heights sufficiently elevated and abrupt for

fortification, yet without difficulties for the builder or

cultivator.']

N.B.--In this passage be careful to translate Cicero's long, periodic

sentences by two or more separate sentences in English.

+The Position of Rome.+ 'There was no place better fitted for an

emporium of the Tiber and sea traffic, and for a maritime frontier

fortress than Rome. It combined the advantages of a strong position and

of immediate vicinity to the river.' Mommsen.

THE PRAISE OF ITALY.

_'Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus.'_

Sed neque Medorum silvae ditissima terra,

Nec pulcher Ganges atque auro turbidus Hermus

Laudibus Italiae certent, non Bactra, neque Indi

Totaque turiferis Panchaia pinguis harenis.

Haec loca non tauri spirantes naribus ignem 140

Invertere satis immanis dentibus hydri,

Nec galeis densisque virum seges horruit hastis;

Sed gravidae fruges et Bacchi Massicus umor

Implevere; tenent oleae armentaque laeta.

Hinc bellator equus campo sese arduus infert; 145

Hinc albi, Clitumne, greges, et maxima taurus

Victima, saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro,

Romanos ad templa deum duxere triumphos.

Hic ver assiduum atque alienis mensibus aestas;

Bis gravidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbor. 150

At rabidae tigres absunt et saeva leonum

Semina, nec miseros fallunt aconita legentes,

Nec rapit immensos orbis per humum, neque tanto

Squameus in spiram tractu se colligit anguis.

VERGIL, _Georg._ ii, 136-154.

[Linenotes:

136. +silvae ditissima+ = _most rich in forests_. --Sidgwick.

137. +Hermus+, auriferous river of Lydia, cf. the R. Pactolus.

138. +Bactra+, modern Balk, N. of Afghanistan.

139. +Panchaia+, i.e. Arabia, the Eldorado of the Old World.

141. +satis ... hydri+ = _where the enormous dragon's teeth were

sown_. +hydri+ (#hudros#), lit. _a water-snake_.

143. +Massicus umor+ = _Massic juice_, i.e. of Mt. Massicus in N.W.

Campania, famous for its wine, espec. the Falernian.

144. +implevere+ (sc. +haec loca+) = _fill it all_.

146. +Clitumne.+ R. of Umbria, famous for its white cattle.[20]

146-148. White cattle were required for the sacrifices of the

Triumphs.

149. +alienis mensibus+ = _in months not her own_, i.e. in months

properly belonging to winter.

150. +bis gravidae pecudes+ = _twice the cattle give increase_,

Conington.

151, 152. +saeva leonum semina+ = _the fierce lion-brood_.

--Mackail.

+aconita+, a deadly poison--_monkshood_.

153, 154. +neque--anguis+ = _nor with so_ +vast+ _a sweep gather

himself into a coil_, i.e. the snakes in Italy are not so large as

elsewhere.]

+R. Clitumnus.+ Compare Pliny's beautiful letter (viii. 8) describing

its source.

[Footnote 20: Cf. the Chillingham 'Wild Cattle.']

EARLY REPUBLIC, 509-366 B.C.

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B.C. (1)

'_How well Horatius kept the Bridge

In the brave days of old._'

Nec non Tarquinium eiectum Porsenna iubebat

Accipere, ingentique urbem obsidione premebat;

Aeneadae in ferrum pro libertate ruebant.

Illum indignanti similem, similemque minanti

Aspiceres, pontem auderet quia vellere Cocles, 650

Et fluvium vinclis innaret Cloelia ruptis.

VERGIL, _Aen._ viii. 646-651.

_Venus brings Aeneas his new armour: he gazes at the shield whereon were

wrought scenes of the story of Rome to be._

[Linenotes:

646. +Porsenna.+

'Lars Porsena of Clusium

By the nine gods he swore

That the great house of Tarquin

Should suffer wrong no more.' --Macaulay.

648. +in ferrum ruebant+ = _were flinging themselves on the sword_.

--C.

651. +Cloelia+, a Roman hostage, who escaped by swimming the Tiber.]

B. Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset,

Horatius Cocles. . . . Qui positus forte in statione pontis, cum captum

repentino impetu Ianiculum atque inde citatos decurrere hostes vidisset,

{10} trepidamque turbam suorum arma ordinesque relinquere, reprehensans

singulos, obsistens obtestansque deum et hominum fidem testabatur

nequiquam deserto praesidio eos fugere; si transitum pontem a tergo

reliquissent, iam plus hostium in Palatio {15} Capitolioque quam in

Ianiculo fore. Itaque monere, praedicere, ut pontem ferro, igni,

quacunque vi possint, interrumpant; se impetum hostium, quantum corpore

uno posset obsisti, excepturum. Vadit inde in primum aditum pontis,

insignisque inter {20} conspecta cedentium pugnae terga, obversis

cominus ad ineundum proelium armis, ipso miraculo audaciae obstupefecit

hostes.

LIVY, ii. 10.

[Linenotes:

7. +Pons sublicius+ = _the pile-bridge_, built by Ancus Marcius to

connect Rome proper with the Janiculum-hill, or ridge.

8. +Cocles+ = _the one-eyed_, from loss of an eye in battle.

10. +citatos+ = _at full speed_. Adj. use of participle; cf. _citato

equo_.

11. +trepidamque turbam+ = _panic-stricken and in disorder_.

12. +reprehensans+ = _seizing them by the arm one after another_.

14-15. +si transitum ... reliquissent+ = _if they left the bridge

free for the enemy to cross by_. +transitum+ = noun, in appos. to

+pontem+.

21-22. +obversis armis+ = _as he faced about_.]

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B.C. (2)

'_How well Horatius kept the Bridge

In the brave days of old._'

Duos tamen cum eo pudor tenuit, Sp. Larcium ac T. Herminium, ambos

claros genere factisque. Cum his primam periculi procellam et quod

tumultuosissimum pugnae erat, parumper sustinuit; deinde eos quoque

ipsos, exigua parte pontis relicta, revocantibus, {5} qui rescindebant,

cedere in tutum coegit. Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad

proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes:

servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum

venire. {10} Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium

incipiant, circumspectant. Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore

sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt. Quae cum in obiecto

cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti {15} pontem

obtineret gradu, iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor

rupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate perfecti operis

sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit. Tum Cocles 'Tiberine pater,'

inquit, 'te sancte precor, haec arma {20} et hunc militem propitio

flumine accipias.' Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit, multisque

superincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit, rem ausus plus famae

habituram ad posteros quam fidei.

LIVY, ii. 10.

[Linenotes:

7. +ad proceres+ = _on the chiefs_. For _pr[)o]cer_ cf. _procêrus_ =

tall.

8-9. +provocare ... increpare.+ Historic Infinitives = Indic.

9. +servitia+ = _the slaves_ = _servos_. Abstract for concrete,

freq. in Livy. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 8. 18. (_servitus = servi._)

14. +obiecto+ = _presented_, i.e. to the enemy.

15-16. +ingenti gradu+ = _with mighty (heroic) stand_. Cf. 'firm as

a rock.'

18. +alacritate perfecti operis+ = _from joy at the completion of

the work_.

24. +plus famae ... fidei+ = _destined to win more fame than credit

with posterity_.

'Oh Tiber! father Tiber!

To whom the Romans pray,

A Roman's life, a Roman's arms,

Take thou in charge this day!'

So he spake, and speaking sheathed

The good sword by his side,

And with his harness on his back,

Plunged headlong in the tide. --Macaulay.]

D10

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B.C. (3)

_How C. Mucius lost his Hand, but won a Name._

A. Obsidio erat nihilo minus et frumenti cum summa caritate inopia,

sedendoque expugnaturum se urbem spem Porsena habebat, cum C. Mucius,

adulescens nobilis, ... primo sua sponte penetrare in hostium castra

constituit; dein metuens, ne, si consulum {5} iniussu et ignaris omnibus

iret, forte deprehensus a custodibus Romanis retraheretur ut transfuga,

fortuna tum urbis crimen affirmante, senatum adit. 'Transire Tiberim,'

inquit, 'patres, et intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, non praedo

nec populationum {10} in vicem ultor; maius, si di iuvant, in animo est

facinus.' Approbant patres; abdito intra vestem ferro proficiscitur. Ubi

eo venit, in confertissima turba prope regium tribunal constitit.

LIVY, ii. 12.

[Linenotes:

1. +cum summa caritate+ = _involving_ (+cum+) _a very high price_.

2. +sedendo+ = _by sitting down before_, of a besieging army.

3. +Mucius.+ From this incident surnamed Scaevola = _the

left-handed_. After his time, a frequent surname in the Gens Mucia.

7-8. +fortunâ ... affirmante+ = (_a charge which_) _the present

condition of the city would confirm_ (_substantiate_).

10-11. +non praedo ... ultor+ = _not to plunder nor to retaliate on_

(lit. 'an avenger in turn on') _our plunderers_.]

Cum peteret regem decepta satellite dextra

Ingessit sacris se peritura focis.

Sed tam saeva pius miracula non tulit hostis

Et raptum flammis iussit abire virum.

Urere quam potuit contempto Mucius igne, 5

Hanc spectare manum Porsena non potuit.

Maior deceptae fama est et gloria dextrae:

Si non errasset, fecerat illa minus.

MARTIAL, _Ep._ I. xxi.

[Linenotes:

1. +s[)a]tellite+ = _the attendant_, i.e. the scribe or secretary of

Porsena.

2. +ingessit+ = _thrust into_ (_in_ + _gero_).

3. +tam saeva miracula+ = _such a miracle of stern fortitude_. --S.

+pius+ = _feeling_, as opposed to _unnatural_.

7-8. i.e. to have killed Porsena would have been less glorious

than to display such heroism. --Stephenson.]

+Porsena.+ Livy tells us that Mucius, in gratitude for the magnanimity

of Porsena, revealed to him that 300 Roman youths had sworn to attempt

the same deed that he had undertaken. Whereupon Porsena feared to

distress the Romans any longer, and made peace with them.

D11

LATIN WAR. BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS, 498 B.C.

_The Dictator and his Master of the Horse._

Ibi alia inter proceres coorta pugna. Imperator Latinus, ubi cohortem

exulum a dictatore Romano prope circumventam vidit, ex subsidiariis

manipulos aliquot in primam aciem secum rapit. Hos agmine venientes T.

Herminius legatus conspicatus, interque {5} eos insignem veste armisque

Mamilium noscitans, tanto vi maiore, quam paulo ante magister equitum,

cum hostium duce proelium iniit, ut et uno ictu transfixum per latus

occiderit Mamilium, et ipse inter spoliandum corpus hostis veruto

percussus, {10} cum victor in castra esset relatus, inter primam

curationem exspiraverit. Tum ad equites dictator advolat obtestans, ut

fesso iam pedite descendant ex equis et pugnam capessant. Dicto paruere;

desiliunt ex equis, provolant in primum, et pro antesignanis {15} parmas

obiciunt. Recipit extemplo animum pedestris acies, postquam iuventutis

proceres aequato genere pugnae secum partem periculi sustinentes vidit.

Tum demum impulsi Latini, perculsaque inclinavit acies. {20}

LIVY, ii. 20.

[Linenotes:

1. +inter proceres.+ The Battle of Lake Regillus was, in the main,

a Homeric battle of single combats between the opposing chiefs.

1-2. +Imperator Latinus+, i.e. Mamilius of Tusculum, son-in-law of

Tarquin.

5. +T. Herminius+, one of 'the dauntless Three,' who kept the

bridge.

7. +magister equitum+, i.e. T. Aebutius. The Master of the Horse,

the second in command, was nominated by the Dictator.

10. +veruto+ = _with a javelin_, cf. _veru_ = _a spit_.

11-12. +inter primam curationem+ = _at the first attempt to dress

his wound_. --Rawlins.

13. +dictator+, i.e. Aulus Postumius. The Dictator (_magister

populi_ = _master of the army_) was appointed by one of the two

Consuls (= _colleagues_) in a time of national danger to avoid the

possible want of unity between the two consuls in time of war.

15. +in primum = in primam aciem.+

+antesignanis+, i.e. the first line fighting _in front of the

standards_.

17. +iuventutis proceres+ = _the young noblemen_, i.e. the cavalry

are not only the younger men (in Livy often = +iuvenes+) but also

patricians.]

+Reference.+ Macaulay, _The Battle of Lake Regillus_.

D12

FIRST SECESSION OF THE PLEBS, 494 B.C.

_The Fable of the Belly and the Members. Tribunes of the People._

Pavor ingens in urbe, metuque mutuo suspensa erant omnia. . . . Placuit

igitur oratorem ad plebem mitti Menenium Agrippam, facundum virum et,

quod inde oriundus erat, plebi carum. Is intromissus in castra prisco

illo dicendi et horrido modo nihil {5} aliud quam hoc narrasse fertur:

Tempore, quo in homine non, ut nunc, omnia in unum consentientia, sed

singulis membris suum cuique consilium, suus sermo fuerit, indignatas

reliquas partes sua cura, suo labore ac ministerio ventri omnia quaeri,

ventrem in {10} medio quietum nihil aliud quam datis voluptatibus frui;

conspirasse inde, ne manus ad os cibum ferrent, nec os acciperet datum,

nec dentes conficerent. Hac ira dum ventrem fame domare vellent, ipsa

una membra totumque corpus ad extremam tabem {15} venisse. Inde

apparuisse ventris quoque haud segne ministerium esse, nec magis ali

quam alere eum, reddentem in omnes corporis partes hunc, quo vivimus

vigemusque, divisum pariter in venas, maturum confecto cibo sanguinem.

Comparando hinc, quam {20} intestina corporis seditio similis esset irae

plebis in patres, flexisse mentes hominum. Agi deinde de concordia

coeptum concessumque in condiciones, ut plebi sui magistratus essent

sacrosancti, quibus auxili latio adversus consules esset, neve cui

patrum capere {25} eum magistratum liceret. Ita tribuni plebei creati

duo, C. Licinius et L. Albinus.

LIVY, ii. 32, 33.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +Pavor ingens ... omnia.+ One of the Roman armies (mainly

recruited from Plebeians) refused to obey orders, entrenched itself

on Mons Sacer, and threatened to secede from Rome altogether.

2. +oratorem+ (i.e. _legatum_) = _spokesman_, charged with a

_verbal_ message.

4. +inde+, i.e. from the Plebs.

10-11. +ventrem ... quietum+ = _whereas the belly resting calmly in

their midst_. --Rawlins.

13. +conficerent+ = _grind_, and so aid digestion. Cf. +confecto+

l. 20.

19-20. +maturum confecto cibo+ = _brought to perfection only when

the food is digested_. --R.

24. +sacrosancti+ = _consecrated and inviolable_.

24-25. +quibus ... esset+, i.e. as official protectors of the Plebs,

by their right of veto on the official actions of all other

magistrates.]

+For the Fable+, cf. Seneca _de Ira_ ii. 31, and 1 Corinthians, xii.

12-27.

D13

WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS, 493 B.C.

_Veturia and her son Coriolanus._

Coriolanus prope ut amens consternatus ab sede sua cum ferret matri

obviae complexum, mulier in iram ex precibus versa 'Sine, priusquam

complexum accipio, sciam' inquit, 'ad hostem an ad filium venerim,

captiva mater-ne in castris tuis sim. In {5} hoc me longa vita et

infelix senecta traxit, ut exulem te, deinde hostem viderem? Potuisti

populari hanc terram, quae te genuit atque aluit? Non tibi, quamvis

infesto animo et minaci perveneras, ingredienti fines ira cecidit? Non,

cum in conspectu {10} Roma fuit, succurrit: Intra illa moenia domus ac

penates mei sunt, mater, coniunx liberique? Ergo ego nisi peperissem,

Roma non oppugnaretur; nisi filium haberem, libera in libera patria

mortua essem.' ... Uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi, fletusque ab {15} omni

turba mulierum ortus et conploratio sui patriaeque fregere tandem virum.

Complexus inde suos dimittit; ipse retro ab urbe castra movit. Abductis

deinde legionibus ex agro Romano invidia rei oppressum perisse tradunt

alii alio leto. {20}

LIVY, ii. 40.

[Linenotes:

1. +Coriolanus.+ Gaius Marcius received the cognomen of Coriolanus

for his bravery at the capture of the Volscian town of Corioli (S.E.

of Rome). After this, in a time of famine at Rome, C. advised that

the corn obtained elsewhere should not be distributed, unless the

Plebeians would give up their Tribunes. For this he was impeached

and went into voluntary exile among the Volsci.

+consternatus+ = _in strong emotion_--lit. 'stretched on the

ground.'

7. +potuisti+ = _had you the heart to_--question indicated by _tone_

of the voice.

10-11. +non ... succurrit+ = _did it not occur to you_?

19-20. +invidia rei oppressum+ = _overwhelmed by the unpopularity of

his action_.

20. +alii alio leto+, e.g. i. by a voluntary death; ii. put to death

by the Volscians; iii. lived to old age in exile.]

+References.+ Cic. _Brutus_ x. (compared to Themistocles). Plutarch,

_Coriolanus_.

'The germ from which the whole legend sprang is the story of the filial

love of Coriolanus, and of the great authority exercised in olden times

by Roman matrons over their sons and husbands.' Ihne.

Shakespeare, _Coriolanus_, V. iii.

D14

WAR WITH VEII, 483-474 B.C.

_The Destruction of the Fabii at the Cremera, 477 B.C._

Campus erat, campi claudebant ultima colles

Silvaque montanas occulere apta feras.

In medio paucos armentaque rara relinquunt,

Cetera virgultis abdita turba latet. 4

Ecce velut torrens undis pluvialibus auctus

Aut nive, quae Zephyro victa tepente fluit,

Per sata perque vias fertur, nec, ut ante solebat,

Riparum clausas margine finit aquas: 8

Sic Fabii vallem latis discursibus implent,

Quodque vident sternunt, nec metus alter inest.

Quo ruitis, generosa domus? male creditis hosti:

Simplex nobilitas, perfida tela cave. 12

Fraude perit virtus. In apertos undique campos

Prosiliunt hostes, et latus omne tenent.

Quid faciant panci contra tot millia fortes?

Quidve, quod in misero tempore restet, adest? 16

Sicut aper longe silvis Laurentibus actus

Fulmineo celeres dissipat ore canes,

Mox tamen ipse perit: sic non moriuntur inulti

Vulneraque alterna dantque feruntque manu. 20

Una dies Fabios ad bellum miserat omnes;

Ad bellum missos perdidit una dies.

OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 175-196, H. [II. 215-236]

+Context.+ To protect their territory from the constant raids of the

Veientines, the noble house of the Fabii offered to undertake the war

themselves. The consul Kaeso Fabius marched out of the city at the head

of his clan, followed by the blessings and good wishes of the admiring

people. He erected a fortified camp near the R. Cremera (a tributary of

the Tiber), and from this spot plundered Veientine territory.

[Linenotes:

1. +campus.+ 'Ovid here paints from fancy: there are, however, deep

hollows admirably calculated to conceal an ambushed foe.' --Ramsay.

9. +discursibus+ = _runnings to and fro_, of soldiers dispersing to

plunder.

10. +metus alter+ = _fear of a second enemy_, i.e. of one in ambush.

17. +silvis Laurentibus.+ Laurentum on the coast of Latium between

Ostia and Ardea. Wild boars are still found in the swampy thickets.

18. +Fulmineo ore+ = _with flashing tusk_. --Hallam.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, ii. 48, 49.

'The story probably came from the Chronicles of the Fabian Clan, perhaps

through _Fabius_ Pictor, the first Roman annalist.' Rawlins, Cf. Ihne,

vol. i. cap. vi.

D15

WAR WITH THE AEQUIANS, 458 B.C.

A. _Cincinnatus called from the Plough._

Sed Aequos praecipue Quinctius Cincinnatus domuit, ille dictator ab

aratro, qui obsessa et paene iam capta L. Minuci consulis castra egregia

victoria recuperavit. Medium erat tempus forte sementis, cum patricium

virum innixum aratro suo lictor in {5} ipso opere deprehendit. Inde in

aciem profectus, ne quid a rustici operis imitatione cessaret, more

pecudum victos sub iugum misit. Sic expeditione finita redit ad boves

rursus triumphalis agricola. Intra quindecim dies coeptum peractumque

bellum, {10} prorsus ut festinasse, dictator ad relictum opus videretur.

FLORUS, I. xi. 12-15.

[Linenotes:

1. +Aequos+, mountaineers (closely allied to the Sabines) who lived

in the mountains forming the E. boundary of Latium.

+Cincinnatus.+ 'The true type of primeval virtue, abstinence, and

patriotism.' --Ihne.

2-4. +qui ... recuperavit.+ The Aequian general, Gracchus Cloelius,

had defeated the consul, L. Minucius, and blockaded him in his camp

on Mt. Algidus, the E. spur of the Alban range. Cincinnatus makes a

wonderful night march from Rome of 20 miles, blockades in turn the

investing Aequian force, and compels an unconditional surrender.

4. +sementis+ = _of the seed-time_. Formed from _semen_, cf.

_sero_.]

B. '_In the brave days of old._'

Restat, ut inveniam, quare toga libera detur

Lucifero pueris, candide Bacche, tuo. 2

. . . . . . .

An quia, cum colerent prisci studiosius agros,

Et patrio faceret rure senator opus, 4

Et caperet fasces a curvo consul aratro,

Nec crimen duras esset habere manus,

Rusticus ad ludos populus veniebat in urbem:

Sed dis, non studiis, ille dabatur honor. 8

OVID, _Fasti_, iii. 729-742, H. [III. 771-784]

[Linenotes:

1. +toga libera+ (or +virilis+), the man's dress of unornamented

white wool. _Lîbera_ (_lîber_), _free_ from the restraints of

boyhood.

2. +lucifero+ = lit. _morning-star_. Here poet. for +die+.

5. +consul+, e.g. Cincinnatus, who was called to be _Dictator_.

8. +sed ... honor+, i.e. in 'the good old days' worship, not

amusement, was the chief object of the visit to Rome.

3-8. Ovid says one reason why the _toga libera_ was assumed at

the Liberalia (the Feast of Bacchus--the vintage, festival) was

because it was the most crowded festival of the year.]

+References.+ Livy, iii. 26-28. Ihne, vol. i. cap. v.

D16

THE DECEMVIRATE. THE TWELVE TABLES, 451-449 B.C.

Iam redierant legati cum Atticis legibus. Eo intentius instabant

tribuni, ut tandem scribendarum legum initium fieret. Placet creari

decemviros sine provocatione, et ne quis eo anno alius magistratus esset

... Tum legibus condendis opera dabatur; {5} ingentique hominum

expectatione propositis decem tabulis populum ad contionem advocaverunt

et, quod bonum, faustum felixque rei publicae, ipsis liberisque eorum

esset, ire et legere leges propositas iussere. Se, quantum decem hominum

ingeniis provideri {10} potuerit, omnibus, summis infimisque, iura

aequasse; plus pollere multorum ingenia consiliaque. Versarent in animis

secum unamquamque rem, agitarent deinde sermonibus atque in medium, quid

in quaque re plus minusve esset, conferrent. . . . Cum ad {15} rumores

hominum de unoquoque legum capite editos satis correctae viderentur,

centuriatis comitiis decem tabularum leges perlatae sunt, qui nunc

quoque in hoc immenso aliarum super alias acervatarum legum cumulo, fons

omnis publici privatique {20} est iuris.

LIVY, iii. 32, 34.

[Linenotes:

1. +cum Atticis legibus+, i.e. with a copy of the Laws of Solon (the

great Athenian Lawgiver, 594 B.C.).

1-3. +Eo intentius ... fieret+, because up to this time the

knowledge of law and its interpretation was confined to the

Patricians (cf. the Scribes of the N.T.). This could only be

remedied by writng the laws down and making them public.

3-4. +sine provocatione+ = _without appeal_. Lit. 'challenging.'

4-5. +ne quis ... esset.+ The Decemvirs were to supersede

temporarily both Consuls and Tribunes.

14-15. +quid ... conferrent+ = '_Should point out in the interest of

all_ (lit. should contribute to the public good) _any faults of

excess or defect in the several articles_.' --Stephenson.

15-17. +ad rumores hominum+ = _in accordance with_ (+ad+) _public

opinion_.

17. +centuriatis comitiis.+ Servius Tullius divided the people into

five classes, according to the value of their property. The people

(Patricians and Plebeians alike) voted by centuries; but as 98

centuries (and [therefore] 98 votes) were allotted to the richest

class and only 95 to the other four classes, the influence of wealth

was decisive in the elections.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Cic. _De Republica_ ii. 33-37, and _De Legibus_

ii. 23.

+The Twelve Tables.+ 'They were essentially only a written embodiment of

the existing public and private law.' --Mommsen. Cf. Magna Carta.

D17

SECOND SECESSION OF THE PLEBS, 448 B.C.

_The Death of Verginia not in vain._

Concitatur multitudo partim atrocitate sceleris, partim spe per

occasionem repetendae libertatis. In contionem Appius escendit;

sequuntur Horatius Valeriusque. Eos contio audit; decemviro obstrepitur.

Iam pro imperio Valerius discedere a privato {5} lictores iubebat, cum

fractis animis Appius vitae metuens in domum se propinquam foro insciis

adversariis capite obvoluto recipit. M. Duillius deinde tribunus plebis

plebem rogavit plebesque scivit, qui plebem sine tribunis reliquisset

quique magistratum {10} sine provocatione creasset, tergo ac capite

puniretur. Haec omnia ut invitis, ita non adversantibus patriciis

transacta, quia nondum in quemquam unum saeviebatur. Fundata deinde et

potestate tribunicia et plebis libertate tum tribuni aggredi singulos

tutum {15} maturumque iam rati accusatorem primum Verginium et Appium

reum deligunt. Spe incisa, priusquam prodicta dies adesset, Appius

mortem sibi conscivit. M. Claudius assertor Verginiae, die dicta

damnatus ipso remittente Verginio ultimam poenam {20} dimissus Tibur

exulatum abiit; manesque Verginiae, mortuae quam vivae felicioris, per

tot domos ad petendas poenas vagati nullo relicto sonte tandem

quieverunt.

LIVY, iii. 49, 55, 56, 58 (sel.)

+Context+. Verginius, seeing no way of saving his daughter from disgrace

and dishonour at the hands of Appius Claudius, killed her before the

judgment-seat of the tyrant and before the eyes of the people.

[Linenotes:

2. +per occasionem+ = _by such a favourable opportunity_. --Rawlins.

3. +In contionem+ = _to the rostra_ (the platform for speakers).

3-4. +Horatius Valeriusque.+ The first Consuls after the abolition

of the Decemvirate in 449 B.C.

5. +pro imperio+, i.e. usurping the authority of a magistrate.

9. +plebesque scivit+ (scisco) = _and the people approved_ (i.e.

voted for) it.

11. +provocatione+ = _right of appeal_.

18. +prodicta+ = _adjourned_, from the first hearing. --R.

19. +assertor V.+ = _who claimed V. as his slave_.]

+Results of the Secession+. 'The Valerian Laws, by the second of which

it was ordained that in criminal trials, when the life of a citizen was

at stake, the sentence of the Consul should be subject to an appeal to

the people. This Valerian Law of Appeal was the Roman Habeas Corpus

Act.' --Ihne.

D18

WAR WITH THE ETRUSCANS OF FIDENAE AND VEII.

_Cossus wins the Spolia Opima, 437 B.C._

Erat tum inter equites tribunus militum A. Cornelius Cossus, eximia

pulchritudine corporis, animo ac viribus par memorque generis, quod

amplissimum acceptum maius auctiusque reliquit posteris. Is cum ad

impetum Tolumni, quacumque se intendisset, {5} trepidantes Romanas

videret turmas insignemque eum regio habitu volitantem tota acie

cognosset, 'Hicine est' inquit 'ruptor foederis humani violatorque

gentium iuris? Iam ego hanc mactatam victimam, si modo sancti quicquam

in terris esse di {10} volunt, legatorum manibus dabo.' Calcaribus

subditis infesta cuspide in unum fertur hostem; quem cum ictum equo

deiecisset, confestim et ipse hasta innixus se in pedes excepit.

Adsurgentem ibi regem umbone resupinat repetitumque saepius cuspide {15}

ad terram affixit. Tum exsangui detracta spolia, caputque abscisum

victor spiculo gerens terrore caesi regis hostes perfudit. Ita equitum

quoque fusa acies, quae una fecerat anceps certamen. Dictator legionibus

fugatis instat et ad castra compulsos {20} caedit.

LIVY, iv. 19.

[Linenotes:

3. +par+ = _equally distinguished by_, equal, that is, to his

beauty. --S.

5. +Tolumni+ = Lars Tolumnius, King of the Veientos, in alliance

with Fidenae (about 5 miles N.E. of Rome).]

+quacumque se intendisset+ = _wherever he directed his charge._

8-11. +Hicine ... manibus dabo.+ Fidenae had frequently been

colonised by Rome, and had as frequently revolted. When the Romans

sent four ambassadors to Fidenae to demand satisfaction for this

last revolt, the people of Fidenae murdered them. Tolumnius is

associated with their crime.

12. +infesta cuspide+ = _with couched lance._

13-14. +hasta ... excepit+ = _with the help of his spear leapt to

the ground_. Lit. 'resting on his spear caught himself on his feet.'

--Stephenson.

15. +umbone resupinat+ = _he throws him back with the boss of his

shield._

+repetitum+ = _piercing him again and again_. --S.

19. +Dictator+ = Mamercus Aemilius, a man of energy and ability.]

The +spolia opima+ (_spoils of honour_) were the arms taken on the field

of battle by the victorious from the vanquished general. They were won

on only three occasions:--

i. by +Romulus+, ii. by +Cossus+, iii. by +Marcellus+ (the Conqueror of

Syracuse), who in his first consulship, 222 B.C., slew with his own hand

Viridomarus, King of the Insubrian Gauls. Cf. Prop. V. x.

D19

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B.C. (1)

_First Pay given to Citizen Soldiers, 406 B.C._

Additum deinde omnium maxime tempestivo principum in multitudinem

munere, ut ante mentionem ullam plebis tribunorumve decerneret senatus,

ut stipendium miles de publico acciperet, cum ante id tempus de suo

quisque functus eo munere esset. {5} Nihil acceptum umquam a plebe tanto

gaudio traditur. Concursum itaque ad curiam esse prensatasque exeuntium

manus et patres vere appellatos, effectum esse fatentibus, ut nemo pro

tam munifica patria, donec quicquam virium superesset, corpori {10} aut

sanguini suo parceret. Cum commoditas iuvaret, rem familiarem saltem

acquiescere eo tempore, quo corpus addictum atque operatum rei publicae

esset, tum quod ultro sibi oblatum esset, non a tribunis plebis

agitatum, non suis sermonibus efflagitatum, {15} id efficiebat multiplex

gaudium cumulatioremque gratiam rei. . . . Et lege perlata de indicendo

Veientibus bello exercitum magna ex parte voluntarium novi tribuni

militum consulari potestate Veios duxere. {20}

LIVY, iv. 59, 60.

[Linenotes:

1. +tempestivo+ = _seasonable_ (_timely_), in view of the coming

struggle with Veii, and the necessity for winter campaigns.

2. +munere.+ Livy tells us (cap. 60) that the Senate did _not_

provide the pay as a present, but simply paid punctually their

proper share of the _war-tax (tributum) in accordance with their

assessment (cum senatus summa fide ex censu contulisset)_.

4. +de publico+ = _out of the Public Treasury_.

9. +fatentibus+ = _while men admitted_. --R.

11-12. +Cum ... acquiescere+ = _While the comfortable thought_

(_commoditas_ = lit. _advantage_) _pleased them_ (namely) _that

their private property at least was undisturbed_-- i.e. that they

paid no war-tax while they were in the field. --Rawlins.

12-13. +quo corpus ... esset+ = _when they were impressed (devoted

to) and actively employed in the public service_. --S. +addictus+,

properly of an insolvent debtor made over to his creditor = a

_bondman_.

16-17. +id ... gratiam rei+ in apposition to +quod ...

efflagitatum+.

19. +tribuni ... potestate.+ Military tribunes with consular power

instead of Consuls were elected occasionally from 444 to 367 B.C.

20. +Veios.+ The capture of Veii by Camillus (396 B.C.), in

consequence of the introduction of military pay, was enormously

important to Rome.]

+Reference.+ Ihne, _Hist._ vol. i. pp. 243-4.

D20

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B.C. (2)

A. _Lament over Veii._

Heu, Veii veteres, et vos tum regna fuistis,

Et vestro posita est aurea sella foro:

Nunc intra muros pastoris bucina lenti

Cantat, et in vestris ossibus arva metunt. 30

PROPERTIUS, IV. (V.) x. 27-30.

[Linenotes:

27. +Veii+ (Isola Farnese) on R. Cremera, about 12 miles N.W. of

Rome.

28. +aurea sella+, i.e. the official seat of the King. Cf. the Sella

Curulis at Rome, introduced from Etruria.

29. +bucina+ = _horn_.

30. +et ... metunt+ = _and reapers gather the harvests from fields_

(+metunt arva+) _enriched by the bones of your buried heroes_ (+in

ossibus vestris+).]

B. _The Rise of the Alban Lake._

Quid, quod in annalibus habemus, Veienti {5} bello, cum lacus Albanus

praeter modum crevisset, Veientem quemdam ad nos hominem nobilem

profugisse, eumque dixisse, ex fatis, quae Veientes scripta haberent,

Veios capi non posse, dum lacus is redundaret: et, si lacus emissus

lapsu et cursu suo ad {10} mare profluxisset, perniciosum populo Romano:

sin autem ita esset eductus, ut ad mare pervenire non posset, tum

salutare nostris fore? Ex quo illa admirabilis a maioribus Albanae aquae

facta deductio est. Cum autem Veientes bello fessi legatos ad {15}

senatum misissent, tum ex his quidam dixisse dicitur, non omnia illum

transfugam ausum esse senatu dicere: in iisdem enim fatis scriptum

Veientes habere, 'Fore ut brevi a Gallis Roma caperetur:' quod quidem

sexennio post Veios captos esse factum {20} videmus.

CICERO, _de Divinatione_, I. xliv. 100.

[Linenotes:

5. +in annalibus+, e.g. in Livy, v. 15.

6. +crevisset+, perh. partly due to the excessive snows of the

preceding winter, 397 B.C.

7. +profugisse.+ Livy says he was treacherously made prisoner.

8-9. +ex fatis ... haberent+, i.e. the Etruscan +Libri fatales+,

_Books of fate_, cf. the +Libri Sibyllini+ = the Roman Books of

fate.

10. +lapsu et cursu suo+ = _in its natural course and stream_.

14. +deductio+ = _draining_ (lit. _a leading off_). The tunnel then

cut still carries off the superfluous waters of the lake.

20. +sexennio post+ = _six years after_, i.e. 390 B.C. For the 10

years' siege of Veii, cf. the Trojan War.]

+Reference.+ Plutarch, _Camillus_, iii.-v. Livy, v. 15.

D21

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B.C. (3)

_The Conquest of Veii._

Veientes ignari se iam a suis vatibus, iam ab externis oraculis

proditos, iam in partem praedae suae vocatos deos, alios votis ex urbe

sua evocatos hostium templa novasque sedes spectare, seque ultimum illum

diem agere, nihil minus timentes {5} quam subrutis cuniculo moenibus

arcem iam plenam hostium esse, in muros pro se quisque armati discurrunt

mirantes, quidnam id esset, quod, cum tot per dies nemo se ab

stationibus Romanus movisset, tum velut repentino icti furore improvidi

currerent ad {10} muros. . . . Cuniculus delectis militibus eo tempore

plenus in aedem Iunonis, quae in Veientana arce erat, armatos repente

edidit, et pars aversos in muris invadunt hostes, pars claustra portarum

revellunt, pars, cum ex tectis saxa tegulaeque a mulieribus ac {15}

servitiis iacerentur, inferunt ignes. Clamor omnia variis terrentium ac

paventium vocibus mixto mulierum ac puerorum ploratu complet. Momento

temporis deiectis ex muro undique armatis patefactisque portis cum alii

agmine irruerent, alii {20} desertos scanderent muros, urbs hostibus

impletur; omnibus locis pugnatur; deinde multa iam edita caede senescit

pugna, et dictator praecones edicere iubet, ut ab inermi abstineatur.

LIVY, V. 21.

[Linenotes:

1. +a suis vatibus+, i.e. by the captured Etruscan soothsayer

(_haruspex_).

1-2. +ab externis oraculis+, i.e. by the Delphic Oracle.

2-3. +iam in partem ... (alios) deos.+ Camillus had vowed to give to

Apollo the tenth part of the spoils of Veii.

3-4. +alios ... spectare+, i.e. Juno. 'It was a Roman practice to

invite the patron deity of a place or country to leave it, and to

promise a more honourable worship at Rome.' --Whibley.

5-6. +subrutis cunîculo+ = _undermined_. Camillus had a tunnel

(_cuniculum--rabbit-burrow_, cf. _cony_) cut from the Roman camp

under the wall to the Temple of Juno on the citadel of Veii.

7. +discurrunt+ = _run every man to his post_, cf. _ad arma

discurritur_.

15. +têgulae+ = _tiles_, _roof-tiles_ (_t[)e]go_).

23. +senescit+ = _abates_, lit. _grows old_, _becomes exhausted_.]

+Results of the War.+ 'By the Conquest of Veii, Rome's territory,

wealth, and population were largely increased. Rome was now emerging

from the position of a federal capital of the Latins to become the

mistress of a large country, when she was suddenly and unexpectedly

overtaken by a disaster (+the Invasion of the Gauls+) which threatened

not only her growth but her life.' --Ihne.

D22

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (1)

_The Battle of the Allia._

Ibi tribuni militum non loco castris ante capto, non praemunito vallo,

quo receptus esset, non deorum saltem, si non hominum, memores, nec

auspicato nec litato instruunt aciem diductam in cornua, ne circumveniri

multitudine hostium possent; {5} nec tamen aequari frontes poterant, cum

extenuando infirmam et vix cohaerentem mediam aciem haberent. Paulum

erat ab dextera editi loci, quem subsidiariis repleri placuit; eaque res

ut initium pavoris ac fugae, sic una salus fugientibus fuit. Nam

Brennus, regulus {10} Gallorum, in paucitate hostium artem maxime

timens, ratus ad id captum superiorem locum, ut, ubi Galli cum acie

legionum recta fronte concurrissent, subsidia in aversos transversosque

impetum darent, ad subsidiarios signa convertit, si eos loco depulisset,

{15} haud dubius facilem in aequo campi tantum superanti multitudine

victoriam fore; adeo non fortuna modo sed ratio etiam cum barbaris

stabat. In altera acie nihil simile Romanis, non apud duces, non apud

milites erat. Pavor fugaque occupaverat animos et {20} tanta omnium

oblivio, ut multo maior pars Veios, in hostium urbem, cum Tiberis

arceret, quam recto itinere Romam ad coniuges ac liberos fugerent.

LIVY, V. 38.

[Linenotes:

4. +nec litato+ = _without obtaining favourable omens_

(= #kallierein#).

4-5. +diductam in cornua+ = _extended (drawn out) towards the

wings_.

6-7. +cum ... haberent+ = _though they made_, concessive

subjunctive.

8. +Paulum ... editi loci+ = lit. _a little piece of rising ground_.

10. +Brennus+ = lit. _King of the army_. Cf. the Saxon _Heretoga_.

13. +recta fronte+ = _front to front_. --Whibley.

14. +in aversos transversosque+ = _on their rear and flank_.

16-17. +superanti multitudine+ = i. _(the victory) would be (easy)

to him superior_ (+superanti+) _in point of numbers_, or ii. abl, of

cause--_as he was so much superior in numbers_.

21-22. +Veios, in hostium urbem.+ An exaggeration as Veii was in

ruins.

22. +cum T. arceret+ = _though the Tiber stood in their way_.]

+The Invasion of the Gauls.+ 'The most advanced tribe of the Gauls were

the Senones who had settled on the Adriatic to the E. of Central

Etruria. While the Romans reduced S. Etruria to a state of subjection,

these Gauls suddenly crossed the Apennines, threatened Clusium, and then

marched on Rome. +Thus for the first time the Gallic race was brought to

the knowledge of the civilised world.+ The two armies met on July 18 at

the small R. Allia, only 15 miles from Rome.' --Ihne.

D23

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (2)

A. _The Battle of the Allia_ (cont.)

Parumper subsidiarios tutatus est locus; in reliqua acie simul est

clamor proximis ab latere, ultimis ab tergo auditus, ignotum hostem

prius paene quam viderent, non modo non temptato certamine sed ne

clamore quidem reddito integri intactique {5} fugerunt; nec ulla caedes

pugnantium fuit; terga caesa suomet ipsorum certamine in turba

impedientium fugam. Circa ripam Tiberis, quo armis abiectis totum

sinistrum cornu refugit, magna strages facta est, multosque imperitos

nandi aut invalidos, {10} graves loricis aliisque tegminibus, hausere

gurgites. Maxima tamen pars incolumis Veios perfugit, unde non modo

praesidii quicquam, sed ne nuntius quidem cladis Romam est missus. Ab

dextro cornu, quod procul a flumine et magis sub monte steterat, {15}

Romam omnes petiere et ne clausis quidem portis urbis in arcem

confugerunt.

LIVY, v. 38.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +simul (= simul ac) ... auditus+ = _as soon as the shout was

heard, by those nearest on the flank, by the most distant in the

rear_.

'+Proximi+ denotes the Romans on the right wing, who were the first

to be attacked; the Gauls after routing them pressed on to the rear

of the Romans and attacked the centre and left wing (+ultimi+) from

behind.' --Whibley.

7-8. +suomet ... fugam+ = _as they hindered their own flight by

their struggling with one another in the crush_.]

11. +graves+ = _weighed down with_, equivalent to a pass. partic.

+hausere gurgites+ = _the currents sucked down_. --W

15. +sub monte+, i.e. the Colles Crustumini, which run parallel to

the South bank of the Tiber.]

B. _July 18th, a Dies Nefastus._

Pharsalia tanti

Causa mali. Cedant feralia nomina Cannae,

Et damnata diu Romanis Allia fastis.

LUCAN, _Phars._ vii. 407-9.

[Linenotes:

407. +Pharsalia+, Battle of, 48 B.C. Caesar signally defeated

Pompey.

408. +feralia+ = _fatal_ (= +funesta+).

409. +fastis+, i.e. _Fasti consulares_, the registers of the higher

magistrates. Cf. the Saxon Chronicle.]

+The Battle.+ 'The defeat of the Allia was never forgotten by the

Romans. The panic (due to the strange appearance of the barbarians and

their unwonted method of fighting) which alone had caused the defeat,

struck so deep into their minds that for centuries afterwards the name

and the sight of Gauls inspired them with terror.' --Ihne.

D24

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (3)

_Roman Dignity and Courage._

Romae interim satis iam omnibus ut in tali re ad tuendam arcem

compositis turba seniorum domos regressi adventum hostium obstinato ad

mortem animo exspectabant. Qui eorum curules gesserant magistratus, ut

in fortunae pristinae honorumque ac {5} virtutis insignibus morerentur,

quae augustissima vestis est tensas ducentibus triumphantibusve, ea

vestiti medio aedium eburneis sellis sedere. Galli autem ingressi

postero die urbem patente Collina porta in forum perveniunt; ubi eos

plebis aedificiis {10} obseratis, patentibus atriis principum, maior

prope cunctatio tenebat aperta quam clausa invadendi; adeo haud secus

quam venerabundi intuebantur in aedium vestibulis sedentes viros,

praeter ornatum habitumque humano augustiorem maiestate etiam, {15} quam

vultus gravitasque oris prae se ferebat, simillimos dis. Ad eos velut ad

simulacra versi cum starent, M. Papirius, unus ex eis, dicitur Gallo

barbam suam, ut tum omnibus promissa erat, permulcenti scipione eburneo

in caput incusso iram {20} movisse, atque ab eo initium caedis ortum,

ceteros in sedibus suis trucidatos; post principum caedem nulli deinde

mortalium parci, diripi tecta, exhaustis inici ignes.

LIVY, v. 41 (sel.)

[Linenotes:

1. +ut in tali re+ = _considering the circumstances_.

3. +obstinato ad+ = _firmly resolved on_... --Rawlins.

4-5. +curules magistratus+ = _curule magistracies_, i.e. of

Dictator, Censor, Consul, Praetor, Curule Aedile, who possessed the

right of using _sellae curules_ (_the ivory chairs of State_),

originally an emblem of kingly power.

5-6. +in fortunae ... insignibus+ = _in the emblems of their old

rank_ (+fortunae+) _and office_ (+honorum+) _and prowess_

(+virtutis+ i.e. prizes for valour; e.g. _phalerae_ = _bosses_,

_coronae_ = _crowns_).

7. +tensas+ = _state cars_ in which the statues of the gods were

drawn in solemn procession to the Circensian games.

11. +obseratis+ = _shut up_, lit. _barred_, +ob + sera+, cf.

_s[)e]ro_ = join.

14. +vestibulis+ = _entrance-courts_, only found in large houses.

14-15. +praeter ornatum habitumque+ = _not only in their garb and

bearing_. --Whibley.

19. +ut tum ... erat+ = _worn long_ (+promissa+) _as was then the

custom with all_, or _worn long in accordance with the fashion of

the time_. --R.

20. +scipione eburneo+ = _the ivory staff_, one of the _insignia_ of

the _triumphator_.

23. +exhaustis+ (sc. _aedibus_) = _when completely pillaged_.]

+Reference.+ Plutarch, _Camillus_, xxi. xxii.

D25

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (4)

A. _Manlius Capitolinus and the Sacred Geese._

In summo custos Tarpeiae Manlius arcis

Stabat pro templo et Capitolia celsa tenebat,

Romuleoque recens horrebat regia culmo.

Atque his auratis volitans argenteus anser 655

Porticibus Gallos in limine adesse canebat;

Galli per dumos aderant, arcemque tenebant,

Defensi tenebris et dono noctis opacae;

Aurea caesaries ollis, atque aurea vestis;

Virgatis lucent sagulis; tum lactea colla 660

Auro innectuntur; duo quisque Alpina coruscant

Gaesa manu, scutis protecti corpora longis.

VERGIL, _Aen._ viii. 652-662.

+Context.+ Venus brings Aeneas his new armour: he gazes at the shield

whereon were wrought scenes of the story of Rome to be.

[Linenotes:

652. +in summo+ (sc. +clipeo+), _on the top of the shield_, as held

in position.

654. +Romuleoque ... culmo+ = lit. _and the palace was stiff freshly

covered_ (+recens+) _with the thatch of Romulus_.

655-656. +auratis ... porticibus+ = _the gilded colonnades_ of the

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus of Vergil's day, restored 69 B.C.

660. +virgatis sagulis+ = _with striped cloaks_--+virgatus+ = with

bands or bars like shoots (_virgae_)--an effect produced by

inlaying. C.

661-662. +Alpina gaesa+ = _Alpine_ (i.e. _native_) _javelins_.]

B. _The Fate of Manlius, 384 B.C._

M. Manlius, unde Gallos depulerat, inde ipse praecipitatus est, quia

fortiter defensam libertatem nefarie opprimere conatus fuerat. Cuius

iustae ultionis nimirum haec praefatio fuit: 'Manlius eras {15} mihi,

cum praecipites agebas Senones; postquam imitari coepisti, unus factus

es ex Senonibus.' Huius supplicio aeternae memoriae nota inserta est:

propter illum enim lege sanciri placuit ne quis patricius in arce aut

Capitolio habitaret, quia domum eo loco {20} habuerat, ubi nunc aedem

Monetae videmus.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, vi. _De Severitate_.

[Linenotes:

13-14. +quia ... fuerat.+ Manlius in reality fell a victim to his

sympathies with the Plebeians. Cf. the fate of Sp. Cassius 485 B.C.

18. +nota+ = _a mark (brand) of infamy_.

20-21. +quia ... habuerat.+ His house on the Capitol was razed to

the ground.

21. +aedem Monetae+, a surname of Juno, in whose temple on the Arx

money was coined. Cf. our Mint.]

'Thus ended the life of Manlius, the deliverer of Rome, the humane

friend of an oppressed people, condemned by this very people to die the

death of a traitor.' --Ihne.

D26

THE INVASION OF ROME BY THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (5)

_Camillus, Parens Patriae._

Sed diique et homines prohibuere redemptos vivere Romanos. Nam forte

quadam, priusquam infanda merces perficeretur, per altercationem nondum

omni auro appenso dictator intervenit auferrique aurum de medio et

Gallos submoveri iubet. Cum {5} illi renitentes pactos dicerent sese,

negat eam pactionem ratam esse, quae, postquam ipse dictator creatus

esset, iniussu suo ab inferioris iuris magistratu facta esset,

denuntiatque Gallis, ut se ad proelium expediant ... Instruit deinde

aciem, ut {10} loci natura patiebatur, in semirutae solo urbis et natura

inaequali, et omnia, quae arte belli secunda suis eligi praepararive

poterant, providit. Galli nova re trepidi arma capiunt, iraque magis

quam consilio in Romanos incurrunt. Primo concursu haud {15} maiore

momento fusi Galli sunt, quam ad Alliam vicerant. Iustiore altero deinde

proelio ad octavum lapidem Gabina via, quo se ex fuga contulerant,

eiusdem ductu auspicioque Camilli vincuntur. Ibi caedes omnia obtinuit;

castra capiuntur, et ne {20} nuntius quidem cladis relictus. Dictator

recuperata ex hostibus patria triumphans in urbem redit, interque iocos

militares, quos inconditos iaciunt, Romulus ac parens patriae

conditorque alter urbis haud vanis laudibus appellabatur. {25}

LIVY, v. 49 (sel.)

+Context.+ The Romans on the Capitol, despairing of outside help, agreed

with Brennus that Rome should be redeemed by a ransom of 1000 pounds of

gold. _Nondum omnni auro appenso_, Camillus appeared at the head of his

troops.

[Linenotes:

3. +per altercationem+ = _owing to the dispute_. When the Consular

Tribune Sulpicius complained that the Gauls used unjust weights,

Brennus in derision threw his sword into the scale and said _Vae

victis!_

13-14. +nova re+ = _at the change in their fortunes_. --Whibley.

15-16. +haud maiore momento+ = _with no greater difficulty

(effort)_.

17. +Iustiore altero proelio+ = _in a second and more regular

engagement_. -- W.

23. +incondîtos+ = _rough_, _unpolished_.

'The Gaul shall come against thee

From the land of snow and night:

Thou shalt give his fair-haired armies

To the raven and the kite.' --Macaulay.]

D27

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (6)

A. _The Migration to Veii abandoned._

Movisse eos Camillus cum alia oratione tum ea, quae ad religiones

pertinebat, maxime dicitur; sed rem dubiam decrevit vox opportune missa,

quod, cum senatus post paulo de his rebus in curia Hostilia haberetur,

cohortesque ex praesidiis revertentes forte {5} agmine forum transirent,

centurio in comitio exclamavit: 'Signifer, statue signum; hic manebimus

optime.' Qua voce audita et senatus accipere se omen ex curia egressus

conclamavit, et plebs circumfusa approbavit. Antiquata deinde lege

promiscue {10} urbs aedificari coepta.

LIVY, v. 55.

[Linenotes:

1. +cum alia tum+ = _especially_

+ea+ = _ea parte orationis_.

3. +vox opportune missa+ = _a phrase seasonably let fall_.

10. +Antiquata deinde lege+ (= _rogatione_) = _the proposed law was

then rejected_, +antiquare+ = _to leave in its former state_.]

B. _Juno forbids the Rebuilding of Troy._

'Sed bellicosis fata Quiritibus

Hac lege dico, ne nimium pii

Rebusque fidentes avitae

Tecta velint reparare Troiae. 60

'Troiae renascens alite lugubri

Fortuna tristi clade iterabitur,

Ducente victrices catervas

Coniuge me Iovis et sorore.' 64

HORACE, _Odes_, III. iii. 57-64.

[Linenotes:

58. +hac lege+ = _on this condition_, i.e. that Rome should always

be the capital.

+nimium pii+ = _too dutiful_ to their mother-city Troy.

58-60. +ne ... reparare Troiae.+ There was a rumour, even in

Caesar's time (v. Suet. _Iul. Caes._ 79) that he meant to migrate to

Alexandria or Ilium. Horace, prob. with the sanction of Augustus,

sets himself to discourage it. Cf. the Speech of Camillus, Livy, v.

51-54.

61-62. +Troiae ... iterabitur+ = the _fortunes of Troy, if with evil

omen it is called to life again_ (+renascens+), _shall be repeated

in an overthrow as sad as before_. --Wickham.]

'The Burning of Rome by the Gauls involved the destruction of all the

existing records, and great loss of property. Yet in spite of all the

damage done, the Romans set to work to establish the state anew, to

rebuild the City, and to reassert their commanding position among their

allies and neighbours.' --Ihne.

+The Speech of Camillus.+ Its object was to show the growth of Rome

under the guidance of Providence. Cf. the purpose of the _Aeneid_.

D28

THE LICINIAN LAWS, 376-366 B.C. (1)

_First Plebeian Consul, 366 B.C._

Occasio videbatur rerum novandarum propter ingentem vim aeris alieni,

cuius levamen mali plebes nisi suis in summo imperio locatis, nullum

speraret: accingendum ad eam cogitationem esse; conando agendoque iam eo

gradum fecisse plebeios, unde, {5} si porro annitantur, pervenire ad

summa et patribus aequari tam honore quam virtute possent. In praesentia

tribunes plebis fieri placuit, quo in magistratu sibimet ipsi viam ad

ceteros honores aperirent. Creatique tribuni C. Licinius et L. Sextius

promulgavere {10} leges omnes adversus opes patriciorum et pro commodis

plebis, unam de aere alieno, ut deducto eo de capite, quod usuris

pernumeratum esset, id, quod superesset, triennio aequis pensionibus

persolveretur; alteram de modo agrorum, ne quis plus quingenta {15}

iugera agri possideret; tertiam, ne tribunorum militum comitia fierent,

consulumque utique alter ex plebe crearetur; cuncta ingentia et quae

sine certamine maximo obtineri non possent. . . . Ita ab diutina ira

tandem in concordiam redacti sunt ordines. {20}

LIVY, vi. 35.

[Linenotes:

1. +Occasio.+ This, so Livy tells us, was the jealousy between the

Fabian sisters, the one married to the patrician Sulpicius, the

other to the plebeian Licinius Stolo.

1-2. +propter ... alieni.+ The old Roman law of debt was very harsh

and severe.

3. +in summo imperio+, i.e. the Consulate.

4. +accingendum ... esse+ = _they must brace themselves to the

execution of that idea_. --R. +accingendum+, reflexive here.

5. +iam eo+, i.e. to the office of Consular Tribune, created 444 B.C.

6. +si porro annitantur+ = _if they +now+ make a further effort_.

This use of Pres. Subj. in Or. Obl. frequent in Livy.

7. +tam honore quam virtute+ = _in official rank as (they were

already) in merit_. --Rawlins.

12-14. +ut deducto ... persolveretur+ = '_after deducting from the

amount of the loan_ (+capite+ = _principal_) _what had been paid in

interest, the balance should be paid in three equal instalments_.'

--Cluer and Matheson.

15. +de modo agrorum+ = _relating to the limitation of

land-holding_.

16-17. +tribunorum militum+ (sc. _cum consulari potestate_) created

444 B.C., but no plebeian obtained that honour till 400 B.C., and

only two after that date.

17. +utique+ = _one at any rate_.]

+Result.+ 'The principle was established that Patricians and Plebeians

were both citizens of the State, and equally eligible to the honours and

dignities of the Republic.' --Ihne.

D29

THE LICINIAN LAWS, 376-366 B.C. (2)

_The Origin of the Floralia, 238 B.C._

'Dic, dea,' respondi, 'ludorum quae sit origo.'

Vix bene desieram; rettulit illa mihi:

'Cetera luxuriae nondum instrumenta vigebant:

Aut pecus, aut latam dives habebat humum; 4

Hinc etiam locuples, hinc ipsa pecunia dicta est.

Sed iam de vetito quisque parabat opes.

Venerat in morem populi depascere saltus;

Idque diu licuit, poenaque nulla fuit. 8

Vindice servabat nullo sua publica vulgus;

Iamque in privato pascere inertis erat.

Plebis ad aediles perducta licentia talis

Publicios: animus defuit ante viris. 12

Rem populus recipit: multam subiere nocentes:

Vindicibus laudi publica cura fuit.

Multa data est ex parte mihi, magnoque favore

Victores ludos instituere novos. 16

Parte locant Clivum, qui tunc erat ardua rupes:

Utile nunc iter est. Publiciumque vocant.'

OVID, _Fasti_, v. 237-254, H. [V. 277-294]

[Linenotes:

2. +illa+, i.e. _Flora_, the Roman goddess of Flowers and Spring.

3. +luxuriae instrumenta+ = _appliance of luxury_.

5. +locuples+ (_locus + plenus_) = _rich in lands_.

+pecunia+ from +pecus+, _cattle_ being in olden time the chief form

of wealth and the chief medium of exchange. For +pecus+, cf. _fee_,

_fief_, _feudal_.

7. +Venerat ... saltus+ = _it had grown into a custom to feed

(cattle) on the public forest-pastures_. (Cf. the ager publicus.)

--H.

9. +sua publica+ = _their common property_, i.e. their interest in

the public land.

+vulgus+ here = _the commons_, not the _plebs_ as opposed to the

_populus_.

10. +inertis erat+ = _it was the mark of a man wanting in spirit_.

12. +Publicios.+ L. and M. Publicius Malleolus,[21] plebeian

aediles, B.C. 241.

+animus ... viris+, i.e. information had before been given but no

aedile dared to act upon it.

13. +recipit+ = _takes up the charge at the Comitia_.

+multam+ = _a fine_. Cf. to mulct = to fine.

14. +publica cura+ = _their public spirit_. --H.

15. +multa ... mihi+, i.e. a new Temple was built to Flora near the

Circus Maximus.

+ludos novos+ = _the Floralia_.

16. +Parte locant+ (sc. _muniendum_) +Clivum+ = _with the (other)

part they contract for (the making of) the Clivus_, a sloping road,

called the Clivus Publicius, which led up to the Aventine.]

[Footnote 21: For Malleolus, cf. Charles Martel of France, 'The

Hammer' circ. 689-741 A.D.]

THE CONQUEST OF ITALY, 366-266 B.C.

D30

SECOND INVASION OF THE GAULS, 361 B.C.

_Manlius and his son Torquatus._

L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tribunus plebis diem

dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset;

criminabatur etiam, quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatus

appellatus, ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare {5} iussisset. Quod

cum audivisset adulescens filius negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse

Romam et cum prima luce Pomponii domum venisse dicitur. Cui cum esset

nuntiatum, qui illum iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem

arbitraretur, surrexit e {10} lectulo remotisque arbitris ad se

adulescentem iussit venire. At ille, ut ingressus est, confestim gladium

destrinxit iuravitque se illum statim interfecturum, nisi ius iurandum

sibi dedisset se patrem missum esse facturum. Iuravit hoc terrore

coactus Pomponius; {15} rem ad populum detulit, docuit cur sibi causa

desistere necesse esset, Manlium missum fecit. Tantum temporibus illis

ius iurandum valebat. Atque hic T. Manlius is est, qui ad Anienem Galli,

quem ab eo provocatus occiderat, torque detracto cognomen {20} invenit,

cuius tertio consulatu Latini ad Veserim fusi et fugati.

CICERO, _de Officiis_, iii. § 112.

[Linenotes:

1. +L. Manlio+, i.e. L. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus, appointed

Dictator 363 B.C. 'to drive in a nail (_clavi figendi causa_) on the

right side of the Temple of Jupiter, to mark the number of the year,

because written documents were rare in those times.'

2. +diem dixit+ = _named a day (for his trial before the Comitia)_.

4-6. +quod Titum filium ... iussisset.+ Livy, vii. 4, says 'And for

what offence? Because he was a little slow of speech and not ready

with his tongue.'

4. +Torquatus+, Dictator 353 and 349 B.C., and three times Consul.

6. +negotium exhiberi patri+ = lit. _that trouble was being brought

upon his father_, i.e. _that his father was in trouble_.

9-10. +qui arbitraretur+ = _inasmuch as he thought_. Adject. causal

clause. --Holden.

11. +remotis arbitris+ = _when he had put out of the room all

witnesses_. --H. +arbiter+[22] = (ar = ad + bito = eo) = spectator,

umpire.

14-15. +missum facturum+ = _would set at liberty_.

19. +ad Anienem Galli.+ On this, their second invasion, the Gauls

advanced as far as the Anio. Livy tells us that after the death of

their champion the Gauls fled under cover of night.

21-22. +cuius ... fugati+, i.e. the great battle of Vesuvius fought

340 B.C. by the Veseris, a R. in Campania near Mount Vesuvius, which

established for ever the supremacy of Rome over Latium.]

[Footnote 22: Cf. _arbiter pugnae_, _bibendi_, Horace.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, vii. 4, 5, 9, 10.

D31

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B.C. (1)

_An Important Epoch in Roman History._

Maiora iam hinc bella et viribus hostium et longinquitate vel regionum

vel temporum, quibus bellatum est, dicentur. Namque eo anno adversus

Samnites, gentem opibus armisque validam, mota arma; Samnitium bellum

ancipiti Marte gestum {5} Pyrrhus hostis, Pyrrhum Poeni secuti. Quanta

rerum moles! quoties in extrema periculoram ventum, ut in hanc

magnitudinem, quae vix sustinetur, erigi imperium posset! Belli autem

causa cum Samnitibus Romanis, cum societate amicitiaque iuncti essent,

{10} extrinsecus venit, non orta inter ipsos est. Samnites Sidicinis

iniusta arma, quia viribus plus poterant, cum intulissent, coacti inopes

ad opulentiorum auxilium confugere Campanis sese coniungunt. Campani

magis nomen ad praesidium sociorum quam {15} vires cum attulissent,

fluentes luxu ab duratis usu armorum in Sidicino pulsi agro, in se

deinde molem omnem belli verterunt. Namque Samnites, omissis Sidicinis

ipsam arcem finitimorum Campanos adorti, unde aeque facilis victoria,

praedae atque gloriae {20} plus esset, Tifata, imminentes Capuae colles,

cum praesidio firmo occupassent, descendunt inde quadrato agmine in

planitiem, quae Capuam Tifataque interiacet. Ibi rursus acie dimicatum;

adversoque proelio Campani intra moenia compulsi, cum robore iuventutis

{25} suae acciso nulla propinqua spes esset, coacti sunt ab Romanis

petere auxilium.

LIVY, vii. 29.

[Linenotes:

1. +iam hinc+, i.e. 343-266 B.C.

2. +longinquitate ... temporum+ = _the distance of the theatre of

war_ (+regionum+) _and the length of the campaign_

(+temporum+).--Rawlins.

6-7. +quanta rerum moles+ = _What stupendous exertions!_--R.

8. +in hanc magnitudinem+, i.e. in the reign of Augustus.

10. +cum societate+, i.e. from 354 B.C.

12. +Sidicinis+, a Sabellian people N.W. of Campania, on the Samnite

border.

16. +fluentes (luxu)+ = _enervated_ (lit. _relaxed_) by luxury.

21. +Tifâta+ (neut. Plur.), a mountain range N.E. of Capua.

22-23. +quadrato agmine+ = _in regular order of battle_, so that the

whole army formed a parallelogram.]

+The Cause of the War.+ 'The interference of Rome was a breach of the

Treaty with the Samnites. Livy admits this, but asserts that Capua had

formally surrendered to Rome, and as a subject state claimed her

protection. The story is confessedly false, for Capua remained, what it

had always been, an independent town.' --R.

D32

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B.C. (2)

_Battle of Mt. Gaurus. M. Valerius Corvus._

Non alias militi familiarior dux fuit, omnia inter infimos militum haud

gravate munia obeundo. In ludo praeterea militari, cum velocitatis

viriumque inter se aequales certamina ineunt, comiter facilis; vincere

ac vinci vultu eodem, nec quemquam aspernari {5} parem, qui se offerret;

factis benignus pro re, dictis haud minus libertatis alienae quam suae

dignitatis memor, et, quo nihil popularius est, quibus artibus petierat

magistratus, iisdem gerebat. Itaque universus exercitus incredibili

alacritate adhortationem {10} prosecutus ducis castris egreditur. . . .

Primus omnium consul invadit hostem et, cum quo forte contulit gradum,

obtruncat. Hoc spectaculo accensi dextra laevaque ante se quisque

memorandum proelium ciet; stant obnixi Samnites, quamquam {15} plura

accipiunt quam inferunt vulnera. Aliquamdiu iam pugnatum erat, atrox

caedes circa signa Samnitium, fuga ab nulladum parte erat; adeo morte

sola vinci destinaverant animis. Itaque Romani, cum et fluere iam

lassitudine vires sentirent et diei {20} haud multum superesse, accensi

ira concitant se in hostem. Tum primum referri pedem atque inclinari rem

in fugam apparuit; tum capi, occidi Samnis; nec superfuissent multi, ni

nox victoriam magis quam proelium diremisset. {25}

LIVY, vii. 33.

[Linenotes:

1. +familiarior+ = _on better terms with_. --Cluer and Matheson.

2. +haud gravate+ = _without reluctance_ (_ungrudgingly_). Compare

Sallust's description of Marius and Sulla.

4. +aequales+ = _competitors_, lit. _well-matched_.

+comiter facilis+ = _he was courteously good-natured_.

6-7. +pro re+ = _to suit the occasion_.

9. +artibus iisdem+ = _in the same spirit_. --Weissenborn.

11. +prosecutus+ = _welcoming_, lit. _attending_.

12-13. +cum ... gradum+ = _with whom he happened to engage_. Cf.

_collato pede_ = _fighting foot to foot_.

15. +stant obnixi+ = _stand their ground firmly_. +obnixus+

(+ob + nitor+, _strive + against_), _resolute_.

23. +Samnis+, nom. sing.

+capi+, +occidi+, Historic Infinitives.

25. +diremisset+ = _had broken off_. _dirimo_ (_dis + emo_) = _take

apart_.]

+The Battle of Mt. Gaurus.+ The battle was fought on the volcanic range

of mountains between Cumae and Neapolis. The Consul in command, M.

Valerius, obtained the surname of Corvus (Raven), because when serving

as a military Tribune under Camillus in 349 B.C., he defeated the Gallic

champion by the aid of a raven. See next page, A. l. 4. [[line 66]]

D33

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B.C. (1)

_Self-Sacrifice of Decius Mus, 340 B.C._

A. _Rome's Empire safe in the keeping of Augustus._

Curtius expletis statuit monimenta lacunis;

At Decius misso proelia rupit equo; 64

Coclitis abscissos testatur semita pontes:

Est cui cognomen corvus habere dedit.

Haec di condiderunt, haec di quoque moenia servant:

Vix timeat, salvo Caesare, Roma Iovem. 68

PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) xi. (x.) 63-68.

[Linenotes:

63. +Curtius ... lacunis+, in allusion to the spot called _Lacus

Curtius_ (marked by a circular pavement) in the Forum which served

as a memorial (_monimenta_) of his heroic sacrifice. Livy, vii. 6.

+lacuna+ (cf. _lacus_) = _a hole_, _pool_, _chasm_.

65. +semita+ (_sed + meo_ = _go + aside_) = _a path_, _road_.

Cocles, apparently, gave his name to the street running up from the

bridge which he 'kept so well.' --Ramsay.

66. +cui+, i.e. M. Valerius Corvus, the hero of Mt. Gaurus. See

p. 91. [[previous selection]]

67-68. i.e. _with Caesar_ (_Augustus_) _safe_, Rome has none to

fear, nay, scarce Jove himself. Flattery can go no further than

this!]

B. _The Dream of the Consuls on the Eve of Battle._

Illud etiam somnium et magnae admirationis et clari exitus, quod eadem

nocte duo consules P. Decius Mus et T. Manlius Torquatus Latino bello

gravi ac periculoso non procul a Vesuvi montis radicibus {10} positis

castris viderunt. Utrique enim quaedam per quietem species praedixit ex

altera acie imperatorem, ex altera exercitum dis Manibus matrique Terrae

deberi; utrius autem dux copias hostium superque eas sese ipsum

devovisset, victricem abituram. Id {15} luce proxima consulibus

sacrificio vel expiaturis, si posset averti, vel, si certum deorum etiam

monitu visum foret, exsecuturis, hostiarum exta somnio congruerunt,

convenitque inter eos, cuius cornu prius laborare coepisset, ut is

capite suo fata patriae lueret. {20} Quae neutro reformidante Decium

depoposcerunt.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, i. _De Somniis_.

[Linenotes:

13. +Dis Manibus+ = _the deified souls of the dead_, usually looked

upon as beneficent spirits.

15. +victricem+, sc. _aciem_.

17. +deorum etiam monitu+ = _by the warning of the gods also_, i.e.

by the auspices as well as by the dream.

19-20. +cuius cornu ... coepisset.+ The left wing led by Decius was

repulsed by the Latins, and Decius accordingly devoted himself to

death.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, viii. 6. 9.

D34

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B.C. (2)

_The Battle of Mt. Vesuvius, 340 B.C._

Procedente deinde certamine cum aliis partibus multitudo superaret

Latinorum, Manlius consul audito eventu collegae paulisper addubitavit,

an consurgendi iam triariis tempus esset; deinde melius ratus integros

eos ad ultimum discrimen servari, {5} Accensos ab novissima acie ante

signa procedere iubet. Qui ubi subiere, extemplo Latini, tamquam idem

adversarii fecissent, triarios suos excitaverunt; qui aliquamdiu pugna

atroci cum et semet ipsi fatigassent et hastas aut praefregissent aut

hebetassent, {10} pellerent vi tamen hostem, debellatum iam rati

perventumque ad extremam aciem, tum consul triariis 'Consurgite nunc'

inquit 'integri adversus fessos, memores patriae parentumque et coniugum

ac liberorum, memores consulis pro vestra victoria {15} morte

occubantis.' Ubi triarii consurrexerunt, integri, refulgentibus armis,

nova ex improviso exorta acies, receptis in intervalla ordinum

antepilanis, clamore sublato principia Latinorum perturbant hastisque

ora fodientes primo robore virorum caeso per alios manipulos {20} velut

inermes prope intacti evasere tantaque caede perrupere cuneos, ut vix

quartam partem relinquerent hostium.

LIVY, viii. 10.

[Linenotes:

3-4. +an consurgendi ... esset.+ Livy says 'The Triarii were posted

crouching by the standards, their left leg extended forwards,

holding their shields resting on their shoulders, and their spears

fixed in the ground with the points erect, so that their line

bristled as if enclosed by a rampart.'

6. +Accensos.+ The _Accensi_ (_ad + censeo_), originally

supernumeraries to take the place of those who fell in battle, =

_levis armatura_.

+ante signa+, i.e. of the Hastati and Principes.

8. +excitaverunt+ = _surgere iusserunt_. --Weissenborn.

10. +hebetassent+ = _had blunted_.

18. +antepilanis+ = _prop._ both the Hastati and Principes who were

drawn up before the Pilani or Triarii who formed the third line.

19. +principia+ = _the front line_, now the Triarii of the Latins.

22. +cuneos+ = _columns_ (lit. _wedges_), i.e. a body of soldiers

drawn up in the shape of a wedge. Livy uses it of the phalanx.]

+The Cause of the War.+ The war was almost a civil one. The dispute was

chiefly about a right to share in the privileges of the full Roman

citizenship (espec. the right to vote and to hold office).

+Result of the War.+ Rome broke up the Latin Confederation by making

separate treaties with the Latin towns, and by prohibiting commercial

intercourse between them.

D35

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (1)

_The Dictator and his Master of the Horse._

Ea fortuna pugnae fuit, ut nihil relictum sit, quo, si adfuisset

Dictator, res melius geri potuerit; non dux militi, non miles duci

defuit. Eques etiam, auctore L. Cominio tribuno militum, qui aliquotiens

impetu capto perrumpere non poterat hostium agmen, {5} detraxit frenos

equis atque ita concitatos calcaribus permisit, ut sustinere eos nulla

vis posset; per arma, per viros late stragem dedere; secutus pedes

impetum equitum turbatis hostibus intulit signa. Viginti milia hostium

caesa eo die traduntur. Magister equitum, {10} ut ex tanta caede, multis

potitus spoliis congesta in ingentem acervum hostilia arma subdito igne

concremavit, seu votum id deorum cuiquam fuit, seu credere libet Fabio

auctori eo factum, ne suae gloriae fructum Dictator caperet nomenque ibi

scriberet aut {15} spolia in triumpho ferret. Litterae quoque de re

prospere gesta ad senatum, non ad Dictatorem missae argumentum fuere

minima cum eo communicantis laudes. Ita certe Dictator id factum

accepit, ut laetis aliis victoria parta prae se ferret iram

tristitiamque. {20}

LIVY, viii, 30.

[Linenotes:

2. +Dictator+ = L. Papirius Cursor, noted for the strictness of his

military discipline. At this time he had gone to Rome to take the

auspices anew (_ad auspicium repetendum_) and had given strict

orders to his Master of the Horse, Q. Fabius Rullianus, to avoid all

collision with the enemy during his absence.

7. +permisit+ = _gave them their heads_. Cf. _immittere habenas_.

9. +turbatis ... signa+ = _attacked the enemy_ (dative) _when in

confusion_.

11. +spoliis+, i.e. the _arms_ taken from the fallen.

13-14. +seu credere ... factum+ = lit. _or whether one prefer to

credit the authority of Fabius that it was done on this account_

(+eo+) ... +Fabius Pictor+, the earliest Roman historian, wrote in

Greek and served in the 2nd Punic War.

15. +ibi+ (sc. _hostilia arma_) = _on them_. These, set up as a

trophy with the victor's name inscribed, would have been borne in

the triumphal procession.

19. +Ita certe ... accepit+ = _so_ (+ita+) _no doubt the Dictator

interpreted his_ (Fabius') _action_.]

+The Cause of the War.+ The actual _casus belli_ was a dispute between

Rome and the Samnites for the possession of Palaeopolis (= _old city_)

near Neapolis (= _new city_). Cf. the First Punic War, 241 B.C., due to

the struggle for the possession of Messana, and the war with Pyrrhus,

281 B.C., for the possession of Tarentum.

+Historic Parallel.+ Fabius Cunctator and Minucius. --Livy, xxii. 24-30.

D36

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (2)

_The Caudine Forks, 321 B.C._

Duae ad Luceriam ferebant viae, altera praeter oram superi maris, patens

apertaque, sed quanto tutior, tanto fere longior, altera per Furculas

Caudinas, brevior; sed ita natus locus est. Saltus duo alti, angusti

silvosique sunt, montibus circa perpetuis {5} inter se iuncti. Iacet

inter eos satis patens, clausus in medio, campus herbidus aquosusque,

per quem medium iter est; sed antequam venias ad eum, intrandae primae

angustiae sunt, et aut eadem, qua te insinuaveris, retro via repetenda,

aut, si ire {10} porro pergas, per alium saltum, artiorem

impeditioremque, evadendum. In eum campum via alia per cavam rupem

Romani demisso agmine cum ad alias angustias protinus pergerent, saeptas

deiectu arborum saxorumque ingentium obiacente mole {15} invenere. Cum

fraus hostilis apparuisset, praesidium etiam in summo saltu conspicitur.

Citati inde retro, qua venerant, pergunt repetere viam; eam quoque

clausam sua obice armisque inveniunt. Sistunt inde gradum sine ullius

imperio, intuentesque alii alios {20} diu immobiles silent.

LIVY, ix. 2.

[Linenotes:

1. +ad Luceriam+ = _in the direction of Luceria_, a town in Apulia

on the borders of Samnium, and now threatened by the Samnites.

1-2. +praeter ... maris+ = _along the coast of the upper sea_, i.e.

the Adriatic. Taking this route, they would go N. of Samnium,

through the Peligni, and S. through the Frentani into Apulia.

3. +fere+ = _just_.

3-4. +Furculas Caudinas+, two _fork-shaped_ defiles near Caudium,

the capital of the Caudine Samnites, between Beneventum and Capua on

what was afterwards the _Via Appia_.

5-6. +montibus ... iuncti+ = _united by a continuous ring_

(+perpetuis circa+) _of mountains_.

10. +insinuaveris+ = lit. _have wound your way_.

11-12. +artiorem impeditioremque+ = _more narrow and more difficult_

(i.e. _steeper_).

13. +per cavam rupem+ = _through an overhanging rocky defile_.

+demisso agmine+ = _with their troops led down_ (the descent).

14. +protinus+ = _straightforward_.

14-15. +deiectu ... mole+ = lit. '_a barrier lying in the way

(formed) by the throwing down of trees and large pieces of rock_.'

+mole+ = an _abattis_ (a _knocking down_, _felling_).--Rawlins.

16. +cum fraus ...+ = _no sooner had ... when ..._

17. +citati+ = _hurriedly_ (in hot haste). Partic. used adverbially.

--Stephenson.

19. +sua obice+ = _with a barrier of its own_ (i.e. specially

prepared).]

D37

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (3)

_The Caudine Forks. The Yoke._

Alii alios intueri, contemplari arma mox tradenda et inermes futuras

dextras obnoxiaque corpora hosti; proponere sibimet ipsi ante oculos

iugum hostile et ludibria victoris et vultus superbos et per armatos

inermium iter, inde foedi agminis miserabilem viam {5} per sociorum

urbes, reditum in patriam ad parentes, quo saepe ipsi maioresque eorum

triumphantes venissent: se solos sine vulnere, sine ferro, sine acie

victos: sibi non stringere licuisse gladios, non manum cum hoste

conferre; sibi nequicquam animos datos. {10} Haec frementibus hora

fatalis ignominiae advenit, omnia tristiora experiundo factura, quam

quae praeceperant animis. Iam primum cum singulis vestimentis inermes

extra vallum exire iussi, et primi traditi obsides atque in custodiam

abducti. Primi {15} consules prope seminudi sub iugum missi; tum ut

quisque gradu proximus erat, ita ignominiae obiectus; tum deinceps

singulae legiones. Ita traducti sub iugum et, quod paene gravius erat,

per hostium oculos, cum e saltu evasissent, etsi velut ab inferis {20}

extracti tum primum lucem aspicere visi sunt, tamen ipsa lux ita deforme

intuentibus agmen omni morte tristior fuit.

LIVY, ix. 5, 6.

[Linenotes:

1-10. +intueri; contemplari ...+ = _There they are looking one on

another_. . . . By a string of infinitives the picture of a series

of actions is put before the reader without the actions being

thought of singly. --Lee Warner.

2. +obnoxia+ = _at the mercy of_ ...--Rawlins.

6. +per sociorum urbes+, e.g. _Capua_.

11. +fatalis ignominiae+ = _destined for their disgrace_.

12. +experiundo+ = _by experience_; +praeceperant+ = _they had

anticipated_.

16. +seminudi+ = _with only their tunics on_.

17. +gradu+ = _in rank_.

18. +traducti+, 'always used in this sense of _disgraceful_

exhibition or parade.' --Stephenson.

22-23. +ipsa lux ... fuit+ = _the very light was to them as they

gazed on so hideous a line of march more gloomy than any form of

death_.]

+The Caudine Forks.+ Other writers state that the Romans were entrapped

only after a severe defeat.

'By the side of those names (the Allia and Cannae) there was yet a third

in the list of evil days--the name of the Caudine Pass.' --Ihne. Cf.

p. 82, B. [[Selection D23 B]]

+Historic Parallels.+ Livy's account of Trasimene. The Kyber Pass, 1842.

The Capitulation of Metz, 1870.

D38

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (4)

_Rome repudiates the Treaty._

At vero T. Veturius et Sp. Postumius, cum iterum consules assent, quia,

cum male pugnatum apud Caudium esset, legionibus nostris sub iugum

missis pacem cum Samnitibus fecerant, dediti sunt eis; iniussu enim

populi senatusque fecerant. Eodemque {5} tempore Ti. Numicius, Q.

Maelius, qui tum tribuni plebis erant, quod eorum auctoritate pax erat

facta, dediti sunt, ut pax Samnitium repudiaretur. Atque huius

deditionis ipse Postumius, qui dedebatur, suasor et auctor fuit. Quod

idem multis annis post {10} C. Mancinus, qui ut Numantinis, quibuscum

sine senatus auctoritate foedus fecerat, dederetur, rogationem suasit

eam, quam L. Furius, Sex. Atilius ex senatus consulto ferebant: qua

accepta est hostibus deditus. Honestius hic quam Q. Pompeius, quo, {15}

cum in eadem causa esset, deprecante accepta lex non est. Hic ea, quae

videbatur utilitas, plus valuit quam honestas, apud superiores

utilitatis species falsa ab honestatis auctoritate superata est.

CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 109.

[Linenotes:

4. +pacem ... fecerant+, i.e. _a military convention_, by which Rome

and Samnium were to acknowledge each other as free peoples with

equal rights and privileges, and Rome was to give up her conquests

and colonies on Samnite territory.

5. +iniussu ... senatusque.+ 'The Senate considered it in the light

of a _sponsio_, a convention made on personal responsibility, rather

than a _pactio_ or _foedus_, a public treaty.' --Holden.

6. +tribuni plebis+, prob. only tribunes-elect (= _designati_), for

the tribunes could not leave Rome even for one night.

11. +C. Mancinus+ commanded against Numantia in Spain, 137 B.C.

15. +Q. Pompeius+ commanded against Numantia, 140 B.C.

16. +cum in eadem causa esset+ = _though he was in the same case_,

as Mancinus, i.e. had made a degrading peace with the Numantines.

--H.

15-17. +quo ... deprecante ... non est+ = _through his begging to be

let off, the law_ (i.e. for delivering him up to the enemy) _was not

passed_.

17. +Hic+ = _in this case_, i.e. that of Pompeius.

18. +apud superiores+, i.e. Veturius, Postumius, and Mancinus.

18-19. +utilitatis species falsa+ = _the false semblance of

expediency_.]

+The Repudiation of the Treaty.+ 'It is clear that Postumius and his

brother officers could not bind the Roman Senate and people by the

promise they had made in Caudium; but it is equally clear that they were

bound by their promise to do what was in their power to cause the treaty

to be ratified.' --Ihne.

D39

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (5)

_Battle of Bovianum, 305 B.C. Peace made, 304 B.C._

Eodem anno in campum Stellatem agri Campani Samnitium incursiones

factae. Itaque ambo consules in Samnium missi cum diversas regiones,

Tifernum Postumius, Bovianum Minucius petisset, Postumii prius ductu ad

Tifernum pugnatum. Alii {5} haud dubie Samnites victos ac viginti milia

hominum capta tradunt, alii Marte aequo discessum, et Postumium, metum

simulantem, nocturno itinere clam in montes copias abduxisse, hostes

secutos duo milia inde locis munitis et ipsos consedisse. Consul ut {10}

stativa tuta copiosaque petisse videretur, postquam et munimentis castra

firmavit et omni apparatu rerum utilium instruxit, relicto firmo

praesidio de vigilia tertia, qua[23] proxime potest, expeditas legiones

ad collegam, et ipsum adversus alios sedentem, ducit. {15} Ibi auctore

Postumio Minucius cum hostibus signa confert, et, cum anceps proelium in

multum diei processisset, tum Postumius integris legionibus defessam iam

aciem hostium improviso invadit. Itaque cum lassitudo ac vulnera fugam

quoque praepedissent, {20} occidione occisi hostes, signa unum et

viginti capta.

LIVY, ix. 44.

[Footnote 23: qua _duci_ proxime potest. --W. and M.]

[Linenotes:

1. +In campum Stellatem.+ Stellas, a part of the Campanian plain, N.

of Mt. Tifata (E. of Capua).

4. +Tifernum+, E. of Bovianum on the R. Tifernus.

+Postumius ... Minucius+, Consuls 305 B.C.

+Bovianum+, in Samnium, W. of Luceria (in Apulia).

11. +stativa tuta+ = _safe quarters_. Cf. _stativa castra_ = _a

stationary camp_.

15. +et ipsum ... sedentem+ = _also lying encamped_ (+sedentem+) _in

the face of another army_. --Stephenson.

20. +praepedissent+ = _hampered_, lit. _to entangle the feet_

(_prae_ + _pes_).

21. +occidione occisi.+ This has the force of _a superlative by the

repetition_, a common idiom in Oriental[24] languages. --S.]

[Footnote 24: E.g. in Hebrew, Delivering I will deliver = I will

surely deliver.]

+Results of the Second Samnite War.+ Roman influence became supreme in

Campania and Apulia, and the Samnites were confined to their own

mountains. In 304 B.C. the Romans renewed their ancient Treaty with the

Samnites (as Livy tells us) by which they were left in possession of

their independence.

+Why the Romans conquered.+ (1) Their conduct of the war was more

systematic. (2) By their plan of fortified colonies (e.g. Cales,

Fregellae, Luceria) they retained their hold on the conquered territory.

(3) The diplomatic skill of the Senate secured the friendship of the

neighbours of the Samnites (e.g. the Apulians and Lucanians).

D40

THIRD SAMNITE WAR, 298-290 B.C.

_Battle of Sentinum, 295 B.C. 'Novum pugnae genus.'_

Ferocior Decius et aetate et vigore animi quantumcunque virium habuit

certamine primo effudit. Et quia lentior videbatur pedestris pugna,

equitatum in pugnam concitat et ipse fortissimae iuvenum turmae immixtus

orat proceres iuventutis, in hostem {5} ut secum impetum faciant:

duplicem illorum gloriam fore, si ab laevo cornu et ab equite victoria

incipiat. Bis avertere Gallicum equitatum; iterum longius evectos et iam

inter media peditum agmina proelium cientes novum pugnae conterruit

genus: essedis {10} carrisque superstans armatus hostis ingenti sonitu

equorum rotarumque advenit et insolitos eius tumultus Romanorum

conterruit eqnos. Ita victorem equitatum velut lymphaticus pavor

dissipat; sternit inde ruentes equos virosque improvida fuga, {15}

turbata hinc etiam signa legionum multique impetu equorum ac vehiculorum

raptorum per agmen obtriti antesignani; et insecuta, simul territos

hostes vidit, Gallica acies nullum spatium respirandi recipiendique se

dedit. {20}

LIVY, x. 28.

[Linenotes:

1. +Decius.+ P. Decius Mus, Consul with Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus,

commanded the left wing at the Battle of Sentinum, where he was

opposed to the Gauls, and when his troops began to give way before

the Gaulish chariots (+essedae+) he, like his father at the Battle

of Vesuvius, 340 B.C., devoted[25] himself with the hostile army 'to

the gods of earth and of the grave.'

5. +proceres iuventutis+ = _the flower of the young men_.

8. +avertere+ (= +se avertere+) = _to retire_ (lit. _turn away_).

10. +essedis+ = _war-chariots_, on two wheels, open in front, but

closed behind, and drawn by two horses; used also by the Britons.

14. +lymphaticus+ = _mad_, _frenzied_.

16. +turbata ... signa legionum+ = _the ranks of the legions were

thrown into disorder_. +Signa+ is frequently used of military

movement, as the most noticeable feature in an army.]

[Footnote 25: Cf. pp. 92, 93.]

+The Cause of the Third Samnite War.+ The democratic party among the

Lucanians made overtures to the Samnites. The Romans peremptorily

ordered the Samnites not to interfere in Lucania, an arrogant command

which the Samnites declined to obey, and war broke out anew.

+Results of the War.+ After an obstinate struggle peace was concluded in

290 B.C., the Samnites retaining their independence.

D41

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS, 281-275 B.C. (1)

_The Aims of Pyrrhus. Battle of Heraclea, 280 B.C._

Pyrrhus rex Epiri cum iterata Tarentinorum legatione additis Samnitium

et Lucanorum precibus, fatigaretur, non tam supplicum precibus quam spe

invadendi Italiae imperii inductus venturum se cum exercitu pollicetur.

In quam rem inclinatum semel {5} animum praecipitem agere coeperant

exempla maiorum, ne aut inferior patruo suo Alexandro videretur, quo

defensore idem Tarentini adversus Bruttios usi fuerant, aut minores

animos magno Alexandro habuisse, qui tam longa a domo militia Orientem

subegerat. {10} Igitur relicto custode regni Ptolemaeo filio annos xv

nato exercitum in portu Tarentino exponit. Cuius audito adventu consul

Romanus Valerius Laevinus festinans, ut prius cum eo congrederetur, quam

auxilia sociorum convenirent, exercitum in {15} aciem educit. Nec rex,

tametsi numero militum inferior esset, certamini moram fecit. Sed

Romanos vincentes iam inusitata ante elephantorum forma stupere primo,

mox cedere proelio coegit, victoresque iam nova Macedonum repente

monstra vicerunt. {20} Nec hostibus incruenta victoria fuit. Nam et

Pyrrhus ipse graviter vulneratus est, et magna pars militum eius caesa,

maioremque gloriam eius victoriae quam laetitiam habuit.

JUSTINUS, xviii. 1.

[Linenotes:

1. +iterata legatione+ = _by a second embassy_.

3. +fatigaretur+ = _was importuned_.

3-4. +non tam ... inductus.+ Pyrrhus aimed at founding a western

Grecian Empire in Italy and Sicily.

7-9. +patruo suo Alexandro ... fuerant.+ Alexander of Epirus had

almost succeeded in uniting the whole of Magna Graecia (332-326

B.C.) when he was cut off by the hand of an assassin.

9. +magno Alexandro.+ Pyrrhus was acknowledged to be the first

general of the school of Alexander, and Hannibal (so Plutarch tells

us) considered him the greatest military genius.

18. +inusitata ante ... forma+ = _the unfamiliar appearance of_.

22-23. +magna pars militum.+ Pyrrhus is said to have lost 4000 men,

'a serious matter to him in a foreign country, where he could not

easily replace the loss of his tried old warriors.' --Ihne.]

+Cause of the War.+ By 282 B.C. Rome had taken possession of Magna

Graecia, with the exception of Tarentum. In 282 B.C. (in defiance of the

treaty of 301 B.C.) a Roman fleet appeared before the Harbour of

Tarentum. A naval battle ensued in which the Tarentines were victorious,

and the war began.

D42

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (2)

_Fabricius the Just. Honesty before Expediency._

Cum rex Pyrrhus populo Romano bellum ultro intulisset, cumque de imperio

certamen esset cum rege generoso ac potenti, perfuga ab eo venit in

castra Fabricii eique est pollicitus, si praemium sibi proposuisset, se,

ut clam venisset, sic clam in Pyrrhi {5} castra rediturum et eum veneno

necaturum. Hunc Fabricius reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum idque eius

factum laudatum a senatu est. Atqui, si speciem utilitatis opinionemque

quaerimus, magnum illud bellum perfuga unus et gravem adversarium imperi

{10} sustulisset, sed magnum dedecus et flagitium, quicum laudis

certamen fuisset, eum non virtute sed scelere superatum. Utrum igitur

utilius vel Fabricio, qui talis in hac urbe qualis Aristides Athenis

fuit, vel senatui nostro, qui numquam utilitatem a dignitate {15}

seiunxit, armis cum hoste certare an venenis? Si gloriae causa imperium

expetendum est, scelus absit, in quo non potest esse gloria: sin ipsae

opes expetuntur quoquo modo, non poterunt utiles esse cum infamia. {20}

CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 86, 87.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +bellum ultro intulisset+ = _had begun an aggressive_ (+ultro+)

_war_.

+ultro+ = lit. _to a place beyond_, hence = _beyond expectation_,

_unprovoked_.

2. +de imperio+ = _uter imperaret_. --Holden.

3. +perfuga+ = _a deserter_. Aulus Gellius says the traitor was

Nicias, a friend of Pyrrhus; Florus and Eutropius, a physician of

Pyrrhus.

8. +atqui+ = _and yet_, a more emphatic +at+.

8-9. +speciem utilitatis opinionemque+ (sc. +utilitatis+) = _the

semblance and (popular) opinion of expediency_. --H.

11-13. +sed magnum ... superatum+ = _but it would have been a

lasting disgrace and scandal for a general, with whom the struggle

lay for glory, to have been overcome by an act of wickedness and not

by valour_. --H.

14. +Aristides Athenis.+ Aristides the Just. 'Sans Peur et sans

Reproche.'

19. +quoquo modo+ = _in any way_. Cf. _quacumque ratione_. --H.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Eutropius ii. 7. 8. 14: _Tum Pyrrhus admiratus eum

dixisse fertur: 'Ille est Fabricius, qui difficilius ab honestate quam

sol a cursu suo averti potest.'_

+Fabricius+, like Cincinnatus and M'. Curius Dentatus, is the

representative of the purity and honesty of the good old times.

D43

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3)

_Appius the Blind, 280 B.C._

Ad Appi Claudi senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset; tamen is, cum

sententia senatus inclinaret ad pacem cum Pyrrho foedusque faciendum,

non dubitavit dicere illa, quae versibus persecutus est Ennius: {5}

_Quo vobis mentes, rectae quae stare solebant

Antehac, dementis sese flexere viai?_

ceteraque gravissime, notum enim vobis carmen est, et tamen ipsius Appi

exstat oratio. Atque haec ille egit septemdecim annis post alterum

consulatum, {10} cum inter duos consulatus anni decem interfuissent

censorque ante superiorem consulatum fuisset, ex quo intelligitur Pyrrhi

bello grandem sane fuisse. . . . Quattuor robustos filios, quinque

filias, tantam domum, tantas clientelas Appius regebat et caecus {15} et

senex; intentum enim animum tamquam arcum habebat nec languescens

succumbebat senectuti. Tenebat non modo auctoritatem, sed etiam imperium

in suos: metuebant servi, verebantur liberi, carum omnes habebant;

vigebat in illo animus {20} patrius et disciplina.

CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 16, 37.

[Linenotes:

1. +Appi Claudi.+ This was the Appius Claudius whose Censorship, 312

B.C., was famous for his great public works, the +Via Appia+, the

great South road of Rome, and the +Aqua Appia+, an aqueduct which

brought water to Rome a distance of eight miles; and also for his

measure (corresponding to a Parliamentary Reform Bill) admitting

freedmen as full citizens by enrolling them in Tribes.

2-9. +tamen is ... exstat oratio.+ When the Senate was about to

yield to the persuasive eloquence of Cineas, the envoy of Pyrrhus,

he had himself led into the Senate-house to make the speech which

turned the scale against the invader.

4. +versibus persecutus est+ = _has followed out in the lines_.

J. S. R.

7. +viai+ (= _viae_ old genit.) = i. _quo viae_, cf. _ubi terrarum_,

or ii. _sese flexere viae_, a Greek genitive.

9-10. +haec ille egit+ = _he made this speech_.

14-15. +tantam ... clientelas+ = _a large household_, _a large

number of dependents_; +clientelas = clientes+.

16. +intentum+ (_in + tendo_) = _on the stretch_. Cf. opposite

_remissus_.

19-21. +metuebant ... disciplina+ = _his slaves feared him, his

children stood in awe of him, yet all held him dear; in him

ancestral spirit and principles_ (+disciplina+) _were strong_.

--J. S. Reid.]

+The Speech of Appius Claudius.+ For the substance of the Speech,

_see_ Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, xi.

D44

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (4)

A. _The Battle of Asculum, 279 B.C._

In Apulia deinde apud Asculum melius dimicatum est Curio Fabricioque

consulibus. Iam quippe terror[26] beluarum exoleverat, et Gaius Numicius

quartae legionis hastatus unius proboscide abscisa mori posse beluas

ostenderat. Itaque in ipsas pila congesta sunt {5} et in turres vibratae

faces tota hostium agmina ardentibus ruinis operuerunt. Nec alius cladi

finis fuit quam nox dirimeret, postremusque fugientium rex ipse a

satellitibus umero saucius in armis suis referretur. {10}

[Footnote 26: Cf. p. 100, ll. 17-20.]

[[Selection D41: "inusitata ... elephantorum forma"]

[Linenotes:

1. +Asculum+, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, between

Beneventum and Canusium.

3. +exoleverat+ = _had grown less_ (lit. _had grown out of use_).

6. +in turres vibratae faces+ = _firebrands hurled against their

towers_.

8. +dirimeret+ = _separated_ (the combatants).]

B. _The Battle near Beneventum, 275 B.C._

Lucaniae suprema pugna sub Arusinis, quos vocant, campis ducibus isdem

quibus superius; sed tum tota victoria. Exitum, quem datura virtus fuit,

casus dedit. Nam provectis in primam aciem rursus elephantis unum ex his

pullum adacti in caput teli {15} gravis ictus avertit; qui cum per

stragem suorum recurrens stridore quereretur, mater agnovit et quasi

vindicaret exsiluit, tum omnia circa quasi hostilia gravi mole

permiscuit. Ac sic eaedem ferae, quae primam victoriam abstulerunt,

secundam parem {20} fecerunt, tertiam sine controversia tradiderunt.

FLORUS, I. xviii. 9-13.

[Linenotes:

11-12. +Lucaniae ... campis.+ The Battle was fought near Beneventum

(orig. +Male-+_ventum_, perhaps from _male + ventus_ on account of

its unwholesome air) in Samnium on the Via Appia, E. of Capua.

15-16. +unum ex his ... avertit+ = _the heavy stroke of a weapon

driven home_ (+adacti+) _into the head of a young elephant_

(+pullum+) _made it turn aside_.

19. +gravi mole+ = _with her unwieldy bulk_.]

+The Battle of Asculum.+ It is clear that Pyrrhus was again victorious,

but the Romans were able to retire into their fortified camp, and so

lost fewer men than at Heraclea.

+The Battle of Beneventum.+ Pyrrhus, in his attempt to storm the

entrenched camp of Curius Dentatus, was obliged to fight on unfavourable

ground. The result was a total defeat, and no choice was left him but to

give up the unequal contest.

D45

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (5)

_Death of Pyrrhus, 272 B.C._

_In praise of a great General._

Repulsus ab Spartanis Pyrrhus Argos petit: ibi, dum Antigonum in urbe

clausum expugnare conatur, inter confertissimos violentissime dimicans,

saxo de muris ictus occiditur. Caput eius Antigono refertur, qui

victoria mitius usus filium eius Helenum {5} cum Epirotis sibi deditum

in regnum remisit, eique insepulti patris ossa in patriam referenda

tradidit.

Satis constans inter omnes auctores fama est, nullum nec eius nec

superioris aetatis regem comparandum Pyrrho fuisse, raroque non inter

reges {10} tantum, verum etiam inter illustres viros, aut vitae

sanctioris aut iustitiae probatioris visum fuisse: scientiam certe rei

militaris in illo viro tantam fuisse, ut cum adversus Lysimachum,

Demetrium, Antigonum, tantos reges, bella gesserit, invictus {15} semper

fuerit: Illyriorum quoque, Siculorum Romanorumque et Carthaginiensium

bellis numquam inferior, plerumque etiam victor exstiterit; qui patriam

certe suam angustam ignobilemque fama rerum gestarum et claritate

nominis sui toto orbe {20} illustrem reddiderit.

JUSTINUS, xxv. 5.

[Linenotes:

1-4. +Repulsus ab Spartanis ... occiditur.+ At the invitation of

Cleonymus, who had been excluded from the throne of Sparta, Pyrrhus

undertook and failed in a desperate attack on the city. He then

turned against Argos, to wrest it from Antigonus Gonatas of

Macedonia, and was hit _by a tile thrown from a roof by a

woman_.[27] As he lay helpless on the ground he was recognised and

murdered.

8. +Satis constans fama+ = _a tolerably unanimous opinion_.

12. +iustitiae probatioris+ = _of more eminent_ (lit. _tested_)

_justice_.

14. +Lysimachum+, one of Alexander's generals. About 286 B.C. King

of Macedonia and Asia Minor.

+Demetrium+, surnamed _Poliorcetes_ (_stormer of cities_), son of

Antigonus, King of Asia (one of Alexander's generals).

16-17. +Siculorum bellis.+ During the years 280-276 B.C. Pyrrhus

made himself master of all Sicily with the exception of the

Carthaginian stronghold of Lilybaeum.]

[Footnote 27: Cf. the death of Abimelech before Thebez, Judges

ix. 53.]

+Character of Pyrrhus.+ 'He was not only one of the ablest generals and

princes, but amiable also as a man, and worthy of our sympathy and

respect.' --Ihne.

+Why he failed.+ 'From lack of accurate information he wholly

underestimated the power of Rome. Here was the great error in his

calculation, an error for which he can hardly be held responsible.'

--Ihne.

+Reference.+ Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_.

D46

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (6)

_Manius Curius Dentatus, an old-time Roman._

A. Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta rerum rusticarum, sed ea ipsa

quae dixi sentio fuisse longiora. Ignoscetis autem, nam et studio rerum

rusticarum provectus sum, et senectus est natura loquacior, ne ab

omnibus eam vitiis videar vindicare. {5} Ergo in hac vita M'. Curius,

cum de Samnitibus, de Sabinis, de Pyrrho triumphavisset, consumpsit

extremum tempus aetatis; cuius quidem ego villam contemplans, abest enim

non longe a me, admirari satis non possum vel hominis ipsius

continentiam {10} vel temporum disciplinam. Curio ad focum sedenti

magnum auri pondus Samnites cum attulissent, repudiati sunt: non enim

aurum habere praeclarum sibi videri dixit, sed eis qui haberent aurum

imperare.

CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 55-56.

+Context.+ The speaker is Cato the Censor, 184 B.C., the founder of

Latin Prose, whose manual of Agriculture, +de Re Rustica+, is still

extant.

[Linenotes:

1. +Possum persequi+ = _I might follow out_.

+oblectamenta+ = _amusements_ (cf. _de-lecto_, _delight_).

4. +provectus sum+ = _I have been carried away_. --J. S. Reid.

8. +extremum tempus aetatis+ = _the closing season of his life_.

9. +a me+ (= +a mea villa+) = _from my country-house_.

11. +disciplinam+ = _morals_ (lit. _teaching_).

11-13. After the close of the war Curius had become +patronus+ of

the Samnites, and they were bringing the customary offering of

+clientes+.--J. S. R.]

Curius parvo quae legerat horto

Ipse focis brevibus ponebat holuscula.

JUVENAL, xi. 78-79.

[Linenotes:

78-79. Plutarch, _Cato_ 2, tells the story. Curius was one of

Milton's

'Men so poor | who could do mighty things.' --Duff.

79. +holuscula+ (dimin. of +h[)o]lus+) = _small herbs or vegetables_.]

Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis

Utilem bello tulit et Camillum

Saeva paupertas et avitus apto

Cum lare fundus. 44

HORACE, _Odes_, I. xii. 41-44.

[Linenotes:

41. +Hunc+ = Fabricius.

43. +paupertas+ = _frugality_, not _poverty_ (= _egestas_).

43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with its cottage home to match_ (+apto+).

--W.

'Hurrah! for Manius Curius

The bravest son of Rome,

Thrice in utmost need sent forth,

Thrice drawn in triumph home.' --Macaulay.]

D47

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (7)

_In Praise of Tarentum._

Unde si Parcae prohibent iniquae,

Dulce pellîtis ovibus Galaesi

Flumen et regnata petam Laconi

Rura Phalantho. 12

Ille terrarum mihi praeter omnes

Angulus ridêt, ubi non Hymetto

Mella decedunt viridique certat

Baca Venafro, 16

Ver ubi longum tepidasque praebet

Iuppiter brumas et amicus Aulon

Fertili Baccho minimum Falernis

Invidet uvis. 20

Ille te mecum locus et beatae

Postulant arces, ibi tu calentem

Debita sparges lacrima favillam

Vatis amici. 24

HORACE, _Odes_, II. vi. 9-end.

+Subject.+ 'Septimius, my dear friend who would accompany me to the ends

of the earth, let me spend the close of my life at Tibur (Tivoli), or if

not there, then at Tarentum. Let us go there together, and live there

till I die.' --Wickham.

[Linenotes:

9. +unde+ = _from this place_, i.e. from Tibur.

10. +dulce pellitis ovibus+ = _dear to the skin-clad_ (+pellitis+)

_sheep_, so clad to keep their fleeces clean. --Gow.

10-11. +Galaesi flumen+, flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, near the

city.

12. +Phalantho+, an exile from Sparta, founded Tarentum, 708 B.C.

13, 21, 22. +Ille+ (13) ... +ille+ (21) ... +ibi+ (22) = _Tarentum_,

emphatic guiding words. Cf. +te mecum+ (21) ... +tu amici+ (22, 24)

= _Septimius and Horace_.

14-15. +ubi non ... decedunt+ = _where the honey does not give way to

(is not inferior to) that of Hymettus_.

15-16. +viridi Venafro+ = _with the green (olive-groves of) Venafrum_

(N. of Campania).

16. +Baca+ = _the olive_, the noblest of berries. --Gow.

18. +Aulon+ = (_the grapes of_) _Aulon_, a hill and valley near

Tarentum.

19. +Fertili+ = _who makes the vines fertile_.

22-24. +ibi tu ... vatis amici.+

'There when life shall end,

Your tear shall dew my yet warm pyre,

Your bard and friend.' --Conington.]

+Reference.+ Polybius, x. 1. In 272 B.C. Milo with his garrison of

Epirots marched out of Tarentum with all the honours of war.

+Rome now ruled supreme over the whole of Italy from Ariminum in the

North to the Sicilian Straits.+

D48

THE PRAISE OF ITALY.

'_Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus,

Magna virum._'

Adde tot egregias urbes operumque laborem, 155

Tot congesta manu praeruptis oppida saxis,

Fluminaque antiquos subterlabentia muros.

An mare, quod supra, memorem, quodque alluit infra?

Anne lacus tantos? Te, Lari maxime, teque,

Fluctibus et fremitu adsurgens Benace marino? 160

. . . . . . .

Haec eadem argenti rivos aerisque metalla 165

Ostendit venis atque auro plurima fluxit.

Haec genus acre virum, Marsos pubemque Sabellam,

Adsuetumque malo Ligurem, Volscosque verutos

Extulit: haec Decios, Marios, magnosque Camillos,

Scipiadas duros bello, et te, maxime Caesar, 170

Qui nunc extremis Asiae iam victor in oris

Imbellem avertis Romanis arcibus Indum.

Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus,

Magna virum: tibi res antiquae laudis et artis

Ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere fontes, 175

Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.

VERGIL, _Georg._ ii. 155-176.

[Linenotes:

158. +mare quod supra alluit+ = the _mare superum_ = the Adriatic.

+mare quod infra alluit+ = the _mare inferum_ = the Tuscan or

Tyrrhenian (#Turrhênos# = Tuscan) sea.

159. +Lari+ = Lake Larius (= _Como_), N. of Milan.

160. +Benace+ = Lake Benacus (= _Garda_), W. of Verona.

+fremitu marino+ = _with roar as of the sea_.

168. +adsuetum malo+ = _trained in hardship_. --Mackail.

+Volscosque verutos+ = _and the Volscian spearmen (light infantry)_.

+verutos+ = armed with the _verutum_ (or _veru_ = lit. a _spit_), a

_javelin_.

170. +Scipiadas+, Greek patronymic form = Lat. _Scîp[)i]ônês_.

+maxime Caesar+ = Augustus.

172-173. After Actium, 31 B.C., Augustus spent more than a year in

reducing and settling the East (+imbellem Indum+) whose forces had

been wielded by Antony. --Sidgwick.

173. +Saturnia tellus+, in allusion to Saturn's reign in Latium in

the age of gold.

174-175. +tibi res ... fontes+ = _for thee I enter on themes of

ancient glory and skill_ (i.e. in agriculture) _and dare to unseal_

(+recludere+) _the sacred springs_; +res laudis+, the theme of the

_Aeneid_, +res artis+, of the _Georgics_.

176. +Ascraeum carmen+ = _the song of Ascra_, i.e. the _Georgics_,

because Hesiod (author of _Works and Days_ to which Vergil is much

indebted) was born at Ascra, near Helicon, in Boeotia. --S.]

CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C.

_The Vision of Anchises.--Rome's Heroes._

'Ille triumphata Capitolia ad alta Corintho

Victor aget currum, caesis insignis Achivis.

Eruet ille Argos Agamemnoniasque Mycenas,

Ipsumque Aeaciden, genus armipotentis Achilli,

Ultus avos Troiae, templa et temerata Minervae. 840

Quis te, magne Cato, tacitum, aut te, Cosse, relinquat?

Quis Gracchi genus, aut geminos, duo fulmina belli,

Scipiadas, cladem Libyae, parvoque potentem

Fabricium, vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem?

Quo fessum rapitis, Fabii? Tu Maximus ille es, 845

Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem.'

. . . . . . .

'Aspice, ut insignis spoliis Marcellus opimis 855

Ingreditur, victorque viros supereminet omnes!

Hic rem Romanam, magno turbante tumultu,

Sistet, eques sternet Poenos Gallumque rebellem,

Tertiaque arma patri suspendet capta Quirino.'

VERGIL, _Aen._ vi. 836-846, 855-859.

[Linenotes:

836. +Ille+ = L. Mummius Achaicus, destroyed Corinth, 146 B.C.

838. +Ille+ = L. Aemilius Paullus, crushed Perseus (= +Aeaciden+

l. 839) at Pydna, 168 B.C.

841. +Cosse+ = Cornelius Cossus, won Spolia Opima a second time,

428 B.C.

842. +Gracchi genus+, e.g. (i.) Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, twice

Consul 215, 212 B.C., in 2nd Punic War; (ii.) T. S. G. distinguished

in Spain; (iii.) the two great Tribunes, Tiberius and Gaius.

843. +Scipiadas+ = (i.) Scipio Africanus Maior, victor at Zama, 202

B.C.; (ii.) Scipio Africanus Minor, destroyed Carthage, 146 B.C.

844. +Fabricium+, Consul 282 and 278 B.C. in war with Pyrrhus. Proof

against bribes.

+Serrane+ = Regulus, victor at Ecnomus, 256 B.C., a prisoner, 255

B.C. True to his word.

845. +Maximus+ = Q. Fabius M. Cunctator, Dictator after Cannae. The

Shield of Rome.

846. From the Annals of Ennius (239-169 B.C.), often quoted.

855. +Marcellus+, five times Consul. Took Syracuse 212 B.C. The

Sword of Rome.

857. +magno ... tumultu+ = _when a great upheaving shakes it_.

--Page.

+Tumultus+ (as Cic. tells us) is specially used of a rising in Italy

or in Gaul, as it was close to Italy. (Elsewhere = _bellum_.)

858. +Sistet, ... sternet.+ Notice the antithesis and alliteration

(assonance).]

+The Vision of Anchises+ is the imperishable record of the national

life, where the poet 'sums up in lines like bars of gold the hero-roll

of the Eternal City.' --Myers.

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_The Foundation of Carthage, 878 B.C._

Pygmalion, cognita sororis fuga, cum impio bello fugientem persequi

pararet, aegre precibus matris deorumque minis victus quievit. . . .

Itaque Elissa delata in Africae sinum incolas eius loci adventu

peregrinorum mutuarumque rerum commercio {5} gaudentes in amicitiam

sollicitat. Dein empto loco, qui corio bovis tegi posset, in quo fessos

longa navigatione socios, quoad proficisceretur, reficere posset, corium

in tenuissimas partes secari iubet atque ita maius loci spatium, quam

petierat, occupat: unde {10} postea ei loco Byrsae nomen fuit.

Confluentibus deinde vicinis locorum, qui spe lucri multa hospitibus

venalia inferebant, sedesque ibi statuentibus ex frequentia hominum

velut instar civitatis effectum. est. . . . Itaque consentientibus

omnibus Carthago {15} conditur, statuto annuo vectigali pro solo urbis.

In primis fundamentis caput bubulum inventum est, quod auspicium

fructuosae quidem, sed laboriosae perpetuoque servae urbis fuit; propter

quod in alium locum urbs translata. Ibi quoque equi caput repertum, {20}

bellicosum potentemque populum futurum significans, urbi auspicatam

sedem dedit. Tunc ad opinionem novae urbis concurrentibus gentibus brevi

et populus et civitas magna facta.

JUSTINUS, xviii. 5.

[Linenotes:

1. +Pygmalion+, King of Tyre, murdered Sychaeus, husband of Elissa

(Dido).

4. +sinum+ = Gulf of Tunis. (See Murray's Classical Atlas.)

5. +peregrinorum+ = _of strangers_. +per + ager+. Cf. _pilgrim_.

Fr. _pèlerin_.

+mutuarum rerum commercio+ = _barter_.

11. +Byrsae+, i.e., later, the Citadel quarter, as if from #bursa# =

a _hide_, prob. corrupted from Phoen. _Bozra_ (= a _fort_). So

_Carthage_ = _Kirjath (city)_; cp. _Kirjath-Arba_ (Hebron), and

_Hannibal_ (= Hanniel) = _the grace of Baal_.

14. +velut instar c.+ = _as if the semblance of a state_; cf.

'instar montis equus,' Verg. --Post.

17. +bubulum+ = _of an ox_, adj. from _bos_.

22. +auspicatam+ = _auspicious_, in active sense.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Verg. _Aen._ i. 336-368, 418-438, and _Aen._ iv.

21-22.

+References.+ Bosworth Smith, _Carthage and the Carthaginians_. --Ihne,

_Hist. of Rome_, vol. ii. pp. 3-21.

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_Aeneas views the Building of Carthage, circ. 878 B.C._

Iamque ascendebant collem, qui plurimus urbi

Imminet adversasque aspectat desuper arces. 420

Miratur molem Aeneas, magalia quondam,

Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum.

Instant ardentes Tyrii pars ducere muros

Molirique arcem et manibus subvolvere saxa,

Pars optare locum tecto et concludere sulco; 425

Iura magistratusque legunt sanctumque senatum;

Hic portus alii effodiunt; hinc lata theatris

Fundamenta locant alii, immanesque columnas

Rupibus excidunt, scaenis decora alta futuris.

Qualis apes aestate nova per florea rura 430

Exercet sub sole labor, cum gentis adultos

Educunt fetus, aut cum lîquentia mella

Stipant et dulci distendunt nectare cellas,

Aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto

Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent: 435

Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella.

'O fortunati, quorum iam moenia surgunt!'

Aeneas ait, et fastigia suspicit urbis.

VERGIL, _Aen._ i. 419-438.

[Linenotes:

419. +plurimus+ = _in huge mass_, with the predicate +imminet+.

421. +magalia+ = _huts_, a Carthaginian (Phoenician) word. Cf.

#megaron#.

422. +strata viarum+ = _stratas vias_ = _the paved roads_.

--Sidgwick.

423, 424, 425. +ducere ... moliri ... subvolvere ... optare ...

concludere+, dependent on the idea of _eagerness_ or _striving_ in

+instant+.--S.

426. Vergil is thinking, as often, of Roman institutions, and not of

what was appropriate to heroic times. Cf. _Aen._ i. 507-8.

430-436. This simile is a reproduction of _Georg._ iv. 162-169. Cf.

Milton, _Par. Lost_, i. 768:

'As bees

In springtime, when the sun with Taurus rides,

Pour forth their populous youth about the hive.'

432. +lîquentia+ = _liquid_, from +lîquor+, dep. Elsewhere Vergil

uses +l[)i]quens+ from +l[)i]queo+.

433. +Stipant+ = _pack_, the notion of _pushing_ and _tightness_

being given in the very sound of the heavy overhanging spondees in

this line. --S.

435. +Ignavum ... arcent+ = _drive the drones, a slothful herd, from

the enclosure_. Notice the order. --Page.

437. 'The want of a city is the key-note of the _Aeneid_.'

--Conington.]

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_A Roman Martyr. Country before Expediency._

M. Atilius Regulus, cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus esset

duce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisi

redditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem.

Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis {5} speciem videbat, sed eam, ut res

declarat, falsam iudicavit: quae erat talis: manere in patria, esse

domui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello,

communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis {10}

gradum. . . . Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit,

sententiam ne diceret recusavit: quam diu iure iurando hostium

teneretur, non esse se senatorem. . . . Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas,

captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem {15} rediit neque eum caritas

patriae retinuit nec suorum, . . . 'At stulte, qui non modo non

censuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit.' Quo modo

stulte? etiamne, si reipublicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutile

reipublicae sit, id cuiquam {20} civi utile esse?

CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 99, 100.

[Linenotes:

1. +consul.+ Regulus was Consul 261 and 256 B.C., and Proconsul in

Africa 255 B.C., when he was defeated and taken prisoner by

Xanthippus.

6. +speciem+ = the _specious (plausible) appearance (semblance)_.

12, 13. +sententiam ... recusavit+ = _declined to give his own

opinion on the case_.

13. +iure iurando+ (sc. _dato_) = _by the oath sworn to his

enemies_.

17. '+At stulte+' (sc. _fecit_) = '_But, it may he said, he acted

like a fool._'

19. +etiamne+ (sc. _stulte fecit_) = _What, how did he act like a

fool, if_ ...--Holden.]

20, 21. +potest autem ... utile esse.+ Cf. #Ho tê polei ouk esti

blaberon oude ton politên blaptei# = that which is not harmful

(#blaberon# = +inutile+) to the State is not harmful to the

citizen.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Polybius, i. 31-36 (he makes no mention of the

embassy of Regulus); Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 2 (interesting letter on the

death of Regulus); and espec. Hor. _Od._ III. v. 13-end.

'With counsel thus, ne'er else aread [_advised_],

He nerved the Fathers' weak intent,

And, girt by friends that mourn'd him, sped

Into illustrious banishment.' --C.

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

A. _First Roman Naval Victory near Mylae, 260 B.C._

C. Duilius, primo Punico bello a Romanis dux contra Carthaginienses

missus, cum videret eos multum mari valere, classem magis validam quam

decoram aedificavit, et manus ferreas, quas corvos vocabant, instituit.

His, quas ante pugnam hostes {5} valde deriserant, in pugna ipsa ad

Liparas insulas commissa naves hostium comprehendit, easque partim

cepit, partim demersit. Dux classis Punicae Carthaginem fugit, et ex

senatu quaesivit quid faceret. Omnibus ut pugnaret succlamantibus: {10}

'Feci,' inquit, 'et victus sum.' Sic poenam crucis effugit, nam hac

poena dux, re male gesta, apud Poenos afficiebatur. Duilius autem victor

primum triumphum maritimum Romae egit, et ad memoriam victoriae columna

rostrata in foro posita est. {15}

(_Adapted_) Cf. FLORUS, I. xviii. 7-10.

[Linenotes:

4. +corvos+ = _crows_ (the #korakes# of Polybius), boarding-bridges.

A broad movable ladder, fastened to the foremast, and held in

position by a rope. When the rope was let go, the iron hook at the

upper end of the ladder penetrated the deck of an enemy's ship.

6. +ad Liparas insulas+ = Aeoliae Insulae (Lipari Islands), N.E. of

Sicily. Mylae was on a promontory S.E. of these Islands.

8. +Dux+, i.e. Hannibal, the defender of Agrigentum 262 B.C.]

B. _Unique honour conferred on Duilius._

C. Duilium, qui Poenos classe primus devicerat, redeuntem a cena senem

saepe videbam puer; delectabatur cereo funali et tibicine, quae sibi

nullo exemplo privatus sumpserat: tantum licentiae dabat gloria. {20}

CICERO, _De Senectute_, xiii. § 44.

[Linenotes:

18. +cereo funali+,[28] i.e. _torchlight_.

+nullo exemplo+ = _without any precedent_.

18-19. +sibi ... sumpserat.+ Cicero is wrong: more probably the

honour was conferred on Duilius by a vote of the Comitia Tributa.

19. +dabat+ = _excused_; lit. _granted_, _allowed_. -- J. S. Reid.]

[Footnote 28: The +funale+ was a torch composed of twigs twisted

into a rope (+funis+) and dipped in pitch or oil. --J. S. R.]

+References.+ Polybius, i. 22, for a description of the _corvi_,

#korakes#. Sir Andrew Barton (Percy's _Reliques_). Lord Howard says:--

'Were twenty shippes, and he but one,

I swear by kirke and bower and hall,

He would overcome them every one

If once his beames they do down fall.'

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_Carthaginian Victory off Drepana, 249 B.C._

_Rashness of Claudius._

Praedictiones vero et praesensiones rerum futurarum quid aliud declarant

nisi hominibus ea ostendi, monstrari, portendi, praedici? Ex quo illa

ostenta, monstra, portenta, prodigia dicuntur. Quod si ea ficta credimus

licentia fabularum, Mopsum, Tiresiam, {5} Amphiaraum, Calchantem,

Helenum, quos tamen augures ne ipsae quidem fabulae adscivissent, si res

omnino repudiaret, ne domesticis quidem exemplis docti numen deorum

conprobabimus? Nihil nos P. Claudi bello Punico primo temeritas movebit,

qui {10} etiam per iocum deos irridens, cum cavea literati pulli non

pascerentur, mergi eos in aquam iussit, ut biberent, quoniam esse

nollent? Qui risus, classe devicta, multas ipsi lacrimas, magnam populo

Romano cladem attulit. Quid? Collega eius Iunius {15} eodem bello nonne

tempestate classem amisit, cum auspiciis non paruisset? Itaque Claudius

a populo condemnatus est, Iunius necem sibi ipse conscivit.

CICERO, _De Nat. Deorum_, II. 3. 7-8.

[Linenotes:

3. +ostenta ... dicuntur+ = _are called in Latin_ '_ostenta_,'

'_monstra_,' etc. --Walford.

4. +prodigium+ for _prodicium_ = _pro_ + [Rt]_dic-_ #deik-# = _point

out_.

5. +Mopsum+, etc. = _all those stories about Mopsus_, _etc._, in

apposition to +ea+: poetical construction.

+Mopsum+, the prophet who accompanied the Argonauts.

+Tiresiam+, the blind prophet of Thebes.

6. +Amphiaraum+, the seer of Argos. One of the Seven against Thebes.

+Helenus+, son of Priam. A seer of the _Iliad_ and the _Aeneid_.

10. +P. Claudi temeritas.+ P. Cl. Pulcher (son of Appius Claudius,

the blind Censor) defeated by Adherbal off Drepana (N.W. corner of

Sicily, between Eryx and Lilybaeum).

15. +Iunius.+ L. J. Pullus, consul 249 B.C. His fleet was destroyed

by a storm off Pachynus (C. Passaro) the same year.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Florus ii. 2 says that 'Claudius was overthrown, not

by the enemy, but by the gods themselves, whose auspices he had

despised.'

+The Defeat off Drepana.+ 'The reason of the defeat lay in the

superiority of the Carthaginian admiral and seamen, and the inexperience

of Claudius and of his crews, consisting mainly of landsmen who knew

nothing of the sea. This disaster and the destruction of the fleet of

Junius crowned the series of misfortunes which befell the Romans in the

year 249 B.C., the most dismal time of the whole war.' --Ihne.

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae, 241 B.C._

_Peace with Carthage._

A. Interim Carthaginienses classe apud insulas Aegates a C. Lutatio,

consule Romanorum, superati statuerunt belli facere finem, eamque rem

arbitrio permiserunt Hamilcaris. Ille, etsi flagrabat bellandi

cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, quod {5} patriam, exhaustam

sumptibus, diutius calamitates belli ferre non posse intellegebat, sed

ita, ut statim mente agitaret, si paulum modo res essent refectae,

bellum renovare Romanosque armis persequi, donicum aut virtute vicissent

aut victi manus dedissent. {10}

CORN. NEPOS, _Hamilcar_, i.

[Linenotes:

1. +apud insulas Aegates+, the Goat Islands, off the W. Coast of

Sicily, between Drepana and Lilybaeum (Marsala).

3. +statuerunt belli facere finem.+ This victory led to the close of

the First Punic War.

5. +paci serviendum+ = _to devote himself to (obtaining) peace_.

9. +donicum+ (= _donec_), lit. '_at the time of day when ----_'

10. +virtute vicissent+ = _they (the Romans) should have conquered

by (superior) prowess_.]

Hic dum stagnosi spectat templumque domosque

Literni ductor, varia splendentia cernit

Pictura belli patribus monumenta prioris 655

Exhausti: nam porticibus signata manebant,

Quis inerat longus rerum et spectabilis ordo.

. . . . . . .

Addiderant geminas medio consurgere fluctu

Aegates: lacerae circum fragmenta videres 685

Classis et effusos fluitare in gurgite Poenos.

Possessor pelagi pronaque Lutatius aura

Captivas puppes ad litora victor agebat.

SILIUS ITALICUS, vi. 653-657, 684-688.

[Linenotes:

653-654. +stagnosi Literni.+ Town and River on the coast of

Campania, N. of Cumae. The River flows through a marsh = Literna

palus.

654. +ductor+ = Hannibal.

654-657. Silius (who closely imitates Vergil) makes Hannibal view

the sculptured memorials of the First Punic War, just as Aeneas sees

carved the tale of Troy. Verg. _Aen._ i. 445-493.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Polybius, i. caps. 59-63.

+Terms of Peace.+ Carthage engaged to evacuate Sicily; not to make war

upon Hiero of Syracuse; to give up all Roman prisoners without ransom,

and to pay 2200 talents in twenty years.

+Sicily the first Roman Province.+

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _Great Importance of the Second Punic War._

In parte operis mei licet mihi praefari bellum maxime omnium memorabile,

quae unquam gesta sint, me scripturum, quod Hannibale duce

Carthaginienses cum populo Romano gessere. Nam neque validiores opibus

ullae inter se civitates gentesque contulerunt {5} arma, neque his ipsis

tantum unquam virium aut roboris fuit, et haud ignotas belli artes inter

sese, sed expertas primo Punico conferebant bello, et adeo varia fortuna

belli ancepsque Mars fuit, ut propius periculum fuerint, qui vicerunt.

Odiis etiam prope {10} maioribus certarunt quam viribus, Romanis

indignantibus quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, Poenis, quod

superbe avareque crederent imperitatum victis esse.

[Linenotes:

3. +Hannibale duce.+ Polybius called the war of which Hannibal was

the life and soul the 'Hannibalian War.'

6. +his ipsis+, sc. _Romanis Poenisque_, with _validiores_.

6-7. +virium aut roboris+ = _offensive or defensive strength_. --R.

8. +expertas+ = _tested_, in a passive sense.

9. +ut propius ... vicerunt+, e.g. after Cannae, 216 B.C.

12. +ultro inferrent arma+ = _should presume to attack_. --Dimsdale.

13. +Poenis+, sc. _indignantibus_.

+superbe avareque.+ 'When the war of the mercenaries broke out in

Africa (241-238 B.C.) Rome availed herself of the distress of

Carthage to extort the cession of Sardinia, and raised the war

indemnity by 1200 talents.' --Ihne.]

B. _The Oath of the Boy Hannibal._

Fama est etiam, Hannibalem annorum ferme {15} novem, pueriliter

blandientem patri Hamilcari, ut duceretur in Hispaniam, cum, perfecto

Africo bello, exercitum eo traiecturus sacrificaret, altaribus admotum,

tactis sacris, iure iurando adactum, se, cum primum posset, hostem fore

populo Romano. {20}

LIVY, xxi. 1.

[Linenotes:

16. +blandientem+ = _coaxingly entreating_. --D.

17. +perfecto Africo bello+, i.e. between Carthage and her mutinous

mercenaries, 241-237 B.C.]

+Parallel Passage.+ For Hannibal's Oath, Livy xxxv. 19.

+Importance of the War.+ 'It was a struggle for existence, for supremacy

or destruction. It was to decide whether the Graeco-Roman civilisation

of the West or the Semitic (Carthaginian) civilisation of the East was

to be established in Europe, and to determine its history for all future

time.' --Ihne.

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

'_The paths of glory lead but to the grave._'

Expende Hannibalem: quot libras in duce summo 147

Invenies? . . . .

Additur imperiis Hispania, Pyrenaeum 151

Transilit. Opposuit natura Alpemque nivemque:

Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit aceto.

Iam tenet Italiam, tamen ultra pergere tendit:

'Actum,' inquit, 'nihil est, nisi Poeno milite portas 155

Frangimus et media vexillum pono Subura.'

O qualis facies et quali digna tabella,

Cum Gaetula ducem portaret belua luscum!

Exitus ergo quis est? O gloria! vincitur idem

Nempe et in exilium praeceps fugit, atque ibi magnus 160

Mirandusque cliens sedet ad praetoria regis,

Donec Bithyno libeat vigilare tyranno.

Finem animae, quae res humanas miscuit olim,

Non gladii, non saxa dabunt, nec tela, sed ille

Cannarum vindex et tanti sanguinis ultor, 165

Anulus. I, demens, et saevas curre per Alpes,

Ut pueris placeas et declamatio fias.

JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 147-167.

[Linenotes:

147-148. +Expende ... invenies+ = _if you lay_ (lit. 'weigh')

_Hannibal in the scale, how many pounds will you find in the

greatest of commanders?_ --Duff. Cf. Ov. _Met._ xii. 615:

Iam cinis est: et de tam magno restat Achille

Nescio quid parvam quod non bene compleat urnam.

156. +media Subura+, i.e. in the heart of Rome. The Subura was one

of the busiest and most populous quarters of Rome.

157. +O qualis facies ... tabella+ = _what a sight and how fit for

caricature!_ lit. 'worthy of what a picture' i.e. how ridiculous a

picture it would have made. --Hardy.

158. +luscum+ = _one-eyed_. Hannibal lost an eye from disease, while

marching through the country flooded by the Arno, 217 B.C.

160. +in exilium+, i.e. first to Antiochus of Syria, and then to

Prusias of Bithynia.

166. +anulus.+ Hannibal took poison which he carried about in a ring

(+anulus+) 183 B.C., aged 76.

167. +ut ... fias+ = _to suit the taste of schoolboys, and become

the subject of their speeches_. --Duff.]

+For the thought+, cf. Shak. Ham. V. i. 232:

Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay,

Might stop a hole to keep the wind away:

O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe

Should patch a wall to expel the winter's flaw!

C10

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Character of Hannibal._

Nunquam ingenium idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum,

habilius fuit. Itaque haud facile discerneres, utrum imperatori an

exercitui carior esset; neque Hasdrubal alium quemquam praeficere malle,

ubi quid fortiter ac strenue agendum {5} esset, neque milites alio duce

plus confidere aut audere. Plurimum audaciae ad pericula capessenda,

plurimum consilii inter ipsa pericula erat. Nullo labore aut corpus

fatigari aut animus vinci poterat. Caloris ac frigoris patientia par;

cibi potionisque {10} desiderio naturali, non voluptate modus finitus;

vigiliarum somnique nec die nec nocte discriminata tempora: id, quod

gerendis rebus superesset, quieti datum; ea neque molli strato neque

silentio accersita; multi saepe militari sagulo opertum humi iacentem

{15} inter custodias stationesque militum conspexerunt. Vestitus nihil

inter aequales excellens; arma atque equi conspiciebantur. Equitum

peditumque idem longe primus erat; princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus

conserto proelio excedebat. Has tantas viri virtutes {20} ingentia vitia

aequabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica, nihil veri,

nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum ius iurandum, nulla religio.

LIVY, xxi. 4.

[Linenotes:

2. +habilius+ = _better adapted_, lit. 'more easily handled'; cf.

our _handy_.

7. +ad pericula capessenda+ = _in incurring peril_.

12. +discriminata+ = _regulated_, lit. 'divided off'; cf.

_dis-cerno_, _dis-crimen_.

14. +accersita+ (= _arcessita_) = _wooed_.

15. +sagulo+ = _in his military cloak_: diminutive of _sagum_.

21. +inhumana crudelitas.+ Polybius says that many of his alleged

cruelties were to be set down to his namesake H. Monomachus.

21-23. +perfidia plus quam Punica.+ 'This does not seem to have been

anything worse than a consummate adroitness in laying traps for his

enemies.' --Church and Brodribb. Cf. 'Perfidious Albion.'

23. +nulla religio+ = _no scruples_, i.e. no force binding (_re +

ligare_) or restraining from wrong-doing, no conscience.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxvi. 41 of Scipio Africanus Minor--Sallust

_Cat._ 5 of Catiline--Polybius ix. 22-26 (important).

'Bitterly as the Romans hated, reviled, and persecuted Carthage, the

most deadly poison of their hatred they poured upon Hannibal; they did

not hesitate to blacken his memory by the most revolting accusations.'

--Ihne.

C11

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Siege of Saguntum, 219 B.C._

Angulus muri erat in planiorem patentioremque quam cetera circa vallem

vergens; adversus eum vineas agere instituit, per quas aries moenibus

admoveri posset. Sed ut locus procul muro satis aequus agendis vineis

fuit, ita haudquaquam prospere, {5} postquam ad effectum operis ventum

est, coeptis succedebat. Et turris ingens imminebat, et murus, ut in

suspecto loco, supra ceterae modum altitudinis emunitus erat, et

iuventus delecta, ubi plurimum periculi ac timoris ostendebatur, ibi vi

maiore obsistebant. {10} Ac primo missilibus summovere hostem nec

quicquam satis tutum munientibus pati; deinde iam non pro moenibus modo

atque turri tela micare, sed ad erumpendum etiam in stationes operaque

hostium animus erat; quibus tumultuariis certaminibus {15} haud ferme

plures Saguntini cadebant quam Poeni. Ut vero Hannibal ipse, dum murum

incautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit, tanta

circa fuga ac trepidatio fuit, ut non multum abesset, quin opera ac

vineae desererentur. {20}

LIVY, xxi. 7.

[Linenotes:

2. +quam cetera+ (sc. _loca_) +circa+ = _than the neighbouring

country_.

4-5. +ut ... ita+ = lit. _as ... so_, i.e. _although ... yet ..._

6. +postquam ... ventum est+ = _when they came to attack the wall in

earnest_. +Effectum+ (verbal noun in _us_) = _the completion of the

work_, i.e. the bringing up of the ram. --Dimsdale.

8. +ut in suspecto loco+ = _as (was natural) in a suspected_ (i.e.

weak) _spot_. --Capes.

11-12. +nec quicquam ... pati+ = _they allowed those engaged on the

works no sort of safety_, lit. not (even) moderate safety. --D.

18. +adversum femur+ = _in the front of the thigh_.]

+SAGUNTUM+ (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about

20 miles S. of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greek

colonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B.C. Rome made an alliance with

Saguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked the

city ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies of

Carthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city in

his rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months' siege and a

heroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm

219 B.C.

_Nec pavet hic populus (Massilia) pro libertate subire

Obsessum Poeno gessit quod Marte Saguntum._

LUCAN, _Phars._ iii. 349-50.

Cf. also Juv. _Sat._ xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A.D.

C12

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _The Dream of Hannibal._

Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnis

a Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse ut

Italiae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illum

utentem cum exercitu progredi {5} coepisse; tum ei ducem illum

praecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisse

elatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem,

circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta,

virgulta, tecta {10} pervertere.

CICERO, _De Divinatione_, i. 24, 49.

[Linenotes:

1. +Coelius+, i.e. L. Coelius Antipater (a contemporary of C.

Gracchus 123 B.C.), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable

account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his

narrative.

7. +id ... non potuisse.+ Cf. Livy 'temperare oculis nequivisse = he

could not restrain his eyes.'

8. +cupiditate+ = _from curiosity_. Cf. Livy 'cura ingeni humani =

with the natural curiosity of the human mind.'

8-11. +visam belluam ... pervertere+ = _he thought he saw a monster

overthrowing_.]

B. _The Interpretation--Vastitatem esse Italiae._

Hoc trepidus monstro ... ardua quae sit, 198...200

Scitatur, pestis, terrasque urgentia membra

Quo ferat et quosnam populos deposcat hiatu.

Cui gelidis almae Cyllenes editus antris:

'Bella vides optata tibi: te maxima bella,

Te strages nemorum, te moto turbida caelo 205

Tempestas, caedesque virum, magnaeque ruinae

Idaei generis, lacrimosaque fata sequuntur.

Quantus per campos populatis montibus actus

Contorquet silvas squalenti tergore serpens,

Et late umectat terras spumante veneno: 210

Tantus, perdomitis decurrens Alpibus atro

Involves bello Italiam, tantoque fragore

Eruta convulsis prosternes oppida muris.'

SILIUS ITALICUS, iii. 198-213.

[Linenotes:

202. +hiatu+ = _with its wide-open mouth_.

203. +Cyllenes+, i.e. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the

Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is

said to have been born: hence styled _Cyllenius_.

209. +tergore = tergo+. poet. and post-Augustian.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii. 47.

C13

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_From the Pyrenees to the Rhone. Passage of the Elephants._

Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variat

memoria actae rei. . . . Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esse

elephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terra

in amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne {5} secunda aqua deferretur, pluribus

validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humo

iniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur.

Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta,

{10} huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viam

praegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressi

sunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis ab

actuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita {15} primis

expositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant,

donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta ab

ceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibus

extremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum {20} edebant, donec quietem

ipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientes

quidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribus

quaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. {25}

LIVY, xxi. 28.

[Linenotes:

2. +variat ... rei+ = _the accounts of what was done differ_.

--Dimsdale.

7. +parte superiore ... pontis+ = _fastened to the upper part of the

bank_, i.e. to the bank at a point higher up stream. --D.

9. +per solum+ = _on firm ground_.

14. +ab actuariis+ = _by some light craft_, lit. 'Easily moved'

(_ago_).

17-18. +donec ... agerentur+ = _So long as they were being driven on

what seemed a bridge connected with the land._ --C. and B.

_Agebantur_ would be more usual, but _agerentur_ may give the reason

of _nihil trepidabant_. Cf. _donec--fecisset_ ll. 21-22.

19. +in altum+ = _into mid stream_, usu. of the Sea. --D.

+inter se+ = _one on another_, _alii alios_.

24. +quaerendis pedetemptim vadis+ = _feeling their way into shallow

water_. +pedetemptim+ = _step by step_, lit. 'stretching out the

feet' (_pes + tendo_). Cf. _paulatim_, _sensim_.]

+Reference.+ Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought that

elephants could not swim.

C14

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_From the Rhone to Italy. Hannibal encourages his Soldiers._

Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atque

Italiam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigando

adhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terror

invaserit. . . . Alpes quidem habitari, coli, {5} gignere atque alere

animantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant,

legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidem

eorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibus

saepe agminibus cum {10} liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tuto

transmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belli

portanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur,

quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! {15} Romam,

caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduum

videri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiri

posse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute genti

per eos dies totiens ab se victae, {20} aut itineris finem sperent

campum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis.

LIVY, xxi. 30.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +varie ... versat+ = _works on their minds by different

methods_, i.e. +castigando adhortandoque+.--Dimsdale.

4-5. +repens terror.+ Livy says that H.'s soldiers dreaded the

Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the

exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps.

7. +Eos ipsos legatos+, i.e. of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long

settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan).

9. +advenas Italiae cultores+ = _foreign settlers in Italy_.

_advenas_ = adj. here. --D.

11. +migrantium modo+ = _as immigrants_.

16. +Romam caput orbis.+ A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was

not yet mistress even of all Italy (e.g. the Boii not subdued until

191 B.C.).

18. +Cepisse Gallos.+ The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B.C.

20. +genti ... victae+, e.g. at the Passage of the Rhone.

21. +campum+, i.e. the Campus Martius, N.W. of Rome, where the Tiber

makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. p. 116, ll. 7, 8.]

[[Selection C9, lines 155, 156]]

+The Speeches of Livy.+ 'He does not intend in them to reproduce the

substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of the

time in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramatic

method of portraying character and motive.' --Mackail.

C15

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_From the Rhone to Italy. The Descent of the Alps._

Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum mille

admodum altitudinem abruptus erat. . . . Tandem nequiquam iumentis atque

hominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum loco

purgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque {5} egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupem

muniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendum

esset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struem

ingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni

{10} coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso aceto

putrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntque

anfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiam

deduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum {15} iumentis prope

fame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli,

obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habent

rivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta in

pabulum missa, et quies {20} muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo inde

ad planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis.

LIVY, xxi. 36, 37.

+Context.+ At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. the

Little St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in the

road, caused by a landslip or avalanche.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +in pedum ... abruptus erat.+ Polybius says that the precipice

at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for

about 1000 ft. _in length_. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000

ft. _in depth_.

3-4. +Tandem ... fatigatis+, i.e. after H.'s attempt to pass by a

side-way over a glacier failed.

4. +in iugo+, i.e. on the higher level where the road was broken

away.

6. +ad rupem muniendam+ = _to cut a way through the rock_. _Munire_

(cf. _moenia_) = lit. 'to wall,' 'to build.' So _munire viam_ = _to

make a road_. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a

sort of terrace.

9. +detruncatis+ = _trimmed_, (lit. 'lopped off'), i.e. cleared of

branches.

11-12. +infuso aceto.+ Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar,

which the _posca_, the soldiers' regular drink of vinegar and water,

would supply. Polybius does not mention this.

13-14. +molliuntque ... clivos+ = _relieve the steepness of the

descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths_. _Anfractus_, from _ambi +

frango_.]

+References.+ Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179.

C16

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B.C._

Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consulis

castra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos in

insidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Semproni

credulitatem adequitare vallo eius {5} iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut ad

primum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul et

adortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitu

fluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem

{10} opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuit

partibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 5. 23.

[Linenotes:

1. +ad Trebiam+, a small tributary S. of the Padus, which it joins 2

miles W. of Placentia (Piacenza).

2. +castra.+ Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily,

effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified

camp on the W. or left bank of the Trebia.

8-9. +ieiunum ... rigefecit+, i.e. Sempronius _made stiff_

(+rigefecit+) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men

_faint with hunger_ (+ieiunum+).

11. +oleoque+, i.e. _ut mollirent artus_ = _to make their limbs

supple_.

12-13. +nec defuit ... caederet.+ The Romans kept their ground with

the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked

them in rear.]

B. _The River bars the Retreat._

Et iam, dispersis Romana per agmina signis, 570

Palantes agit, ad ripas, miserabile! Poenus

Impellens trepidos, fluvioque immergere certat.

Tum Trebia infausto nova proelia gurgite fessis

Incohat, ac precibus Iunonis suscitat undas.

Haurit subsidens fugientum corpora tellus, 575

Infidaque soli frustrata voragine sorbet.

Nec niti lentoque datur convellere limo

Mersa pedum penitus vestigia: labe tenaci

Haerent devincti gressus, resolutaque ripa

Implicat aut caeca prosternit fraude paludis. 580

SILIUS ITALICUS, iv. 570-580.

[Linenotes:

574. +precibus ... undas.+ The poet, in his imitation of Vergil,

makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal.

576. +soli frustrata+ = _prevented from reaching firm ground_.

577. +lento+ = _sticky_.

579. +resoluta+ = _crumbling_.]

+References+. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191.

C17

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (1)

Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexplorato

postero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam in

patentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod ex

adverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super {5} caput _haud[29] detectae_

insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus et

circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simul

invadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magis

Romanis subita atque improvisa {10} res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula

campo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribus

collibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariter

decucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret,

se circumventum {15} esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnari

coeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringique

gladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut[30] in re

trepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos {20}

clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adire

audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. {25}

LIVY, xxii. 4, 5.

[Footnote 29: Var. lect. _decepere_.]

[Footnote 30: For this qualifying use of _ut_ cf. p. 42, iii. (b)

and p. 83 line 1.] [[Demonstration IV.iii and Selection D24]]

[Linenotes:

1. +Flaminius+ (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome.

Consul 223 B.C., conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B.C.

Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (a second

time) 217 B.C., defeated and killed at Trasimene.

2. +inexplorato+ = _without reconnoitring_. 'This word expresses the

whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great.' --Dimsdale.

4. +pandi+ (= _se pandere_) = _to deploy_.

13. +ipsa ... conspecta+ = _were sufficiently visible to each

other_.

15. +prius quam satis cerneret+ = _before he could clearly

distinguish anything_. --D.

19. +ut in re trepida+ = _considering the confusion of the moment_.

--D.]

+The Scene of the Battle.+ At the N.W. end of the Lake the mountains of

Cortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. the pass

expands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from

½ to 1½ miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. end of the

plain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibal

encamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troops

behind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N., and

his cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. to cut off the Roman

retreat.

C18

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (2)

Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipi

poterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locum

noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus,

opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis {5} quam tecti. Et erat in

tanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorum

ictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos _strepentium_[31] paventiumque

clamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globo

illati {10} haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientium

agmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ab

lateribus montes ac lacus, a fronte et ab tergo hostium acies

claudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis {15}

spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam et

nova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principes

hastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa alia

pugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus {20} cuique ante aut

post pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeo

intentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiae

magnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. {25}

LIVY, xxii. 5.

[Footnote 31: Var. lect. _terrentium_ = of those causing fear.]

[Linenotes:

4. +ad arma capienda aptandaque+ = _to seize and put on for the

battle their arms_. --Dimsdale.

5. +onerati:+ i.e. most were cut down in their full marching

equipment.

8-9. +mixtos ... clamores+ = _the mingled shouts of noisy triumph_

(+strepentium+) _or dismay_.

10. +pugnantium ... haerebant+ = _rushed upon a knot_ (+globo+) _of

combatants, and became entangled with it_. --Jebb.

14. +a fronte+, i.e. by Hannibal's African and Spanish infantry.

+ab tergo+, i.e. by Hannibal's cavalry and the Gauls.

18-19. +non illa ... triarios+ = _not in that well-known_ (+illa+)

_mode of fighting_ (sc. +pugna+) _arranged according to_. . . . Livy

refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by

Camillus) of i. +hastati+, _of young men_, ii. +principes+, _of men

at their prime_, iii. +triarii+, _of middle-aged men_.]

+References:+ Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, _Hist._ vol, i. pp. 204-10.

C19

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (3)

_The Death of Flaminius._

Dumque ea commemorat densosque obit obvius hostes,

Advolat ora ferus mentemque Ducarius. Acri 645

Nomen erat gentile viro, fusisque catervis

Boiorum quondam patriis, antiqua gerebat

Vulnera barbaricae mentis, noscensque superbi

Victoris vultus, 'Tune, inquit, maximus ille

Boiorum terror? libet hoc cognoscere telo, 650

Corporis an tanti manet de vulnere sanguis.

Nec vos poeniteat, populares, fortibus umbris

Hoc mactare caput: nostros hic curribus egit

Insistens victos alta ad Capitolia patres.

Ultrix hora vocat.' Pariter tunc undique fusis 655

Obruitur telis, nimboque mente per auras

Contectus nulli dextra iactare reliquit

Flaminium cecidisse sua. Nec pugna perempto

Ulterior ductore fuit; namque agmine denso

Primores iuvenum, laeva ob discrimina Martis 660

Infensi superis dextrisque, et cernere Poenum

Victorem plus morte rati, super ocius omnes

Membra ducis stratosque artus certamine magno

Telaque corporaque et non fausto Marte cruentas

Iniecere manus. Sic densi caedis acervo 665

Ceu tumulo, texere virum.

SILIUS ITALICUS, v. 644-666.

[Linenotes:

644. +Dum ... hostes+, i.e. after Flaminius' vain attempt to rally and

form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault

(_inexplorato_[32] _angustiis superatis_) with his life.

646. +Ducarius+--Livy, 'an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper.'

651. +mânet+ = _will flow_. Cf. _emanate_.

652. +populares+ = _fellow-countrymen_, but of Romans usu. _civis_.

658-666. Livy says more simply 'He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil

the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.'

660. +laeva+ = _unfavourable_, lit. 'on the left side.' Cf.

_sinister_.]

[Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note.]

[[Selection C17, "inexplorato"]]

+Parallel Passages.+--Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. iii. 84.

+Character of Flaminius.+ 'The party feelings which have so coloured the

language of the ancient writers (e.g. Livy, Polybius) respecting him

need not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed an

unequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul and

as Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile of

Trasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourable

grave.' Arnold, _Hist. Rome_, iii. 110.

C20

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator._

Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi,

ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, nec

senectus mores mutaverat. . . . Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cum

plane grandis esset, et Hannibalem {5} iuveniliter exsultantem patientia

sua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:

_Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem;

Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem;

Ergo plusque magisque viri nunc gloria claret._ 10

Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp.

Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit,

restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatem

dividenti. . . . Multa in eo viro praeclara {15} cognovi, sed nihil

admirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri et

consularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophum

non contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civium

magnus, sed intus {20} domique praestantior.

CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 10-12.

[Linenotes:

1. +Ego+, i.e. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B.C.

+eum qui Tarentum recepit.+ Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212

B.C. and _recovered_ by Fabius 209 B.C.

2-3. +Erat ... gravitas+ = _that hero possessed dignity tempered by

courtesy_. --J. S. R. +condita+ (_condio_) = lit. _seasoned_.

5. +grandis+, sc. _natu_. He was consul for a first time in 233 B.C.

6. +iuveniliter.+ Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps.

+exsultantem+ = _wildly roaming_, of a horse galloping at will.

7. +noster Ennius+, circ. 239-169 B.C., famous espec. for his

Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use

this metre.

9. +Noenum+ (_ne + oinum_ = _not one thing_) = _non_. Cf. _nihil_ =

_ne + hilum_ = not a whit, nothing.

12-14. Flaminius, when tribune 232 B.C., by a vote of the Comitia

Tributa (i.e. by a _plebiscitum_) and against the expressed wish of

the Senate (_contra senatus auctoritatem_) carried an agrarian law

for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens.

18. +laudatio+, sc. _funebris_, the funeral speech.

19-20. +in luce ... civium+ = _in public and under the gaze of his

fellow-countrymen_. --J. S. R.]

+References.+ Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch,

_Fabius_, vi.

C21

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B.C._

Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditum

esset, Minucius convocatis militibus 'Saepe ego' inquit 'audivi,

milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit,

secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui {5} nec ipse consulere nec

alteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animi

ingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperare

discimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabio

iungamus; ad praetorium {10} eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eum

parentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignum

est, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt,

patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis {15}

animorum gloriam dies hic dederit.' Signo dato conclamatur inde, ut

colligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra in

admirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. {20}

LIVY, xxii. 29, 30.

+Context.+ Fabius' policy of 'masterly inactivity' had become so

unpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided between

Fabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from a

destruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid of

Fabius. +Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness.+

[Linenotes:

4. +consulat+ = _can give counsel_--so _consulere_ l. 6.

6-7. +extremi ingenii+ = _has the meanest capacity_. gen. of

quality.

7-8. +prima ... sors est+ = _the highest rank in the scale of spirit

and intellect_. --Dimsdale.

14. +patronos+ = _as the authors of your freedom_. +Patronus+ =

legal title used by a freed slave (_libertus_) of his former master.

The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as _liberti_,

owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their

+patroni+.

17. +ut colligantur vasa+, i.e. _impedimenta_. Cf. _signa movere_.]

+Fabius Cunctator.+ 'Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it to

war, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully and

persistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that any

general could at that time render to the State. It was probably at this

time that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (_corona graminea_), the

highest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved a

besieged town.' --Ihne.

C22

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 218 B.C. (1)

_The Destruction of the Roman Infantry._

Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo et

viribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandem

Romani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulere

hostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum {5} validum a cetera prominentem

acie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenore

uno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati,

postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimque

reductis {10} alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant,

aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontem

primum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornua

fecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere {15}

alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani,

defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum terga

ceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam,

quod inclusi adversus {20} circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cum

recentibus ac vegetis pugnabant.

LIVY, xxii. 47.

[Linenotes:

1. +Sub ... certaminis+, i.e. _at the close of_ (+sub+) the first

stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated.

2-3. +constabant ... Hispanisque.+ These formed Hannibal's centre,

the _convex_ of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the

African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left,

but at some distance behind.

4. +obliqua fronte+, perh. = _concave_, so as to surround _the

projecting part of the enemy's line_ (+a cetera prominentem acie+).

5. +cuneum:+ here = the _convex_ formation of the Gauls and

Spaniards.

8-9. +in mediam aciem+ = _the centre of the line_, i.e. of the Gauls

and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first.

10. +subsidia+ = _reserves_, i.e. the Africans, on the right and

left.

14-16. +Afri circa ... alas.+ Hannibal's formation is now

reversed.[33] The horns (+cornua+) of the semicircle (the Africans)

are now advanced, and _outflanked_ (+circumdedere alas+) the Romans,

who rushed heedlessly _into the intervening space_ (+in medium+,

i.e. the _concave_ part of H.'s line formed by the retirement of the

Gauls and Spaniards).

21-22. +recentibus ac vegetis+ = _fresh in body and mind_.]

[Footnote 33: i.e. the Africans now formed the horns of

a _crescent_ in relation to their centre, while it formed

the _concave_ part of the crescent. --D.]

+Results of the Battle.+ Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, and

the Romans lose (including 23,000 taken prisoners) about 70,000 men.

C23

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (2)

'_Paulus animae magnae prodigus._'

Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxo

cruore oppletum consulem vidisset, 'L. Aemili' inquit, 'quem unum

insontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum,

dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, {5} et comes ego te tollere possum

ac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sine

hoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est.' Ad ea consul: 'Tu quidem, Cn.

Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e

{10} manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus,

urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiis

firment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem et

vixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac {15} strage militum meorum patere

exspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegae

existam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam.' Haec eos agentes

prius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulem

ignorantes, {20} quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultum

arripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt.

LIVY, xxii. 49.

[Linenotes:

1. +praetervehens equo+ = _riding by_. +praetervehor+ used here as a

deponent. --Dimsdale.

2. +oppletum+ (= _perfusum_) = _covered_ (lit. _filled up_), or

_drenched_.

4. +respicere+ = _to look on with favour_. --D.

9. +macte virtute esto+ = lit. _go on and prosper in your courage_.

+mactus+ = i. _magis + auctus_ = _increased_, _glorified_, or more

prob. ii. = old partic. of obsolete _mago_ (= _augeo_), from

[Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar#. Vocative used as nominative.

14. +praeceptorum.+ His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics

of Fabius were again adopted after his death.

15. +et vixisse adhuc et mori+ = _died as he had ever lived_. --D.

17. +reus iterum e consulatu+ = _a second time to stand on my

defence in consequence of my consulship_, i.e. on a charge that grew

out of his acts as Consul (219 B.C.) with M. Livius Salinator of

misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War.

18-19. +ut ... protegam.+ The two Consuls had the chief command of

the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae.]

'The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but the

Romans would have given up the idea of further resistance.' --Ihne.

C24

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (3)

A. _Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome._

Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, ut

tanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentis

quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbal

praefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, 'Immo {5} ut, quid hac pugna

sit actum, scias, die quinto' inquit 'victor in Capitolio epulaberis.

Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam.'

Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capere

animo posset. Itaque voluntatem {10} se laudare Maharbalis ait; ad

consilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: 'Non omnia nimirum

eidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.' Mora eius

diei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. {15}

LIVY, xxii. 51.

[Linenotes:

2-4. +diei ... sumeret+ = _he should take what remained of that day

and the following night for rest_. --Church and Brodribb.

8. +venisse+, sc. +te+, suggested by +sequere+. --Dimsdale.

9. +res+ = _the idea_, i.e. of such a rapid termination to the war.

--D.

Hannibal was too far off (11 days' march) to take Rome by storm. Its

population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was

strongly fortified by its situation and by art.]

B. _Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy._

Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magna

reliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium,

P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo talia

agitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se {20} sua interfecturum, nisi qui

iurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse se

primus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximis

minatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplo

coegit ad iurandum. {25}

FRONTINUS, _Strat._ iv. 7. 39.

[Linenote:

18. +P. Scipio adulescens+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior,

_fatalis dux huiusce belli_, the predestined champion in this war.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, where

Camillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii.

C25

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _Rome's Heroes._

Regulum et Scauros animaeque magnae

Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno

Gratus insigni referam Camena

Fabriciumque. 40

Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis

Utilem bello tulit et Camillum

Saeva paupertas et avitus apto

Cum lare fundus. 44

Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo

Fama Marcelli; micat inter omnes

Iulium sidus velut inter ignes

Luna minores. 48

HORACE, _Odes_, I. xii. 37-48.

[Linenotes:

37. +Scauros+[34] (= +Scaurum+) = _such men as Scaurus_. Censor,

100 B.C.

40. +Fabricium+, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B.C.

See p. 101, Fabricius the Just. [[Selection D42]]

43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with homestead to match_. --Gow.]

[Footnote 34: Cf. in French, _Les Vergiles_.]

B. _The Dream of Propertius._

Visus eram molli recubans Heliconis in umbra,

Bellerophontei qua fluit umor equi,

Reges, Alba, tuos et regum facta tuorum,

Tantum operis, nervis hiscere posse meis; 4

Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,

Unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit,

Et cecini Curios fratres et Horatia pila,

Regiaque Aemilia vecta tropaea rate, 8

Victricesque moras Fabii pugnamque sinistram

Cannensem et versos ad pia vota deos,

Hannibalemque Lares Romana sede fugantes,

Anseris et tutum voce fuisse Iovem. 12

PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) iii. (ii.) 1-12.

+Subject:+--Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with his

lips (l. 5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow the

example of Ennius.

[Linenotes:

2. i.e. the Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught

by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties.

4. +nervis ... meis+ = _that I had strength to gasp forth_.

--Ramsay.

7. +Curios+ = _Curiatios_.

+Horatia pila+: see pp. 67-68. [[Selections D8, D9]]

8. +Aemilia+, i.e. of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of

Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B.C. over Perseus of Macedon.

10. +versos ... deos+, i.e. the solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius,

Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods _turned a ready ear_

(+versos+).

12. +fuisse+, dependent on +cecini+ l. 19.

+Iovem+, i.e. _Iovis Capitolini templum_. See p. 84.]

[[Selection D25]]

C26

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C._ (1)

A. _Capua aspires to rival Rome._

Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,

Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit.

Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi,

Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus, 4

Aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer

Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox,

Nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube

Parentibusque abominatus Hannibal: 8

Impia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas,

Ferisque rursus occupabitur solum.

HORACE, _Epod._ xvi. 1-10.

[Linenotes:

5. +Aemula virtus Capuae.+ In 216 B.C. Capua was, after Rome, the

richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she

aspired to dominion over Italy.

+Spartacus acer+, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B.C.

6. +novis rebus infidelis+ = _faithless to revolution_, because they

assisted in betraying Catiline's plot 63 B.C.--Wickham.

9. +impia ... aetas+ = _we an impious generation whose blood is

foredoomed_ (i.e. there is a curse on us) _shall destroy_ (Rome).]

B. _Decius Magius defies Hannibal._

Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendique

Decium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cum

manente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectae

catenae, ducique ante lictorem {15} in castra est iussus. Quoad capite

aperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undique

multitudinem vociferans: 'Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis:

foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundus

vinctus ad mortem {20} rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Ite

obviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, ut

hunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis.'

LIVY, xxiii. 10.

+Context.+ After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entry

into the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magius

and his son, poured out to meet him.

[Linenotes:

11. +in templo magistratuum+ = _on the magistrates' bench_, (or

_tribunal_).

12. +Decium Magium+, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome.

14-15. +negaret ... posse+ = _urged that by the terms of the treaty_

(i.e. between the Capuans and H.) _this could not be insisted on_.

--Church and Brodribb.]

C27

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C._ (2)

A. _'Capua,' it is said, 'became Hannibal's Cannae.'_

Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma Campaniam

Tarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeo

ut vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictum

Alpibus, indomitum armis Campani--quis {5} crederet?--soles et tepentes

fontibus Baiae subegerunt.

FLORUS, II. vi. 21-22.

[Linenotes:

2. +Campaniam Tarentumque+, once the two most fertile districts in

Italy.

4. +Capuam ... fuisse.+ Ihne says: 'Whatever may have been the

pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal's troops in Capua, their

military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent

history of the war sufficiently demonstrates.'

7-8. +tepentes fontibus Baiae+, on a small bay west of Naples and

opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs.]

B. _The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B.C._

Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobiles

Campani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes in

custodias {10} dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civium

Campanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit,

quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam.

Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem {15} omni

fertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servata

est, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudo

incolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omnis

et tecta publica populi Romani facta. {20}

LIVY, xxvi. 16.

[Linenotes:

10. +sociorum Latini nominis+ = _sociorum_ +ac+ _Latini nominis_,

which includes all the Italian allies. 'The _Nomen Latinum_ were the

members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338

B.C. after the Latin War.' --Rawlins.

13. +delendam.+ Cf. Cato's _Delenda est Carthago_.

15-17. +agrum ... in Italia esse.+ Cf. Verg. _Georg._ ii. 224-5:

'Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the

Vesuvian ridge.' --Mackail.

18. +frequentandae+ = _for the purpose of peopling_.

19. +institorum+ = _pedlars or dealers_. Cf. our 'commercial

travellers'.

20. +publica ... facta+ = _confiscated_. 'This _ager publicus_ was

leased by the censors to farmers (_aratores_) who paid rent

(_vectigal_) for it.' --R.]

C28

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Marcellus at Nola, 216 B.C._

Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercitum

instruxit. . . . Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali sub

signis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stanti

primo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus {5} porta egrederetur

nec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquia

esse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussos

propere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satis

fidens, si cunctantibus {10} instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebem

moturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signa

succeditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signa

canere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto {15}

maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroris

tumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P.

Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere. . . . Ingens

victoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta {20} est; non

vinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere.

LIVY, xxiii. 16.

+Context.+ The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joining

Hannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, as

elsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time to

inform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger of

a revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the town

with a strong garrison.

[Linenotes:

3-5. +Hannibali ... primo miraculo esse+ = _Hannibal, who ... had

his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished

that_. --Church and Brodribb.

7. +colloquia esse+, i.e. his _communications_ (+colloquia+) with

the Carthaginian party in Nola.

8. +res[)i]des+ = _inactive_, lit. _that remains sitting_

(+re + sedeo+).

10. +si cunctantibus instaret+ = _if he met hesitation with prompt

action_. --Church and Brodribb. Lit. _if he pressed upon those

hesitating_.

12. +in sua ... ministeria+ = _to their several posts_.

19-21. +Ingens ... gesta est+ = _a great victory, the greatest,

perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day_.]

+Nola+, an important town in Campania, S.E. of Capua. It remained

faithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campanian

towns revolted to Hannibal.

+Marcellus at Nola.+ 'It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nola

from being taken.' --Ihne.

C29

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Cicero's Description of Syracuse._

Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omnium

saepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cum

munito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: et

portus habet prope in aedificatione {5} aspectuque urbis inclusos: qui

cum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur et

confluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, mari

disiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta est

urbs, ut ex {10} quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum una

est ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusque

portus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronis

regis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs {15}

Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimae

porticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumque

egregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunae

fanum antiquum fuit, {20} Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasium

amplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars et

habitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postrema

coaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum est

maximum. {25}

CICERO, _In Verrem_, ii. 4. 117-119.

[Linenotes:

5-6. +prope ... inclusos+, a special feature of Syracuse, because

many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a

harbour detached from them (e.g. Ostia, the port of Rome), though

sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens.

7. +in exitu+ = _at their outlet_, i.e. the narrow channel between

Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two

harbours.

9. +disiuncta+ = _separated from the rest_ (+dis+--).

12. +Insula+, i.e. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited.

14. +Hieronis regis+, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C., distinguished

by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263

B.C. till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome.

16. +Achradina+, the mainland N. of Ortygia. At the time of the

famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B.C., the city

consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina.

18. +prytaneum+ = _town-hall_ (#prutaneion# = _the presidents'

hall_).

25. +theatrum est maximum+, capable of holding 25,000 people. Of all

the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the

Theatre alone remains.]

+Reference.+ Freeman's _History of Sicily_.

C30

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Engineering Skill of Archimedes._

Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormenta

in muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingenti

pondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebat

telis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela {5} in hostem ingererent,

murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quae

cava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem.

Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorum

essent, in {10} eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmae

catenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbi

recelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; dein

remissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum {15} ingenti

trepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si recta

reciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusa

omnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed ea

quoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa {20} erat Hieronis

impensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte.

LIVY, xxiv, 34.

[Linenotes:

1. +adversus ... apparatum+, i.e. to oppose the elaborate naval

attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina.

7. +cubitalibus fere cavis+ = _with holes_ (fr. +cavum+ = noun)

_about 1½ feet square_, +cubitalibus+ (_cubitum_) = _a cubit long_.

Polybius has a _palm_ long, about 3 inches. This is more probable.

8. +scorpionibus+ = _crossbows_ or _manuballistae_.

10. +quo interiores ... essent+ = _so as to be too close in to be

hit by_ (+intertores ictibus+) _the engines_.

10-12. +in eas+ (sc. +proras+) +iniecta+ = _on their bows was

dropped_ ...

11. +tollenone+ = _from a swing beam_, supported at the centre of

gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum.

12-13. +cum (ferrea manus) gravique ... ad solum+ = lit. _when (the

grappling-iron) swung back_ (+recelleret+) _to the ground by a

heavyweight of lead_. 'This is incorrect; it was not the

grappling-iron, but the other (_inland_) end of the lever which was

brought down to the ground.' --Rawlins.

15. +remissa+ (sc. +ferrea manus+) = _the grappling-hook was (then)

suddenly let go_.

16. +ita undae affligebat+ = _was dashed with such violence on the

disturbed water_ (+undae+).]

+Cause of the War.+ Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B.C., his whole

family was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into the

hands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal's agents.

C31

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Marcellus laments over Syracuse._

Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium ferme

ilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimasse

dicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloria

urbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo {5} ingentes exercitus cum

duobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cum

Carthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta, tot tam opulenti tyranni

regesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum ante

omnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque {10} sua dederat, beneficiis in populum

Romanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretque

cogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura,

priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, {15} qui

intra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes ad

dedendam urbem. . . . Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multa

irae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriae

proditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum {20} pavor captae urbis in

discursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas in

pulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegre

id Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiam

inquisitis honori praesidioque {25} nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse.

LIVY, xxv. 24, 31.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +ex superioribus locis+, i.e. from the heights of Epipolae,

which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were

celebrating a three days' festival of Artemis.

6. +ducibus+, e.g. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes.

7-8. +tot bella ... gesta+, e.g. at Himera, 480 B.C., on the same

day as Salamis.

8-9. +tot tam ... regesque+, e.g. Gelo, 485 B.C.; Dionysius the

Elder, 406 B.C.; Hiero II., the friend and ally of Rome, King of

Syracuse, 270-216 B.C.

8. +tyranni+, i.e. _absolute rulers, despots_, with reference rather

to the _irregular way_ in which the power was gained, than the way

in which it _was exercised_.

16. +qui ... fuerant+, i.e. Syracusan deserters who kept up

communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse.

22. +formis+ = _diagrams_.

24. +sepulturae+. Cf. Demonstration VI, page 54.]

+The Treatment of Syracuse.+ It would have been the undying glory of

Marcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy city

from further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome,

a precedent afterwards followed.

C32

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Death of Marcellus, 208 B.C._

Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique et

conspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae rei

positus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castris

progressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut {5} pariter ab suis quisque

latebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipso

consurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam.

Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in ea

valle {10} consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatum

ab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamen

diutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris

{15} iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab Etruscis

Fregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnando

rem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiam

transfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum {20} videre, tum et

ipsi--perpauci autem supererant--cum Crispino consule duobus iaculis

ieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt.

LIVY, xxvii. 27.

+Context+. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B.C. After the

attempt to retake Locri (S.E. of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal,

Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. near Venusia in Apulia.

Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adopted

Fabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explore

the country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +Numidis speculator+. A wooded hill lay between the two camps:

H. had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen.

4-5. +si quos possent excipere+ = _on the chance of their being able

to intercept_. --Stephenson.

6-8. +Non ante ... circumiere+ = _those who were to spring on the

enemy_ (lit. _those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass

confronting the enemy_ +obviis+) _from the hill itself did not show

themselves until a detachment had made their way round_

(+circumiere+).--S.

10. +valle+ = _a hollow_, i.e. a depression on the Roman side of the

hill.

16. +Fregellani+. Fregellae, a town of the Volsci, on the Via Latina

between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B.C.

17. +ipsique ex parte pugnando+ = _taking their share in fighting_.

--S.]

+Character of Marcellus+. 'He was a brave soldier, a firm intrepid

patriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as a

general no match for Hannibal.' --Ihne.

C33

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Character of Scipio Africanus Maior._

Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoque

quadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apud

multitudinem aut _ut_ per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitus

mente monita agens, sive et ipse capti {5} quadam superstitione animi,

sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctatione

exsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togam

virilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit,

quam {10} in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumque

solus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitam

servabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdam

fecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia {15} eiusdem generis,

alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuvene

excesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturae

tantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit.

LIVY, xxvi. 19.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +in ostentationem earum compositus+ = _he made a study_

(+compositus+) _of displaying them_, implying artificiality. --R.

3-5. +pleraque ... agens+ = _in most of his dealings_ (+pleraque

agens+) _with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired_ (+visa+)

_by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration_ (+divinitus

mente monita+).

7. +sorte+ = _by an oracular response_ (which was often written on a

little tablet or _lot_, +sors+).

11. +aedem+, i.e. the _cella_ (_chapel_, the part enclosed within

the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.

13-14. +seu consulto seu temere vulgatae+ = _whether designedly or

undesignedly spread abroad_.

17. +humanae+ = _which one has for a mere man_. --Rawlins.

19. +tantam rerum molem+ = _so stupendous a task_. --R. In 212 or

211 B.C. the two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally

defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio,

son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B.C. sent to Spain, at the age of

27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11,000 men.]

+Character of Scipio.+ 'He was a man far above the average of his

contemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not fail

to rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by not

only daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry them

out.' --Ihne.

C34

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B.C._

Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatores

Tarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadis

pervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitum

dari, eo secum armatos quingentos {5} duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamine

intravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam,

circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omnium

non animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantium

spectantiumque {10} et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergo

senserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimque

ancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moenia

capta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox {15}

caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armati

impetum fecerunt. . . . Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passim

factae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo dato

caedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, {20} quae ingens omnis

generis fuit.

LIVY, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel.)

[Linenotes:

3. +vadis pervagatos stagnum+ = _made their way through the pool by

wading_ (+vadis+).

8. +contractum+ = _concentrated (confined)_.

13. +ancipitem+ = _double_, _twofold_, _on two opposite sides_.

15. +intus forisque+ = _both within and without_.

+foris+, adv. (an abl. form from an obsolete nom. +fora+) = _out of

doors_, _without_. Cf. +foras+ = _out through the doors_, _forth_.

16-17. +caedendo ... distractis foribus+ = _when the doors were

destroyed and broken up by blows_.]

+Carthago Nova+ (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle of

Hannibal) 243 B.C. The city is situated on a promontory running out into

the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world,

protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weak

side, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tide

the water of the shallow pool W. of the town fell so much that it was

fordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. He

first made a feint attack on the N. wall and then led 500 men across the

ford, who scaled the W. wall and opened the nearest gate from the

inside.

+Result of its Capture.+ 'New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis of

operations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thus

determining the issue of the Spanish War.' --Ihne.

C35

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Nero's famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B.C._

Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum Frentanum

Praetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusque

commeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equos

iumentaque alia producerent, ut {5} vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipse

de toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex milia

peditum, mille equites. . . . Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibus

virorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et

{10} laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanae

imperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumque

suorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasque

precabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura {15} ex hostibus

victoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent,

ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos post

dies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisque

et offerre et fatigare {20} precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usui

essent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestia

certare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari,

nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem {25}

ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset,

quieti dare.

LIVY, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel.)

+Context.+ Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen of

Hasdrubal's march and plans--to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then to

march on Narnia and Rome--with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrew

secretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forced

march joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +Larinatem+, etc., districts lying between Apulia and Umbria,

but not given in their geographical order.

15. +faustum+ (for _favostus_, _fav-eo_) = that which is done under

the blessing of the gods: +felix+ = that which succeeds in

consequence of having this blessing upon it. --Stephenson.

16-17. +damnarentur ... votorum+ = _condemned (to pay) their vows_.

Cf. Verg. _Voti reus_ = _bound to my vow_, i.e. bound to fulfilment.

23. +Modestia certare+ (sc. _cum iis_) +... sumerent+ = _the

soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take

anything_ ...--S.]

'Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassed

the average qualifications of Roman generals.' --Ihne.

C36

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Metaurus, 207 B.C._

Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis;

Est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum

Virtus, neque imbellem feroces

Progenerant aquilae columbam; 32

Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam,

Rectique cultus pectora roborant;

Utcumque defecere mores,

Indecorant bene nata culpae. 36

Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus,

Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal

Devictus et pulcher fugatis

Ille dies Latio tenebris, 40

Qui primus alma risit adorea,

Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas

Ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus

Per Siculas equitavit undas. 44

Post hoc secundis usque laboribus

Romana pubes crevit, et impio

Vastata Poenorum tumultu

Fana deos habuere rectos. 48

HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 29-48.

[Linenotes:

29-36. The thought is: 'It is true that scions of a good stock

must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet _education_

(+doctrina+ = _training_ l. 33) _brings out the innate force_.'

29. +fortibus et bonis.+ For the combined epithets cf. #kalos

kagathos#.

36. +Indecorant ... culpae+ = _faults disfigure_ (+indecorant =

dedecorant+) _scions of an honourable stock_ (+bene nata+).

37. +Neronibus+, e.g. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and

the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of

Augustus.

41. +alma adorea+ = _with kindly (refreshing) success_.

43. +ceu flamma per taedas+ = _like fire through a pine-forest_.

--W.

44. +equitavit+ = _galloped_, _careered_, used of Hannibal, and, by

zeugma, with +flamma+ and +Eurus+.

46-47. +impio tumultu+ = _by the sacrilegious invasion_ (or _riot_,

_outrage_), possibly with reference to Livy's story (xxvi. 11) of

the plundering of the Temple of Feronia.

48. +rectos+ = _upright_, i.e. of the images supposed to have been

thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again.]

+Results of the Battle.+ 'The war in Italy was to all appearances

finished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain.'

--Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, he

foresaw the doom of Carthage:--

'Lost, lost is all:

A nation's hope, a nation's name,

They died with dying Hasdrubal.'

--C. (Hor. _Od._ IV. iv. 70-73).

C37

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B.C._

Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque

legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad

Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur

legatorum verba audisse. {5} Postquam edita sunt mandata, 'Iam non

perplexe,' inquit, 'sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et

pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus

Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis {10}

obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P.

Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram,

quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.' Iam hoc ipsum

praesagiens animo praeparaverat {15} ante naves. Itaque inutili militum

turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu

quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in

Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa

relinquentem, {20} tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium

terra excedentem.

LIVY, xxx. 19, 20.

+Context.+ Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive

victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that

ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.

[Linenotes:

3-4. +ad Magonem.+ Mago, H.'s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been

despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He

took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C.

fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely

wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa.

6. +Iam non perplexe+ = _now in no veiled manner_ (lit. _not

obscurely_).

8. +iam pridem trahebant+ = _began long ago to try to pull me back_.

--Rawlins.

11. +obtrectatione+ = _by disparagement_.

13. +Hanno+, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at

Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his

sons.]

+Hannibal's Speech.+ ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates

the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was

personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish

and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld

supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says 'The whole course of the war is a

sufficient refutation of these charges.'

C38

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Zama, 202 B.C._ (1) _Before the Battle._

Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba

praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam,

quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma

expedirent milites animosque ad {5} supremum certamen, non in unum diem

sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura

gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut

Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par {10} periculum

praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis

effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo

auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen

procedunt postero die duorum {15} opulentissimorum populorum duo longe

clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut

cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant

animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis

{20} magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia

obversabantur.

LIVY, xxx. 31, 32.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +Ita infecta pace ... renuntiant+, referring to Livy's

picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and

Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace.

7-10. +Roma an Carthago ... praemium fore.+ 'By the victory of Zama

it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded

into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by

Rome and not by Carthage.' --Ihne.

14. +effuso+ = _dispersed_, i.e. _defeated_.

15. +discrimen+ = _decisive point_, _decision_.

18. +aut cumulaturi aut eversuri+ = _either to augment_ (lit. _heap

up_) _or overthrow_.

21. +pensarent vires+ = _they estimated (weighed) their strength_.]

+The Battle of Zama.+ 'Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to

their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see

+C+ 39, B. note), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside

by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.'s Carthaginian cavalry into such

disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio's horse.

The first Roman line threw H.'s mercenaries back upon their reserves of

the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with

his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until

Scipio's Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of

H.'s horse, fell upon the enemy's rear and decided the battle.' --Ihne.

C39

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Zama, 202 B.C._ (2) _The Order of Battle._

A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima

fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et

Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo

stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, {5} at certe

fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri

exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit,

quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum

ab Italia invitos extraxerat. {10}

+Hannibal's Army.+ It consisted broadly of five classes:

1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly

Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).

These he placed in his _third_ line.

2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.

These he placed in his _second_ line.

3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic

contingent, and the Spaniards.

These he placed in his _first_ line.

4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.

These he placed on his _wings_.

5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his _front_, to open the attack.

B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte

ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas

construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit,

per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti {15} facile transmitti sine

perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus

implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum

elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in

cornua divisit et dextro Romanis {20} equitibus Laelium, sinistro

Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie

causa victoriae fuit.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3. 16.

+Scipio's order of battle.+ Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the

black squares of a chessboard--the usual order, so that, in advancing,

the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line--he placed

them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave

spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without

trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:

+not+ +but+

* * * * * *

FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY.

C40

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (1)

_Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C._

Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primo

bestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus e

tribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorum

militibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae {5} haud dubie vincebat, brevi

circuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergo

adortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali re

trepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis,

nec {10} circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedem

referentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc loco

etiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclive

pulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. {15}

Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam.

Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem inter

ceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortuna

esset; deinde, postquam fugam {20} effusam animadvertit et omnia circa

iuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit.

LIVY, xxxiii. 9, 10.

+Context.+ Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in

215 B.C., and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B.C.) by an

attack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum in

Epirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble he

had caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. A _casus belli_

was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B.C.) asking for

help against Philip.

[Linenotes:

3-4. +unus ... militum.+ Ihne says 'He seized the favourable

opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a

brilliant victory for Rome.'

5. +signorum+ (= _manipulorum_) = _companies_, i.e. with some 3500

men.

13. +loco premebantur+ = _they_ (i.e. _the phalanx_) _began to feel

the disadvantage of position_. --Rawlins.

16. +in medio caesi+ = _cut down from both sides_. --R.]

+Cynoscephalae+ (_Dog's Heads_), a low chain of hills between Pherae and

Scotussa in Thessaly.

+Results of the Battle.+ 'The Romans lost only 700 men. That was the

price paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Great

in the dust.' --Ihne.

+Terms of Peace+, 196 B.C. Macedonia to remain an independent state,

but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunk

to the level of a vassal state.

C41

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (2)

_Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B.C._

Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cum

propter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generis

artium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propter

opportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria {5} omnium rerum usus

ministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatus

erat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sed

exspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae sua

fortuna esset. Ad spectaculum {10} consederant, et praeco cum tubicine,

ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indici

solet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: 'Senatus

Romanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusque

devictis, {15} liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios,

Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos,

Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas.' ... Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quae

sua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro {20} libertate

aliorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes;

hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutis

et fortunae ingentis.

LIVY, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel.)

[Linenotes:

1. +Isthmiorum statum ludicrum+ = _time fixed_ (+statum+) _for the

Isthmian Games_ (celebrated at Corinth every two years).

3-4. +quo certamina ... visuntur+ = _which makes them go to see

contests of every kind of artistic performance_ (+artium+) _and of

feats of strength and agility_. --Rawlins.

7. +concilium is mercatus erat ...+ = _that gathering was the

general rendezvous_ (+mercatus+) _of_ ... +mercatus+ = i. _trade_,

or _mart_; ii. _a festival assemblage_ (#panêguris#).

11. +in mediam aream+ = _into the centre of the open space (of the

stadium)_.

17. +Locrensesque omnes+, i.e. E. & W. Locris.

18. +Perrhaebos+, N. of Thessaly.

+Achaeos Phthiotas+ = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S.E. of

Thessaly).

19-24. +Esse aliquam ... ingentis:+ in these words the Greeks

express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the

boon conferred upon them.]

+The Freedom of Greece.+ 'The Greeks believed with a childlike

simplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that they

had crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from a

foreign yoke. . . . Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, and

particularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for he

understood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so many

other Romans, to Greek views and opinions.' --Ihne.

C42

WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B.C.

A. _Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B.C. Victory due to Cato._

Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaia

pro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritus

tantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eo

Porcius Cato, qui tum, iam {5} consularis, tribunus militum a populo

factus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, qui

praesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergo

subitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimque

irrupere Romani {10} et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 4. 4.

+Context.+ In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted the

invitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B.C., had been

snubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny of

Rome.

B. _Battle of Magnesia, 190 B.C._

Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor Carthaginis

Africanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iam

toto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum {15} ad amnem

montemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibus

auxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitum

falcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensae

magnitudinis, auro purpura {20} argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciem

utrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hoc

imbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat.

Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. {25}

FLORUS, i. 24. 14-18.

+Context.+ In 190 B.C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war into

Asia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff,

fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn.

Domitius, an experienced officer.

[Linenotes:

14-15. +Et iam toto cesserat mari+, as the result of the decisive

defeat, in 190 B.C., of the Syrian fleet off +Myonnesus+.

15-16. +Maeandrum ... ponuntur.+ The battle was fought near Magnesia

(N.W. of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, 'The +Battle of Magnesia+

decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of +Zama+ and

+Cynoscephalae+ had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia.' --Ihne.

C43

_Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B.C._

Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse,

postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit et

omnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo ante

praeparatum ad tales habebat casus, {5} poposcit. 'Liberemus,' inquit,

'diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum

censent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininus

victoriam feret.' Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque {10} Prusiae, et

hospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculum

exhausit. . . . Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum non

tempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemo

eorum satis dignum splendore {15} vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnes

non in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal et

Philopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen in

carcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque {20}

damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus,

voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsilium

indixit.

LIVY, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel.)

+Context.+ After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (_Suffete_ = L.

_praetura_) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms.

However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome _as making plans

for a new war_, and in 195 B.C. he was forced to flee from Carthage and

took refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. found for seven years a

safe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not be

at ease so long as H. lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greece

undertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal.

[Linenotes:

13-15. +non tempore magis congruente quam+ = _not so much in

coincidence of_ (+congruente+, lit. _agreeing with_) _date as_. --R.

18. +Philopoemen+, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken

prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (+in

carcere+, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison.

20-23. +Scipio+ was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the

tribune Naevius (185 B.C.) of having been bribed by Antiochus to

procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend

himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at

Liternum, where _by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and

his grave to exile_ (+voluntarium ... indixit+).

'_Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes._'

Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself.]

C44

_M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B.C._ (1)

At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Nam

et in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictum

addidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare.

Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam {5} aetatem ab adolescentia,

rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. A multis tentatus

non modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit,

virtutum laude crevit.

In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam {10} et agricola sollers

et peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator et

cupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat,

tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque de

Graecis neque de {15} Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Ab

adulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit.

Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani,

secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam rem

omnes {20} Origines videtur appellasse.

NEPOS, _Cato_, ii., iii.

[Linenotes:

1. +Censor+, 184 B.C., with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend

and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life.

3. +in edictum.+ The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued

a _proclamation_ or _edict_, setting forth the principles upon which

they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended

to use his power for the suppression of luxury.

5. +pullulare+ = _to spread, increase_; lit. _to put forth_, of

plants and animals. Cf. _pull-us_ (our _pullet_), _pu-er_, #pôlos#

(= _a foal_).]

+octoginta.+ This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when

he died 149 B.C.

6-7. +rei publicae ... non destitit.+ Seneca says: _Scipio cum

hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit._

7-9. Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time

acquitted.

11. +iuris consultus+ = _lawyer_.

12. +magnus imperator+, e.g. in the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive

victory at Thermopylae (191 B.C.) was mainly due to Cato.

+probabilis orator+ = _a tolerable, acceptable orator_. Oscar

Browning.

17-21. His two great works were his treatise +De Re Rustica+ (or +De

Agri Cultura+), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his

+Origines+, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian

nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. 'It was Cato's great

merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for

literary prose composition.' --Ihne.]

+Cato the Censor.+ 'He deserves our highest respect for the defiant and

manly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices of

the age.' --Ihne.

C45

_M. Porcius Cato._ (2)

Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae

Moles relinquent, undique latius

Extenta visentur Lucrino

Stagna lacu platanusque caelebs 4

Evincet ulmos: tum violaria et

Myrtus et omnis copia narium

Spargent olivetis odorem

Fertilibus domino priori; 8

Tum spissa ramis laurea fervidos

Excludet ictus. Non ita Romuli

Praescriptum et intonsi Catonis

Auspiciis veterumque norma. 12

Privatus illis census erat brevis,

Commune magnum: nulla decempedis

Metata privatis opacam

Porticus excipiebat Arcton. 16

Nec fortuitum spernere caespitem

Leges sinebant, oppida publico

Sumptu iubentes et deorum

Templa novo decorare saxo. 20

HORACE, _Odes_, II. xv.

+Argument.+ 'Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens are

supplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. +This is not

the spirit of Romulus or of Cato.+ Their rule was private thrift, public

magnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples of

hewn stone.' --W.

[Linenotes:

1. +Iam+ = _presently_.

1-2. +regiae moles+ = _princely piles_. +moles+, lit. _masses_, of

_huge buildings_.

2-4. +undique ... lacu+ = _and fish-ponds_ (+stagna+) _of wider

extent than the L. lake will be sights to see_

(+visentur+).--Wickham.

4. +platanus caelebs+ = _the bachelor plane_, so called because

vines were not _wedded to it_ (i.e. trained upon it).--Gow.

6. +omnis copia narium+ = _all that is sweet to smell_. Lit. _all

the fulness of the nostrils_.

10. +ictus+ (sc. _solis_). The point is that formerly trees were

stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun

is excluded. --Gow.

11. +intonsi+ (= _antiqui_) = _old-fashioned_. Cf. Cic.'s use of

_barbatus_.

13. +census erat brevis+ = _list of property was short_.

14. +commune+ (= #to koinon#) = _the common (public) stock_.

14-15. +decempedis metata privatis+ = _measured with ten-foot rods

for private owners_. In old days the +porticûs+ were always

_publicae_.

17. +fortuitum caespitem+ = _the chance-cut (handy) turf_.

20. +novo saxo+ = _with fresh-hewn stone_, i.e. hewn on purpose.

--W.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, _Catiline_ 12, 13.

'Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavoured

without success to bring this old time back.' --Ihne.

C46

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (1)

Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maior

sexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculique

capessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat,

implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A {5} tergo caetratis

erat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur.

Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidem

phalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, unde

circa fluvium {10} commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alas

sociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraque

nova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, non

quemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo {15} effectu evanescunt,

ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commenta

Macedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecuti

sunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. {20}

LIVY, xliv. 41.

+Context.+ Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the death

of his father in 179 B.C. He did all he could to prepare for the

inevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as the

Liberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus of

Syria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174

B.C., the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiating

with Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. The

Senate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B.C.),

appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to the

supreme command in Macedonia.

[Linenotes:

4. +caetratos+ = _Targeteers_, armed with the _small_ round shield.

5-7. +A tergo ... habebat+ (sc. +legio prima+) = _the (first)

Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards

the Shieldmen_. --Rawlins.

6. +clipeatos+ = _Shieldmen_, armed with the _large_ round shield.

7. +chalcaspides+ = _Brazen Shields_, Right Division of phalanx.

9. +leucaspidem+ = _White Shields_, Left Division of phalanx.

10. +in dextrum cornu+ (sc. +Romanum+), i.e. nearest to the sea.

13-15. +commenta ... oportet+ = lit. _the contrivances of men,

though in theory_ (+in verbis+) _they had some importance_ (+vim+)

_yet upon trial_ (+experiendo+) _when there is need of action and

not of discussion_ (+edisseri+) _how to act_. . . .

17. +commenta Macedonum.+ Perh. with reference to Perseus'

contrivances (e.g. by the use of _dummy_ elephants) to prepare his

men and horses to make a stand against _real_ elephants.]

C47

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (2)

In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ulla

evidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant,

quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuius

confertae et intentis horrentes {5} hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; si

carptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitate

hastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut ab

tergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tum

adversus catervatim {10} incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariam

acie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent,

insinuabant ordines suos. . . . Diu phalanx a fronte, a lateribus, ab

tergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, {15}

inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos,

qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphas

concurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venire

rati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, {20} longius in aquam, quidam

etiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphis

caederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliam

foediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litus

acti, exeuntes obterebant {25} elidebantque.

LIVY, xliv. 41, 42.

[Linenotes:

1. +In medio ... immissa+ = _On the centre the second legion

charged_ (+immissa+), i.e. into the interstices of the phalanx,

which was not preserving its usual close order. --Rawlins.

4-6. +fluctuantem ... vires sunt+ = _first demoralised the phalanx

so as to make it waver_, (+fluctuantem+), _and then shattered it.

Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles

with couched_ (+intentis+) _spears, is irresistible_

(+intolerabiles+).

6. +carptim aggrediendo+ = _by repeated harassing attacks_.

10. +ruinae modo+ = _in hopeless confusion_. --R.

17. +classe.+ The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with

the army.]

+Results of the Battle+. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom was

divided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had fought

its last great battle.

+Character of Paulus+. 'He was a model of the Roman of the best time. He

was not, like his contemporary Cato, a onesided worshipper of everything

old; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious to

preserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them.'

--Ihne.

C48

THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B.C.

_Destruction of Carthage, 146 B.C._

Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus,

nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa,

quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvis

profligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen {5} Scipionum

videbatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem belli

reposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent esse

morientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quam

cum integra. Compulsis {10} in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mari

Romanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis parte

foderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere posse

credebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iam

diebus, {15} iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, nova

perditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribus

flamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorum

se dederunt quod minus credas--duce Hasdrubale. {20}

FLORUS, II. xv. 11-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B.C. to inquire into the

affairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who,

astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage,

returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must be

destroyed--_delenda est Carthago_. A pretext was soon found in the war

(151 B.C.) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally of

Rome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitions

of war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city and

settle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die rather

than give up the sacred soil of their country.

[Linenotes:

5. +profligato+ = _almost finished_.

6. +in alium Scipionem+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus

Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by

P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal.

12. +alterum portum+, i.e. they pierced the narrow strip of land

separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea.

18. +deploratis+ = _was looked upon as lost_, lit. _wept for

bitterly_.

20. +duce Hasdrubale:+ 'Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of

_the last Carthaginian_ in the best sense of the word, as a

representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and

patriotism of his race.' --Ihne.]

'The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemn

curse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build a

new town on that spot.' --Ihne.

+Africa made a Roman Province.+

C49

WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B.C.

_Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B.C._

Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annos

DCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit.

Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alter

Africanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec {5} quisquam ex novis

hominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversi

imperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegans

liberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, ut

Polybium Panaetiumque, {10} praecellentes ingenio viros, domi

militiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius

intervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacis

serviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpus

periculis {15} aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit,

ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas ac

statuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, si

eas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. {20}

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i. 13.

+Context.+ In 149 B.C. an adventurer named Andriscus claimed to be

Philip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly.

He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B.C. his army was

routed and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans,

_no longer needing the help of Greek troops_, determined to break up the

Achaean League. A last desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but the

Greeks were easily defeated (146 B.C.) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, and

Corinth itself was plundered and destroyed.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +quam ... condita.+ Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of

Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of

the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city #Dios

Korinthos#.

10. +Panaetium+, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic

philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of

Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor.

13. +dispunxit+ = _he devoted, gave up_ (lit. _marked off_).

19. +locaret+ = _he hired_ (lit. _place out_, i.e. _give out on

contract_).

+conducentibus+ = _to the contractors_.]

+The Destruction of Corinth.+ 'The flames which consumed Miletus

(destroyed by the Persians 494 B.C.) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480

B.C.) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of a

magnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came the

long dark night.' --Ihne.

+Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of the

Roman governor of Macedonia+.

C50

WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B.C.

_The Lusitanian Hannibal._

Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solis

gentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vir

calliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito dux

atque imperator et, si fortuna {5} cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, non

contentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omnia

citra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiam

praetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene ad

internecionem {10} exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibus

nostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iam

Fabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violata

victoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem et

extrema {15} deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticos

percussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vinci

non posse.

FLORUS, II. xvii. 13-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ After the defeat of Perseus (168 B.C.) and before the

outbreak of the third Punic War (149 B.C.) a suitable opportunity seemed

to present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest of

Spain; but 'for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and of

humble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured for

himself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal and

Mithridates.' Ihne.

[Linenotes:

1. +cum Lusitanis.+ The Lusitani (S. of the R. Tagus = mod.

Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally

subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B.C.

6. +cessisset+ (= _concessisset_) = _had permitted._

10-12. +Claudium Unimanum ... fixit+, i.e. in 147 B.C. 'The captured

fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e.g.

+trabeis+, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains.' --Ihne.

13. +Fabius Maximus consul+, i.e. Quintus Fabius Maximus

Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141

B.C., and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome

soon found a pretext for breaking.

17. +percussores+ = _assassins_, lit. _strikers_ (_per + cutio_ =

_quatio_). Cf. the fate of Sertorius, 72 B.C.]

+The War with Viriathus.+ 'It was sad and disgraceful for the Roman

arms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover,

the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability and

the moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than even

in the war with Viriathus.' --Ihne.

C51

NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B.C.

_Destruction of Numantia, 133 B.C._

Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redacto

in disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum se

umquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret.

Dedere etiam se volebant, {5} si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossa

atque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, a duce

orantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant,

placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret {10}

fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorum

cingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deplorato

exitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce se

suos patriam ferro veneno {15} subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Macte

fortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem!

Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manu

aetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitas

nullum de {20} se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus non

fuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: arma

ipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine.

FLORUS, II. xviii. 11-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ In 143 B.C. the Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged by

the successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their most

important town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius

(Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consul

failed to take it, until in 134 B.C. Scipio Africanus Minor, the

conqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborn

city.

[Linenotes:

2-3. +Sic redacto ... a Scipione.+ 'Scipio's first task, when he

arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there,

once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and

cowardice--the most unroman of all vices--had begun to creep in.'

--Ihne.

7. +lorica+ = _a breastwork_, serving as _a screen_. Usu. = _a

cuirass_.

11. +sedit+ = _was decided on_, lit. _settled_.

16. +Macte+ = _a blessing on_ or _hail to thee_. +Mactus+ prob. from

[Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar# = _blessed_, but cf. _mag-nus_.

18. +Asseruit+ = _it protected_. +assero+ (_ad + sero_) = lit.

_join-to_.]

+Destruction of Numantia.+ Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town to

the ground, and received the added surname of +Numantinus+.

+Roman Province in Spain.+

C52

_Rome the Invincible._

Dixitque tandem perfidus Hannibal:

'Cervi, luporum praeda rapacium,

Sectamur ultro, quos opimus

Fallere et effugere est triumphus. 52

Gens, quae cremato fortis ab Ilio

Iactata Tuscis aequoribus sacra

Natosque maturosque patres

Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes, 56

Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus

Nigrae feraci frondis in Algido,

Per damna, per caedes ab ipso

Ducit opes animumque ferro 60

Non Hydra secto corpore firmior

Vinci dolentem crevit in Herculem,

Monstrumve submisere Colchi

Maius Echioniaeve Thebae. 64

Merses profundo: pulchrior evenit;

Luctere: multa proruet integrum

Cum laude victorem geretque

Proelia coniugibus loquenda.' 68

HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 49-68.

[Linenotes:

51. +ultro+ = _aggressively, needlessly_. --Wickham.

51-52. +opimus triumphus+ = _a rare_ (lit. _rich, noble_) _triumph_.

Cf. _spolia opima_.

53-56. 'This stanza is a _résumé_ of the story of the _Aeneid_.' --W.

53. +gens+ (sc. +illa+), i.e. the Roman stock.

57-60. 'The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only

gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from

its pyre.' --W.

58. +frondis+ with +feraci+. Cf. _fertilis frugum_.

59-60. +ab ipso ... ferro+ = _from the very edge of the steel

itself, the holm-oak_ (= _the Roman stock_) _draws fresh power and

spirit_.

61-62. Cf. the saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, 'I see

that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many

heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of

their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent.'

63-64. i.e. of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon's

teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes.

63. +submisere+ = _produced, raised_.

64. +Echioniae Thebae.+ Echion was one of the five survivors of the

#Spartoi# (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes.

65. +Merses+ (= +si mersaris+) = _plunge it if you will_.

+evenit+ = _it emerges (comes forth)_.

66-67. +multa cum laude+ = _amid loud applause_, of a feat in a

wrestling match. --W.

68. +coniugibus+ = i. _by Roman wives_ or ii. _by Carthaginian

widows_. So Conington, 'Whose story widow'd wives shall tell.']

CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS,

ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B.C.

THE GRACCHI.

Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliis

bellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem et

paucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa,

modo per socios et nomen Latinum, {5} interdum per equites Romanos, quos

spes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat,

et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium,

tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum M. {10}

Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haud

satis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo more

iniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usa

multos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque {15} in reliquum sibi

timoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitates

pessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbius

ulcisci volunt.

SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 42.

[Linenotes:

1-3. +quorum maiores ... addiderant+, e.g. their grandfather P.

Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus

(in Spain and Sardinia).

3-4. +paucorum scelera ... coepere.+ (i) Tib. Gracchus by his

Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the

ruling class (in excess of the 500 _iugera_ limit of the Licinian

Laws, 367 B.C.). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian

Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried

the Sempronian Law, 'one of the cornerstones of individual liberty.'

5. +per socios ... Latinum+, by working on Roman jealousy against

the Italians, for whom equality was claimed.

6. +spes societatis+, i.e. the hope of sharing with the nobility in

office, and in provincial appointments.

10. +triumvirum c. d.+, one of the three Commissioners for

establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the _ager publicus_.

11. +Fulvio Flacco+, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B.C.

17. +pessum dedit+ = _has destroyed_. _pessum_ (prob.) = _pedis_ +

_versum_ = _towards the feet, to the ground_, cf. _pessum ire_.]

+The aim of the Gracchi.+ 'Their object was to reduce the excessive

power of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, which

had become merely nominal, a reality.' --Ihne.

+Their political mistake.+ 'Their error consisted in the belief that

such a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the old

Comitia. They overlooked the necessity of +remodelling the Roman people

itself+ by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in reality

make them represent the people.' --Ihne.

CICERO ON THE GRACCHI.

A. _On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C._

Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda

Numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus,

cum Ti. Gracchum interemit.

_De Off._ i. 76.

[Linenotes:

2. +Numantia+, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus,

133 B.C.

3. +P. Nasîca+, a partisan leader of the Senate. +privatus+ = _not

in office_. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it

suits his purpose, e.g. in _de lege agraria_, ii. § 10, _duos

(Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae

viros ... quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video

partes constitutas_.]

B. _On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B.C._

Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas {5} fecisset et

effudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verba

audiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legem

frumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendum

venerat. Animum advertit {10} Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem:

quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentum

petat, quam dissuaserit. 'Nolim' inquit 'mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritim

dividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam.' Parumne declaravit vir

{15} gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari?

Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices.

_Tusc. Disput._ iii. 20, 48.

[Linenotes:

8. +L. Piso ille Frugi+ = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of

_worth_), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus.

8-9. +legem frumentariam+, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens

at about half the market price. 'One of the worst measures ever

proposed by a well-meaning statesman.' --Ihne.

12. +qui+ = _how_, old abl. of _qui_.]

C. _On C. Gracchus as an Orator._

Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studio

et doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute,

pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse.

_Brutus_, 125.

[Linenote:

20. +doctus a puero.+ CORNELIA MATER GRACCHORUM (inscribed upon her

statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror

of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education;

so Cic. _Brut._ 104 _Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero

doctus et Graecis literis eruditus_. 'From her they had received

that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering,

which animated their political action.' --Ihne.]

THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B.C.

_The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B.C._

Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur,

Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere,

idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sed

nocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante {5} diem colloquio decretum, Maurus,

adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secum

ipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quae

scilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremo

Sullam accersi {10} iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidias

tendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haud

procul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obvius

honoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem

{15} Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat,

accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur.

Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Marium

deductus est. {20}

SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 113.

[Linenotes:

2. +Bocchus+, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha,

coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from

the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance.

+Sullam+, appointed Quaestor 107 B.C. by Marius, who superseded

Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War.

9. +quae scilicet ... patefecisse+, i.e. the external signs of

his irresolution,--the calling and then dismissing his people

(+adhibitis ... remotis+, ll. 6, 7), and the changes of his

countenance (+voltu ... varius+, ll. 8, 9). +Scilicet+ is here used

with the Infinitive +patefecisse+, the verbal sense of the word

(= _scire_ + _licet_) being prominent.

10. +accersi+ (= _arcessiri_), frequent in Sallust.

16. +necessariis+ (_necesse_) = _friends_. Cf. #anankaioi# (#anankê#).

19. +Iugurtha Sullae ... traditur.+ Sulla is said to have been so

proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a

signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him.

(Plutarch, _Sulla_, 3.)]

+Jugurtha.+ 'Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic for

six years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time,

against a Metellus, a Marius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherous

promises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law.'

--Ihne.

A. _Arpinum--Birthplace of Cicero and Marius._

Hic novus Arpinas, ignobilis et modo Romae 237

Municipalis eques, galeatum ponit ubique

Praesidium attonitis et in omni monte laborat.

. . . . . . . . . . . . Sed Roma parentem, 243

Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit.

Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat 245

Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro,

Nodosam post haec frangebat vertice vitem,

Si lentus pigra muniret castra dolabra;

Hic tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum

Excipit et solus trepidantem protegit urbem. 250

JUVENAL, _Sat._ viii. 237-239, 243-250.

[Linenotes:

239. +in omni monte+, i.e. in every part of Rome, on each of the seven

hills.

244. +patrem patriae:+ under the Empire the title _pater patriae_

became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor.

+libera+ = _while yet free_, emphatic. The State was no longer free

when Augustus received this title, 2 B.C.--Duff.

247. +frangebat vertice vitem+ = _he had the vine-switch (rattan)

broken on his head_, i.e. served as a common soldier. --D.

248. +dolabra+ = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe

for digging the fossa. For +dolabra+, cf. _Dolabella_.

249. +Cimbros+, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae,

101 B.C.

250. +Excipit+ = _faced_ (lit. _is ready to receive_); metaphor from

field-sports. --D.]

B. _From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius._

Hic Iovis altisoni subito pinnata satelles

Arboris e trunco serpentis saucia morsu

Surrigit ipsa feris transfigens unguibus anguem

Semianimum et varia graviter cervice micantem. 4

. . . . . . .

Hanc ubi praepetibus pennis lapsuque volantem

Conspexit Marius, divini numinis augur,

Faustaque signa suae laudis reditusque notavit,

Partibus intonuit caeli pater ipse sinistris:

Sic aquilae clarum firmavit Iuppiter omen.

[Linenotes:

1. +Iovis pinnata satelles+, i.e. the Eagle. Cf. Pindar, _Pyth._

i. 6: #heudei d' ana skaptô (= skêptrô) Dios aietos#, _and sleeps on

the staff of Zeus his eagle_.

3. +Surrigit+ (= _surgit_) = _raises up_; very rare in this sense.

The _v.l._ +Sûbigit+ (for _s[)u]bigit_) = _carries aloft_.]

Compare Plutarch's story of the eagle's nest, with seven young ones in

it, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so the

diviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul.

_The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B.C._

Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eorum

inundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique et

Gallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castra

Silani, inde ad Senatum {5} petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibi

terrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibus

inter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armis

petere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec {10}

secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati,

exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset. . . .

Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem,

prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus {15} adsecutus in loco

quem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque medium

hostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone id

egerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certe

necessitate acta virtus {20} victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquam

exercitu, 'Si viri estis' inquit, 'en, illic habetis.' Itaque tanto

ardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruento

flumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. {25}

FLORUS, III. iii. 1-9 (sel).

[Linenotes:

5. +Silani+ = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B.C.

11. +Mallius--Caepio+, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the

Rhone, 105 B.C.

Plutarch, _Lucullus_ 27, says: 'The 6th Oct., on which day the

battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like

the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B.C.'

12. +Actum erat+, sc. _de republica_.

14. +compendiis+ = _short ways_; cf. our _compendium_ = _an

abridgement_.

16. +Aquas Sextias+, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B.C. = Aix, 18

miles N. of Marseilles.

23. +caedes hostium.+ 150,000 (Vell.) and 200,000 (Liv. Ep.

lxviii.).

'By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the

Cimbri, 101 B.C.), the movement of the German races southward was

for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was

Marius, the champion of the people.' --Ihne.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Propert. IV. iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. lxviii.

+References.+ Plutarch, _Marius_, 15. Ihne, _Hist. Rome_, vol. v. pp.

98-105.

MARIUS, 157-86 B.C.

A. _His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time._

Atque aliquis magno quaerens exempla timori,

'Non alios,' inquit, 'motus tum fata parabant,

Cum post Teutonicos victor Libycosque triumphos

Exsul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva. 70

Stagna avidi texere soli laxaeque paludes

Depositum, Fortuna, tuum: mox vincula ferri

Exedere senem longusque in carcere paedor.

Consul et eversa felix moriturus in urbe

Poenas ante dabat scelerum. Mors ipsa refugit 75

Saepe virum, frustraque hosti concessa potestas.

Sanguinis invisi: primo qui caedis in ictu[35]

Deriguit ferrumque manu torpente remisit;

Viderat immensum tenebroso in carcere lumen

Terribilesque deos scelerum Mariumque futurum 80

Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est

Colla tibi: debet multas his legibus aevi

Ante suam mortes: vanum depone furorem."

Si libet ulcisci deletae funera gentis,

Hunc, Cimbri, servate senem.' 85

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 67-85.

[Footnote 35: Postgate, _actu_.]

[Linenotes:

67. +exempla timori+ = _precedents to hear out his fears_. --Haskins.

70. +Exsul.+ 88-7 B.C. For details see Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-40.

72. +Fortuna+, i.e. the _evil_ destiny of Rome, protecting him

because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 16-17 _debet ... mortes_.

73. +in carcere+, i.e. at Minturnae, S.E. of Latium. There were

extensive marshes in the neighbourhood.

+paedor+ = _filth_.

82. +legibus aevi+ = _the laws that govern time_ = _fatis_. --H.]

B. _Marius outlived his fame._

Quid illo cive tulisset

Natura in terris, quid Roma beatius umquam,

Si circumducto captivorum agmine et omni 280

Bellorum pompa animam exhalasset opimam,

Cum de Teutonico vellet descendere curru?

JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 278-282.

_Marius outlived his powers and his reputation._

'Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of the

greatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstained

with any blood save that of foreign foes.' --Ihne.

+Parallel Passages.+ Ov. _P. Ep._ iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. x. 276-278.

+References.+ Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. iv. pp. 336-7,

vol. v. pp. 111-12.

_Cicero on Civil Strife._

Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum eas

quas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L.

Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huius

urbis, multosque fortes viros partim {5} eiecit ex civitate, partim

interemit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit:

omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit.

Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis viris

interfectis, lumina civitatis {10} exstincta sunt. Ultus est huius

victoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quanta

deminutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae. . . . Atque illae

tamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam

rempublicam {15} pertinebant--non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed in

ea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se in

hac urbe florere voluerunt--eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliatione

concordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. {20}

CICERO, _In Cat._ iii. 10.

[Linenotes:

4. +P. Sulpicium+, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As

Tribunus Plebis 88 B.C. carried the Leges Sulpiciae.

6. +Cn. Octavius+, one of Sulla's chief supporters. Consul 87 B.C.

Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair.

9-11. +Superavit ... exstincta sunt+, i.e. 87-6 B.C. The Reign of

Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 22 'Nihil

illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta.'

10. +lumina civitatis+, e.g. the Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula;

Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the

orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. and C. Caesar.

11-13. The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat.

ii. 28 'Primus ille (Sulla), et utinam ultimus, exemplum

proscriptionis invenit.']

+Parallel Passages.+ Horace, _Epodes_ vii. and xvi. 1-14.

+The Sullanian Proscriptions.+ Sulla was not like Marius swayed by

feelings of revenge alone. His main object was the public good, which in

his conviction was to be realised by a return to the older institutions

of the republic. This he believed could be accomplished only by the

utter annihilation of his opponents. The Proscriptions were not however

intended to be an encouragement to indiscriminate murder, but rather a

barrier against the rage of over-zealous partisans.

_Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 B.C._

Deinde interiectis paucis annis tribunatum iniit M. Livius Drusus, vir

nobilissimus, eloquentissimus, sanetissimus, meliore in omnia ingenio

animoque quam fortuna usus. Qui cum senatui priscum restituere cuperet

decus et indicia ab equitibus ad {5} eum transferre ordinem ... in eis

ipsis, quae pro senatu moliebatur, senatum habuit adversarium non

intellegentem, si qua de plebis commodis ab eo agerentur, veluti

illiciendae multitudinis causa fieri, ut minoribus perceptis maiora

permitteret. Denique {10} ea fortuna Drusi fuit, ut malefacta collegarum

quamvis optime ab ipso cogitatis senatus probaret magis. . . . Tum

conversus Drusi animus, quando bene incepta male cedebant, ad dandam

civitatem Italiae: quod cum moliens revertisset e foro, immensa {15}

illa et incondita, quae eum semper comitabatur, cinctus multitudine in

area domus suae cultello percussus, qui affixus lateri eius relictus

est, intra paucas horas decessit. Sed cum ultimum redderet spiritum,

intuens circumstantium macrentiumque {20} frequentiam, effudit vocem

convenientissimam conscientiae suae: ecquandone, inquit, propinqui

amicique, similem mei civem habebit res publica? Hunc finem clarissimus

iuvenis vitae habuit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 13-14.

[Linenotes:

3-4. +Drusus.+ 'Generous and free from all selfishness and meanness,

but without political experience, adroitness and knowledge of men,

he aspired to a task which surpassed his strength.' --Ihne.

4-6. By the Sempronian Laws of C. Gracchus 123 B.C. _exclusive

judicial rights had been given to the Equites_, as a counterpoise to

the power of the Senate. The corruption of the Equites (as Judices)

was flagrant, and Drusus proposed to transfer the judicial functions

to a mixed body of 300 Senators and 300 Knights, the selected

Knights to be included in the now attenuated ranks of the Senate.

14. +ad dandam civitatem Italiae.+ The claims of the Italians to the

franchise were just and pressing, but the overbearing pride and

self-sufficiency of the Roman citizens proved too strong.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Cic. _de Oratore_ iii. 1, and _pro Cluent._ 56,

153. Florus, iii. 18.

+Reference.+ Ihne, _Hist._ vol. v. pp. 176-189.

'Drusus was the Mirabeau of the social revolution of Rome, and had his

measures been carried Rome might have been spared the most terrible of

her civil wars.'

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (1)

A. _Cause and Outbreak of the War at Asculum._

Cum ius civitatis, quam viribus auxerant, socii iustissime postularent,

quam in spem eos cupidine dominationis Drusus erexerat, postquam ille

domestico scelere oppressus est, eadem fax, quae illum cremavit, socios

in arma et in expugnationem urbis {5} accendit. . . . Primum fuit belli

consilium ut in Albano monte festo die Latinarum Iulius Caesar et

Marcius Philippus consules inter sacra et aras immolarentur. Postquam id

nefas proditione discussum est, Asculo furor omnis erupit, in ipsa

quidem ludorum {10} frequentia trucidatis qui tum aderant ab urbe

legatis. Hoc fuit impii belli sacramentum. Inde iam passim ab omni parte

Italiae duce et auctore belli discursante Poppaedio diversa per populos

et urbes signa cecinere. {15}

FLORUS, III. xviii. 3-10 (sel.).

[Linenotes:

2. +iustissime.+ 'The final issue of the war confirmed the justice

and the wisdom of the reforms planned by the Gracchi and by Livius

Drusus.' --Ihne.

7. +Latinarum+, sc. _Feriarum_, the solemn festival conducted by the

Consuls on the Alban Mount.

10. +Asculo.+ Asculum (Ascoli), chief town of Picenum. The opening

and closing scene of the war.]

B. _Advice of the Sabellian father to his sons._

'Vivite contenti casulis et collibus istis,

O pueri,' Marsus dicebat et Hernicus olim 180

Vestinusque senex, 'panem quaeramus aratro,

Qui satis est mensis: laudant hoc numina ruris,

Quorum ope et auxilio gratae post munus aristae

Contingunt homini veteris fastidia quercus.

Nil vetitum fecisse volet, quem non pudet alto 185

Per glaciem perone tegi, qui summovet Euros

Pellibus inversis; peregrina ignotaque nobis

Ad scelus atque nefas, quaecumque est, purpura ducit.'

JUVENAL, _Sat._ xiv. 179-188.

[Linenotes:

179. +collibus istis+, i.e. in the central mountain range of Italy.

The Federals chose Corfinium (E. of Lake Fucinus) to be the Italian

rallying-point, and the seat of a new State.

180-181. +Marsus ... Hernicus ... Vestinus+, Sabellian peoples noted

for their bravery and simplicity; the backbone of Rome's army.

182. +numina ruris+, e.g. Ceres, Liber and Priapus.

185-196. +alto perone+ = a high rustic boot of raw hide.

187. +pellibus inversis+ = skins with the hair turned inwards.

--Duff.]

B10

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (2)

A. _Defeat and Death of Rutilius._

Hanc tibi, 'Quo properas', memorant dixisse 'Rutili?

Luce mea Marso consul ab hoste cades.'

Exitus accessit verbis, flumenque Toleni

Purpureum mixtis sanguine fluxit aquis. 566

OVID, _Fasti_, vi. 563-566. [Hallam VI. 487-490]

[Linenote:

563. +Hanc+, sc. _Leucothea_, goddess of the sea and of harbours.

+Rutili+. Rutilius, consul 90 B.C., defeated and slain at the

R. Tolenus (Turano) by the Marsian Vettius Scato.]

B. _The Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C._

Data est civitas Silvani lege et Carbonis: si qui {5} foederatis

civitatibus ascripti fuissent, si tum, cum lex ferebatur, in Italia

domicilium habuissent et si sexaginta diebus apud praetorem essent

professi.

CICERO, _pro Archia_, 4, 7.

[Linenotes:

5. +lege+, i.e. the Lex Plautia Papiria of the tribines M. Plautius

Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo. The Lex Julia of L. Julius Caesar

90 B.C., granting the _civitas_ to the Latins and to all the other

Italian States not in rebellion, had weakened the resistance. The

Lex Plautia Papiria 'scattered among the Italian ranks the seeds

of discord and dissolution.']

C. _Cicero's first and only Campaign._

Memini colloquia et cum acerrimis hostibus et cum gravissime

dissidentibus civibus. Cn. Pompeius, {10} consul me praesente, cum essem

tiro in eius exercitu, cum P. Vettio Scatone, duce Marsorum, inter bina

castra collocutus est. . . . Quem cum Scato salutasset, 'quem te

appellem?' inquit: 'voluntate hospitem, necessitate hostem.' Erat in

colloquio aequitas: {15} nullus timor, nulla suberat suspicio; mediocre

etiam odium. Non enim, ut eriperent nobis socii civitatem, sed ut in eam

reciperentur petebant.

CICERO, _Phil._ xii. 11, 27.

D. _The battle near Asculum, and capture of the city._

Strabo vero Pompeius omnia flammis ferroque populatus non prius finem

caedium fecit quam Asculi {20} eversione manibus tot exercituum consulum

direptarumque urbium dis litaretur.

FLORUS, III. xviii. 14.

[Linenote:

20. +Asculi eversione.+ The siege was memorable for the desperate

patriotism of the besieged under their leader Judacilius, cf. siege

of Saguntum.]

+Reference.+ Ihne, _Hist._ vol. v. pp. 190-220.

B11

L. CORNELIUS SULLA, 138-78 B.C.

_His Character and Bearing._

Igitur Sulla gentis patriciae nobilis fuit, familia prope iam exstincta

maiorum ignavia, litteris Graecis et Latinis iuxta atque doctissimi

eruditus, animo ingenti, cupidus voluptatum sed gloriae cupidior: tamen

ab negotiis numquam voluptas remorata; {5} facundus callidus et amicitia

facilis, ad simulanda negotia altitudo ingeni incredibilis, multarum

rerum ac maxumae pecuniae largitor. Atque illi, felicissumo omnium ante

civilem victoriam, numquam super industriam fortuna fuit, multique

dubitavere fortior {10} an felicior esset. Nam postea quae fecerit,

incertum habeo pudeat an pigeat magis disserere. Igitur Sulla, uti supra

dictum est, postquam in Africam atque in castra Mari cum equitatu venit,

rudis antea et ignarus belli, solertissumus omnium in paucis {15}

tempestatibus factus est. Ad hoc milites benigne appellare, multis

rogantibus aliis per se ipse dare beneficia, invitus accipere, sed ea

properantius quam aes mutuum reddere, ipse ab nullo repetere, magis id

laborare ut illi quam plurimi deberent, ioca atque {20} seria cum

humillumis agere, in operibus in agmine atque ad vigilias multus adesse

neque interim, quod prava ambitio solet, consulis aut cuiusquam boni

famam laedere, tantum modo neque consilio neque manu priorem alium pati,

plerosque antevenire. {25}

SALLUST, _Jug._ 95, 96.

[Linenotes:

1. +nobilis+, i.e. of a patrician family which had held curule

offices.

1-2. +familia ... exstincta.+ The Cornelii were a distinguished

_gens_ in early times and included 7 patrician families (e.g. the

Lentuli and Scipios). Of these the Sullae were the least known.

2-3. +litteris Graecis ... eruditus.+ Contrast the proud boast of

Marius:--'I have learnt no Greek: in the knowledge, however, which

is far the most important for the State, I am a master.' --Sall.

_Jug._ 85.

9. +ante civilem victoriam+, i.e. before 81 B.C.

10-11. +fortior an felicior.+ Sulla assumed the name Felix on the

death of the younger Marius 82 B.C. Cf. Plut. _Sulla_, cap. vi.

11-12. +Nam postea ... disserere.+ Cf. Vell. Patere. II. xvii. 2:

'Sulla vir qui neque ad finem victoriae satis laudari neque post

victoriam abunde vituperari potest.'

20. +illi+ more strictly _sibi_--'a negligence not unfrequent.'

--Merivale.

22. +multus adesse+ = _frequently visited_, +multus+ = _saepe_.]

For +character of Sulla+ cf. Plut. _Sulla_, and Mommsen, iv. pp.

139-142: 'One of the most marvellous characters in history.'

B12

MITHRIDATES THE GREAT, 130-63 B.C.

A. _His Youth and Early Training._

Huius futuram magnitudinem etiam caelestia ostenta praedixerant. Nam et

eo, quo genitus est, anno, et eo, quo regnare primum coepit, stella

cometes per utrumque tempus LXX diebus ita luxit, ut caelum omne

conflagrare videretur. Puer tutorum insidias {5} passus est, qui eum

fero equo impositum equitare iacularique cogebant: qui conatus cum eos

fefellissent, supra aetatem regente equum Mithridate, veneno eum

appetivere. Veritus deinde, ne inimici, quod veneno non potuerant, ferro

peragerent, venandi {10} studium finxit, quo per septem annos neque

urbano neque rustico tecto usus est, sed per silvas vagatus, diversis

montium regionibus pernoctabat ignaris omnibus, quibus esset locis;

adsuetus feras cursu aut fugere aut persequi, cum quibusdam etiam

viribus {15} congredi. Quibus rebus et insidias vitavit, et corpus ad

omnem virtutis patientiam duravit.

[Linenotes:

1. +Huius.+ Mithridates (_Mithras_ = Persian sun-god) 'second only

to Hannibal in inextinguishable, life-long hostility to Rome, as

also in military genius.' Ihne.

5. +tutorum+ = (_at the hands_) _of his guardians_. Cf. _tueor._

17. +ad omnem virtutis patientiam+ = _to all manly endurance_.]

B. _His Preparations for Conquest._

Ad regni deinde administrationem cum accessisset, statim non de regendo,

sed de augendo regno cogitavit. Itaque Scythas invictos antea ingenti

{20} felicitate perdomuit. Hieme deinde appetente, non in convivio, sed

in campo, nec in avocationibus, nec inter sodales, sed inter aequales,

aut equo aut cursu aut viribus contendebat. Exercitum quoque suum ad

parem laboris patientiam cotidiana exercitatione {25} durabat, atque ita

invictus ipse inexpugnabilem exercitum fecerat.

JUSTINUS, xxxvii. 2, 3, 4.

[Linenotes:

19. +de augendo regno.+ He subdued all the coast districts of the

Euxine, East, North and West, as far as the Hister (Danube).

22. +avocationibus+ = _in diversions_ (very rare).

24. +exercitum.+ At the outbreak of the War with Rome, 88 B.C.,

he had collected a motley force of 250,000 foot and 40,000 horse.]

+Mithridates.+ 'With one blow he overthrew the Roman dominion in Asia,

carried the war into Europe, united almost the whole Eastern world in an

attack on the Republic, and resisted for 25 years the first generals of

his time,--a Sulla, a Lucullus, and a Pompeius.' --Ihne.

+Historic Parallels.+ Alexander, Hannibal, Peter the Great.

B13

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (1)?]

_The Battle of Chaeronea, 86 B.C. Brilliant Tactics of Sulla._

Archelaus adversus L. Sullam in fronte ad perturbandum hostem falcatas

quadrigas locavit, in secunda acie phalangem Macedonicam, in tertia

Romanorum more armatos auxiliares, mixtis fugitivis Italicae gentis,

quorum pervicaciae plurimum fidebat; {5} levem armaturam in ultimo

statuit; in utroque deinde latere equitatum, cuius amplum numerum

habebat, circumeundi hostis causa posuit. Contra haec Sulla fossas

amplae latitudinis utroque latere duxit et capitibus earum castella

communiit: qua {10} ratione, ne circuiretur ab hoste et peditum numero

et maxime equitatu superante, consecutus est. Triplicem deinde peditum

aciem ordinavit relictis intervallis per quae levem armaturam et

equitem, quem in novissimo conlocaverat, cum res exegisset, emitteret.

{15} Tum postsignanis qui in secunda acie erant imperavit ut densos

numerososque palos firme in terram defigerent, intraque eos

appropinquantibus quadrigis antesignanorum aciem recepit: tum demum

sublato universorum clamore velites et levem armaturam {20} ingerere

tela iussit. Quibus factis quadrigae hostium aut implicitae palis aut

exterritae clamore telisque in suos conversae sunt turbaveruntque

Macedonum structuram: qua cedente, cum Sulla instaret et Archelaus

equitem opposuisset, Romani equites {25} subito emissi averterunt eos

consummaverantque victoriam.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3. 17.

[Linenotes:

1. +Archelaus+ (and his brother Neoptolemus) 'trained in the

traditions and experience of Greek and Macedonian masters.'

2. +falcatas quadrigras.+ Archelaus had 60 of these chariots armed

with scythes projecting. Cf. Livy xxxvii. 41.

5. +pervicaciae+ = _steadfastness_ (_per_ + _vic_; cf. _vinco_).

11-12. +qua ratione ... consecutus est.+ Sulla had about 30,000 men

(15,000 Romans only) against 120,000.

23. +turbaverunt.+ 'The war-chariots on this as on other occasions

(e.g. at Magnesia) had not only proved a failure, but had actually

led to a partial disaster.' --Ihne. Cf. use of war elephants, e.g.

at Beneventum 275 B.C. and at Zama 202 B.C.

27. +victoriam.+ It was a great victory, but the results were

trifling, partly because Sulla had no fleet, and partly because his

political enemies at Rome were bent on crippling him.]

+Historic Parallel.+ The Battle of Magnesia 190 B.C.

B14

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (2)

A. _Capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 86 B.C._

Sulla interim cum Mithridatis praefectis circa Athenas ita dimicavit, ut

et Athenas reciperet et plurimo circa multiplices Piraei portus

munitiones labore expleto amplius CC milia hostium interficeret nec

minus multa caperet. . . . Nam oppressi (Athenienses) {5} Mithridatis

armis homines miserrimae condicionis cum ab inimicis tenerentur,

oppugnabantur ab amicis et animos extra moenia, corpora necessitati

servientes intra muros habebant.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23.

[Linenotes:

2. +ut Athenas reciperet.+ Sulla reduced the city by starvation.

3. +Piraei portus.+ This was strongly held by Archelaus, and was

taken only after a most obstinate defence.

7. +cum ... tenerentur.+ The contemptible adventurer Aristion, with

his bodyguard of 2000 men and the bribe of Delos and its treasure,

had made himself master of Athens.]

B. _Battle of Orchomenus, 85 B.C. Sulla restores the Fight._

L. Sulla, cedentibus iam legionibus exercitui {10} Mithridatico ductu

Archelai, stricto gladio in primam aciem procucurrit appellansque

milites dixit, si quis quaesisset, ubi imperatorem reliquissent,

responderent pugnantem in Boeotia: cuius rei pudore universi eum secuti

sunt. {15}

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 8. 12.

[Linenote:

10-15. = 'The great victory at Orchomenus was the turning-point

in the War.' --Ihne.]

C. _Peace of Dardanus. End of the First Mithridatic War, 84 B.C._

Transgressus deinde in Asiam Sulla parentem ad omnia supplicemque

Mithridatem invenit, quem multatum pecunia ac parte navium, Asia

omnibusque aliis provinciis, quas armis occupaverat, decedere coegit,

captivos recepit, in perfugas noxiosque {20} animadvertit, paternis, id

est Ponticis finibus contentum esse iussit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23.

[Linenote:

16-22. +The terms of peace+ were (i) Restoration of all conquests,

(ii) Surrender of 80 ships and of all prisoners, (iii) Indemnity

of 3000 talents. Florus says 'Non fregit ea res Ponticos, sed

incendit.' Sulla was anxious to secure peace, because his presence

was needed at Rome.]

+Sulla's Conduct of the War+. 'No previous general had shown so great a

mastery of the art of war and such care and interest for the welfare of

the State, as distinguished from the success of a party.' --Ihne.

B15

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (1)

_Battles of Sacriportus and the Colline Gate._

Iam quot apud Sacri cecidere cadavera Portum

Aut Collina tulit stratas quot porta catervas, 135

Tum cum, paene caput mundi rerumque potestas

Mutavit translata locum, Romanaque Samnis

Ultra Caudinas speravit volnera Furcas.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 134-138.

[Linenotes:

134. +apud Sacriportum+, near Praeneste, where Sulla totally defeated

the Marians, under the younger Marius, 82 B.C.

135. +Collina Porta+, i.e. N.E. gate of Rome near the _Collis_

Quirinalis.

136. +paene+, with _mutavit_, l. 137.]

B. At Pontius Telesinus, dux Samnitium, vir animi bellique fortissimus

penitusque Romano nomini infestissimus, contractis circiter XL milibus

fortissimae pertinacissimaeque in retinendis armis iuventutis Kal.

Novembribus ita ad portam Collinam cum Sulla {10} dimicavit, ut ad

summum discrimen et eum et rempublicam perduceret, quae non maius

periculum adiit Hannibalis intra tertium miliarium conspicata castra,

quam eo die, quo circumvolans ordines exercitus sui Telesinus

dictitansque adesse Romanis ultimum {15} diem vociferabatur eruendam

delendamque urbem, adiciens numquam deluturos raptores Italicae

libertatis lupos, nisi silva, in quam refugere solerent, esset excisa.

Post primam demum horam noctis et Romana acies respiravit et hostium

cessit. Telesinus {20} postera die semianimis repertus est, victoris

magis quam morientis vultum praeferens, cuius abscisum caput ferro figi

gestarique circa Praeneste Sulla iussit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 27.

[Linenotes:

6. +Pontius Telesinus+, 'a kinsman in name and temper of the hero of

321 B.C.'

12-14. +quae ... castra.+ 'As Hannibal had tried to relieve the

closely pressed Capua by a direct attack on Rome, Pontius Telesinus

thought to draw off the besieging army from Praeneste by threatening

the Capital.' --Ihne.

20. +Romana acies respiravit.+ Sulla, with the left wing, was driven

back by the Samnites to the walls of Rome, but Crassus with the

right wing was completely victorious, and to him the final victory

was due.

'The issue of the whole war, at least on Italian ground, was decided

by the battle of the Colline Gate.' --Ihne.]

B16

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (2)

A. _Death of the Younger Marius. Sulla Felix._

Tum demum desperatis rebus suis C. Marius adulescens per cuniculos, qui

miro opere fabricati in diversas agrorum partes fuerunt, conatus

erumpere, cum foramine e terra emersisset, a dispositis in id ipsum

interemptus est. . . . De quo iuvene quid {5} existimaverit Sulla, in

promptu est; occiso enim demum eo Felicis nomen adsumpsit, quod quidem

usurpasset iustissime, si eundem et vincendi et vivendi finem habuisset.

VELL. PAT. ii. 27.

[Linenotes:

1. +Tum+, i.e. after Sulla's victory at the Colline Gate, 82 B.C.

+C. Marius.+ 'He possessed his father's martial spirit, courage and

unyielding perseverance.' --Ihne.

2. +per cuniculos+ = _through subterranean passages_.]

B. _The Sullan Proscriptions._

'Sulla quoque immensis accessit cladibus ultor. 139

Ille quod exiguum restabat sanguinis urbi

Hausit: dumque nimis iam putria membra recidit,

Excessit medicina modum, nimiumque secuta est,

Qua morbi duxere, manus. . . . 143

Tum data libertas odiis, resolutaque legum 145

Frenis ira ruit. Non uni cuncta dabantur,

Sed fecit sibi quisque nefas: semel omnia victor

Iusserat . . .

Hisne Salus rerum, Felix his Sulla vocari, 221

His meruit tumulum medio sibi tollere Campo?

Haec rursus patienda manent: hoc ordine belli

Ibitur: hic stabit civilibus exitus armis.'

. . . . Sic maesta senectus 232

Praeteritique memor flebat metuensque futuri. 233

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 139-148, 221-224.

[Linenotes:

139. +Sulla ... ultor+ = _Sulla too in his vengeance came to crown

these fearful disasters_. --Haskins.

141-143. +dumque ... manus.+ Sulla is compared to a surgeon who in too

great haste to remove the mortified flesh cuts away the sound flesh

also.

146. +non uni ...+ = _all crimes were not committed for one man's

sake_, i.e. to please Sulla.

223-224. +hoc ordine belli ibitur+ = _in this course of war events

will move_. --H. i.e. History will repeat itself.

232. +sic maesta senectus.+ An old man, who had lived through the

Marian and Sullan times, predicts similar horrors of the Civil War

between Caesar and Pompey.]

+The Proscriptions.+ 'They were the product not of passion or thirst of

blood, but of a cool political calculation, and the conviction of its

inevitable necessity.' --Ihne.

B17

A. _Sulla appointed Dictator, 81 B.C._

Dictator creatus (cuius honoris usurpatio per annos centum et viginti

intermissa; nam proximus post annum quam Hannibal Italia excesserat, uti

appareat populum Romanum usum dictatoris haud metu desiderasse tali quo

timuisset potestatem) imperio, {5} quo priores ad vindicandum maximis

periculis patriam usi erant, eo in immodicae crudelitatis licentiam usus

est.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 28.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +cuius honoris ... intermissa.+ The last real Dictator

(M. Junius Pera) was appointed after Cannae 216 B.C.

5-8. +imperio quo ... usus est.+ 'The Dictator of the first age of

the Republic down to the Punic Wars had always a _well-defined

special duty to discharge in a given time_. Sulla's task was of _a

general nature and all-comprehensive range_, and he had the most

essential of all monarchical attributes, which is _the unlimited

duration of office_.' --Ihne.]

B. _Sulla lays down his Dictatorship, 79 B.C._

Nec minoris impotentiae voces propalam edebat, ut Titus Ampius scribit,

'Nihil esse rempublicam, {10} appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie.

Sullam nescisse litteras, qui dictaturam deposuerit.'

SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 77.

[Linenotes:

9. +impotentiae+ = _arrogance_ (lack of self-restraint).

10. +Ampius.+ Titus Ampius Balbus, a Pompeian general.

11-12. +Sullam nescisse litteras+ = (i) S. had not profited by the

teachings of History, or (ii) S. was without a liberal education.]

C. _Death of Sulla, 78 B.C._

Puteolis enim ardens indignatione, quod Granius, princeps eius coloniae

pecuniam a decurionibus ad refectionem Capitolii promissam cunctantius

daret, {15} animi concitatione nimia atque immoderato vocis impetu

convulso pectore, spiritum cruore ac minis mixtum evomuit, nec senio iam

prolapsus, utpote sexagesimum ingrediens annum, sed alita miseriis

reipublicae inpotentia furens. Igitur in dubio est {20} Sullane prior an

iracundia Sullae sit extincta.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, ix. 3. 8.

[Linenote:

13. +Granius+, the chief magistrate of Puteoli, had kept back money

destined for the building of the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.

The old one was destroyed by fire 83 B.C. 'It was Sulla's great

desire that his name should be recorded on the front of the new

temple, for it was to be the symbol of the Republic, restored as

he fondly hoped by him to its pristine purity.' --Ihne.]

B18

THE LEGES CORNELIAE, 81 B.C.

A. _Limitation of the Tribune's Right of Veto._

In ista quidem re vehementer Sullam probo, qui tribunis plebis sua lege

iniuriae faciendae potestatem ademerit, auxili ferendi reliquerit.

CICERO, _de Legibus_, iii. 9. 22.

[Linenotes:

2. +iniuriae faciendae+, e.g. by their abuse of the right of veto.

3. +auxili ferendi.+ 'Sulla limited the office of tribune to the

original functions for which it was established, _the legal

protection of the people from the abuse of magisterial power_.'

--Ihne.]

B. _Abolition of Corn Distributions._

Populus Romanus, paullo ante gentium moderator, exutus imperio gloria

iure, agitandi inops despectusque ne servilia quidem alimenta relicua

habet.

SALLUST, _Hist., Orat. M. Lepidi_.

[Linenotes:

5. +agitandi inops+ (i.e. _vitam sustentandi_) = _without means of

livelihood._

6. +servilia alimenta+ = _a slave's allowance of food_. Sulla

abolished the largesses of corn.]

C. _Restoration of Judicial Functions to the Senators._

Iudicandi munus quod C. Gracchus ereptum senatui ad Equites, Sulla ab

illis ad Senatum transtulerat.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 32.

[Linenote:

8-10. Sulla filled up the gaps in the Senate from the ranks of the

Equites, and to the new Senate thus constituted he entrusted the

administration of justice.]

D. _A Sumptuary Law, Limiting the Expense of the Table._

L. Sulla dictator, cum plerique in patrimoniis amplis eluerentur et

familiam pecuniamque suam prandiorum conviviorumque gurgitibus

proluissent, legem ad populam tulit, qua cautum est, ut Kalendis,

Idibus, Nonis diebusque ludorum et feriis quibusdam {15} sollemnibus

sestertios trecenos in cenam insumere ius potestasque esset, ceteris

autem diebus omnibus non amplius tricenos.

AULUS GELLIUS, ii. 24, 11.

[Linenote:

12. +eluerentur+ = _had squandered_ (lit. 'washed away').]

+Leges Corneliae.+ 'Sulla's legislation was an attempt to revive what

was dead and gone. The time had arrived when the old republican

institutions could last no longer. The transformation of the state into

a monarchy was inevitable.' --Ihne.

+The Sultan Constitution.+ It had as little endurance as that of

Cromwell, and was finally destroyed in 70 B.C. during the consulship of

Pompeius and Crassus.

B19

_Speech of Lepidus against Sulla, 78 B.C._

Nam praeter satellites commaculatos quis eadem volt? aut quis non omnia

mutata praeter victorem? Scilicet milites, quorum sanguine Tarulae

Scyrtoque, pessumis servorum, divitiae partae sunt! Itaque maxumam mihi

fiduciam parit victor exercitus, cui {5} per tot volnera et labores

nihil praeter tyrannum quaesitum est. Nisi forte tribuniciam potestatem

evorsum profecti sunt, per arma conditam a maioribus suis, utique iura

et iudicia sibimet extorquerent, egregia scilicet mercede, cum relegati

in paludes et {10} silvam contumeliam atque invidiam suam, praemia penes

paucos intellegerint. Quare igitur tanto agmine atque animis incedit?

Quia secundae res mire sunt vitiis obtentui; quibus labefactis, quam

formidatus est, tam contemnetur; nisi forte specie {15} concordiae et

pacis, quae sceleri et parricidio suo nomina indidit; neque aliter

rempublicam et belli finem ait, nisi maneat expulsa agris plebes, praeda

civilis acerbissima, ius iudiciumque omnium rerum penes se, quod populi

Romani fuit. Quae si vobis {20} pax et concordia intelleguntur, maxuma

turbamenta reipublicae atque exitia probate, annuite legibus impositis,

accipite otium cum servitio et tradite exemplum posteris ad populum

Romanum suimet sanguinis mercede circumveniundum. {25}

SALLUST, _Hist, Orat. M. Lepidi_.

[Linenotes:

1. +Nam+, sc. 'His luck is not so great as he supposes, for...'

7-8. +tribuniciam ... evorsum+, i.e. by the Leges Corneliae 81 B.C.

9. +iudicia.+ Sulla restored the judicial functions to the Senate

(from the Equites).

10. +relegati in paludes.+ Sulla established 120,000 soldiers in

military colonies in different parts of Italy, but their roaming

adventurous life had unfitted them for agricultural pursuits.

13-14. +Quia ... obtentui+ = _because prosperity serves in a

marvellous manner to cover a man's faults of character_. --Holden.

For +obtentui+ cf. _draw a veil over_.

16. +parricidio+ = _treason_.

18. +nisi ... agris+, i.e. Sulla's confiscations of estates,

especially of those Italians who had fought against him.

24-25. +ad p. R. circumveniundum+ = _for oppressing_ (enslaving)

_the people of Rome_.]

+M. Aemillus Lepidus+, Consul 78 B.C., a disappointed Optimate, jealous

of Sulla's power, but without Sulla's ability. He posed as leader of the

democratic party, took up arms against the State, but was defeated by Q.

Catulus at the Milvian Bridge, 77 B.C.

B20

WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN, 78-72 B.C. (1)

_Sertorius and his Fawn._

Huic Sertorio cerva alba eximiae pulchritudinis et vivacissimae

celeritatis a Lusitano quodam dono data est. Hanc sibi oblatam

divinitus, et instinctam Dianae numine colloqui secum, monereque, et

docere, quae utilia factu essent, persuadere omnibus instituit: {5} ac,

si quid durius videbatur, quod imperandum militibus foret, a cerva sese

monitum tum praedicabat. Id cum dixerat, universi, tamquam si deo,

libentes parebant. Ea cerva quodam die, cum incursio esset hostium

nuntiata, festinatione ac tumultu consternata {10} in fugam se

proripuit, atque in palude proxima delituit; et postea requisita perisse

credita est. Neque multis diebus post inventam esse cervam Sertorio

nuntiatur. Tum, qui nuntiaverat, iussit tacere: ac, ne cui palam

diceret, interminatus est: {15} praecepitque, ut eam postero die repente

in eum locum, in quo ipse cum amicis esset, immitteret: admissis deinde

amicis postridie, visum sibi esse ait in quiete cervam, quae perisset,

ad se reverti, et, ut prius consueverat, quod opus esset facto

praedicare. {20} Tum servo, quod imperaverat, significat. Cerva emissa

in cubiculum Sertorii introrupit; clamor factus et orta admiratio est:

eaque hominum barbarorum credulitas Sertorio in magnis rebus magno usui

fuit. {25}

GELLIUS, _Noctes Atticae_, xv. 22.

[Linenotes:

1. +alba+ = a _dull_ white as opp. to +ater+ = _dull_ black. Cf.

+candidus+ = _shining_ white as opp. to +niger+ = _shining_ black.

3. +instinctam+ = _fired_, _animated_.

15. +interminatus+ = _he forbade with threats_. +inter + minor+,

freq. in Plautus and Terence.

23-25. 'Sertorius did not disdain to turn to account the

superstition of the ruder Spanish tribes, and to have his plans of

war brought to him as commands of Diana by the white fawn of the

goddess.' --M.]

+Character of Sertorius.+ 'He was the only democratic (Marian) officer

who knew how to prepare and to conduct war, and the only democratic

statesman who opposed the furious doings of his party with statesmanlike

energy. His Spanish soldiers called him the new Hannibal, and not merely

because he had, like that hero, lost an eye in war. He in reality

reminds us of the great Phoenician by his equally cunning and courageous

strategy, and by the quickness of his ingenuity in turning to good

account his victories and averting the consequences of his defeats.'

--M.

B21

WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN (2)

A. _A New Hannibal._

Sertorius, exsul et profugus feralis illius tabulae, vir summae quidem

sed calamitosae virtutis, malis suis maria terrasque permiscuit; et iam

Africae, iam Balearibus insulis fortunam expertus usque in Oceanum

Fortunatasque insulas penetravit consiliis, {5} tandem Hispaniam

armavit. Viro cum viris facile convenit. Nec alias magis apparuit

Hispani militis vigor quam Romano duce. Quamquam ille non contentus

Hispania ad Mithridatem quoque Ponticosque respexit regemque classe

iuvit. Et quid futurum {10} fuit satis tanto hosti, cui uno imperatore

resistere res Romana non potuit? Additus Metello Gnaeus Pompeius. Hi

copias attrivere viri prope tota Hispania persecuti. Diu et ancipiti

semper acie pugnatum est; nec tamen prius bello quam suorum scelere {15}

et insidiis extinctus est.

FLORUS, III. xxii. 2-6. A.

[Linenotes:

1. +feralis illius tabulae+ = _from that fatal list_, i.e. Sulla's

list of proscribed Marians 82 B.C.

9-10. +ad Mithridatem ... iuvit.+ In 75 B.C. he concluded a formal

treaty of alliance with Mithridates, and sent him the propraetor

M. Marius to lead his troops. Cf. alliance between Hannibal and

Philip.

14-15. +Diu et ancipiti semper acie pugnatum est+, e.g. the defeat

of Pompey near Lauro. (For a graphic account of the strategy by

which the battle was won see Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 5.)]

B. _The Death of Sertorius._

M. Perpenna praetorius e proscriptis, gentis clarioris quam animi,

Sertorium inter cenam Oscae interemit Romanisque certam victoriam,

partibus suis excidium, sibi turpissimam mortem pessimo {20} auctoravit

facinore. Metellus et Pompeius ex Hispaniis triumphaverunt.

VELL. PATERC. ii. 30.

[Linenotes:

17. +M. Perpenna praetorius+ (= _ex-praetor_), with the remnant of

the army of Lepidus (defeated by Pompey in 77 B.C.) joined Sertorius

in Spain. After serving under Sertorius for some years, through

jealousy, he brought about his leader's assassination.

21. +auctoravit+ = _he brought about_. More usu. as +auctorari+ =

_to hire oneself out for some service_, e.g. of gladiators.]

+The Death of Sertorius.+ 'So ended one of the greatest men that Rome

had hitherto produced--a man who under more fortunate circumstances

would perhaps have become the regenerator of his country.' --M.

B22

_Character and Early Career of Lucullus._

Magnum ingenium L. Luculli, magnumque optimarum artium studium, tum

omnis liberalis et digna homine nobili ab eo percepta doctrina, quibus

temporibus florere in foro maxime potuit, caruit omnino rebus urbanis.

Ut enim admodum adolescens, {5} cum fratre pari pietate et industria

praedito, paternas inimicitias magna cum gloria est persecutus, in Asiam

quaestor profectus, ibi permultos annos admirabili quadam laude

provinciae praefuit: deinde absens factus aedilis, continuo praetor:

licebat {10} enim celerius legis praemio: post in Africam: inde ad

consulatum: quem ita gessit ut diligentiam admirarentur omnes, ingenium

cognoscerent. Post ad Mithridaticum bellum missus a senatu non modo

opinionem vicit omnium quae de virtute eius erat, sed {15} etiam gloriam

superiorum. Idque eo fuit mirabilius, quod ab eo laus imperatoria non

admodum exspectabatur, qui adolescentiam in forensi opera, quaesturae

diuturnum tempus, Murena bellum in Ponto gerente, in Asiae pace

consumpserat. . . . {20} In eodem tanta prudentia fuit in constituendis

temperandisque civitatibus, tanta aequitas, ut hodie stet Asia Luculli

institutis servandis et quasi vestigiis persequendis.

CICERO, _Academica_, ii. 1.

[Linenotes:

1-3. +ingenium+, +studium+, +doctrina+, subjects of +caruit+.

3-5. +quibus temporibus ... urbanis+ = _all this was divorced_

(+caruit+, lit. _was cut off from_) _from the business of the

capital, at the season when he might have had a specially brilliant

career in the forum_. --J. S. Reid.

6. +paternas inimicitias+ = _his father's quarrel_. The first

appearance of Lucullus in public life was as the accuser of the

Augur Servilius who had procured the banishment of his father.

7-9. +in Asiam ... praefuit+, i.e. as Sulla's quaestor in the first

Mithridatic War, 88-84 B.C. and then till 80 B.C. in charge of the

province of Asia (= orig. Kingdom of Pergamus, N.W. part of Asia

Minor).

11. +legis praemio+ = _owing to a privilege conveyed by statute_.

J. S. R.

13-14. +ad Mithridaticum bellum+, i.e. the 3rd M. War, which he

carried on for eight years (74-66 B.C.) with great success, until

superseded by Pompeius in 66 B.C.

19-20. +Murena ... gerente.+ Lic. Murena, anxious for distinction,

provoked the disastrous 2nd Mithridatic War, 83-81 B.C., when by the

peremptory orders of Sulla the peace was renewed.

23. +stet ... servandis+ = _persists in maintaining_ (lit. _stands

by_) _the ordinances of L._--J. S. R.]

+Reference.+ For _Character of Lucullus_, see Mommsen, vol. iv.

pp. 337-8. Cf. also Vell. Paterc. ii. 32.

B23

A. _A Soldier of Lucullus._

Luculli miles collecta viatica multis

Aerumnis, lassus dum noctu stertit, ad assem

Perdiderat; post hoc vehemens lupus, et sibi et hosti

Iratus pariter, ieiunis dentibus acer,

Praesidium regale loco deiecit, ut aiunt, 30

Summe munito et multarum divite rerum.

Clarus ob id factum donis ornatur honestis,

Accipit et bis dena super sestertia nummum.

Forte sub hoc tempus castellum evertere praetor

Nescio quod cupiens hortari coepit eundem 35

Verbis, quae timido quoque possent addere mentem:

'I, bone, quo virtus tua te vocat, i pede fausto,

Grandia laturus meritorum praemia. Quid stas?'

Post haec ille catus, quantumvis rusticus, 'Ibit,

Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,' inquit. 40

HORACE, _Ep._ II. ii. 26-40.

[Linenotes:

26. +viatica+ = _savings_ (cf. _prize-money_). +viaticum+ =

originally _travelling-money_.

28. +vehemens lupus+ = _a very wolf in his fury_. Cf. Vergil's simile

for a forlorn hope--'lupi ceu | Raptores.' --Wickham.

32. +donis honestis+ = _gifts of honour_--i.e. the _corona muralis_,

the _mural crown_, such as is worn by the goddess Cybele.

33. +nummum+ (= _nummorum_) = _in hard cash_.

39. +catus+ = _shrewd_, _witty_, a Sabine word, = _acutus_.

39-40. +Ibit ... quo vis+, the original of Juvenal's _ad caelum,

iusseris, ibit_.

40. +zonam+ = _purse_. The +zona+ here was a broad belt made double

or hollow to carry money in.]

B. _The Wealth of Lucullus._

Chlamydes Lucullus, ut aiunt, 40

Si posset centum scaenae praebere rogatus,

'Qui possum tot?' ait; 'tamen et quaeram, et quot habebo

Mittam': post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque

Esse domi chlamydum; partem vel tolleret omnes. 44

HORACE, _Ep._ I. vi. 40-44.

+Subject.+ Horace says 'I am like Lucullus' soldier--when his pocket was

empty he would volunteer for forlorn hopes; when it was full again he

would do so no more. It was poverty that made me write verses.' --W.

[Linenotes:

40. +Chlamydes.+ The Chlamys was the light short mantle of the

Greeks, here wanted for a pageant on the stage.

44. +tolleret.+ The subj. is the praetor or person giving the show.

--W.]

+Reference.+ For _the magnificence of his Villas_ at Tusculum and near

Neapolis, see Cicero _De Fin._ ii. § 107, _De Leg._ iii. § 30, Pliny,

_N. H._ ix. 170.

B24

WAR WITH SPARTACUS, 73-71 B.C.

_Spartacus and his Gladiators._

Spartacus, Crixus, Oenomaus effracto Lentuli ludo cum triginta aut

amplius eiusdem fortunae viris erupere Capua; servisque ad vexillum

vocatis cum statim decem amplius milia coissent, homines modo effugisse

contenti iam et vindicari volebant. {5} Prima sedes velut rabidis beluis

mons Vesuvius placuit. Ibi cum obsiderentur a Clodio Glabro, per fauces

cavi montis vitineis delapsi vinculis ad imas eius descendere radices et

exitu inviso nihil tale opinantis ducis subito impetu castra rapuerunt.

Adfluentibus {10} in diem copiis cum iam esset iustus exercitus,

e viminibus pecudumque tegumentis inconditos sibi clipeos et ferro

ergastulorum recocto gladios ac tela fecerunt, Indo iam consulares

quoque aggressus in Appennino Lentuli exercitum percecidit, apud {15}

Mutinam Gai Cassi castra delevit. Tandem enim totis imperii viribus

contra mirmillonem consurgunt, pudoremque Romanum Marcus Crassus

asseruit: a quo pulsi fugatique hostes in extrema Italiae refugerunt.

Ibi circa Bruttium angulum clusi cum {20} fugam in Siciliam pararent

neque navigia suppeterent ratesque ex trabibus et dolia connexa

virgultis rapidissimo freto frustra experirentur, tandem eruptione facta

dignam viris obiere mortem, et quod sub gladiatore duce oportuit, sine

missione {25} pugnatum est. Spartacus ipse in primo agmine fortissime

dimicans quasi imperator occisus est.

FLORUS, III. xx. 3-14 (sel.).

[Linenotes:

1. +Spartacus+, by birth a Thracian, who had served among the

Thracian auxiliaries in the Roman army, had deserted and become a

chief of banditti. He was taken prisoner and sold to a trainer of

gladiators.

+Crixus+, +Oenomaus+, the slave-names of two Celts.

1-2. +effracto ludo+ = _broke out of the gladiators' school_.

8. +vitineis vinculis+ = _by means of ropes made of vine-branches_.

9. +inviso+ = _unknown_, lit. _unseen_.

13. +ergastulorum+ = _from the slaves' work-houses_.

17. +mirmillonem.+ The Mirmillones were a class of gladiators

usually matched with the Thraces or the _retiarii_ (_net-fighters_).

18. +Marcus Crassus+, the Triumvir of 60 B.C.

+asseruit+ = _maintained_. Cf. our _assert_.

21. +in Siciliam+, where the slaves had risen in 133 and 104 B.C.,

and only waited an impulse to break out a third time.

25. +sine missione+ = _without quarter_. Cf. _missio_ = _the

discharge_ from service of soldiers and gladiators.]

B25

THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B.C. (1)

_Lucullus Ponticus._

Quoniam de genere belli dixi, nunc de magnitudine pauca dicam. Atque ut

omnes intellegant me L. Lucullo tantum impertire laudis, quantum forti

viro et sapienti homini et magno imperatori debeatur, dico eius adventu

maximas Mithridatis {5} copias omnibus rebus ornatas atque instructas

fuisse urbemque Asiae clarissimam nobisque amicissimam, Cyzicenorum,

obsessam esse ab ipso rege maxima multitudine et oppugnatam

vehementissime, quam L. Lucullus virtute, assiduitate, consilio summis

{10} obsidionis periculis liberavit: ab eodem imperatore classem magnam

et ornatam, quae ducibus Sertorianis ad Italiam studio inflammata

raperetur, superatam esse atque depressam; magnas hostium praeterea

copias multis proeliis esse deletas patefactumque {15} nostris

legionibus esse Pontum, qui antea populo Romano ex omni aditu clausus

fuisset; Sinopen atque Amisum, quibus in oppidis erant domicilia regis,

omnibus rebus ornatas atque refertas, ceterasque urbes Ponti et

Cappadociae permultas uno {20} aditu adventuque esse captas; regem

spoliatum regno patrio atque avito ad alios se reges atque ad alias

gentes supplicem contulisse: atque haec omnia salvis populi Romani

sociis atque integris vectigalibus esse gesta. {25}

CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 20, 21.

[Linenotes:

5-6. +maximas ... fuisse.+ M. had 140,000 well-trained men, Roman

officers sent by Sertorius, 16,000 cavalry, a war-fleet of 400

ships, and abundance of stores.

7-11. +urbemque ... liberavit.+ The city of Cyzicus stood on the S.

side of the island of the same name in the Propontis (Sea of

Marmora), close to the shore of M[-y]sia, to which it was joined by

two bridges.

12-14. +classem ... depressam+, i.e. probably the Battle of Tenedos

73 B.C., in which Marcus Marius and the ablest of the Roman

emigrants met their death, and the whole Aegean fleet of Mithridates

was annihilated.

15. +multis proeliis+, e.g. of Cabira, 72 B.C.; Tigranocerta, 69 B.C.

18. +Sinopen.+ +Sinope+, on the W. headland of the great bay of

which the delta of the R. Halys forms the E. headland, was the

birthplace and residence (+domicilia+) of M.

22. +ad alios reges+, e.g. to his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia.

23-24. +salvis ... vectigalibus+, i.e. without ruining the

provincial by forced contributions and requisitions.]

+Reference.+ For _Siege of Cyzicus_, see Mommsen, vol. iv. pp. 326-328;

Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 13. 6.

B26

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.

_His Character, and Career to 66 B.C._

Iam vero virtuti Cn. Pompei quae potest oratio par inveniri? Quid est

quod quisquam aut illo dignum, aut vobis novum aut cuiquam inauditum

possit adferre? Neque enim illae sunt solae virtutes imperatoriae, quae

vulgo esistimantur, labor in {5} negotiis, fortitudo in periculis,

industria in agendo, celeritas in conficiendo, consilium in providendo,

quae tanta sunt in hoc uno, quanta in omnibus reliquis imperatoribus,

quos aut vidimus aut audivimus, non fuerunt. Testis est Italia, quam

ille ipse {10} victor L. Sulla huius virtute et subsidio confessus est

liberatam: testis est Sicilia, quam multis undique cinctam periculis non

terrore belli, sed consilii celeritate explicavit: testis est Africa,

quae magnis oppressa hostium copiis eorum ipsorum sanguine {15}

redundavit: testis est Gallia, per quam legionibus nostris iter in

Hispaniam Gallorum internecione patefactum est: testis est Hispania,

quae saepissime plurimos hostes ab hoc superatos prostratosque

conspexit: testis est iterum et saepius Italia, quae {20} cum servili

bello taetro periculosoque premeretur, ab hoc auxilium absente

expetivit, quod bellum exspectatione eius attenuatum atque imminutum

est, adventu sublatum ac sepultum: testes nunc vero iam omnes orae atque

omnes exterae gentes ac nationes. {25}

CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 29-31.

[Linenotes:

10-12. +Testis est Italia ... liberatam.+ In 83 B.C. Pompeius, aged

twenty-four, raised three legions in Picenum, gained several

advantages over the Marian generals, and was saluted by Sulla as

Imperator.

12-14. +testis est Sicilia ... explicavit.+ In 82 B.C. Pompeius,

sent as propraetor to Sicily, quickly took possession of the island

for Sulla.

14-16. +testis est Africa ... redundavit.+ In 81 B.C. Pompeius

defeated at Utica the Marian Ahenobarbus (allied with Hiarbas of

Numidia), and was, though _a simple Roman eques_, granted a triumph

by Sulla and saluted as +Magnus+.

16-18. +testis est Gallia ... patefactum est.+ In 77 B.C., on his

way to Spain as proconsul against Sertorius, he had to cut his way

through the Transalpine Gauls, and laid out a new and shorter road

over the Cottian Alps.

21. +servili bello.+ On his return from Spain he cut to pieces the

scattered remnants of the army of Spartacus.

21-23. +ab hoc ... imminutum est.+ Cic. assumes that the enemy was

crippled even by the mere notion of sending for Pompeius.]

+References.+ Plutarch, _Pompeius_; Vell. Paterc. ii. 29.

B27

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (1)

_The Man Caesar._

Fuisse traditur excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore

paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis, valetudine prospera; nisi quod

tempore extremo repente animo linqui atque etiam per somnum exterreri

solebat. Armorum et equitandi {5} peritissimus, laboris ultra fidem

patiens erat. In agmine nonnunquam equo, saepius pedibus anteibat,

capite detecto, seu sol seu imber esset; longissimas vias incredibili

celeritate confecit. In obeundis expeditionibus dubium cautior an

audentior, {10} exercitum neque per insidiosa itinera duxit umquam nisi

perspeculatus locorum situs. A Brundisio Dyrrachium inter oppositas

classes hieme transmisit cessantibusque copiis, quas subsequi iusserat,

cum ad accersendas frustra saepe misisset, {15} novissime ipse clam

noctu parvulum navigium solus obvoluto capite conscendit, neque aut quis

esset ante detexit aut gubernatorem cedere adversae tempestati passus

est, quam paene obrutus fluctibus. Ne religione quidem ulla a quoquam

incepto absterritus {20} umquam vel retardatus est. Cum immolanti

aufugisset hostia, profectionem adversus Scipionem et Iubam non

distulit. Prolapsus etiam in egressu navis, verso ad melius omine Teneo

te, inquit, Africa.

SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 45, 57-59 (sel.)

[Linenotes:

4. +animo linqui+ = _he was subject to fainting-fits_.

8. +capite detecto+, so Cyrus the Younger and Hannibal.

9. +incredibili celeritate+, cf. Cic. _Ep. ad Att._ viii. 9 _hoc_

#teras# (= prodigy) _horribili vigilantia, celeritate, diligentia

est_. Cf. also Napoleon the Great.

14. +cessantibusque copiis+ = _and when the troops delayed their

coming_. Caesar did not then know that Antonius had himself been

attacked at Brundisium by a Pompeian fleet, and had shown great

skill in baffling it, and forcing it to put to sea again. Once more

Antonius set sail with 4 legions and 800 horsemen, and fortunately a

strong S. wind carried him safely to the port of Lissus (N. of

Dyrrachium).

18-19. +gubernatorem ... passus est.+ '_Quid times? Caesarem

vehis!_' was Caesar's famous exhortation to the pilot. (Florus.)

21-22. +Cum ... hostia:+ if the victim even tugged at the rope when

being led to sacrifice, it was considered unfortunate, and hence a

long slack rope was used. Cf. Juv. xii. 5 _Sed procul extensum

petulans_ (butting) _quatit hostia funem_.

24. According to Frontinus his words were '_Teneo te, terra

mater_.']

+The man Caesar.+ 'We may picture him as a man the dignity of whose

bodily presence was in due proportion to the greatness of his mental

powers.' --Warde Fowler.

B28

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (2)

_Captured by Pirates. Studies Oratory at Rhodes, 76-75 B.C._

Composita seditione civili Cornelium Dolabellam consularem et

triumphalem repetundarum postulavit; absolutoque Rhodum secedere

statuit, et ad declinandam invidiam et ut per otium ac requiem Apollonio

Moloni clarissimo tunc dicendi magistro {5} operam daret. Huc dum

hibernis iam mensibus traicit, circa Pharmacussam insulam a praedonibus

captus est, mansitque apud eos, non sine summa indignatione, prope

quadraginta dies cum uno medico et cubicularis duobus. Nam comites

servosque {10} ceteros initio statim ad expediendas pecunias, quibus

redimeretur, dimiserat. Numeratis deinde quinquaginta talentis,

expositus in litore non distulit quin e vestigio classe deducta

persequeretur abeuntis, ac redactos in potestatem supplicio, quod saepe

illis {15} minatus inter iocum fuerat, adficeret. Vastante regiones

proximas Mithridate ne desidere in discrimine sociorum videretur, ab

Rhodio quo pertenderat, transiit in Asiam, auxiliisque contractis et

praefecto regis provincia expulso, nutantes ac dubias civitates {20}

retinuit in fide.

SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 4.

[Linenotes:

1. +Composita seditione civili+, i.e. after the abortive attempt of

Lepidus to make himself master of the state 77 B.C.

+C. Dolabellam,+ impeached for illegal extortion during his

government of Macedonia.

+Repetundarum+ (sc. _pecuniarum_), post-Aug. for _de repetundis

(pecuniis)_, used i. of money extorted by an official and to be

returned, ii. of money extorted as a bribe. Caesar lost his case,

but succeeded in showing that Sulla's senatorial judges were corrupt.

4. +Apollonio Moloni+, the famous rhetorician, whose pupil Cicero

was both at Rome and at Rhodes. Very possibly Caesar took this step

by the advice of Cicero.

7. +circa Pharmacussam insulam:+ S.W. of Miletus (= mod. _Farmako_).

8-9. +non sine summa indignatione:+ Plutarch, _Caes._ gives a

picturesque account of his adventures as their prisoner.

10. +cubicularis+ (_cubiculum_) = lit. _chamber-servants_.

11. +pecunias ...+ Velleius says that Caesar's ransom was paid out

of public funds.

14. +e vestigio+ (= _statim_) = _immediately_.]

+Caesar at Rhodes.+ 'Caesar, from what we know of his taste and

character, could hardly have found the same delight as Cicero in his

studies at Rhodes. He nevertheless became one of the greatest orators of

his day, and according to some accounts, second only to Cicero. It is

characteristic of Caesar, but unfortunate for us, that he never took any

pains to collect and preserve his speeches.' --Warde Fowler.

B29

CICERO PROSECUTES VERRES, 70 B.C.

_A Roman Citizen maltreated._

Quid ego de P. Gavio, Consano municipe, dicam, indices? Aut qua vi

vocis, qua gravitate verborum, quo dolore animi dicam? Quod crimen eius

modi est ut, cum primum ad me delatum est, usurum me illo non putarem;

tametsi enim verissimum esse {5} intellegebam, tamen credibile fore non

arbitrabar. Quid nunc agam? Rem in medio ponam: quae tantum habet ipsa

gravitatis ut neque mea, quae nulla est, neque cuiusquam ad inflammandos

vestros animos eloquentia requiratur. {10}

Caedebatur virgis in medio foro Messanae civis Romanus, iudices; cum

interea nullus gemitus, nulla vox alia illius miseri inter dolorem

crepitumque plagarum audiebatur, nisi haec, _Civis Romanus sum_. Hac se

commemoratione civitatis omnia verbera {15} depulsurum, cruciatum a

corpore deiecturum arbitrabatur. Is non modo hoc non perfecit ut

virgarum vim deprecaretur, sed cum imploraret saepius usurparetque nomen

civitatis, crux, crux, inquam, infelici et aerumnoso comparabatur. {20}

O nomen dulce libertatis! O ius eximium nostrae civitatis! O lex Porcia

legesque Semproniae! O graviter desiderata et aliquando reddita plebi

Romanae tribunicia potestas! Hucine tandem omnia reciderunt ut civis

Romanus in provincia populi Romani, {25} in oppido foederatorum, ab eo

qui beneficio populi Romani fasces et secures haberet deligatus in foro

virgis caederetur?

CICERO, _in Verrem_, ii. 5. 62.

[Linenotes:

1. +Consano municipe+ = _a burgess of Consa_, on the borders of

Lucania.

22. +Lex Porcia.+ Passed by M. Porcius Cato, 197 B.C., forbade the

execution or scourging of a Roman citizen.

+Leges Semproniae+, a code of laws passed by C. Sempronius Gracchus,

123 B.C. One of these declared it to be the sole right of the people

to decide capital cases.

22-24. +O graviter desiderata ... potestas!+ Sulla (Dictator 82-79

B.C.) took from the tribunes _the right of proposing laws_, and left

them only their original right of Intercessio or veto. In 70 B.C.

Pompeius, who had formally accepted the democratic programme, gave

back to the tribunes the power to initiate legislation.]

+The Orationes In Verrem.+ Cicero, as patronus of the Sicilians,

undertook the prosecution of the Senator C. Verres for his gross

misconduct as governor of Sicily, 73-71 B.C.

B30

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.

_The Lex Gabinia, 67 B.C._

Converterat Cn. Pompei persona totum in se terrarum orbem et per omnia

maior cive habebatur. Qui cum consul perquam laudabiliter iurasset se in

nullam provinciam ex eo magistratu iturum idque servasset, post biennium

A. Gabinius tribunus {5} legem tulit, ut cum belli more, non

latrociniorum, orbem classibus iam, non furtivis expeditionibus, piratae

terrerent, quasdamque etiam Italiae urbis diripuissent, Cn. Pompeius ad

eos opprimendos mitteretur essetque ei imperium aequum in omnibus {10}

provinciis cum proconsulibus usque ad quinquagesimum miliarium a mari.

Quo decreto paene totius terrarum orbis imperium uni viro deferebatur;

sed tamen idem hoc ante biennium in M. Antoni praetura decretum erat.

Sed interdum persona ut exemplo {15} nocet, ita invidiam auget aut

levat: in Antonio homines aequo animo passi erant; raro enim invidetur

eorum honoribus, quorum vis non timetur: contra in iis homines

extraordinaria reformidant, qui ea suo arbitrio aut deposituri aut

retenturi videntur {20} et modum in voluntate habent. Dissuadebant

optimates, sed consilia impetu victa sunt.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 31.

[Linenotes:

3-5. +Qui cum consul ... servasset.+ Pompeius, consul with Crassus

in 71-70 B.C., thought it beneath his dignity to accept a consular

province, and waited in Rome as a simple citizen until an

opportunity should be offered him to play an extraordinary part.

5. +A. Gabinius+, a client of Pompeius, a man ruined in finances and

character, but a dexterous negotiator, a bold orator, and a brave

soldier. In 57 B.C. did excellent service as proconsul of Syria.

6-9. +ut cum belli more ... diripuissent.+ 'For twenty years the sea

had been rendered unsafe by these curses of human society.' The

commerce of the whole Mediterranean was in their power.

13-15. +sed tamen ... decretum erat.+ In 74 B.C. M. Antonius, son of

the orator and father of the triumvir, was entrusted by the Senate

with the task of clearing the seas from the corsairs. In spite of

his extensive powers, the utter incapacity of Antonius, and the

mismanagement of the Senate, caused the expedition to end in failure

and disgrace.]

+Result.+ 'The Gabinio-Manilian proposals terminated the struggle

between the senate and the popular party, which the Sempronian laws

(133-123 B.C.) had begun. As the Sempronian laws first constituted the

revolutionary party into a _political opposition_, the Gabinio-Manilian

first converted it from an _opposition_ into a _government_.' --M.

B31

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.

_Pompeius clears the Seas of Pirates, 67 B.C._

Quis enim umquam aut obeundi negoti aut consequendi quaestus studio tam

brevi tempore tot loca adire, tantos cursus conficere potuit, quam

celeriter Cn. Pompeio duce tanti belli impetus navigavit? Qui nondum

tempestivo ad navigandum mari Siciliam {5} adiit, Africam exploravit, in

Sardiniam cum classe venit, atque haec tria frumentaria subsidia rei

publicae firmissimis praesidiis classibusque munivit. Inde cum se in

Italiam recepisset, duabus Hispaniis et Gallia transalpina praesidiis ac

navibus confirmata, {10} missis item in oram Illyrici maris et in

Achaiam omnemque Graeciam navibus Italiae duo maria maximis classibus

firmissimisque praesidiis adornavit, ipse autem, ut Brundisio profectus

est, undequinquagesimo die totam ad imperium populi Romani {15} Ciliciam

adiunxit: omnes, qui ubique praedones fuerant, partim capti

interfectique sunt, partim unius huius se imperio ac potestati

dediderunt. Ita tantum bellum, tam diuturnum, tam longe lateque

dispersum, quo bello omnes gentes ac nationes {20} premebantur, Cn.

Pompeius extrema hieme adparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate

confecit.

CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 34, 35.

[Linenotes:

4. +tanti belli impetus,+ fig. for _an attacking fleet of such

force_, which from its size would ordinarily sail slowly. --Wilkins.

5-8. +Qui ... munivit.+ Early in the year (+nondum tempestivo ad

navigandum+) Pompeius cleared of pirates the Sicilian, African, and

Sardinian waters, so re-establish the supply of grain from these

provinces to Italy.

14-18. +undequagesimo ... dediderunt.+ The bold Cilician seakings

alone ventured to face the Roman fleet in the offing of Coracesium

(at the W. frontier of Cilicia), but were completely defeated.

Forty-nine days (+undequinquagesimo+) after Pompeius had appeared in

the Eastern seas, Cilicia was subdued, and the war at an end. 'In

all about 1300 piratical vessels are said to have been destroyed:

besides which the richly filled arsenals and magazines of the

buccaneers were burnt. Of the pirates, about 10,000 perished

(+interfecti+); upwards of 20,000 fell alive (+partim capti--partim

se dediderunt+) into the hands of the victor.' --M.

22. +ineunte vere ... confecit.+ 'In the summer of 67 B.C., three

months after the beginning of the campaign, commerce resumed its

wonted course, and instead of the former famine abundance prevailed

in Italy.' --M.]

+This was the first trial of rule centralised in a single hand,+ and

Pompeius fully justified the confidence that was placed in him.

B32

THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B.C. (2)

_Pompeius subdues Mithridates and Tigranes._

Pompeius interea memorabile adversus Mithridaten, qui post Luculli

profectionem magnas novi exercitus vires reparaverat, bellum gessit. At

rex fusus fugatusque et omnibus exutus copiis Armeniam Tigranenque

generum petit, regem eius temporis, {5} nisi qua Luculli armis erat

infractus, potentissimum. Simul itaque duos persecutus Pompeius intravit

Armeniam. Prior filius Tigranis, sed discors patri, pervenit ad

Pompeium: mox ipse supplex et praesens se regnumque dicioni eius

permisit, {10} praefatus neminem alium neque Romanum neque ullius gentis

virum futurum fuisse, cuius se societate commissurus foret, quam

Pompeium; non esse turpe ab eo vinci, quem vincere esset nefas, neque

inhoneste aliquem summitti huic, quem fortuna super {15} omnes

extulisset. Servatus regi honos imperi, sed multato ingenti pecunia,

quae omnis, sicuti Pompeio moris erat, redacta in quaestoris potestatem

ac publicis descripta litteris. Syria aliaeque, quas occupaverat,

provinciae ereptae, et aliae restitutae populo {20} Romano, aliae tum

primum in eius potestatem redactae, ut Syria, quae tum primum facta est

stipendiaria. Finis imperi regi terminatus Armenia.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 37.

+Context.+ In 66 B.C. Lucullus, of whom Mommsen says 'hardly any other

Roman general accomplished so much with so trifling means,' was

superseded by Pompeius. By the Lex Manilia Pompeius obtained, in

addition to the extensive powers conferred upon him by the Lex Gabinia

67 B.C., the military administration of Asia as far as Armenia. 'Never

since Rome stood had such power been united in the hands of a single

man.' --M.

[Linenotes:

3-4. +rex fusus ... copiis+, i.e. in Lesser Armenia, on S. bank of

R. Lycus, where Pompeius afterwards founded Nicopolis.

5. +Tigranenque generum petit.+ Tigranes had married Cleopatra, the

daughter of Mithridates.

17-19. +quae omnis ... litteris,+ i.e. paid into the Roman treasury.

Cf. Lucan ix. 197 _Immodicas possedit opes, sed plura retentis_ |

_Intulit_ sc. _in aerarium_.]

+The End of Mithridates.+ After his defeat at Nicopolis the aged king

took refuge in his Northern capital of Panticapaeum (on the Cimmerian

Bosporus). Here, when all turned against him, he took poison, 63 B.C.

'In him a great enemy was borne to the tomb, a greater than had ever yet

withstood the Romans in the indolent East.' --M.

+Syria made a Roman Province,+ 65 B.C.

B33

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (3)

A. _Curule Aedile, 65 B.C._

Aedilis praeter comitium ac forum basilicasque etiam Capitolium ornavit

porticibus ad tempus exstructis, in quibus abundante rerum copia pars

apparatus exponeretur. Venationes autem ludosque et cum collega et

separatim edidit, quo factum est, {5} ut communium quoque impensarum

solus gratiam caperet, nec dissimularet collega eius Marcus Bibulus

evenisse sibi quod Polluci: ut enim geminis fratribus aedes in foro

constituta tantum Castoris vocaretur, ita suam Caesarisque munificentiam

unius Caesaris {10} dici.

SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 10.

[Linenotes:

1. +Aedilis.+ As curule-aedile Caesar exceeded all previous

expenditure. This was meant to secure the favour of the democracy,

and gain the position of its leader, which was in fact vacant; for

Crassus was never popular, and Pompeius was absent in the East.

+basilicas+ (#basilikê# sc. #oikia# and #stoa#: _regia_) = _halls_.

2. +porticibus:+ these acted as booths, in a grand fair, as we

should say.

4. +Venationes+, here of the combats with wild beasts.

7. +M. Bibulus+, also Caesar's colleague in his first consulship,

59 B.C.]

B. _Propraetor in Further Spain, 61 B.C._

Ex praetura ulteriorem sortitus Hispaniam, retinentes creditores

interventu sponsorum removit, ac neque more neque iure, ante quam

provinciae ornarentur, profectus est; pacataque provincia, pari {15}

festinatione, non expectato successore, ad triumphum simul consulatumque

decessit. Sed cum, edictis iam comitiis, ratio eius haberi non posset

nisi privatus introisset urbem, et ambienti ut legibus solveretur multi

contradicerent, coactus est triumphum, {20} ne consulatu excluderetur,

dimittere.

SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 18.

+Context.+ In 69 B.C. Caesar was elected to a Quaestorship (the lowest

step in the ladder of official life) and discharged his judicial duties

in Further Spain with tact and industry.

[Linenotes:

13. +retinentes ... removit+ = _freed himself from his creditors,

who were for detaining him_, by the help of sureties. Caesar is said

to have borrowed from Crassus 830 talents.

14-15. +ante quam provinciae ornarentur:+ a regular phrase used of

supplying the newly chosen magistrate with money, arms, attendants,

etc.

18. +ratio ... posset+ = _his candidature could not be considered_.]

+Propraetor in F. Spain.+ 'His governorship enabled him partly to rid

himself of his debts partly to lay the foundation for his military

repute.' --M.

B34

THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B.C. (1)

_Cicero declaims against the Audacity of Catiline._

Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiam

furor iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit

audacia? Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae,

nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum {5} omnium, nihil hic

munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque moverunt?

Patere tua consilia non sentis? Constrictam iam horum omnium scientia

teneri coniurationem tuam non vides? Quid proxima, quid superiore nocte

egeris, {10} ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, quid consilii ceperis, quem

nostrum ignorare arbitraris? O tempora! O mores! Senatus haec

intellegit; consul videt: hic tamen vivit. Vivit? immo vero etiam in

senatum venit: fit publici consilii particeps; notat at designat {15}

oculis ad caedem unum quemque nostrum. . . . Castra sunt in Italia

contra rem publicam in Etruriae faucibus collocata: crescit in dies

singulos hostium numerus; eorum autem castrorum imperatorem ducemque

hostium intra moenia atque {20} adeo in senatu videmus intestinam

aliquam cotidie perniciem rei publicae molientem. Si te iam, Catilina,

eomprehendi, si interfici iussero, credo, erit verendum mihi ne non hoc

potius omnes boni serius a me quam quisquam crudelius factum esse dicat.

{25}

CICERO, _in Catilinam_, i. §§ 1, 2, 5.

[Linenotes:

1. +Quo usque tandem abutere+ = _how long, pray, will you presume

upon?_ Catiline had been declared _hostis patriae_, and yet dared to

appear in the Senate.

4. +praesidium Palati+: in the case of any threatening danger the

+Mons Palatinus+ was occupied as one of the most important military

points in the city.

6-7. +senatus locus+, i.e. the temple of +Jupiter Stator+, on the N.

slope of the Palatine, chosen as the safest meeting-place, and near

Cicero's house.

17-18. +castra ... collocata+, the camp of Manlius (one of the

veteran centurions of Sulla) was planted at Faesulae (Fiesole),

a rocky fastness three miles N.E. of Florence.

19. +imperatorem:+ ironical, as though Catiline were the legally

appointed general of the Republic.]

+In L. Catilinam Oratio i.+ 'This splendid oration, in its fiery vigour

and mastery of invective, is unsurpassed except by the Second

Philippic.' --Cruttwell.

+Its effect on Catiline.+ _Tum ille furibundus 'quoniam quidem

circumventus' inquit 'ab inimicis praeceps agor, incendium meum ruina

restinguam.'_ Sall. _Catil._ 31. That night Catiline left Rome for the

camp of Manlius.

B35

THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B.C. (2)

_The End of Catiline._

Sed confecto proelio tum vero cerneres, quanta audacia quantaque vis

animi fuisset in exercitu Catilinae. Nam fere, quem quisque vivus

pugnando locum ceperat, eum, amissa anima, corpore tegebat. Pauci autem,

quos medios cohors praetoria disiecerat, {5} paulo divorsius, sed omnes

tamen advorsis volneribus conciderant. Catilina vero longe a suis inter

hostium cadavera repertus est, paululum etiam spirans ferociamque animi,

quam habuerat vivus, in voltu retinens. Postremo ex omni copia neque in

{10} proelio neque in fuga quisquam civis ingenuus captus est. Ita

cuncti suae hostiumque vitae iuxta pepercerant. Neque tamen exercitus

populi Romani laetam aut incruentam victoriam adeptus erat; nam

strenuissumus quisque aut occiderat in proelio, aut {15} graviter

volneratus discesserat. Multi autem, qui de castris visundi aut

spoliandi gratia processerant, volventes hostilia cadavera, amicum alii,

pars hospitem aut cognatum reperiebant; fuere item, qui inimicos suos

cognoscerent. Ita varie per omnem {20} exercitum laetitia, maeror,

luctus atque gaudia agitabantur.

SALLUST, _Bellum Catilinae_, 61.

[Linenotes:

5. +cohors praetoria+: a _corps d'élite_, specially organised as a

bodyguard of the general (_praetor_ = _praeitor_, _prae + eo_),

dating from the time when the praetores was the older name of the

consuls (= _colleagues_).

8. +etiam+ (= _adhuc_) = _still_. Cf. Verg. _Aen._ vi. 485 _etiam

currus etiam arma tenentem_.

11. +civis ingenuus+, i.e. a free citizen born of free citizens.

12. +Ita cuncti ... pepercerant+ = _so unsparing had they all been

alike of their own and their opponents' lives_. --Pollard.

21. +laetitia+ = joy manifested, +gaudia+ = joy felt.

+luctus+ = grief shown by outward signs, e.g. by dress.

+maeror+ = grief shown by inward signs, e.g. by tears, or a sad

face.]

+The Battle of Pistoria+ (Pistoia, N.W. of Faesulae). 'Catiline showed

on this day that nature had destined him for no ordinary things, and

that he knew at once how to command and how to fight as a soldier. At

length Petreius, with his bodyguard, broke the centre of the enemy, and

then attacked the two wings from within. This decided the day.' --M.

+The character of Catiline.+ 'He was one of the most wicked men in that

wicked age. He possessed in a high degree the qualities which are

required in the leader of a band of ruined and desperate men--the

faculty of enjoying all pleasures and of bearing all privations,

courage, military talent, knowledge of men, indomitable energy.' --M.

Cf. Sall. _Catil._ 5.

B36

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (4).

_Forms the First Triumvirate: Consul, 60-59 B.C._

Hoc igitur consule inter eum et Cn. Pompeium et M. Crassum inita

potentiae societas, quae urbi orbique terrarum nec minus diverso quoque

tempore ipsis exitiabilis fuit. Hoc consilium sequendi Pompeius causam

habuerat, ut tandem acta in {5} transmarinis provinciis, quibus, ut

praediximus, multi obtrectabant, per Caesarem confirmarentur consulem,

Caesar autem, quod animadvertebat se cedendo Pompei gloriae aucturum

suam et invidia communis potentiae in illum relegata confirmaturum {10}

vires suas, Crassus, ut quem principatum solus adsequi non poterat,

auctoritate Pompei, viribus teneret Caesaris. Adfinitas etiam inter

Caesarem Pompeiumque contracta nuptiis, quippe Iuliam, filiam C.

Caesaris, Cn. Magnus duxit uxorem. In {15} hoc consulatu Caesar legem

tulit, ut ager Campanus plebei divideretur, suasore legis Pompeio: ita

circiter XX milia civium eo deducta et ius urbis restitutum post annos

circiter CLII quam bello Punico ab Romanis Capua in formam praefecturae

{20} redacta erat. Bibulus, collega Caesaris, cum actiones eius magis

vellet impedire quam posset, maiore parte anni domi se tenuit: quo facto

dum augere vult invidiam collegae, auxit potentiam. Tum Caesari decretae

in quinquennium Galliae. {25}

VELL. PAT. ii. 44.

[Linenotes:

1-2. +inter eum ... societas+, the famous First Triumvirate. 'It

was at first an expedient to secure, as we should say, a working

majority for a vigorous democratic policy, but the bitterness of its

enemies transformed the coalition itself from an honourable union

into the semblance of a three-headed tyranny.' --Warde Fowler.

4-7. The ultra-senatorial party (after Pompeius' great act of

renunciation, when he dismissed his victorious veterans in 62 B.C.)

had checked and worried Pompeius by refusing to ratify his

arrangements in the East, and by criticising and opposing his plans

for rewarding his veterans. Thus they deliberately drove him once

more into the arms of Caesar and the democracy.

10. +relegata+ = _attributed_, _imputed_, lit. _removed_

(_re_ + _lêgo_).

21. +Bibulus, collega Caesaris:+ cf. Suet. _Divus Iulius_ 20:

_Non Bibulo quicquam, nuper sed Caesare factum est:

Nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini._]

+Caesar's First Consulship.+ Among his other acts was the famous _Lex

Iulia de pecuniis repetundis_ (against official extortion in the

provinces), which won strong praise even from Cicero himself.

B37

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (1)

'_That day he overcame the Nervii_,' 57 B.C.

Caesar ab decimae legionis cohortatione ad dextrum cornu profectus, ubi

suos urgeri signisque in unum locum collatis duodecimae legionis

confertos milites sibi ipsos ad pugnam esse impedimento vidit--quartae

cohortis omnibus centurionibus occisis, {5} signifero interfecto, signo

amisso, reliquarum cohortium omnibus fere centurionibus aut vulneratis

aut occisis, in his primipilo P. Sextio Baculo, fortissimo viro, multis

gravibusque volneribus confecto, ut iam se sustinere non posset;

reliquos esse tardiores et nonnullos {10} ab novissimis deserto proelio

excedere ac tela vitare, hostes neque a fronte ex inferiore loco

subeuntes intermittere et ab utroque latere instare, et rem esse in

angusto vidit neque ullum esse subsidium quod submitti posset, scuto ab

novissimis {15} militi detracto, quod ipse eo sine scuto venerat, in

primam aciem processit; centurionibusque nominatim appellatis reliquos

cohortatus milites signa inferre et manipulos laxare iussit, quo

facilius gladiis uti possent. Cuius adventu spe illata militibus ac {20}

redintegrato animo, cum pro se quisque in conspectu imperatoris etiam in

extremis suis rebus operam navare cuperet, paulum hostium impetus

tardatus est.

CAESAR, _de B. G._ ii. 25.

+Context.+ The Nervii, the bravest of the Belgae, surprised Caesar's men

while at work on their camp. There was no time to think: they took

station where they could. The 9th and 10th legions on the left broke and

pursued the enemy in front of them, and the two legions in the centre

stood firm. But on the right there was a gap, and the Nervii were

rapidly surrounding the two legions huddled together here, and the fight

threatened every moment to become a second Cannae, +when Caesar restored

the fight+. Labienus sent back the victorious 10th, who took the enemy

in their rear, and the cavalry completed the victory.

[Linenotes:

14-15. +neque ullum ... posset+: the rear guard, the 13th and 14th

legions, had not yet come up.

18-19. +signa ... laxare+ = _to charge and_ (thus) _open out the

ranks_.

22-23. +operam navare+ = _to do their very best_. +navo+ (orig.

_gnavo_; cf. #gnôskô#) = lit. _to make known_, _to exhibit_.]

+The Battle of the Sambre.+ One of the most desperate that Caesar ever

fought. The memory of it lived in Caesar's mind so vividly that he seems

to fight the battle over again as he describes it, in language for him

unusually strong and intense. --W. F.

+Result of the Battle+, the submission of North West Gaul.

B38

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (2)

_Naval Battle with the Veneti, 56 B.C._

Una erat magno usui res praeparata a nostris,--falces praeacutae

insertae affixaeque longuriis non absimili forma muralium falcium. His

cum funes qui antemnas ad malos destinabant comprehensi adductique

essent, navigio remis incitato praerumpebantur. {5} Quibus abscisis

antemnae necessario concidebant; ut, cum omnis Gallicis spes in velis

armamentisque consisteret, his ereptis omnis usus navium uno tempore

eriperetur. Reliquum erat certamen positum in virtute, qua nostri

milites facile {10} superabant atque eo magis, quod in conspectu

Caesaris atque omnis exercitus res gerebatur, ut nullum paulo fortius

factum latere posset; omnes enim colles ac loca superiora, unde erat

propinquus despectus in mare, ab exercitu tenebantur. Disiectis, ut

diximus, {15} antemnis, cum singulas binae ac ternae naves

circumsteterant, milites summa vi transcendere in hostium naves

contendebant. Quod postquam barbari fieri animadverterunt, expugnatis

compluribus navibus, cum ei rei nullum reperiretur auxilium, fuga {20}

salutem petere contenderunt. Ac iam conversis in eam partem navibus quo

ventus ferebat, tanta subito malacia ac tranquillitas exstitit ut se ex

loco movere non possent. Quae quidem res ad negotium conficiendum maxime

fuit opportuna; nam singulas {25} nostri consectati expugnaverunt, ut

perpaucae ex omni numero noctis interventu ad terram pervenerint, cum ab

hora fere quarta usque ad solis occasum pugnaretur.

CAESAR, _de B. G._ iii. 14, 15.

+Context.+ In the winter of 57-6 Roman officers, who came to levy

requisitions of grain, were detained by the Veneti. Caesar's attack on

their coast-towns failed to reduce them to submission: so he determined

to wait for his fleet. This he entrusted to Decimus Brutus, an able and

devoted officer. At first the Roman galleys were powerless against the

high-decked strong sailing-vessels of the Veneti, but +the use of the

murales falces, and the opportune calm, enabled Brutus to annihilate

their fleet+.

[Linenotes:

11-12. +quod ... gerebatur.+ Napoleon (_Caesar_, vol. ii. p. 6)

thinks that Caesar was encamped on the heights of Saint Gildas

overlooking Quiberon Bay.

23. +malacia+ = _a calm_, but #malakia# = _softness_, L. _mollities_.]

+Result of the Victory+--the surrender of the Veneti and of all

Brittany. +The earliest historical naval battle fought on the Atlantic

Ocean.+--M.

B39

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (3)

_Caesar's Bridge across the Rhine, 55 B.C._

Rationem pontis hanc instituit. Tigna bina sesquipedalia paulum ab imo

praeacuta, dimensa ad altitudinem fluminis, intervallo pedum duorum

inter se iungebat. Haec cum machinationibus immissa in flumen defixerat

fistucisque adegerat--non sublicae {5} modo derecte ad perpendiculum,

sed prone ac fastigate, ut secundum naturam fluminis procumberent--eis

item contraria duo ad eundem modum iuncta intervallo pedum quadragenum

ab inferiore parte contra vim atque impetum fluminis conversa statuebat.

{10} Haec utraque insuper bipedalibus trabibus immissis, quantum eorum

tignorum iunctura distabat, binis utrimque fibulis ab extrema parte

distinebantur; quibus disclusis atque in contrariam partem revinctis,

tanta erat operis firmitudo atque {15} ea rerum natura ut, quo maior vis

aquae se incitavisset, hoc artius illigata tenerentur. Haec derecta

materia iniecta contexebantur ac longuriis cratibusque consternebantur;

ac nihilo setius sublicae et ad inferiorem partem fluminis oblique

agebantur, quae {20} pro ariete subiectae et cum omni opere coniunctae

vim fluminis exciperent; et aliae item supra pontem mediocri spatio, ut,

si arborum trunci sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbaris

immissae, his defensoribus earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti {25}

nocerent.

CAESAR, _de B. G._ iv. 17.

+Context.+ The year 55 B.C. appears to have been marked by a general

movement in the migration of the German tribes. An advance, consisting

of two tribes, the Usipetes and Tenctri, crowded forward by the more

powerful Suevi, crossed the Lower Rhine into N. Gaul. Caesar drove them

back across the Rhine, +bridged the river+, followed them up into their

own territories, and fully established the supremacy of the Roman arms.

--Allen and Greenough.

[Linenotes:

5. +fistucisque adegerat+ = _and had driven them home_ (+ad+-) _with

rammers_. For Plan of Bridge see Allen's _Caesar_, p. 103.

11-14. +Haec ... distinebantur+ = _these two sets were held apart by

two-feet timbers laid on above, equal_ (in thickness) _to the

interval left by the fastening of the piles_ (+quantum ...

distabat+), _with a pair of ties_ (+fibulis+) _at each end_.

--A. & G.

17-18. +Haec ... contexebantur+ = _these_ (i.e. the framework of

timber) _were covered over by boards_ (+materia+) _laid lengthwise_.

+longuriis+ = _with long poles_.]

+The Bridge+ (prob. near Bonn). 'With extraordinary speed (in ten days)

the bridge was completed. It was a triumph of engineering and industry.'

--W. F.

B40

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (4)

_Cassivellaunus. Second Invasion of Britain, 54 B.C._

Cassivellaunus, omni deposita spe contentionis, dimissis amplioribus

copiis, milibus circiter quattuor essedariorum relictis itinera nostra

servabat: paulumque ex via excedebat locisque impeditis ac silvestribus

sese occultabat, atque eis regionibus quibus {5} nos iter facturos

cognoverat pecora atque homines ex agris in silvas compellebat; et cum

equitatus noster liberius praedandi vastandique causa se in agros

eiecerat, omnibus viis semitisque essedarios ex silvis emittebat; et

magno cum periculo nostrorum {10} equitum cum eis confligebat atque hoc

metu latius vagari prohibebat. Relinquebatur ut neque longius ab agmine

legionum discedi Caesar pateretur, et tantum in agris vastandis

incendiisque faciendis hostibus noceretur quantum in labore atque

itinere {15} legionarii milites efficere poterant. . . . Cassivellaunus

hoc proelio nuntiato, tot detrimentis acceptis, vastatis finibus, maxime

etiam permotus defectione civitatum, legatos per Atrebatem Commium de

deditione ad Caesarem mittit. {20}

CAESAR, _de B. G._ v. 19, 22.

+Context.+ The First Invasion of Britain (55 B.C.) was only a visit of

exploration; but in the Second Invasion (54 B.C.) Caesar aimed at a

partial conquest. He had been hearing of Britain ever since he came to

Gaul, and knew it to be a refuge for his Celtic enemies and a secret

source of their strength. He set sail from the Portus Ittius (mod.

Wissant, some twelve miles W. of Calais) and after drifting some way to

the N.E., made his way to his former landing-place, probably near

Romney. Some severe fighting followed, till at length Caesar crossed the

Thames (apparently between Kingston and Brentford) and +entered the

country of Cassivellaunus, who gave Caesar much trouble by his guerilla

tactics. Deserted by his allies, Cassivellaunus offered his submission,

which Caesar gladly accepted.+

[Linenotes:

1. +Contentionis+, i.e. of a general engagement with Caesar.

12. +Relinquebatur ut+ = _the consequence was that_ ...

17. +hoc proelio+, i.e. the storming by Caesar of his fortified

camp, perh. St. Albans.

18-19. +defectione civitatum+, espec. of the Trinobantes (chief

place _Camulodunum_, later _Colonia castrum_ = _Colchester_).

19. +Commium+, Caesar had made him King of the Atrebates (N.W.

Gaul).]

+Caesar In Britain.+ 'What he tells us of the geography and inhabitants

of the Island comprises almost all we know, except from coins, down to

the time of its final conquest by Clodius 51 A.D.' --W. F.

B41

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (5)

_The Gallic uprising. Fabian tactics of Vercingetorix, 52 B.C._

Vercingetorix tot continuis incommodis acceptis suos ad concilium

convocat. Docet 'longe alia ratione esse bellum gerendum atque antea

gestum sit; omnibus modis huic rei studendum ut pabulatione et commeatu

Romani prohibeantur: id esse {5} facile, quod equitatu ipsi abundent et

quod anni tempore subleventur; pabulum secari non posse; necessario

dispersos hostes ex aedificiis petere; hos omnes cotidie ab equitibus

deleri posse. Praeterea, salutis causa rei familiaris commoda

neglegenda; {10} vicos atque aedificia incendi oportere hoc spatio

quoqueversus, quo pabulandi causa adire posse videantur. Harum ipsis

rerum copiam suppetere, quod quorum in finibus bellum geratur eorum

opibus subleventur: Romanos aut inopiam non laturos aut {15} magno cum

periculo longius a castris processuros; neque interesse ipsosne

interficiant an impedimentis exuant, quibus amissis bellum geri non

possit. Praeterea, oppida incendi oportere quae non munitione et loci

natura ab omni sint periculo tuta; ne {20} suis sint ad detrectandam

militiam receptacula, neu Romanis proposita ad copiam commeatus

praedamque tollendam. Haec si gravia aut acerba videantur, multo illa

gravius aestimari debere, liberos, coniuges in servitutem abstrahi,

ipsos interfici; {25} quae sit necesse accidere victis.'

CAESAR, _de B. G._ vii. 14.

+Context.+ On his return from Britain, Caesar found the N. Gauls in open

revolt. The division of Sabinus (at Aduatuca, near Liège) was

annihilated by Ambiorix, and Caesar was only just in time to relieve Q.

Cicero at Charleroi. To prevent all further support to the Gauls from

the Germans across the Rhine, Caesar again made a military demonstration

across the river, and put an end to all the hopes of the Germans of

breaking through this boundary. In the winter of 53-2 B.C., during his

absence in Cisalpine Gaul, +a general uprising of the S. and Central

Gauls took place under the Arvernian Vercingetorix, the hero of the

whole Gallic race+.

[Linenotes:

6-7. +anni tempore+, i.e. scarcely yet spring, when no crops could

be got off the land.

11-12. +hoc spatio quoqueversus, quo+ = _so far in every

direction as_.

19. +oppida incendi:+ only Avaricum (Bourges) was to be spared.

22. +proposita+ = _offered_ to be captured by the Romans.]

+The tactics of Vercingetorix.+ 'He adopted a system of warfare similar

to that by which Cassivellaunus had saved the Celts of Britain.' --M.

B42

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (6)

_Siege of Gergovia. Petronius dies to save his men, 52 B.C._

Cum acerrime comminus pugnaretur, hostes loco et numero, nostri virtute

confiderent, subito sunt Aedui visi ab latere nostris aperto, quos

Caesar ab dextra parte alio ascensu manus distinendae causa miserat. Hi

similitudine armorum vehementer {5} nostros perterruerunt. Eodem tempore

L. Fabius centurio quique una murum ascenderant circumventi atque

interfecti de muro praecipitabantur. M. Petronius, eiusdem legionis

centurio, cum portas excidere conatus esset, a multitudine oppressus ac

sibi desperans, {10} multis iam volneribus acceptis, manipularibus suis

qui illum secuti erant, 'Quoniam,' inquit, 'me una vobiscum servare non

possum, vestrae quidem certe vitae prospiciam, quos cupiditate gloriae

adductus in periculum deduxi. Vos data facultate vobis consulite.' {15}

Simul in niedios hostes irrupit, duobusque interfectis reliquos a porta

paulum submovit. Conantibus auxiliari suis, 'Frustra,' inquit, 'meae

vitae subvenire conamini, quem iam sanguis viresque deficiunt. Proinde

abite dum est facultas vosque ad {20} legionem recipite.' Ita pugnans

post paulum concidit ac suis saluti fuit.

CAESAR, _de B. G._ vii. 50.

+Context.+ With a half-starved army Caesar stormed Avaricum after a most

obstinate defence, and then laid siege to the Arvernian capital of

Gergovia, in hope of destroying Vercingetorix and ending the war. As the

town was too strong to be taken by storm, he resolved to try a blockade,

but he failed, as at Dyrrachium in 49 B.C., from want of sufficient

troops.

+A last desperate attack on the town was repulsed+, and Caesar, defeated

for the first time, was forced to raise the siege.

[Linenotes:

3. +ab latere nostris aperto:+ as a soldier carries his shield on

the left arm, leaving the sword hand free, this (right) side is

called +latus apertum+.--Compton.

4. +manus distinendae causa+ = _for the purpose of diverting_

(+distinendae+, lit. _hold off_) _the enemy's force_.

6. +perterruerunt+: this was all the more natural, as the Aeduan

contingent was only awaiting the result of the blockade, to openly

join the insurgents.

9. +excidere+ = _to cut away_, _hew down_, i.e. from within.]

+Gergovia+, 4 miles S. of Clermont. This famous stronghold consists of a

rectangular plateau nearly a mile in length, and some 1300 feet above

the plain through which the Allier flows, and descending steeply on all

sides but one to the ground.

+Caesar's failure.+ 'The fact was that chiefly owing to the nature of

the ground and their own ardour, Caesar's men were not well in hand.'

--W. F.

B43

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (7)

_Siege of Alesia. The Last Fight of Vercingetorix, 52 B.C._

Vercingetorix ex arce Alesiae suos conspicatus ex oppido egreditur:

crates, longurios, musculos, fasces, reliquaque quae eruptionis causa

paraverat profert. Pugnatur uno tempore omnibus locis atque omnia

temptantur; quae minime visa pars firma est huc {5} concurritur.

Romanorum manus tantis munitionibus distinetur nec facile pluribus locis

occurrit. . . . Labienus, postquam neque aggeres neque fossae vim

hostium sustinere poterant, coactis XI cohortibus, quas ex proximis

praesidiis deductas fors obtulit, {10} Caesarem per nuntios facit

certiorem quid faciendum existimet. Accelerat Caesar ut proelio

intersit. Eius adventu ex colore vestitus cognito (quo insigni in

proeliis uti consuerat), turmisque equitum et cohortibus visis quas se

sequi iusserat, ut de locis {15} superioribus haec declivia et devexa

cemebantur, hostes proelium committunt. Utrimque clamore sublato excipit

rursus ex vallo atque omnibus munitionibus clamor. Nostri omissis pilis

gladiis rem gerunt. Repente post tergum equitatus cernitur: {20}

cohortes aliae appropinquant. Hostes terga vertunt; fugientibus equites

occurrunt: fit magna caedes: pauci ex tanto numero se incolumes in

castra recipiunt.

CAESAR, _de B. G._ vii. 84, 87, 88.

+Context.+ After his successful defence of Gergovia, Vercingetorix

allowed his judgment to be overruled, and attacked Caesar's army (now

united to the division of Labienus) on the march. Caesar shook off the

enemy with the help of his German cavalry, and turned their retreat into

a rout. V. then threw himself with all his forces into Alesia. Caesar

constructed an inner line of investment and an outer line of defence,

and was thus able to wear out the besieged and +beat back the relieving

host of the Gauls+.

[Linenotes:

1. +suos+, i.e. the host (some 250,000) of the relieving army of

Gauls.

2. +musculos+ (dimin. of _mus_) = _pent-houses_ or _sheds_.

4. +omnibus locis+, i.e. along the whole length of Caesar's outer

line of defence, _where it ran along the slope of Mont Réa_, to the

N.W. of Alesia. This, as the relieving Gauls were quick to see, was

the weakest point of the whole line.

13. +ex colore vestitus+, i.e. the purple or scarlet paludamentum.]

+Vercingetorix.+ The Celtic officers delivered up V. to Caesar, to be

led in triumph five years later, and beheaded as a traitor. In 1865 a

statue was erected on the summit of Alesia, in honour of the heroic

Gaul.

+The fall of Alesia decided the fate of Gaul.+

B44

CICERO IN EXILE, MARCH 58 B.C.-AUGUST 57 B.C. (1)

_His Banishment._

Per idem tempus P. Clodius, homo nobilis, disertus, audax, quique

dicendi neque faciendi ullum nisi quem vellet nosset modum, malorum

propositorum exsecutor acerrimus, cum graves inimicitias cum M. Cicerone

exerceret (quid enim inter tam {5} dissimilis amicum esse poterat?) et a

patribus ad plebem transisset, legem in tribunatu tulit, qui civem

Romanum non damnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni interdiceretur: cuius

verbis etsi non nominabatur Cicero, tamen solus petebatur. Ita vir

optime {10} meritus de re publica conservatae patriae pretium

calamitatem exili tulit. Non caruerunt suspicione oppressi Ciceronis

Caesar et Pompeius. Hoc sibi contraxisse videbatur Cicero, quod inter xx

viros dividendo agro Campano esse noluisset. Idem intra {15} biennium

sera Cn. Pompei cura, verum ut coepit intenta, votisque Italiae ac

decretis senatus, virtute atque actione Anni Milonis tribuni pl.

dignitati patriaeque restitutus est. Neque post Numidici exilium ac

reditum quisquam aut expulsus invidiosius {20} aut receptus est laetius:

cuius domus quam infeste a Clodio disiecta erat, tam speciose a senatu

restituta est.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 45.

[Linenotes:

6-7. +a patribus ... transisset.+ When Cicero refused to throw in

his lot with the Triumvirs, Publius Clodius was (by the aid of

Caesar as Pontifex Maximus) hurriedly transferred from a patrician

to a plebeian gens, and then chosen a tribune of the people for the

year 58 B.C. Clodius was thus enabled to satisfy his private hatred

of Cicero, and Caesar was enabled to get rid of the man who

persisted in opposing him.

7-8. +qui ... interemisset:+ aimed at Cicero for his share in the

summary execution of the Catilinarians 63 B.C. Mommsen calls it a

judicial murder. Undoubtedly the Senate had not the power of

sentencing _citizens_ to death. But Cicero argues that the legal

effect of the _Senatus consultum ultimum_ was to _disenfranchise_

Lentulus and his associates, and to place them in the position of

_outlaws_.

12-13. +Non caruerunt ... Pompeius:+ Caesar having in vain tried to

win him over abandoned him to his fate, and Pompeius basely deserted

him.

15. +dividendo agro Campano+, i.e. by Caesar's Agrarian Law of 59

B.C., to provide for Pompey's veterans.

18. +Anni Milonis:+ the bravoes of Milo protected from disturbance

the voters engaged in sanctioning the decree for the recall of

Cicero.

19. +Numidici+, i.e. Q. Caecilius Metellus, general against

Jugurtha, superseded by Marius and forced to retire to Rhodes.]

B45

CICERO IN EXILE, MARCH 58 B.C.-AUGUST 57 B.C. (2)

_His Return._

Pr. Nonas Sextiles Dyrrachio sum profectus, ipso illo die, quo lex est

lata de nobis; Brundisium veni Nonis Sextilibus: ibi mihi Tulliola mea

fuit praesto natali suo ipso die, qui casu idem natalis erat et

Brundisinae coloniae et tuae vicinae Salutis; quae {5} res animadversa a

multitudine summa Brundisinorum gratulatione celebrata est. Ante diem vi

Idus Sextiles cognovi, cum Brundisii essem, litteris Quinti, mirifico

studio omnium aetatum atque ordinum, incredibili concursu Italiae legem

comitiis {10} centuriatis esse perlatam: inde a Brundisinis

honestissimis ornatus iter ita feci, ut undique ad me cum gratulatione

legati convenerint. Ad urbem ita veni, ut nemo ullius ordinis homo

nomenclatori notus fuerit, qui mihi obviam non venerit, praeter eos {15}

inimicos, quibus id ipsum, se inimicos esse, non liceret aut dissimulare

aut negare. Cum venissem ad portam Capenam, gradus templorum ab infima

plebe completi erant, a qua plausu maximo cum esset mihi gratulatio

significata, similis et frequentia {20} et plausus me usque ad

Capitolium celebravit, in foroque et in ipso Capitolio miranda multitudo

fuit. Postridie in senatu, qui fuit dies Nonarum Septembr., senatui

gratias egimus.

CICERO, _Ep. ad Att._ iv. 1.

[Linenotes:

1. +Dyrrachio+ (formerly _Epidamnus_, mod. _Durazzo_), a town in

Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic. It was the usual port of

landing and departure from and for Brundisium (distant about 100

miles).

3. +Tulliola+, Cicero's dearly-loved daughter Tullia, the only one

of his family of whose conduct he never complains, and his tender

and sympathising companion in all his pursuits.

4-5. +qui casu ... coloniae.+ Brundisium was founded 244 B.C. The

Via Appia terminated here.

5. +tuae vicinae Salutis+, the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal was

near the house of Atticus.

9. +Quinti+ (sc. _Ciceronis_): Cicero's only brother, a gallant

soldier (e.g. as legatus to Caesar in Gaul), but a man of violent

temper. Proscribed by the Triumvirs, and put to death in 43 B.C.

11-12. +a Brundisinis ... ornatus+ = _having received attentions

from the most respectable men of Brundisium_.

13. +legati+ = _deputations_, i.e. from the various towns en route.

14. +nomenclatori+ (= lit. _one who calls by name_, cf. #kal-eô#,

_Cal-endae_): a confidential slave who attended his master in

canvassing, and on similar occasions, and told him the names of the

people he met.

18. +ad portam Capenam+ (_Porta S. Sebastiano_), by which the Via

Appia led to Capua. 'Cicero, perhaps for effect, followed the line

of triumphal procession.' --Impey.]

B46

CICERO'S RECANTATION, 56 B.C.

_In praise of Caesar._

Itaque cum acerrimis nationibus et maximis Germanorum et Helvetiorum

proeliis felicissime decertavit: ceteras conterruit, compulit, domuit,

imperio populi Romani parere assuefecit, et quas regiones, quasque

gentes nullae nobis antea litterae, {5} nulla vox, nulla fama notas

fecerat, has noster imperator nosterque exercitus et populi Romani arma

peragrarunt. Semitam tantum Galliae tenebamus antea, patres conscripti;

ceterae partes a gentibus aut inimicis huic imperio, aut infidis, aut

{10} incognitis, aut certe immanibus et barbaris et bellicosis

tenebantur; quas nationes, nemo umquam fuit, quin frangi domarique

cuperet; nemo sapienter de republica nostra cogitavit iam inde a

principio huius imperi, quin Galliam maxime timendam huic {15} imperio

putaret; sed propter vim ac multitudinem gentium illarum numquam est

antea cum omnibus dimicatum. Restitimus semper lacessiti. Nunc denique

est perfectum, ut imperii nostri terrarumque illarum idem esset

extremum. {20}

CICERO, _de Provinciis Consularibus_, § 33.

[Linenotes:

3. +compulit+ = _checked_, usu. = _to constrain_.

5. +nullae litterae+ = _no book_.

8. +Semitam tantum Galliae+ = _it was but a strip of Gaul._ --W. F.

+Semita+ (_se + mi_ = _go aside_, cf. _meo_, _trames_) = lit.

_a narrow way_, _path._

13-14. +nemo ... cogitavit+ = _there never has been a prudent

statesman_. --W. F.

17. +cum omnibus+, i.e. with the Gauls as a nation.

19-20. +ut imperi ... extremum+, i.e. that our Empire extends to the

utmost limits of that land.]

+Cicero's Recantation+ (#palinôdia#). The time for the struggle between

the Senatorial party (the Optimates) and the Triumvirs, weakened by

their mutual jealousy, seemed to have come. Accordingly Cicero proposed

in a full house to reconsider Caesar's Agrarian Law (of 59 B.C.) for the

allotment of lands in Campania; while Domitius Ahenobarbus (candidate

for next year's Consulship) openly declared his intention to propose

Caesar's recall. Caesar acted with his usual promptness, and the

Conference at Luca restored an understanding between the three regents.

Pompeius then crossed to Sardinia, and informed Q. Cicero that he would

be held reponsible for any act of hostility on the part of his brother.

Cicero had no choice but to submit, and delivered in the Senate his

oration _de Provinciis Consularibus_, a political manifesto on behalf of

Caesar and Pompeius--the _Recantation_ alluded to in _Ep. ad Att._ iv.

5, and elaborately explained in _Ep. ad Fam._ i. 9 (to Lentulus

Spinther).

B47

CARRHAE, 53 B.C. (1)

'_Quem deus vult perdere, prius dementat._'

Dum Gallos per Caesarem in septentrione debellat, ipse interim ad

orientem grave volnus a Parthis populus Romanus accepit. Nec de fortuna

queri possumus; caret solacio clades. Adversis et dis et hominibus

cupiditas consulis Crassi, dum Parthico {5} inhiat auro, undecim strage

legionum et ipsius capite multata est. Primum enim, qui solus et

subvehere commeatus et munire poterat a tergo, relictus Euphrates, dum

simulato transfugae cuidam Mazzarae Syro creditur. Tum in mediam

camporum {10} vastitatem eodem duce ductus exercitus, ut undique hosti

exponeretur. Itaque vixdum venerat Carrhas cum undique praefecti regis

Silaces et Surenas ostendere signa auro sericisque vexillis vibrantia.

Tunc sine mora circumfusi undique equitatus in {15} modum grandinis

atque nimborum densa pariter tela fuderunt. Sic miserabili strage

deletus exercitus. Ipse in colloquium sollicitatus signo dato vivus in

hostium manus incidisset, nisi tribunis reluctantibus fugam ducis

barbari ferro occupassent. Filium {20} ducis paene in conspectu patris

eisdem telis operuerunt. Reliquiae infelicis exercitus, quo quemque

rapuit fuga, in Armeniam Ciliciam Syriamque distractae vix nuntium

cladis rettulerunt.

FLORUS, III. xi. 1-10 (sel.)

+Context.+ By the conference of the Triumvirs at Luca, it was arranged

to secure the succession of Crassus to the government of Syria, in order

to make war on the growing strength of the Parthian Empire beyond the

Euphrates. Consul with Pompeius in 55 B.C. he set out for his province

even before the expiration of his consulship 'eager to gather in the

treasures of the East in addition to those of the West.'

[Linenotes:

7-14. +Primum enim ... vibrantia.+ The Arab prince Abgarus induced

Crassus to leave the Euphrates, and cross the great Mesopotamian

desert to the Tigris. When at length the enemy offered battle some

30 miles to the S. of Carrhae (Harran, not far from Edessa), by the

side of the Parthian vizier stood prince Abgarus with his Bedouins.

15-17. +Tunc sine mora ... exercitus.+ The Roman weapons of close

combat, and the Roman system of concentration yielded for the first

time to cavalry and distant warfare (the bow).

20-21. +Filium ducis:+ his young and brave son Publius, who had

served with the greatest distinction under Caesar in Gaul.

22. +Reliquiae:+ out of 40,000 Roman legionaries, who had crossed

the Euphrates, not a fourth part returned: 20,000 fell, and 10,000

were taken prisoners.]

+Carrhae.+ 'The day of Carrhae takes its place side by side with the

days of the Allia, and of Cannae.' --M.

B48

CARRHAE, 53 B.C. (2)

_After the Battle._

Temporis angusti mansit concordia discors,

Paxque fuit non sponte ducum; nam sola futuri

Crassus erat belli medius mora. Qualiter undas 100

Qui secat et geminum gracilis mare separat Isthmos

Nec patitur conferre fretum: si terra recedat,

Ionium Aegaeo frangat mare: sic, ubi saeva

Arma ducum dirimens miserando funere Crassus

Assyrias Latio maculavit sanguine Carrhas, 105

Parthica Romanos solverunt damna furores.

Plus illa vobis acie quam creditis actum est,

Arsacidae: bellum victis civile dedistis.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 98-108.

[Linenotes:

98. +Temporis ... discors+ = _the short-lived concord endured, but

it was a jarring_ (+discors+) _concord_. --Haskins.

101. +Isthmos+, sc. _of Corinth_: Caesar planned to cut it, and thus

to secure a direct route by sea, connecting Italy and the East.

102. +Nec patitur ... fretum+ = _and suffers it_ (+mare+, l. 101)

_not to join its waters_, i.e. the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs.]

Milesne Crassi coniuge barbara

Turpis maritus vixit, et hostium

(Pro curia inversique mores!)

Consenuit socerorum in armis 8

Sub rege Medo Marsus et Apulus,

Anciliorum et nominis et togae

Oblitus aeternaeque Vestae,

Incolumi Iove et urbe Roma? 12

HORACE, _Odes_ III. v. 5-12.

Nearly 10,000 Roman prisoners were settled by the victors in the oasis

of Merv, as bondsmen compelled after the Parthian fashion to render

military service (+in armis+, l. 8).

[Linenotes:

8. +Consenuit:+ Carrhae (53 B.C.) was fought 26 years before this

Ode was written (27 B.C.).

10-11. +Anciliorum, aeternae Vestae+, pledges of the immortality of

Rome.

10. +togae+, i.e. the Roman people, the _gens togata_.

12. +Iove+, Jove's temple on the Capitol.]

Crassus ad Euphraten aquilas natumque suosque

Perdidit, et leto est ultimus ipse datus.

"Parthe, quid exsultas?" dixit dea, "signa remittes,

Quique necem Crassi vindicet, ultor erit." 468

OVID, _Fasti_, vi. 465-468. [[Hallam VI. 397-400]]

[Linenote:

3-4. During the last few months of his life, Caesar was occupied

with the preparations for his expedition against the Parthians. In

36 B.C. Antonius carried on a disastrous campaign against Phraates,

King of Parthia, but in 20 B.C. Augustus received from the King the

Eagles (+signa+, l. 467) and prisoners captured at Carrhae.]

B49

CICERO, GOVERNOR OF CILICIA, 51-50 B.C.

_His humane Administration._

Ipse in Asiam profectus sum Tarso Nonis Ianuariis, non mehercule dici

potest, qua admiratione Ciliciae civitatum maximeque Tarsensium; postea

vero quam Taurum transgressus sum, mirifica exspectatio Asiae nostrarum

dioecesium, quae sex {5} mensibus imperii mei nullas meas acceperat

litteras, numquam hospitem viderat. Illud autem tempus quotannis ante

me fuerat in hoc quaestu; civitates locupletes, ne in hiberna milites

reciperent, magnas pecunias dabant, Cyprii talenta Attica CC, qua

ex {10} insula--non #huperbolikôs#, sed verissime loquor--nummus nullus

me obtinente erogabatur. Ob haec beneficia, quibus illi obstupescunt,

nullos honores mihi nisi verborum decerni sino; statuas, fana,

#tethrippa# prohibeo, nec sum in ulla re alia molestus {15} civitatibus,

sed fortasse tibi, qui haec praedicem de me. Perifer, si me amas; tu

enim me haec facere voluisti. Iter igitur ita per Asiam feci, ut etiam

fames, qua nihil miserius est, quae tum erat in hac mea Asia--messis

enim nulla fuerat--, mihi optanda {20} fuerit: quacumque iter feci,

nulla vi, nullo iudicio, nulla contumelia auctoritate et cohortatione

perfeci, ut et Graeci et cives Romani, qui frumentum compresserant,

magnum numerum populis pollicerentur.

CICERO, _Ep. ad Atticum_, v. 21.

[Linenotes:

1. +in Asiam+, i.e. to the districts N. of the Taurus range, which

belonged geographically to Asia in the Roman sense, but were

politically attached to Cilicia. --Watson.

+Tarso+ = on the R. Cydnus, about twelve miles above its mouth.

Pompeius made Tarsus the capital of the new province of Cilicia,

66 B.C.

6-7. +nullas meas ... viderat+ = _had never received demands_

(+litteras+) _from me, never seen a man billeted on them_. The

+hospites+ = _soldiers or public officials_.

8. +fuerat in hoc quaestu+ = _had been devoted to gain in the

following fashion_. --Tyrrell.

9. +ne in hiberna milites reciperent:+ Mommsen says 'A town suffered

nearly to the same extent when a Roman army took up winter quarters

in it as when an enemy took it by storm.'

15. #tethrippa# = _statues in chariots drawn by four horses_.

20-21. +mihi optanda fuerit:+ i.e. because it gave him the

opportunity of showing the effect of his personal influence. --T.

23. +compresserant+ = _had stowed away_; lit. _kept back_, rare.]

+Cicero as Governor.+ His administration seems to have been just,

considerate and popular.

For +Cicero's Ideal of a Roman Governor+, see _Ep. ad Q. F._ i. 1

(Q. Cicero governed Asia as Propraetor 62-58 B.C.)

CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR.

_Nec quemquam iam ferre potest Caesarve priorem

Pompeiusve parem._ --LUCAN.

+56 B.C. By the Conference at Luca+ it was arranged:--

(i) to give Caesar a new term of five years' government in which to

complete his work in Gaul (until March 1, 49);

(ii) to give Pompeius the government of the two Spains, and Crassus that

of Syria, for five years also.

It was further agreed that Pompeius and Crassus should have the

consulship for 55 B.C.

+52 B.C. Pompeius Sole Consul.+ So things continued until 52 B.C., when

the constant rioting (Clodius v. Milo), and utter lawlessness prevailing

in Rome +gave Pompeius his opportunity+. The Senate in their distress

caused Pompeius to be nominated sole Consul, with supreme power to meet

the crisis. The death of Julia in 54 and of Crassus in 53 had removed

the two strongest influences for peace, and from 52 onwards the breach

between Pompeius and Caesar began to widen.

During Caesar's long absence from Rome his opponents, with Cato at their

head, were waiting their chance to impeach him for numerous acts in his

province, as soon as he appeared in Rome for the consular elections. He

would then be merely a private citizen, and as such amenable to

prosecution. Now Caesar's proconsulship of Gaul was to terminate on

March 1, 49, and the consular elections would take place at the earliest

in the following summer. +There would therefore be an interval between

the two offices+, and Caesar would be exposed to the utmost peril, if he

gave up province and army on March 1, 49. Caesar had long foreseen this.

When the law was passed in 55, which added a fresh term of five years to

his government, +Pompeius seems to have inserted in it+ (doubtless in

accordance with a previous promise to Caesar) +a clause prohibiting the

discussion of a successor before March 1, 50+. Caesar therefore could

not be superseded except by the consuls of 49, and these would not be

able to succeed him (as proconsuls) till Jan. 1, 48. He would thus be

able to retain his army and government throughout the year 49.

+Caesar's canvass for the Consulship.+ As the law stood, he would have

to come in person to Rome. But early in 52 +a decree was promulgated,

with the support of Pompeius, which relieved him from the necessity of

canvassing in person+. Caesar might now feel himself safe: he would

retain both army and provinces throughout 49, and would not be forced to

return to Rome until he was safe from prosecution as Consul.

+Lex Pompeia de iure magistratuum.+ But this did not suit Caesar's

enemies. Pompeius and the Senate combined to alter the whole legal

machinery for appointing provincial governors. +There was to be an

interval of five years between a consulship and a proconsulship+, which

would prevent Caesar, even if he were duly elected Consul in 49, from

obtaining a fresh provincial governorship until five years from the end

of 48. When the bill became law (as it did in 51) there would be an

interval of some years before any consuls would be qualified under it

for provinces: and to fill up the governorships during the interval, the

Senate was authorised to appoint any person of consular rank who had not

as yet proceeded to a proconsulship. +Thus Caesar's resignation both of

his army and his province could be demanded on March 1, 49.+

+50 B.C. Caesar's overtures for peace.+ Caesar let it be known to the

Senate through Curio that +he was willing to resign his army and

provinces if Pompeius would simultaneously do the same+: and the Senate

voted a resolution in this sense by a majority of 370 to 22. The

presiding Consul, Gaius Marcellus, broke up the meeting in anger, and

with the two Consuls elected for 49 (Claudius Marcellus and Lentulus

Crus) requested Pompeius to put himself at the head of the two legions

stationed at Capua and to call the Italian militia to arms.

+Caesar had completely attained the object of devolving the initiative

of Civil War on his opponents.+ He had, while himself keeping on legal

ground, compelled Pompeius to declare war, and to declare it not as the

representative of the legitimate authority, but as general of a

revolutionary minority of the Senate, which overawed the majority.

--_Adapted from Long, Mommsen, and Warde Fowler._

B50

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (1)

_Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 49 B.C._

Fonte cadit modico parvisque impellitur undis

Puniceus Rubicon cum fervida canduit aestas,

Perque imas serpit valles et Gallica certus 215

Limes ab Ausoniis disterminat arva colonis.

Tunc vires praebebat hiemps atque auxerat undas

Tertia iam gravido pluvialis Cynthia cornu

Et madidis Euri resolutae flatibus Alpes.

Primus in obliquum sonipes opponitur amnem 220

Excepturus aquas; molli tum cetera rumpit

Turba vado faciles iam fracti fluminis undas.

Caesar, ut adversam superato gurgite ripam

Attigit Hesperiae vetitis et constitit arvis,

'Hic' ait 'hic pacem temerataque iura relinquo; 225

Te, Fortuna, sequor; procul hinc iam foedora sunto,

Credidimus fatis, utendum est iudice bello.'

Sic fatus noctis tenebris rapit agmina ductor

Impiger; it torto Balearis verbere fundae

Ocior et missa Parthi post terga sagitta 230

Vicinumque minax invadit Ariminum, et ignes

Solis lucifero fugiebant astra relicto.

Iamque dies primos belli visura tumultus

Exoritur; seu sponte deum, seu turbidus Auster

Impulerat, maestam tenuerunt nubila lucem. 235

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 213-235.

+Context.+ On Lentulus Crus and Claudius Marcellus, the Consuls for 49

B.C., must rest the immediate blame of the Civil War. On Jan. 1st

Caesar's tribune Curio once more presented proposals from Caesar, which

startle us by their marvellous moderation (cf. Suet. _Caesar_, 29, 30),

but Lentulus would not allow them to be considered. On Jan. 7th the

_Senatus consultum ultimum_ was decreed, and a state of war declared.

Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the narrow brook which separated his

province from Italy, to pass which at the head of an army was high

treason to the State. --W. F.

[Linenotes:

214. +puniceus+ = _dark red_: +Rubicon+, as if from _ruber_.

216. +limes+, i.e. until the time of Augustus, by whom Italy was

extended to the R. Varus, the boundary between Gallia Narbonensis

and Italy.

218. I.e. prob. the third night after the change of moon; +gravido+ =

_surcharged with rain_. --Haskins.

219. +Alpes+ = _mountains_, not _the_ Alps.

225. +temerata+, i.e. by Pompeius and the senatorial party.

229. +verbere+ = the _thong_, i.e. of the sling (+fundae+).

231. +Ariminum+ (Rimini), at this period the frontier town of Italy.]

+The Passage of the Rubicon.+ 'When after nine years' absence he trod

once more the soil of his native land, he trod at the same time the path

of revolution. Alea iacta est.' --M.

B51

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (2)

_Caesar defends himself before the Senate, April 49 B.C._

His rebus confectis Caesar, ut reliquum tempus a labore intermitteretur,

milites in proxima municipia deducit; ipse ad urbem proficiscitur.

Coacto senatu iniurias inimicorum commemorat. Docet se nullum

extraordinarium honorem appetisse, sed exspectato {5} legitimo tempore

consulatus eo fuisse contentum, quod omnibus civibus pateret. Latum ab x

tribunis plebis contradicentibus inimicis, Catone vero acerrime

repugnante et pristina consuetudine dicendi mora dies extrahente, ut sui

ratio absentis haberetur, ipso {10} consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset,

cur ferri passus esset? qui si improbasset, cur se uti populi beneficio

prohibuisset? Patientiam proponit suam, cum de exercitibus dimittendis

ultro postulavisset; in quo iacturam dignitatis atque honoris ipse

facturus {15} esset. Acerbitatem inimicorum docet, qui, quod ab altero

postularent, in se recusarent atque omnia permisceri mallent, quam

imperium exercitusque dimittere. Iniuriam in eripiendis legionibus

praedicat, crudelitatem et insolentiam in circumscribendis {20} tribunis

plebis; condiciones a se latas, expetita colloquia et denegata

commemorat. Pro quibus rebus hortatur ac postulat, ut rem publicam

suscipiant atque una secum administrent.

CAESAR, _de B. C._ i. 32.

+Context.+ After his passage of the Rubicon, Caesar quickly made himself

master of Italy. Town after town opened its gates to him. Corfinium

(held in force by Domitius for Pompeius) surrendered, and the captured

troops enlisted in his ranks. An attempt to blockade Pompeius in

Brundisium was skilfully foiled. On the last day of March Caesar arrived

at Rome. The Senate was legally summoned by the tribunes Antonius and

Cassius, and +was invited to unite with him in carrying on the

government+.

[Linenotes:

2. +municipia+, i.e. Brundisium, Tarentum, Hydruntum (Otranto).

10. +ut sui ... haberetur+, i.e. allowing him to stand for the

consulship in his absence.

15. +iacturam dignitatis+ = sacrifice of prestige. --Long.

19. +eripiendis legionibus+, i.e. in 50 B.C. Caesar was required to

send home a legion he had borrowed of Pompeius, and contribute

another himself, ostensibly for the Parthian War; but the legions

were detained by Pompeius in Italy, and the Parthian War was quietly

dropped.]

+Caesar in Rome.+ All Caesar's acts after the crossing of the Rubicon

were entirely unconstitutional. But when he told the senators that he

was prepared to take the government on himself, he was justified to

himself by the past, and to posterity by the result. --W. F.

B52

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (3)

_The Campaign round Lerida: the Soldiers fraternise, 49 B.C._

Dixit et ad montes tendentem praevenit hostem.

Illic exiguo paulum distantia vallo

Castra locant. Postquam spatio languentia nullo

Mutua conspicuos habuerunt lumina voltus, 170

Et fratres natosque sues videre, patresque;

Deprensum est civile nefas. Tenuere parumper

Ora metu, tantum nutu motoque salutant

Ense suos; mox ut stimulis maioribus ardens

Rupit amor leges, audet transcendere vallum 175

Miles, in amplexus effusas tendere palmas.

Hospitis ille ciet nomen, vocat ille propinquum,

Admonet hunc studiis consors puerilibus aetas;

Nec Romanus erat, qui non agnoverat hostem. 179

Pax erat, et miles castris permixtus utrisque 196

Errabat; duro concordes caespite mensas

Instituunt et permixto libamina Baccho;

Graminei luxere foci, iunctoque cubili

Extrahit insomnes bellorum fabula noctes, 200

Quo primum steterint campo, qua lancea dextrum

Exierit. Dum quae gesserunt fortia iactant,

Et dum multa negant, quod solum fata petebant,

Est miseris renovata fides, atque omne futurum

Crevit amore nefas. 205

LUCAN, iv. 167-179, 196-205.

+Context.+ On leaving Rome Caesar set out for Spain to encounter the

veteran army of Pompeius under his legati Afranius and Petreius. If this

were crushed, he felt he would be free to take the offensive against

Pompeius in the East. Round Lerida (_Ilerda_) on the R. Segres

(a tributary of the Ebro) he fought the most brilliant campaign of all

his military life. After severe losses and hardships, Caesar

outmanoeuvred the Pompeians, cut them off from their base on the Ebro,

and forced a surrender on most generous terms.

[Linenotes:

167. +Dixit+, sc. Caesar.

+ad montes+, i.e. the rocky hills through which the retreating

Pompeians had to pass before they could reach the Ebro valley.

Caesar, by a wonderful march, outstrips (+praevenit+) them and

blocks the way.

169. +spatio+ (sc. _interposito_) +languentia nullo+ = _not failing_

(+languentia+) _owing to the distance_, i.e. they were so near they

could not fail to recognise one another. --Haskins.

173. +metu+, i.e. of their leaders.

175. +Rupit leges+ = _burst the bonds of discipline_. --H.

178. +Admonet ... aetas+ = _one is reminded of his friend by the time

passed together in boyhood's pursuits_. --H.

200. +Extrahit+ = _whiles away_.]

+Result of the Campaign.+ The whole of the western half of the Empire

was now in Caesar's power, with the single exception of Massilia.

B53

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (4)

_Siege of Massilia. A Treacherous Sortie, 49 B.C._

Iam satis hoc Graiae memorandum contigit urbi

Aeternumque decus, quod non impulsa nec ipso

Strata metu tenuit flagrantis in omnia belli 390

Praecipitem cursum, raptisque a Caesare cunctis

Vincitur una mora. Quantum est quod fata tenentur,

Quodque virum toti properans imponere mundo

Hos perdit fortuna, dies!

LUCAN, iii. 388-394.

+Context.+ Caesar's appeal to the leading citizens to espouse his cause

was at first successful, but the arrival of Domitius (whom he had

treated so generously at Corfinium) with a fleet caused the Massiliots

to change their mind. Unable to remain himself, Caesar entrusted the

siege to Trebonius, supported by Dec. Brutus with the fleet. He has,

however, left us a detailed account of their skill and energy, and of

the heroic defence of the citizens, +marred by a treacherous sortie

under a truce+. He returned to receive its final submission, and left

the city unharmed, as a tribute 'rather to its ancient renown than to

any claim it had on himself.'

[Linenotes:

389. +non impulsa+ = _not urged by others_, i.e. by Pompeius and his

adherents. But cf. Caesar, _de B. C._ i. 34.

391. +raptis+ = _speedily won_. --H.]

B. At hostes sine fide tempus atque occasionem fraudis ac doli quaerunt;

interiectisque aliquot diebus, nostris languentibus atque animo

remissis, {10} subito meridiano tempore, cum alius discessisset, alius

ex diutino labore in ipsis operibus quieti se dedisset, arma vero omnia

reposita contectaque essent, portis se foras erumpunt, secundo magnoque

vento ignem operibus inferunt. Hunc sic distulit {15} ventus, uti uno

tempore agger, plutei, testudo, turris, tormenta flammam conciperent, et

prius haec omnia consumerentur, quam quem ad modum accidisset

animadverti posset. Nostri repentina fortuna permoti arma, quae possunt,

arripiunt; alii ex castris {20} sese incitant. Fit in hostes impetus

eorum, sed muro sagittis tormentisque fugientes persequi prohibentur.

Illi sub murum se recipiunt, ibique musculum turrimque latericiam libere

incendunt. Ita multorum mensium labor hostium perfidia et vi {25}

tempestatis puncto temporis interiit.

CAESAR, _de Bello Civili_, ii. 14.

[Linenotes:

13. +contecta:+ i.e. the shield kept in a leather casing.

16. +plutei+ = _screens_ or _mantlets_ of hurdles covered with raw

hides.

17. +tormenta+ (_torqu + mentum_) = _artillery_, engines for

throwing missiles by _twisted_ ropes; e.g. the _ballista_,

_catapulta_.

24. +musculum+ = _sapping-shed_.

+turrim latericiam+ = _brick tower_.

25. +multorum mensium+, i.e. from May to August 49 B.C.]

B54

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (5)

'_Nothing in his life

Became him like the leaving it._'

Quid nunc rostra tibi prosunt turbata forumque

Unde tribunicia plebeius signifer arce 800

Arma dabas populis? Quid prodita iura senatus

Et gener atque socer bello concurrere iussi?

Ante iaces quam dira duces Pharsalia confert,

Spectandumque tibi bellum civile negatum est. 804

Libycas en nobile corpus 809

Pascit aves nullo contectus Curio busto. 810

At tibi nos, quando non proderit ista silere

A quibus omne aevi senium sua fama repellit,

Digna damus, iuvenis, meritae praeconia vitae.

Haud alium tanta civem tulit indole Roma,

Aut cui plus leges deberent recta sequenti. 815

Perdita nunc urbi nocuerunt saecula, postquam

Ambitus et luxus et opum metuenda facultas

Transverso mentem dubiam torrente tulerunt;

Momentumque fuit mutatus Curio rerum

Gallorum captus spoliis et Caesaris auro. 820

Ius licet in iugulos nostros sibi fecerit ense

Sulla potens Mariusque ferox et Cinna cruentus

Caesareaeque domus series; cui tanta potestas

Concessa est? Emere omnes, hic vendidit urbem.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, iv. 799-804, 809-end.

+Context.+ In 49 B.C. Curio was sent by Caesar to wrest the

corn-province of Africa from the Pompeians. He won a signal success over

Varus (allied with Juba) at Utica, but allowed himself to be surprised

on the plain of the Bagradas, and, when all was lost, died sword in

hand.

[Linenotes:

800. +tribunicia arce+ = _from the citadel of the tribune_, i.e. the

inviolability of the office and the right of veto. As tribune Curio

played an all-important part in the crisis of 50 B.C.

801. +prodita iura senatus+, i.e. of the right of the senators to

appoint governors of the provinces. --Haskins.

802. +gener atque socer:+ by the early death of Julia (54 B.C.)--a

beloved wife and daughter--the personal relation between Pompeius

and Caesar was broken up.

812. +senium+ (_senex_) = _decay_ (of lapse of time).

813. +digna ... vitae+ = _such a panegyric_ (+praeconia+) _as thy

life deserves_. --H.

815-818. As tribune Curio for a time played the part of an

independent republican, till his talent induced Caesar to buy him

up.

819. +momentum+ (= _movi + mentum_) +rerum+ = _that which turned the

scale of history_. --H.

824. +vendidit+: perh. referred to by Verg. _Aen._ vi. 621-2:

_Vendidit hic auro patriam dominumque potentem

Imposuit; fixit leges pretio atque refixit._]

B55

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (6)

_Dyrrachium. Caesar's line of circumvallation, 48 B.C._

Erat nova et inusitata belli ratio cum tot castellorum numero tantoque

spatio et tantis munitionibus et toto obsidionis genere, tum etiam

reliquis rebus. Nam quicumque alterum obsidere conati sunt, perculsos

atque infirmos hostes adorti aut proelio superatos {5} aut aliqua

offensione permotos continuerunt, cum ipsi numero equitum militumque

praestarent; causa autem obsidionis haec fere esse consuevit, ut

frumento hostes prohiberent. At tum integras atque incolumes copias

Caesar inferiore militum {10} numero continebat, cum illi omnium rerum

copia abundarent; cotidie enim magnus undique navium numerus

conveniebat, quae commeatum supportarent, neque ullus flare ventus

poterat, quin aliqua ex parte secundum cursum haberent. Ipse autem

consumptis {15} omnibus longe lateque frumentis summis erat in

angustiis. Sed tamen haec singulari patientia milites ferebant.

Recordabantur enim eadem se superiore anno in Hispania perpessos labore

et patientia maximum bellum confecisse, meminerant ad {20} Alesiam

magnam se inopiam perpessos, multo etiam maiorem ad Avaricum maximarum

se gentium victores discessisse.

CAESAR, _de B. C._ iii. 47.

+Context.+ In Jan. (48 B.C.) Caesar set sail from Brundisium and landed

safely in Epirus. After a junction with Antonius, who followed him from

Brundisium with reinforcements, Caesar established himself close to

Dyrrachium (Durazzo), the key of the whole military situation. Pompeius

refused to fight, and encamped on a hill close to the sea at Petra,

a short distance S. of Dyrrachium, where his fleets could bring him

supplies. Caesar now determined to hem him in by a line of

circumvallation.

[Linenotes:

2. +tanto spatio+: eventually the whole circuit of circumvallation

covered at the least 16 miles: to this was afterwards added, just as

before Alesia, an outer line of defence.

6. +aut aliqua offensione permotos+ = _or demoralised by some other

mishap_ (+offensione+, lit. _stumbling_, and so _failure_).

12-15. Pompeius still had undisputed command of the sea.]

+Caesar's lines broken.+ Pompeius was informed by Celtic deserters that

Caesar had not yet secured by a cross wall the beach between his two

chains of entrenchment on his left (200 yards apart), leaving it

possible to land troops from the sea into the unprotected space. Troops

were landed by night: Caesar's outer line of defence was carried, and

his lines broken through. 'Like Wellington at Burgos in 1812, Caesar

failed from want of a sufficient force. In each case the only safe

course was a retreat: in each case the retreat was conducted with

admirable skill.' --W. F.

[Illustration: DYRRACHIUM. [_To face p. 216._]

B56

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (7)

_The Eve of Pharsalus. Dream of Pompeius._

At nox, felicis Magno pars ultima vitae,

Sollicitos vana decepit imagine somnos.

Nam Pompeiani visus sibi sede theatri

Innumeram effigiem Romanae cernere plebis, 10

Attollique suum laetis ad sidera nomen

Vocibus, et plausu cuneos certare sonantes.

Qualis erat populi facies clamorque faventis,

Olim cum iuvenis primique aetata triumphi

Post domitas gentes quas torrens ambit Hiberus, 15

Et quaecumque fugax Sertorius impulit arma,

Vespere pacato, pura venerabilis aeque

Quam currus ornante toga, plaudente senatu,

Sedit adhuc Romanus eques: seu fine bonorum

Anxia venturis ad tempora laeta refugit, 20

Sive per ambages solitas contraria visis

Vaticinata quies magni tulit omina planctus,

Seu vetito patrias ultra tibi cernere sedes

Sic Romam fortuna dedit. Ne rumpite somnos.

Castrorum vigiles, nullas tuba verberet aures. 25

Crastina dira quies et imagine maesta diurna

Undique funestas acies feret undique bellum.

Unde pares somnos populi noctemque beatam?

O felix, si te vel sic tua Roma videret.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, vii. 7-29.

[Linenotes:

9. +Pompeiani theatri.+ Pompeius built the first stone theatre at

Rome, near the Campus Martius, capable of holding 40,000 people.

10. +Innumeram ... plebis+ = _the image of the countless Roman

people_. +innumeram+ which belongs to +plebis+ is transferred to

+effigiem+.--Haskins.

14. +Olim ... triumphi+, i.e. over Africa 79 B.C. when only 24, and

+adhuc Romanus eques+ (l. 19). It was not until 71 B.C. that he

triumphed over Spain, after the murder of Sertorius. Lucan confuses

the two triumphs.

16. +impulit+ = _set in motion_ (lit. _drive forward_).

17-18. +pura venerabilis ... toga+ = _no less worshipful in pure

white gown than_ (he would have been) _in that which usually adorns

the car of triumph_, i.e. the _toga picta_. --H.

20. +anxia+ (sc. _quies_) = _his repose full of anxiety for the

future_. --H.

21-22. +solitas ... vaticinata+ = _foretelling the opposite of his

visions_ i.e. by the +plausus+ of which he dreamed, the +planctus+

which was in store for him was foreshadowed. --H.

25. +nullas+ = _at all_. Cf. Cic. _Ep._: _nullus venit_ = _he never

came_.

26. +Crastina ... diurna+ = _to-morrow's night of horror haunted by

the sad image of the day's events_. --H.

29. +sic+, i.e. in dreams.]

+The Dream of Pompeius.+ Macaulay says 'I hardly know an instance of

so great an effect produced by means so simple.'

B57

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (8)

_Pompeius ill-advised at Pharsalus, 48 B.C._

Inter duas acies tantum erat relictum spatii, ut satis esset ad

concursum utriusque exercitus. Sed Pompeius suis praedixerat, ut

Caesaris impetum exciperent neve se loco moverent aciemque eius distrahi

paterentur; idque admonitu C. Triarii {5} fecisse dicebatur, ut primus

excursus visque militum infringeretur aciesque distenderetur atque in

suis ordinibus dispositi dispersos adorirentur; leviusque casura pila

sperabat in loco retentis militibus, quam si ipsi immissis telis

occucurrissent, simul fore, ut {10} duplicato cursu Caesaris milites

exanimarentur et lassitudine conficerentur. Quod nobis quidem nulla

ratione factum a Pompeio videtur, propterea quod est quaedam animi

incitatio atque alacritas naturaliter innata omnibus, quae studio pugnae

incenditur. {15} Hanc non reprimere, sed augere imperatores debent;

neque frustra antiquitus institutum est, ut signa undique concinerent

clamoremque universi tollerent: quibus rebus et hostes terreri et suos

incitari existimaverunt. {20}

CAESAR, _de Bello Civili_, iii. 92.

+Context.+ Caesar made for Apollonia, where he left his wounded, and

then marched S.E. into Thessaly, where he joined Domitius Calvinus. (He

had been sent with two legions E. into Macedonia, to stop reinforcements

for Pompeius under Scipio, Pompeius' father-in-law.) Pompeius followed

Caesar, and encamped on the slope of a hill facing Caesar's position

near Pharsalus. Here he offered battle, his better judgment overruled by

the clamorous Senators in his camp.

[Linenotes:

4-5. +aciem ... paterentur+ = _so as to allow their_ (advancing)

_line to become disorganised_ (+distrahi+), by the force of its

onset.

7. +in suis ... dispositi+ = _by maintaining their proper

distances_.]

+Scene of the Fight.+ The battle was fought near the town of

_Pharsalus_, while the territory of the town was named _Pharsalia_. Cf.

Catull. lxiv. 37:

+Pharsalum+ _coeunt_, +Pharsalia+ _late frequentant_.

+The Battle.+ Pompeius had 47,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry against

Caesar's 22,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. Pompeius stationed his

cavalry and archers on his left, and confidently expected to outflank

his enemy's right. But Caesar, foreseeing the defeat of his cavalry, had

stationed behind it in reserve 2000 of his best legionaries. When

Caesar's cavalry fell back outnumbered, this reserve ran forward at the

charge, not discharging their _pila_, but using them as spears, and

driving them against man and horse. Taken aback by so unusual an

infantry attack, the Pompeian cavalry wavered and fled. Caesar's third

line (forming a rear-guard) was now sent forward to support the two

front lines, and this decided the battle. --+Result.+ Submission of the

East to Caesar.

[Illustration: PHARSALUS. [_To face p. 218._]

B58

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (9)

A. _Pharsalus and Cannae compared._

Non aetas haec carpsit edax monimentaque rerum

Putria destituit: crimen civile videmus

Tot vacuas urbes. Generis quo turba redacta est

Humani? Toto populi qui nascimur orbe 400

Nec muros implere viris nec possumus agros;

Urbs nos una capit. Vincto fossore coluntur

Hesperiae segetes, stat tectis putris avitis

In nullos ruitura domus, nulloque frequentem

Cive suo Romam, sed mundi faece repletam 405

Cladis eo dedimus, ne tanto in tempore bellum

Iam posset civile geri. Pharsalia tanti

Causa mali. Cedant feralia nomina Cannae

Et damnata diu Romanis Allia fastis.

Tempora signavit leviorum Roma malorum: 410

Hunc voluit nescire diem.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, vii. 397-411.

[Linenotes:

397-398. +monimentaque ... destituit+ = _and has abandoned to decay

the monuments of the past_. --Haskins.

402. +vincto fossore+ = _by a chained digger_ (delver), in

consequence of the dearth of free labour. Cf. Juv. xi. 80 _squalidus

in magna ... compede fossor_.

404. +in nullos ruitura+ = _ready to fall, but on the heads of

none_. --H.

405. +faece+ = _dregs_. Cf. Juv. iii. 60, 61 _Non possum ferre

Quirites_ | _Graecam urbem_ (a Greek Rome); _quamvis_ (and yet)

_quota portio_ (how small a fraction) _faecis Achaei_?

406-407. +ne tanto ... geri+ = lit. _so that during the long time

since, it is impossible to wage_ +civil+ _war_, i.e. from the dearth

of genuine Roman soldiers.

409. +Allia+: 390 B.C. Cf. Vergil. _Aeneid_, vii. 717 _quosque

secans infaustum interluit Allia nomen_.

411. +nescire+ = _to ignore_.]

B. _The Battlefields of Pharsalus and Philippi._

Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis

Romanas acies iterum videre Philippi; 490

Nec fuit indignum superis, bis sanguine nostro

Emathiam et latos Haemi pinguescere campos.

Scilicet et tempus veniet, cum finibus illis

Agricola, incurvo terram molitus aratro,

Exesa inveniet scabra robigine pila, 495

Aut gravibus rastris galeas pulsabit inanes,

Grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulchris.

VERGIL, _Georg._ i. 489-497.

[Linenotes:

489. +Ergo+ = _therefore_, in fulfilment of the terrible warnings at

the death of Caesar.

490. +iterum+, i.e. at Philippi 42 B.C.; the first time at

Pharsalus.]

B59

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (10)

_How Pompeius died, 48 B.C._

Pompeius, deposito adeundae Syriae consilio, et aeris magno pondere ad

militarem usum in naves imposito, duobusque milibus hominum armatis,

Pelusium pervenit. Ibi casu rex erat Ptolemaeus, puer aetate, magnis

copiis cum sorore Cleopatra {5} bellum gerens, quam paucis ante mensibus

per suos propinquos atque amicos regno expulerat; castraque Cleopatrae

non longo spatio ab eius castris distabant. Ad eum Pompeius misit, ut

pro hospitio atque amicitia patris Alexandria reciperetur atque illius

opibus in {10} calamitate tegeretur. Sed, qui ab eo missi erant,

confecto legationis officio, liberius cum militibus regis colloqui

coeperant eosque hortari, ut suum officium Pompeio praestarent, neve

eius fortunam despicerent. His tunc cognitis rebus amici regis, {15} qui

propter aetatem eius in procuratione erant regni, sive timore adducti,

ne Pompeius Alexandriam Aegyptunique occuparet, sive despecta eius

fortuna, iis, qui erant ab eo missi, palam liberaliter responderunt

eumque ad regem venire iusserunt: ipsi, {20} clam consilio inito,

Achillan, praefectum regium, singulari hominem audacia, et L. Septimium,

tribunum militum, ad interficiendum Pompeium miserunt. Ab his

liberaliter ipse appellatus naviculam parvulam conscendit cum paucis

suis, et ibi {25} ab Achilla et Septimio interficitur.

CAESAR, _de Bello Civili_, iii. 103, 104 (sel.)

+Context.+ After the battle of Pharsalus, Pompeius, closely pursued by

Caesar, had thoughts of going to Parthia and trying to form alliances

there. While in Cyprus he heard that Antioch (in Syria) had declared for

Caesar and that the route to the Parthians was no longer open. So he

altered his plan and sailed to Egypt, where a number of his old soldiers

served in the Egyptian army.

[Linenotes:

4. +Pelusium+, on the E. side of the easternmost mouth of the Nile.

5. +cum sorore Cleopatra.+ By his father's will, Ptolemy ruled

jointly with his sister for three years, 51-48 B.C., when he

expelled her. Cleopatra raised an army in Syria and invaded Egypt.

The two armies were encamped opposite each other when Pompeius

landed to seek the help of Ptolemy.

15. +amici regis+, e.g. Achillas, l. 21, and espec. Ptolemy's

guardian Pothinus, the _de facto_ ruler of Egypt.]

'On the same day (28 Sept.) on which he had triumphed over Mithridates

(61 B.C.) Pompeius died on the desert sands of the inhospitable Casian

shore by the hands of one of his old soldiers (Septimius).'--M.

B60

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C. (11)

_Cato's Eulogy on Pompeius._

'Civis obit,' inquit, 'multum maioribus impar 190

Nosse modum iuris sed in hoc tamen utilis aevo,

Cui non ulla fuit iusti reverentia; salva

Libertate potens, et solus plebe parata

Privatus servire sibi, rectorque senatus,

Sed regnantis, erat. Nil belli iure poposcit, 195

Quaeque dari voluit, voluit sibi posse negari.

Immodicas possedit opes, sed plura retentis

Intulit: invasit ferrum, sed ponere norat;

Praetulit arma togae, sed pacem armatus amavit;

Iuvit sumpta ducem, iuvit dimissa potestas. 200

Casta domus luxuque carens corruptaque numquam

Fortuna domini. Clarum et venerabile nomen

Gentibus, et multum nostrae quod proderat urbi.

. . . . . . .

O felix, cui summa dies fuit obvia victo, 208

Et cui quaerendos Pharium scelus obtulit enses!

Forsitan in soceri potuisses vivere regno.

Scire mori sors prima viris sed proxima cogi.' 211

Vocibus his maior, quam si Romana sonarent 215

Rostra ducis laudes, generosam venit ad umbram

Mortis honos.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ix. 190-217.

[Linenotes:

190-191. +multum ... iuris+ = _far inferior to our ancestors in

recognising the due bounds of power_. --Haskins.

193. +solus+ (sc. _ex proceribus_) ... +servire sibi+ = _alone (of the

chief men of the State) acting the private citizen when the populace

were ready to be his slaves_, i.e. acting unlike Sulla or Caesar.

--H.

195. +sed regnantis.+ 'Pompeius came forward as the duly installed

general of the Senate against the Imperator of the street, once more

to save his country.' --M.

198. +Intulit+, sc. _in aerarium_. Cf. Shaksp. _Jul. C._ III. ii.

(Mark Antony of Caesar) 'He hath brought many captives home to Rome

| Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill.' 'Caesar devoted the

proceeds of the confiscations (the property of defeated opponents)

entirely to the benefit of the State.' --M.

208. +cui summa dies ... victo+ = _whom the day of death met when he

was vanquished_, i.e. without his having to seek it himself. --H.

209. +Pharium+ = _Egyptian_, lit. of _Pharos_ (= Faro), an island

near Alexandria, famous for its lighthouse.

211. One of Lucan's famous _sententiae_ (#gnômai#, _maxims_).]

+Pompeius.+ 'Even in his own age he would have had a clearly defined and

respectable position, _had he contented himself with being the general

of the Senate_, for which he was from the outset destined.' --M.

B61

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (12)

_The Grave of Pompeius. His Roll of Fame._

Tunc ne levis aura retectos

Auferret cineres, saxo compressit harenam: 790

Nautaque ne bustum religato fune moveret,

Inscripsit sacrum semiusto stipite nomen:

HIC SITUS EST MAGNUS. . . .

Quod si tam sacro dignaris nomine saxum, 806

Adde actus tantos monimentaque maxima rerum,

Adde truces Lepidi motus Alpinaque bella

Armaque Sertori revocato consule victa,

Et currus quos egit eques, commercia tuta 810

Gentibus et pavidos Cilicas maris: adde subactam

Barbariem gentesque vagas et quidquid in Euro

Regnorum Boreaque iacet. Die semper ab armis

Civilem repetisse togam, ter curribus actis

Contentum patriae multos donasse triumphos. 815

Quis capit haec tumulus? Surgit miserabile bustum

Non ullis plenum titulis, non ordine tanto

Fastorum, solitumque legi super alta deorum

Culmina et exstructos spoliis hostilibus arcus

Haud procul est ima Pompei nomen harena, 820

Depressum tumulo, quod non legat advena rectus,

Quod nisi monstratum Romanus transeat hospes.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, viii. 789-793, 806-822.

+Subject.+ Cordus, whom Lucan calls _infaustus Magni comes_ (or

according to Plutarch Philippus the faithful freedman of Pompeius),

finds the cast-up body of Pompeius and gives it honourable burial.

[Linenotes:

793. +HIC SITUS EST+ = #enthade keitai#, the regular inscription on

a tombstone.

808. +truces Lepidi motus.+ Cf. page 178, last note on page.

809. +revocato consule+, i.e. Metellus. Cf. page 180, A., l. 12.

[[Selection B21, "Metello"]]

811. +pavidos Cilicas maris+ = _the Cilicians scared from the sea_.

--Jebb. _Pompeius effecit ut piratae timerent maria quibus ipsi ante

grassabantur_ (= they sailed at will).--Schol.

813-814. +dic semper ... togam+, e.g. after his triumph over Spain

71 B.C., and over Mithridates and the East in 61 B.C.

814-815. +ter curribus ... triumphos+ = (tell how) _content with

thrice driving the_ (triumphal) _car he made a present to his

fatherland of many triumphs_, i.e. he did not claim them when he

might have done so.

817-818. +Non ordine tanto Fastorum+ = _storied with no majestic

annals_. --Jebb.

819. +arcus+ = _triumphal arches_, orig. temporary structures of

wood, but under the Empire built of marble, e.g. of Septimius

Severus.

821. +Depressum ... rectus+ = _sunk low upon a tomb, which the

stranger cannot read without stooping_ (+rectus+).--Haskins.]

B62

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (13)

_Atrox Animus Catonis, 46 B.C._

Complures interim ex fuga Uticam perveniunt. Quos omnes Cato convocatos

una cum trecentis, qui pecuniam Scipioni ad bellum faciendum

contulerant, hortatur, ut servitia manumitterent, oppidumque

defenderent. Quorum cum partem assentire, partem {5} animum mentemque

perterritam atque in fugam destinatam habere intellexisset, amplius de

ea re agere destitit, navesque eis attribuit, ut in quas quisque partes

vellet proficisceretur. Ipse, omnibus rebus diligentissime constitutis,

liberis suis L. Caesari, {10} qui tum ei pro quaestore fuerat,

commendatis et sine suspicione, vultu atque sermone, quo superiore

tempore usus fuerat, cum dormitum isset, ferrum intro clam in cubiculum

tulit, atque ita se traiecit. Qui cum anima nondum exspirata

concidisset, et, {15} impetu facto in cubiculum ex suspicione, medicus

familiaresque continere atque vulnus obligare coepissent, ipse suis

manibus vulnus crudelissime divellit, atque animo praesenti se

interemit.

ASINIUS POLLIO, _de B. Africo_, 88.

+Context.+ After Pharsalus and the flight of Pompeius, we finally part

company with Caesar as an author. The _Bellum Alexandrinum_ (Caesar's

perils in Egypt and his settlement of the East 48-47 B.C.), the _B.

Africum_ (Thapsus 46 B.C.), the _B. Hispaniense_ (Munda 45 B.C.), are

the work of eyewitnesses and officers of his army. After a delay of

fifteen precious months Caesar landed in Africa (Jan. 46), and by

investing Thapsus tempted Scipio (Pompeius' father-in-law) to try to

save the city by a battle. His troops were quickly arranged as at

Pharsalus, and by a single impetuous charge won a complete victory. The

slaughter was terrible: the survivors fled to Utica, where Cato in vain

tried to organise a defence and to restore order, and then in despair

died by his own sword.

[Linenotes:

1. +Uticam:+ second in importance to Carthage.

19. +animo praesenti+ = _deliberately_.]

+After Thapsus.+ 'Caesar left Africa in June 46 B.C., and celebrated a

magnificent triumph, not over Roman citizens, but over Gauls and

Egyptians, Pharnaces and Juba. As Dictator he remained in Rome several

months, in which more permanently valuable work was done than was ever

achieved in the same space of time, unless it were by Cromwell in

1653-4. The senseless outbreak of the Pompeian party in Spain under

Labienus and the two sons of Pompeius took him away from Rome: but the

victory of Munda (45 B.C.) closed the civil strife. Caesar returned to

Rome in September, and six months more of life was all that was left to

him.' --W. F.

B63

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (14)

_Cato Uticensis, 46 B.C._

A. Hic genitus proavo M. Catone, principe illo familiae Porciae, homo

Virtuti simillimus et per omnia ingenio diis quam hominibus propior, qui

nunquam recte fecit, ut facere videretur, sed quia aliter facere non

potuerat, cuique id solum visum {5} est rationem habere, quod haberet

iustitiae, omnibus humanis vitiis immunis semper fortunam in sua

potestate habuit.

VELL. PATERC. ii. 35.

[Linenote:

1. +M. Catone+, the famous Censor of 184 B.C.

+principe+ = _founder_.]

Ut primum tolli feralia viderat arma,

Intonsos rigidam in frontem descendere canos 375

Passus erat maestamque genis increscere barbam:

Uni quippe vacat studiis odiisque carenti

Humanum lugere genus . . .

Hi mores, haec duri immota Catonis 380

Secta fuit, servare modum finemque tenere

Naturamque sequi patriaeque impendere vitam

Nec sibi sed toti genitum se credere mundo.

Huic epulae, vicisse famem; magnique penates,

Summovisse hiemem tecto; pretiosaque vestis, 385

Hirtam membra super Romani more Quiritis

Induxisse togam . . .

Iustitiae cultor, rigidi servator honesti, 389

In commune bonus: nullosque Catonis in actus

Subrepsit partemque tulit sibi nata voluptas.

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 374-391 (sel.)

[Linenotes:

377. +uni+ (sc. _Catoni_), as the only true representative of the

wise man of the Stoics. --Haskins.

381. +secta+ (sc. _via_, lit. _a beaten way_) here = _disciplina_ =

_principles_.

381-383. +servare modum ... mundo.+ These expressions are Stoic

maxims. Lucan (the nephew of Seneca) depicts the Stoic idea of

virtue in the character of Cato.

382-383. +patriaeque ... mundo.+ Cato's aim is +patriae impendere

vitam+. His devotion to the service of humanity is complete; it is

his part +toti genitum se credere mundo+. But this humanity includes

Rome in the first place, the rest of the world in a quite secondary

sense. --H.

386-387. +hirtam togam+ = _a coarse_ (lit. _hairy_) _toga_.

389. +honesti+ = #tou kalou#. Cicero defines +honestum+ as _aut ipsa

virtus, aut res gesta virtute_.]

+Cato Uticensis.+ 'He was like Caesar alone in this, that he had clear

political convictions and acted on them not only with consistency but

with justice and humanity. It is "his vain faith and courage" that alone

lights up the dark hours of the falling Commonwealth:--

'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni.' --W. F.

B64

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. (5)

_Caesar dines with Cicero, Dec. 19, 45 B.C._

O hospitem mihi tam gravem #ametamelêton#! fuit enim periucunde. Sed cum

secundis Saturnalibus ad Philippum vesperi venisset, villa ita completa

militibus est, ut vix triclinium, ubi cenaturus ipse Caesar esset,

vacaret; quippe hominum CI[C] CI[C]. {5} Sane sum commotus, quid futurum

esset postridie; at mihi Barba Cassius subvenit: custodes dedit. Castra

in agro, villa defensa est. Ille tertiis Saturnalibus apud Philippum ad

h. VII, nec quemquam admisit: rationes opinor cum Balbo. Inde ambulavit

{10} in litore; post h. VIII in balneum; unctus est, accubuit. Et edit

et bibit #adeôs# et iucunde, opipare sane et apparate, nec id solum, sed

_bene cocto,

condito, sermone bono et, si quaeri', libenter._ 15

Praeterea tribus tricliniis accepti #hoi peri auton# valde copiose.

Libertis minus lautis servisque nihil defuit: nam lautiores eleganter

accepti. Quid multa? homines visi sumus. Hospes tamen non is, cui

diceres: 'amabo te, eodem ad me, cum revertere': semel {20} satis est.

#Spoudaion ouden# in sermone, #philologa# multa. Quid quaeris?

delectatus est et libenter fuit. Puteolis se aiebat unum diem fore,

alterum ad Baias. Habes hospitium sive #epistathmeian#, odiosam mihi,

dixi, non molestam. {25}

CICERO, _Ep. ad Att._ xiii. 52.

+Subject.+ We here catch a glimpse of Caesar as he really was. He had

spent a night near Puteoli (where Cicero also had a villa) with

Philippus, the step-father of Octavianus. The Dictator proposed a visit,

and Cicero in this memorable letter describes to Atticus what happened.

[Linenotes:

1. +O hospitem ...+ #ametamelêton#! = _Oh, what a formidable guest

to have had, and yet I have had no reason to repent of it_

(#ametamelêton#).

10. +rationes+ (sc. _conferebat_) ... +Balbo+ = _he was settling

accounts with Balbus, I suppose_. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of

Gades (Cadiz), was Caesar's confidential secretary and faithful

friend. He was the first enfranchised foreigner who attained to the

highest magistracy (Consul 40 B.C.).

14-15.

'Though the cook was good,

'Twas Attic salt (+sermone bono+) that flavoured most the food.'

--Jeans.

18-19. +homines visi sumus+ = _I showed myself a man of taste_, i.e.

as host.

21. #Spoudaion ouden# = lit. _nothing serious_, i.e. _nothing

political_. #philologa# = _literary chat_.

24-25. #epistathmeian# = _billeting_, as Caesar's offer to dine with

Cicero was equivalent to a command. +odiosam ... molestam+ =

_unwelcome, though not disagreeable_.]

B65

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. (6)

_The Death of Caesar, 44 B.C._

Assidentem conspirati specie officii circumsteterunt; ilicoque Cimber

Tillius, qui primas partes susceperat, quasi aliquid rogaturus propius

accessit, renuentique et gestu in aliud tempus differenti ab utroque

umero togam apprehendit; deinde clamantem: {5} _Ista quidem vis est_,

alter e Cascis aversum vulnerat, paulum infra iugulum. Caesar Cascae

brachium arreptum graphio traiecit, conatusque prosilire alio vulnere

tardatus est; utque animadvertit undique se strictis pugionibus peti,

toga caput {10} obvolvit, simul sinistra manu sinum ad ima crura

deduxit, quo honestius caderet etiam inferiore corporis parte velata.

Atque ita tribus et viginti plagis confossus est, uno modo ad primum

ictum gemitu sine voce edito; etsi tradiderunt quidam {15} Marco Bruto

irruenti dixisse: #Kai su teknon#; Exanimis, diffugientibus cunctis,

aliquamdiu iacuit, donec lecticae impositum, dependente brachio, tres

servoli domum rettulerunt. Nec in tot vulneribus, ut Antistius medicus

existimabat, letale ullum {20} repertum est, nisi quod secundo loco in

pectore acceperat.

SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 82.

+Context.+ After his return from Spain (Sept. 45 B.C.), Caesar was busy

with the reconstruction of the Senate, the completion of his vast

buildings in Rome, and with other far-reaching projects. But during

these months the clouds of ill-will were gathering and threatening him

on every side. A conspiracy was formed, of which C. Cassius, 'a lean and

hungry man,' of a bitter and jealous disposition, seems to have been the

real instigator. He persuaded Brutus, a student of life chiefly in

books, that liberty could only be gained by murder, and at last it was

resolved that the deed should be done on the Ides (15th) of March.

[Linenotes:

8. +graphio+ (#graphion# = _scriptorium_) = _a writing-style_.

12. +quo honestius caderet+, cf. Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 833 (of

Lucretia): [Hallam II. 675]

_Tunc quoque iam moriens ne non procumbat honeste

Respicit, haec etiam cura cadentis erat._

16. #Kai su teknon#; there seems to be no authority for attributing

the words _Et tu Brute?_ to Caesar. Shakespeare found them in an

earlier play.]

+The Murder of Caesar.+ 'It is the most brutal and the most pathetic

scene that profane history has to record; it was, as Goethe has said,

the most senseless deed that ever was done. It was wholly useless, for

it did not and could not save Rome from monarchy. The deed was done by

a handful of men, who, pursuing a phantom liberty and following the lead

of a personal hatred, slew +the one man who saw the truth of things+.'

--W. F.

B66

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. (7)

'_There may be many Caesars

Ere such another Julius._'--Cymbeline.

A. Fuit in illo ingenium, ratio, memoria, litterae, cura, cogitatio,

diligentia; res bello gesserat quamvis rei publicae calamitosas, at

tamen magnas; multos annos regnare meditatus magno labore multis

periculis quod cogitarat effecerat; muneribus, monumentis, {5}

congiariis, epulis multitudinem imperitam delenierat: suos praemiis,

adversarios clementiae specie devinxerat.

CICERO, _Philippica_, ii. 45.

[Linenotes:

4. +regnare meditatus.+ For Caesar monarchy meant the liberation of

the Empire.

5. +muneribus+ (sc. +gladiatoriis+) = _gladiatorial shows_.

+monumentis+ = _public buildings_, e.g. his forum, amphitheatre,

Temple of Venus Genetrix, and other public works begun (e.g. the

_Curia Iulia_) and planned.

6. +congiariis+ (sc. _donis_), orig. a _gift of wine_ (a _congius_

= about 6 pints), then = _wine-money_ (Ger. _Trinkgeld_), and so of

any largess.

7-8. +clementiae specie.+ Cic. himself refutes this ungrateful taunt

in his _pro Marcello_: _Recte igitur unus invictus est, a quo etiam

ipsius victoriae condicio visque devicta est_.]

Sed non in Caesare tantum

Nomen erat nec fama ducis, sed nescia virtus

Stare loco, solusque pudor non vincere bello.

Acer et indomitus, quo spes quoque ira vocasset, 145

Ferre manum et numquam temerando parcere ferro.

Successus urguere suos, instare favori

Numinis, impellens quidquid sibi summa petenti

Obstaret, gaudensque viam fecisse ruina. 150

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 143-150.

[Linenotes:

143-144. +tantum nomen+ = _not a mere name alone_, in contrast to

Pompeius:--_Stat magni nominis umbra._ -- Haskins.

146. +temerando parcere ferro+ = _shrink from dyeing his sword_ (in

blood).--H.]

_Apotheosis of Caesar._

C. Periit sexto et quinquagesimo aetatis anno atque in deorum numerum

relatus est, non ore modo decernentium sed et persuasione volgi. Si

quidem ludis, quos primos consecrato ei heres Augustus edebat, {20}

stella crinita per septem continuos dies fulsit, exoriens circa

undecimam horam, creditumque est animam esse Caesaris in caelum recepti;

et hac de causa simulacro eius in vertice additur stella.

SUET. _Div. Iul._ 88.

[Linenotes:

21. +stella crinita+ (= #komêtês#); cf. Verg. _Georg._ iv. 466-8:

_Ille_ (= the sun) _etiam exstincto miseratus Caesare Romam

Cum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine_ (= gloom) _texit,

Impiaque aeternam timuerunt saecula noctem._]

'FACTA DUCIS VIVENT, OPEROSAQUE GLORIA RERUM.' --_OVID._

'THE HERO'S DEEDS AND HARD-WON FAME SHALL LIVE.'

Caesar was the sole creative genius produced by Rome, and the last

produced by the ancient world, which accordingly moved on in the path

that he marked out for it until its sun went down.

Whatever he undertook and achieved was pervaded and guided by the cool

sobriety which constitutes the most marked peculiarity of his genius. To

this he owed the power of living energetically in the present,

undisturbed either by recollection or by expectation: to this he owed

the capacity of acting at any moment with collected vigour, and of

applying his whole genius even to the smallest and most incidental

enterprise. Gifts such as these could not fail to produce a statesman.

+Caesar as a statesman.+--From early youth Caesar was a statesman in the

deepest sense of the term, and his aim was the +political, military,

intellectual, and moral regeneration of his own deeply decayed nation,

and of the still more deeply decayed Hellenic nation intimately akin to

his own+. According to his original plan, he had proposed to reach his

object, like Pericles and Gaius Gracchus, without force of arms, until,

reluctantly convinced of the necessity for a military support, he, when

already forty years of age, put himself at the head of an army.

+His talent for organisation was marvellous.+--No statesman has ever

compelled alliances, no general has ever collected an army out of

unyielding and refractory elements with such decision, and kept them

together with such firmness, as Caesar displayed in constraining and

upholding his coalitions and his legions; never did regent judge his

instruments and assign each to the place appropriate for him with so

accurate an eye.

+He was monarch; but he never played the king.+--'I am no king, but

Caesar.' Even when absolute lord of Rome, he retained the deportment of

the party-leader; perfectly pliant and smooth, easy and charming in

conversation, complaisant towards everyone, it seemed as if he wished io

be nothing but the first among his peers.

Caesar ruled as king of Rome for five years and a half, not half as long

as Alexander: in the intervals of seven great campaigns, which allowed

him to stay not more than fifteen months altogether in the capital of

his empire, +he regulated the destinies of the world for the present and

the future+. The outlines were laid down, and thereby the new State was

defined for all coming time: the boundless future alone could complete

the structure. But precisely because the building was an endless one,

the master so long as he lived restlessly added stone to stone, with

always the same dexterity and always the same elasticity busy at work.

Thus he worked and created as never did any man before or after him: and

as a worker and creator he still, after well-nigh two thousand years,

lives in the memory of the nations--the first and withal unique

Imperator Caesar.

MOMMSEN.

B67

CICERO AND ANTONIUS.

A. _Peroration of the Second Philippic, 44 B.C._

Respice, quaeso, aliquando rem publicam, M. Antoni: quibus ortus sis,

non quibuscum vivas considera: mecum, uti voles: redi cum re publica in

gratiam. Sed de te tu videris: ego de me ipso profitebor. Defendi rem

publicam adulescens, non {5} deseram senex: contempsi Catilinae gladios,

non pertimescam tuos. Quin etiam corpus libenter obtulerim, si

repraesentari morte mea libertas civitatis potest: ut aliquando dolor

populi Romani pariat, quod iam diu parturit. Etenim si abhinc {10} annos

prope viginti hoc ipso in templo negavi posse mortem immaturam esse

consulari, quanto verius nunc negabo seni? Mihi vero, patres conscripti,

iam etiam optanda mors est, perfuncto rebus eis quas adeptus sum quasque

gessi. Duo modo haec {15} opto: unum, ut moriens populum Romanum liberum

relinquam--hoc mihi maius ab dis immortalibus dari nihil

potest,--alterum, ut ita cuique eveniat ut de re publica quisque

mereatur.

CICERO, _Phil._ ii. 46.

[Linenotes:

2. +quibus ortus sis+: espec. his grandfather M. Antonius, the

famous orator, whom Cicero held in great esteem.

5. +adulescens+, i.e. in 63 B.C., when he was in his 44th year.

8. +repraesentari+ = _be realised, won now and here_. --Jebb.

11. +templo+, i.e. _Concordiae_. Cic. refers to _In Catil._ iv.

+The Peroration.+ 'Such a passage speaks to us with a living impression

of unity and directness which we acknowledge without question. We admire

and ask for nothing more.' --Nettleship.

B. _On the Murder of Cicero, by order of Antonius._

Par scelus admisit Phariis Antonius armis:

Abscidit voltus ensis uterque sacros.

Illud, laurigeros ageres cum laeta triumphos,

Hoc tibi, Roma, caput, cum loquereris, erat. 4

Antoni tamen est peior quam causa Pothini:

Hic facinus domino praestitit, ille sibi.

MARTIAL, _Epig._ III. lxvi.

[Linenotes:

1. +Par Phariis armis+ = _which matches (that committed by) the

armed hand of an Egyptian_, i.e. Pothinus (the guardian of the young

king) who planned the murder of Pompeius, when he fled to Egypt

48 B.C.

+sacros+: _consecrated_ to Rome from their public services.

3-4. +Illud caput+ = Pompeius. +hoc caput+ = Cicero. Cf. _Epig._

v. lxix: _Quid gladium demens_ +Romana+ _stringis_ +in ora+?

6. +domino+, sc. Ptolemaeus, King of Egypt, jointly with Cleopatra.]

B68

CICERO.

A. _Cicero as Orator and Poet._

Eloquium ac famam Demosthenis aut Ciceronis

Incipit optare et totis Quinquatribus optat 115

Quisquis adhuc uno parcam colit asse Minervam,

Quem sequitur custos angustae vernula capsae.

Eloquio sed uterque perit orator, utrumque

Largus et exundans leto dedit ingenii fons.

Ingenio manus est et cervix caesa, nec umquam 120

Sanguine causidici maduerunt rostra pusilli.

'O fortunatam natam me consule Romam':

Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic

Omnia dixisset. Ridenda poemata malo

Quam te, conspicuae divina Philippica famae, 125

Volveris a prima quae proxima.

JUVENAL, _Satires_, x. 114-126.

[Linenotes:

114-117. Boys at school long to be a Demosthenes or a Cicero.

115. +totis Quinquatribus+, i.e. during all the five days of the

Quinquatria, an annual feast of Minerva, March 19-23: it was always

a holiday time at schools, and the school year began at the close

of it.

116. +parcam Minervam+ = _a cheap kind of learning_, and +uno asse+

= _an entrance fee of one_ +as+. But Duff says +as+ here = +stips+,

i.e. the boy's contribution to the goddess of wisdom, who can make

him wise, and +parcam+ (= _economical_), transferred from +asse+ to

+Minervam+.

117. +vernula+ = _a little home-born slave_, +capsa+ a circular box

of beech-wood, used for the transport of books.

121. +causidici pusilli+ = _of a petty pleader_, as opposed to

orator.

122. From Cicero's poem _de suo consulatu_. Another line quoted in

the 2nd Philippic is _Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi_.

124. +Ridenda poemata malo+, i.e. they are better as being safer.

Juvenal himself refutes this argument:

_Summum crede nefas animam praeferre pudori

Et propter vitam vivendi perdere causas._]

B. _Cicero as Advocate._

Disertissime Romuli nepotum,

Quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,

Quotque post aliis erunt in annis,

Gratias tibi maximas Catullus

Agit pessimus omnium poeta, 5

Tanto pessimus omnium poeta

Quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.

CATULLUS, xlix.

[Linenotes:

2. +Marce Tulli+: the formal address suits the formal expression of

thanks to a _patronus_ (= _advocate_).

5. +pessimus omnium poeta:+ the self-depreciation heightens the

praise of the last line. --Merrill.]

B69

CICERO.

_His Death, by order of Antonius, 43 B.C._

M. Cicero sub adventum triumvirorum urbe cesserat pro certo habens id

quod erat, non magis se Antonio eripi quam Caesari Cassium et Brutum

posse: primo in Tusculanum fugerat, inde transversis itineribus in

Formianum ut ab Caieta navem {5} conscensurus proficiscitur. Unde

aliquoties in altum provectum cum modo venti adversi retulissent, modo

ipse iactationem navis caeco volvente fluctu pati non posset, taedium

tandem eum et fugae et vitae cepit, regressusque ad superiorem villam,

quae paulo {10} plus mille passibus a mari abest, 'moriar,' inquit, 'in

patria saepe servata.' Satis constat servos fortiter fideliterque

paratos fuisse ad dimicandum; ipsum deponi lecticam et quietos pati quod

sors iniqua cogeret iussisse. Prominenti ex lectica praebentique {15}

immotam cervicem caput praecisum est. Nec satis stolidae crudelitati

militum fuit: manus quoque scripsisse aliquid in Antonium exprobrantes

praeciderunt. Ita relatum caput ad Antonium iussuque eius inter duas

manus in rostris positum, ubi {20} ille consul, ubi saepe consularis,

ubi eo ipso anno adversus Antonium quanta nulla umquam humana vox cum

admiratione eloquentiae auditus fuerat: vix attollentes prae lacrimis

oculos homines intueri trucidati membra civis poterant. Vixit tres et

sexaginta {25} annos, ut si vis afuisset, ne immatura quidem mors videri

possit.

LIVY, _Fr. ap. Sen. Rh. Suas._ vii.

[Linenotes:

1. +triumvirorum+, sc. Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus. These

three allies (about the end of Oct. 43 B.C.) held their famous

meeting on an island in the R. Rhenus (a tributary of the Padus)

near Bononia (Bologna), at which they constituted themselves a

commission of three with absolute powers for five years. This was

followed by a proscription of their principal opponents, of whom

seventeen, including Cicero (sacrificed to Antonius), were at once

put to death.

4. +in Tusculanum+, i.e. to his villa at Tusculum, richly adorned

with pictures and statues.

5. +in Formianum+, i.e. to his villa at Formiae, on the Appian Way,

in the innermost corner of the beautiful Gulf of Caieta (Gaëta).

Near this villa Cicero was murdered.]

+The Death of Cicero.+ Cicero's work was over, and the tragedy of his

death was the natural outcome of his splendid failure. The restoration

of the Commonwealth of the Scipios was but a dream; still it was a

beautiful dream, and Cicero gave his life for it. --Tyrrell.

B70

_In Praise of Cicero._

A. Nihil tamen egisti, M. Antoni, nihil, inquam, egisti mercedem

caelestissimi oris et clarissimi capitis abscisi numerando,

auctoramentoque funebri ad conservatoris quondam rei publicae tantique

consulis irritando necem. Rapuisti tum Ciceroni lucem {5} sollicitam et

aetatem senilem et vitam miseriorem te principe quam sub te triumviro

mortem, famam vero gloriamque factorum atque dictorum adeo non

abstulisti, ut auxeris. Vivit vivetque per omnem saeculorum memoriam,

dumque hoc vel forte vel {10} providentia vel utcumque constitutum rerum

naturae corpus, quod ille paene solus Romanorum animo vidit, ingenio

complexus est, eloquentia illuminavit, manebit incolume, comitem aevi

sui laudem Ciceronis trahet omnisque posteritas illius in te scripta

mirabitur, {15} tuum in eum factum exsecrabitur citiusque e mundo genus

hominum quam Ciceronis memoria cedet.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 66.

[Linenotes:

3-4. +auctoramentoque funebri irritando+ = lit. _and by stimulating

(provoking) by a fatal reward_ (+auctoramento+) _the death_. . . .

10-15. +dumque ... trahet+, in reference to Cicero's philosophical

works, in which Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy,

claiming only that he renders the conclusions of Greek thinkers

accessible to his own countrymen.]

B. Ingenium et operibus et praemiis operum felix; ipse fortunae diu

prosperae et in longo tenore felicitatis {20} magnis interim ictus

vulneribus, exilio, ruina partium pro quibus steterat, filiae exitu tam

tristi tamque acerbo, omnium adversorum nihil ut viro dignum erat tulit

praeter mortem, quae vere aestimanti minus indigna videri potuit, quod a

victore {25} inimico nil crudelius passurus erat quam quod eiusdem

fortunae compos victo fecisset. Si quis tamen virtutibus vitia pensaret,

vir magnus ac memorabilis fuit, et in cuius laudes exsequendas Cicerone

laudatore opus fuerit. {30}

LIVY, _Fr. ap. Sen._

[Linenote:

21-22. +ruina ... steterat+, i.e. the restoration of the

Commonwealth of the Scipios.]

+Cicero.+ 'It happened many years after that Augustus once found one of

his grandsons with a work of Cicero's in his hands. The boy was

frightened, and hid the book under his gown; but Caesar took it from

him, and, standing there motionless, he read through a great part of the

book; then he gave it back to the boy, and said "This was a great

orator, my child; a great orator, and a man who loved his country

well."'--Plutarch, _Cicero_, 49.

B71

LAUS ITALIAE.

Si te forte iuvant Helles Athamantidos urbes,

Nec desiderio, Tulle, movere meo,

Tu licet aspicias caelum omne Atlanta gerentem,

Sectaque Persea Phorcidos ora manu, 8

Geryonis stabula et luctantum in pulvere signa

Herculis Antaeique Hesperidumque choros,

Tuque tuo Colchum propellas remige Phasim,

Peliacaeque trabis totum iter ipse legas, 12

Qua rudis Argoa natat inter saxa columba

In faciem prorae pinus adacta novae,

Et siqua Ortygii visenda est ora Caystri,

Et quae septenas temperat unda vias; 16

Omnia Romanae cedent miracula terrae;

Natura his posuit, quicquid ubique fuit.

Armis apta magis tellus, quam commoda noxae:

Famam, Roma, tuae non pudet historiae. 20

Nam quantum ferro, tantum pietate potentes

Stamus: victrices temperat illa manus.

Hic Anio Tiburne fluis, Clitumnus ab Umbro

Tramite, et aeternum Marcius umor opus, 24

Albanus lacus et foliis Nemorensis abundans,

Potaque Pollucis lympha salubris equo. 26

Haec tibi, Tulle, parens, haec est pulcherrima sedes; 39

Hic tibi pro digna gente petendus honos;

Hic tibi ad eloquium cives, hic ampla nepotum

Spes et venturae coniugis aptus amor. 42

PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) xxii. 5-26, 39-42.

+Subject.+ Go where thou wilt, my Tullus, know that all the sights and

marvels of all lands, from West to East, are outdone by those of thine

own Italy. A truly famous land! A land ever victorious, ever merciful;

full of fair lakes and streams. Here, Tullus, is thy true abode: here

seek a life of honour and a home.

[Linenotes:

8. +Phorcidos ora+ = _the head of Medusa_, the daughter of Phorcus.

15. +Ortygii Caystri.+ Ortygia, an old name for Ephesus, near the

mouth of the R. Cayster: the haunt of _quails_ (_Ortygia_, #ortux#).

16. +temperat septenas vias+ = _moderates its seven channels_, of

the delta of the Nile. --Ramsay.

19-22. Cf. Verg. _Aen._ vi. 853 _Parcere subiectis et debellare

superbos._

19. +commoda noxae+ = _disposed to harm_. --North Pinder.

24. +Marcius umor+, i.e. the aqueduct of Q. Marcius Rex; built

145 B.C.

25. The Alban and Arician Lakes (+Nemorensis+ = mod. _Nemi_) are

close together.

26. i.e. the well Iuturna in the Forum ('the well that springs by

Vesta's fane') at which the Dioscuri washed their horses after their

hot ride from Lake Regillus.

41. +ad eloquium cives+ = _citizens to hear and profit by your

eloquence_. --N. P.]

B72

LAUS ROMAE.

Haec est in gremium victos quae sola recepit 150

Humanumque genus communi nomine fovit

Matris, non dominae ritu: civesque vocavit

Quos domuit, nexuque pio longinqua revinxit.

Huius pacificis debemus moribus omnes

Quod veluti patriis regionibus utitur hospes: 155

Quod sedem mutare licet: quod cernere Thulen

Lusus, et horrendos quondam penetrare recessus:

Quod bibimus passim Rhodanum, potamus Orontem;

Quod cuncti gens una sumus. Nec terminus unquam

Romanae dicionis erit. Nam cetera regna 160

Luxuries vitiis odiisque superbia vertit.

Sic male sublimes fregit Spartanus Athenas

Atque idem Thebas cecidit. Sic Medus ademit

Assyrio, Medoque tulit moderamina Perses:

Subiecit Macedo Persen, cessurus et ipse 165

Romanis. Haec auguriis firmata Sibyllae,

Haec sacris animata Numae: huic fulmina vibrat

Iuppiter: hanc tota Tritonia Gorgone velat.

Arcanas huc Vesta faces, huc orgia Bacchus

Transtulit, et Phrygios genetrix turrita leones. 170

Huc defensurus morbos Epidaurius hospes

Reptavit placido tractu, vectumque per undas

Insula Paeonium texit Tiberina draconem.

CLAUDIAN, _de Consulatu Stilichonis_, iii. 150-173.

[Linenotes:

153. +nexuque ... revinxit+ = _and has linked far places in a bond

of love_. --Jebb.

156. +Thulen:+ cf. Vergil's _ultima Thule_, of the northernmost

island known, variously identified with the Shetlands, Iceland, or

Norway.

158. +Orontem+: the largest river of Syria, whence Juvenal, iii. 62,

uses it of the Syrian people--

_Iam pridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes._

159. +Quod cuncti ... sumus+ = _that the whole earth is one people_.

164. +moderamina+ = _the reins of power_; lit. _a means of

managing_.

168. +hanc tota ... velat+ = _she it is above whom Pallas spreads

the whole shadow of the aegis_ (+tota Gorgone+). Cf. Verg. _Aen._

viii. 435-8:

_Aegidaque horriferam, turbatae Palladis arma,

Certatim squamis serpentum auroque polibant,

Connexosque angues ipsamque in pectore divae

Gorgona, desecto vertentem lumina collo._

170. +genetrix turrita+, i.e. Cybele, the goddess of settled life.

171. +Epidaurius hospes+, i.e. Asclepius (Aesculapius), who had a

famous temple at Epidaurus (in Argolis), whence his worship was

introduced into Rome to avert a pestilence 293 B.C.

172. +reptavit placido tractu+ = _came gently gliding on his voyage_.

--Jebb. --For +reptavit+ cf. _repo_, #herpô#, and our _creep_.

173. +Paeonium draconem+ = _the serpent of the healer_. Cf. #Paiôn#.]

B73

'QUOD CUNCTI GENS UNA SUMUS.' --CLAUDIAN.

Vis dicam, quae causa tuos, Romane, labores

In tantum extulerit, quis gloria fotibus aucta

Sic cluat, impositis ut mundum frenet habenis? 585

Discordes linguis populos et dissona cultu

Regna volens sociare Dens, subiungier uni

Imperio, quidquid tractabile moribus esset,

Concordique iugo retinacula mollia ferre

Constituit, quo corda hominum coniuncta teneret 590

Relligionis amor: nec enim fit copula Christo

Digna, nisi implicitas societ mens unica gentes. 592

Ius fecit commune pares et nomine eodem 608

Nexuit et domitos fraterna in vincla redegit.

Vivitur omnigenis in partibus, haud secus ac si

Cives congenitos concludat moenibus unis

Urbs patria atque omnes lare conciliemur avito. 612

En ades omnipotens, concordibus influe terris: 634

Iam mundus te, Christe, capit, quem congrege nexu

Pax et Roma tenent: capita haec et culmina rerum

Esse iubes, nec Roma tibi sine pace probatur:

Et pax ut placeat, facit excellentia Romae,

Quae motus varios simul et dicione coercet

Et terrore premit. 640

PRUDENTIUS, _contra Symmachum_, ii. 583-640 (sel.).

+Subject.+ In a remarkable passage, Prudentius (circ. 400 A.D.) views

the victorious empire of Rome as preparing the way for the coming of

Christ. The triumphs of the Romans were not, he says, the gifts of false

gods, grateful for sacrifices, but were designed by Providence to break

down the barriers between the jarring nationalities of the world, and

familiarise them with a common yoke, by way of disciplining them for a

common Christianity. An "universal peace is struck through sea and

land," and Law, Art, Commerce, and Marriage constitute the world one

city and one family. Thus the way was paved for the coming of Christ by

the unity of the empire and the civilisation of the individual subject.

--North Pinder.

[Linenotes:

584. +fotibus+ (cf. _fotum_, _foveo_) = _cherishings_, _supports_,

post-classical.

585. +sic cluat+ = _is so famed_, for _cluo_ (ante and post-class.)

cf. #kleos#.

590-591. +quo+ (sc. _iugo_) ... +amor+, i.e. hearts once knit

together by a common yoke would best be held together by a common

faith. --N. P.

609. +fraterna in vincla+ = _in the bonds of brotherhood, not those

of slavery, as_ +domitos+ _would naturally suggest_.

634. +concordibus+ = _now they are in harmony and peace_, emphatic.

635. +capit+ = _is fit to receive thee_.]

MISCELLANEOUS PASSAGES

PROPEMPTICON VERGILIO.[36]

_The Perils of the Deep._

Sic te diva potens Cypri,

Sic fratres Helenae, lucida sidera,

Ventorumque regat pater

Obstrictis aliis praeter Iapyga, 4

Navis, quae tibi creditum

Debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis

Reddas incolumem precor

Et serves animae dimidium meae. 8

Illi robur et aes triplex

Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci

Commisit pelago ratem

Primus, nec timuit praecipitem Africum 12

Decertantem Aquilonibus

Nec tristes Hyadas nec rabiem Noti,

Quo non arbiter Hadriae

Maior, tollere seu ponere vult freta. 16

Quem mortis timuit gradum,

Qui siccis oculis monstra natantia,

Qui vidit mare turbidum et

Infames scopulos Acroceraunia? 20

Nequiquam deus abscidit

Prudens Oceano dissociabili

Terras, si tamen impiae

Non tangenda rates transiliunt vada. 24

[Footnote 36: A 'God-speed' to Vergil's ship.]

'_Nought is there for man too high._'

Audax omnia perpeti

Gens humana ruit per vetitum nefas:

Audax Iapeti genus

Ignem fraude mala gentibus intulit; 28

Post ignem aetheria domo

Subductum macies et nova febrium

Terris incubuit cohors

Semotique prius tarda necessitas 32

Leti corripuit gradum.

Expertus vacuum Daedalus aera.

Pinnis non homini datis;

Perrupit Acheronta Herculeus labor. 36

Nil mortalibus arduist;

Caelum ipsum petimus stultitia neque

Per nostrum patimur scelus

Iracunda Iovem ponere fulmina. 40

HORACE, _Od._ I. iii.

PROPEMPTICON MAECIO CELERI.

_A Prayer for his friend's safety._

Di, quibus audaces amor est servare carinas

Saevaque ventosi mulcere pericula ponti,

Sternite molle fretum placidumque advertite votis

Concilium, et lenis non obstrepat unda precanti:

Grande tuo rarumque damus, Neptune, profundo 5

Depositum. Iuvenis dubio committitur alto

Maecius atque animae partem super aequora nostrae

Maiorem transferre parat. Proferte benigna

Sidera et antemnae gemino considite cornu,

Oebalii fratres; vobis pontusque polusque 10

Luceat; Iliacae longe nimbosa sororis

Astra fugate, precor, totoque excludite caelo.

Vos quoque caeruleum ponti, Nereides, agmen

Quis honor ei regni cessit fortuna secundi,

Dicere quae magni fas sit mihi sidera ponti, 15

Surgite de vitreis spumosae Doridos antris

Baianosque sinus et feta tepentibus undis

Litora tranquillo certatim ambite natatu,

Quaerentes ubi celsa ratis, quam scandere gaudet

Nobilis Ausoniae Celer armipotentis alumnus. . . . 20

_His Prayer is heard. Man's audacity._

Et pater, Aeolio frangit qui carcere ventos 42

Cui varii flatus omnisque per aequora mundi

Spiritus atque hiemes nimbosaque nubila parent,

Artius obiecto Borean Eurumque Notumque 45

Monte premat: soli Zephyro sit copia caeli,

Solus agat puppes summasque supernatet undas

Assiduus pelago; donec tua turbine nullo

Laeta Paraetoniis assignet carbasa ripis. . . .

Audimur. Vocat ipse ratem nautasque morantes 50

Increpat. Ecce meum timido iam frigore pectus

Labitur et nequeo, quamvis movet ominis horror,

Claudere suspensos oculorum in margine fletus. . . . 53

Quis rude et abscissum miseris animantibus aequor 61

Fecit iter solidaeque pios telluris alumnos

Expulit in fluctus pelagoque immisit hianti

Audax ingenii? nec enim temeraria virtus

Illa magis, summae gelidum quae Pelion Ossae 65

Iunxit anhelantemque iugis bis pressit Olympum.

STATIUS, _Silvae_, II. ii. 1-20, 42-53, 61-66.

SENECA.

_For those 'qui corporis cura mentem obruerunt.'_

A. Stulta est enim, mi Lucili, et minime conveniens litterato viro

occupatio exercendi lacertos et dilatandi cervicem, ac latera firmandi.

Cum tibi feliciter sagina cesserit, et tori creverint: nec vires unquam

opimi bovis, nec pondus aequabis. Adice nunc, quod maiore corporis

sarcina animus eliditur, et minus agilis est. Itaque, quantum potes

circumscribe corpus tuum, et animo locum laxa. Multa sequuntur incommoda

huic deditos curae. Primum exercitationes, quarum labor spiritum

exhaurit, et inhabilem intentioni ac studiis acrioribus reddit; deinde

copia ciborum subtilitas animi impeditur. Accedunt pessimae notae,

mancipia in magisterium recepta, homines inter oleum et vinum occupati:

quibus ad votum dies est actus, si bene desudaverunt, si in locum eius

quod effluxit, multum potionis altius ieiuno gutture regesserunt. Bibere

et sudare, vita cardiaci est. Sunt exercitationes et faciles et breves,

quae corpus et sine mora laxent, et tempori parcant: cuius praecipua

ratio habenda est. Cursus, et cum aliquo pondere manus motae, et saltus,

vel ille qui corpus in altum levat, vel ille qui in longum mittit, vel

ille (ut ita dicam) saliaris, aut (ut contumeliosius dicam) fullonius.

Quodlibet ex his elige, usu fit facile. Neque ego te iubeo semper

imminere libro, aut pugillaribus. Dandum et aliquod intervallum animo:

ita tamen ut non resolvatur, sed remittatur.

SENECA, _Ep._ xv. 8.

'_They needs must die._'

Incognitum istud facinus, ac dirum nefas

A me quoque absit. Quod scelus miseri luent?

Scelus est Iason genitor, et maius scelus

Medea mater. Occidant: non sunt mei.

Pereant? mei sunt. Crimine et culpa carent.

Sunt innocentes, fateor: et frater fuit.

Quid, anime, titubas? ora quid lacrimae rigant?

Variamque nunc huc ira nunc illuc amor

Diducit? anceps aestus incertam rapit.

SENECA, _Medea_, 920.

CRITICISM OF POETS.

_An Estimate of early Roman Dramatists._

Ennius, et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus, 50

Ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur,

Quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.

Naevius in manibus non est et mentibus haeret

Paene recens? Adeo sanctum est vetus omne poema.

Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert 55

Pacuvius docti famam senis, Accius alti,

Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro,

Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi,

Vincere Caecilius gravitate, Terentius arte.

Hos ediscit et hos arto stipata theatro 60

Spectat Roma potens, habet hos numeratque poetas

Ad nostrum tempus Livi scriptoris ab aevo.

HOR. _Ep._ II. i. 50-62.

'_Teréntio non símilem dices quémpiam._'

Tu quoque tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,

Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.

Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,

Comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore

Cum Graecis neve hac despectus parte iaceres!

Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi deesse, Terenti.

CAESAR, _ap._ SUETON. _vit. Ter._

_Ovid on his Contemporaries._

Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,

Quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.

Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,

Quaeque nocet serpens, quae iuvat herba, Macer. 44

Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,

Iure sodalicio qui mihi iunctus erat.

Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis

Dulcia convictus membra fuere mei; 48

Et tenuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,

Dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.

Vergilium vidi tantum: nec amara Tibullo

Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae. 52

Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi;

Quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui:

Utque ego maiores, sic me coluere minores,

Notaque non tarde facta Thalia mea est. 56

OVID, _Tr._ IV. x. 41-56.

Cf. OVID, _Am._ I. xv. 9-30; _Am._ III. ix. 38-68; _Rem. Am._ 65-388;

QUINT. X. i. 85-90.

STORMS BY SEA AND LAND.

_Ovid describes a Storm at Sea._

Me miserum, quanti montes volvuntur aquarum!

Iam iam tacturos sidera summa putes. 20

Quantae diducto subsidunt aequore valles!

Iam iam tacturas Tartara nigra putes.

Quocumque aspicio, nihil est nisi pontus et aer,

Fluctibus hic tumidus, nubibus ille minax. 24

Inter utrumque fremunt inmani murmure venti:

Nescit, cui domino pareat, unda maris.

Nam modo purpureo vires capit Eurus ab ortu,

Nunc Zephyrus sero vespere missus adest, 28

Nunc sicca gelidus Boreas bacchatur ab Arcto,

Nunc Notus adversa proelia fronte gerit.

Rector in incerto est nec quid fugiatve petatve

Invenit: ambiguis ars stupet ipsa malis. 32

OVID, _Tr._ I. ii. 19-32.

_The passing of Romulus._

Sol fugit, et removent subeuntia nubila caelum,

Et gravis effusis decidet imber aquis.

Hinc tonat, hinc missis abrumpitur ignibus aether,

Fit fuga, rex patriis astra petebat equis.

OVID, _Fast._ ii. 493-496. [Hallam II. 369-372]

_Thunder and Hail._

Ínterea prope iam óccidente sóle inhorrescít mare,

Ténebrae conduplicántur, noctisque ét nimbum occaecát nigror,

Flámma inter nubés coruscat, caélum tonitru cóntremit,

Grándo mixta imbri largifico súbita praecipitáns cadit,

Úndique omnes vénti erumpunt, saévi existunt túrbines,

Férvit aestu pélagus.

PACUVIUS _ap._ CIC. _De Div._ I. xiv. 24.

_The Argo in a Gale._

Tollitur atque intra Minyas Argoaque vela

Styrus adest: vasto rursus desidit hiatu

Abrupta revolutus aqua. Iamque omnis in astra 330

Itque reditque ratis, lapsoque reciproca fluctu

Descendit. Vorat hos vertex, hos agmine toto

Gurges agit. Simul in voltus micat undique terror;

Crebra ruina poli caelestia limina laxat.

VAL. FL. _Argon._ viii. 328-334.

Cf. VERG. _Aen._ i. 81-123, _Aen._ iv, 160-168; STAT. _Theb._

i. 336-363.

PETS RENOWNED IN SONG.

_Lesbia's Sparrow._

Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque,

Et quantumst hominum venustiorum.

Passer mortuus est meae puellae,

Passer, deliciae meae puellae,

Quem plus illa oculis suis amabat. 5

Nam mellitus erat suamque norat

Ipsam tam bene quam puella matrem;

Nec sese a gremio illius movebat,

Sed circumsiliens modo huc modo illuc

Ad solam dominam usque pipiabat. 10

Qui nunc it per iter tenebricosum

Illuc, unde negant redire quemquam.

At vobis male sit, malae tenebrae

Orci, quae omnia bella devoratis:

Tam bellum mihi passerem abstulistis. 15

Vae factum male! vae miselle passer!

Tua nunc opera meae puellae

Flendo turgiduli rubent ocelli.

CATULLUS, iii.

'_My Parrot an obtrusive bird._'

Psittace, dux volucrum, domini facunda voluptas,

Humanae sollers imitator, psittace, linguae,

Quis tua tam subito praeclusit murmura fato?

STATIUS, _Silv._ ii. 4

_The Lap-dog and its Portrait._

Issa est passere nequior Catulli,

Issa est purior osculo columbae,

Issa est blandior omnibus puellis,

Issa est carior Indicis lapillis,

Issa est deliciae catella Publi. 5

Hanc tu, si queritur, loqui putabis;

Sentit tristitiamque gaudiumque.

Collo nixa cubat capitque somnos,

Ut suspiria nulla sentiantur.

Hanc ne lux rapiat suprema totam, 10

Picta Publius exprimit tabella,

In qua tam similem videbis Issam,

Ut sit tam similis sibi nec ipsa.

Issam denique pone cum tabella:

Aut utramque putabis esse veram, 15

Aut utramque putabis esse pictam.

MARTIAL, I. cix.

Cf. CATULL. ii.; OVID, _Am._ ii. 6.

THE ROMAN SATIRISTS. (1)

A. Satura quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus insignem laudem adeptus

Lucilius quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet amatores, ut eum non

eiusdem modo operis auctoribus, sed omnibus poetis praeferre non

dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio dissentio, qui

Lucilium _fluere lutulentum et esse aliquid, quod tollere possis_,

putat. Nam et eruditio in eo mira et libertas atque inde acerbitas, et

abunde salis. Multum eo est tersior ac purus magis Horatius, et, nisi

labor eius amore, praecipuus. Multum et verae gloriae, quamvis uno

libro, Persius meruit.

QUINT. X. i. 93.

_A Criticism of Lucilius._

Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae

Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca virorum est,

Siquis erat dignus describi, quod malus ac fur,

Quod moechus foret aut sicarius aut alioqui

Famosus, multa cum libertate notabant. 5

Hinc omnis pendet Lucilius, hosce secutus

Mutatis tantum pedibus numerisque, facetus,

Emunctae naris, durus componere versus.

Nam fuit hoc vitiosus: in hora saepe ducentos,

Ut magnum, versus dictabat stans pede in uno; 10

Cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;

Garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem.

HORACE, _Sat._ I. iv. 1-12.

_Juvenal's Reasons for Writing Satire._

Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo, 19

Per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,

Si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam. 21

Cum pars Niliacae plebis, cum verna Canopi 26

Crispinus Tyrias umero revocante lacernas

Ventilet aestivum digitis sudantibus aurum

Nec sufferre queat maioris pondera gemmae,

Difficile est saturam non scribere. 30

JUVENAL, _Sat._ i. 19-21, 26-30.

_His Subject._

Ex quo Deucalion, nimbis tollentibus aequor, 81

Navigio montem ascendit sortesque poposcit,

Paulatimque anima caluerunt mollia saxa, 83

Quidquid agunt homines, votum, timor, ira, voluptas, 85

Gaudia, discursus, nostri farrago libelli est. 86

JUVENAL, _Sat._ i. 81-86.

[Transcriber's Note:

The omitted line (84) is

_Et maribus nudas ostendit Pyrrha puellas_]

THE ROMAN SATIRISTS. (2)

_Virtue defined._

Virtus, Albine, est pretium persolvere verum

Quis in versamur, quis vivimus rebus potesse:

Virtus est homini scire id quo quaeque habeat res.

Virtus scire homini rectum, utile, quid sit honestum;

Quae bona, quae mala item, quid inutile, turpe, inhonestum; 5

Virtus quaerendae finem rei scire modumque:

Virtus divitiis pretium persolvere posse:

Virtus, id dare, quod re ipsa debetur, honori;

Hostem esse atque inimicum hominum morumque malorum,

Contra defensorem hominum morumque bonorum; 10

Hos magni facere, his bene velle, his vivere amicum;

Commoda praeterea patriai prima putare,

Deinde parentum, tertia iam postremaque nostra.

LUCILIUS, _Sat. Frag._

'_The names of men so poor

Who could do mighty deeds._'

Cum tremerent autem Fabios durumque Catonem 90

Et Scauros et Fabricium rigidique severos

Censoris mores etiam collega timeret,

Nemo inter curas et seria duxit habendum

Qualis in Oceani fluctu testudo nataret

Clarum Troiugenis factura et nobile fulcrum, 95

Sed nudo latere et parvis frons aerea lectis

Vile coronati caput ostendebat aselli,

Ad quod lascivi ludebant ruris alumni.

Tales ergo cibi qualis domus atque supellex.

JUVENAL, _Sat._ xi. 90-99.

_Persius in Praise of his Tutor, Cornutus._

Cum primum pavido custos mihi purpura cessit 30

Bullaque succinctis Laribus donata pependit;

Cum blandi comites totaque inpune Subura

Permisit sparsisse oculos iam candidus umbo,

Cumque iter ambiguum est et vitae nescius error

Deducit trepidas ramosa in compita mentes, 35

Me tibi supposui. Teneros tu suscipis annos

Socratico, Cornute, sinu; tum fallere sollers

Apposita intortos extendit regula mores,

Et premitur ratione animus vincique laborat

Artificemque tuo ducit sub pollice vultum. 40

PERSIUS, _Sat._ v. 19-25, 30-40.

THE THEATRE.

_Objections to a Permanent Theatre, 151 B.C._

A. Cum locatum a censoribus theatrum exstrueretur, P. Cornelio Nasica

auctore tamquam inutile et nociturum publicis moribus ex senatus

consulto destructum est, populusque aliquamdiu stans ludos spectavit.

LIVY, _Epit._ 48.

_Scenic Arrangements._

B. Apud maiores theatri gradus tantum fuerunt. Nam scena de lignotantum

ad tempus fiebat, unde hodieque permansit consuetudo, ut componantur

pegmata a ludorum theatralium editoribus. Scena autem, quae fiebat, aut

versilis erat aut ductilis. Versilis tunc erat, cum subito tota machinis

quibusdam convertebantur, et aliam picturae faciem ostendebat. Ductilis

tunc, cum tractis tabulatis hac atque illac species picturae nudabatur

interior. Unde perite utrumque tetigit, dicens, 'Versis discedat

frontibus': singula singulis complectens sermonibus. Quod Varro et

Suetonius commemorant.

SUET. _ap. Serv. Georg._ iii. 24.

_The Awnings._

Et vulgo faciunt id lutea russaque vela 75

Et ferrugina, cum magnis intenta theatris

Per malos volgata trabesque trementia flutant;

Namque ibi consessam caveai subter et omnem

Scaenai speciem, patrum coetumque decorum

Inficiunt coguntque suo fluitare colore. 80

LUCRETIUS, iv. 75-80.

_The Law of Otho, 67 B.C._

D. L. Roscius Otho tribunus plebis legem tulit, ut equitibus Romanis in

theatro quattuordecim gradus proximi adsignarentur.

LIVY, _Epit._ 99.

_Usurpers of Equestrian Privileges._

'Sectus flagellis hic triumviralibus

Praeconis ad fastidium

Arat Falerni mille fundi iugera

Et Appiam mannis terit 30

Sedilibusque magnus in primis eques

Othone contempto sedet.'

HORACE, _Epod._ iv. 11-16.

SPINNING.

_The Parcae spin the Web of Fate._

Laeva colum molli lana retinebat amictum,

Dextera tum leviter deducens fila supinis

Formabat digitis, tum prono in pollice torquens

Libratum tereti versabat turbine fusum,

Atque ita decerpens aequabat semper opus dens, 315

Laneaque aridulis haerebant morsa labellis,

Quae prius in levi fuerant extantia filo:

Ante pedes autem candentis mollia lanae

Vellera virgati custodibant calathisci.

Haec tum clarisona pellentes vellera voce 320

Talia divino fuderunt carmine fata,

Carmine perfidiae quod post nulla arguet aetas.

'O decus eximium magnis virtutibus augens,

Emathiae tutamen opis, clarissime nato,

Accipe, quod laeta tibi pandunt luce sorores, 325

Veridicum oraclum--sed vos quae fata secuntur

Currite ducentes subtemina, currite fusi.'

CATULLUS, lxiv. 311-327.

_The Skill of Arachne. Her Contest with Pallas._

Sive rudem primos lanam glomerabat in orbes,

Seu digitis subigebat opus repetitaque longo 20

Vellera mollibat nebulas aequantia tractu

Sive levi teretem versabat pollice fusum,

Seu pingebat acu scires a Pallade doctam.

. . . . . . .

Haud mora constituunt diversis partibus ambae

Et gracili geminas intendunt stamine telas.

Tela iugo vincta est, stamen secernit harundo, 55

Inseritur medium radiis subtemen acutis

Quod digiti expediunt, atque inter stamina ductum

Percusso paviunt insecti pectine dentes.

Utraque festinant cinctaeque ad pectora vestes

Bracchia docta movent, studio fallente laborem. 60

OVID, _Met._ vi. 19-23, 53-60.

_The Pastime of Circe._

Proxima Circaeae raduntur litora terrae 10

Dives inaccessos ubi Solis filia lucos

Assiduo resonat cantu, tectisque superbis

Urit odoratam nocturna in lumina cedrum,

Arguto tenues percurrens pectine telas.

VERG. _Aen._ vii. 10-14.

Cf. OVID, _Met._ iv. 220-229; _Fasti_, iii. 815-20. [III. 857-862]

ANDROMEDA. (1)

_The Approach of the Monster._

Andromedan poenas immitis iusserat Ammon. 671

Quam simul ad duras religatam bracchia cautes

Vidit Abantiades, nisi quod levis aura capillos

Moverat et tepido manabant lumina fletu,

Marmoreum ratus esset opus. Trahit inscius ignes 675

Et stupet et visae correptus imagine formae

Paene suas quatere est oblitus in aere pennas. . . . 677

Ecce velut navis praefixo concita rostro 706

Sulcat aquas, iuvenum sudantibus acta lacertis,

Sic fera dimotis inpulsu pectoris undis

Tantum aberat scopulis, quantum Balearica torto

Funda potest plumbo medii transmittere caeli; 710

Cum subito iuvenis pedibus tellure repulsa

Arduus in nubes abiit. Ut in aequore summo

Umbra viri visa est, visam fera saevit in umbram.

Utque Iovis praepes, vacuo cum vidit in arvo

Praebentem Phoebo liventia terga draconem, 715

Occupat aversum, neu saeva retorqueat ora,

Squamigeris avidos figit cervicibus ungues,

Sic celeri missus praeceps per inane volatu

Terga ferae pressit dextroque frementis in armo

Inachides ferrum curvo tenus abdidit hamo. 720

_How Perseus won his Bride._

Vulnere laesa gravi modo se sublimis in auras

Attollit, modo subdit aquis, modo more ferocis

Versat apri, quem turba canum circumsona terret.

Ille avidos morsus velocibus effugit alis;

Quaque patet, nunc terga cavis super obsita conchis, 725

Nunc laterum costas, nunc qua tenuissima cauda

Desinit in piscem, falcato vulnerat ense.

Belua puniceo mixtos cum sanguine fluctus

Ore vomit; maduere graves adspergine pennae.

Nec bibulis ultra Perseus talaribus ausus 730

Credere, conspexit scopulum, qui vertice summo

Stantibus extat aquis, operitur ab aequore moto.

Nixus eo rupisque tenens iuga prima sinistra

Ter quater exegit repetita per ilia ferrum.

Litora cum plausu clamor superasque deorum 735

Inplevere domos; gaudent generumque salutant

Auxiliumque domus servatoremque fatentur

Cassiope Cepheusque pater, resoluta catenis

Incedit virgo, pretiumque et causa laboris.

OVID, _Met._ iv. 671-677, 706-720, 721-739.

ANDROMEDA. (2)

'_From afar, unknowing, I marked thee,

Shining, a snow-white cross on the dark-green walls

of the sea-cliff._' --KINGSLEY.

Tandem Gorgonei victorem Persea monstri

Felix illa dies redeuntem ad litora duxit.

Isque ubi pendentem vidit de rupe puellam,

Deriguit facie, quam non stupefecerat hostis; 670

Vixque manu spolium tenuit; victorque Medusae

Victus in Andromeda est. Iam cautibus invidet ipsis

Felicesque vocat, teneant quae membra, catenas.

Et postquam poenae causam cognovit ab ipsa,

Destinat in thalamos per bellum vadere ponti, 675

Altera si Gorgo veniat, non territus ira.

Concitat aerios cursus flentesque parentes

Promissu vitae recreat pactusque maritam

Ad litus remeat. Gravidus nam surgere pontus

Coeperat, et longo fugiebant agmine fluctus 680

Impellentis onus monstri. Caput eminet undis

Scindentis pelagusque movet. Circumsonat aequor

Dentibus, inque ipso rapidum mare navigat ore.

_The Death of the Monster._

Illa[37] subit contra versoque a gurgite frontem 595

Erigit et tortis innitens orbibus alte

Emicat ac toto sublimis corpore fertur.

Sed quantum illa subit semet iaculata profundo,

In tantum revolat laxumque per aethera ludit

Perseus et ceti subeuntis verberat ora. 600

Nec cedit tamen illa viro, sed saevit in auras

Morsibus, et vani crepitant sine vulnere dentes;

Efflat et in caelum pelagus mergitque volantem

Sanguineis undis pontumque extollit in astra.

Spectabat pugnam pugnandi causa puella; 605

Iamque oblita sui, metuit pro vindice tali

Suspirans, animoque magis quam corpore pendet.

Tandem confossis subsedit belua membris

Plena maris summasque iterum remeavit ad undas

Et magnum vasto contexit corpore pontum, 610

Tunc quoque terribilis nec virginis ore videnda.

Perfundit liquido Perseus in marmore corpus

Maior et ex undis ad cautes pervolat alto

Solvitque haerentem vinclis de rupe puellam

Desponsam pugna, nupturam dote mariti. 615

MANILIUS, _Astronomica_, v. 667-583, 595-615.

[Footnote 37: _illa_ = _belua_.]

SCHOOLS.

_The School of Flavius, at Venusia._

Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello

Noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, magni

Quo pueri magnis e centurionibus orti,

Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto,

Ibant octonos refererentes Idibus aeris. 75

HOR. _Sat._ I. vi. 71-75.

_Ovid and his Brother educated at Rome._

Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis

Imus ad insignes Urbis ab arte viros. 16

Frater ad eloquium viridi tendebat ab aevo,

Fortia verbosi natus ad arma fori.

At mihi iam puero caelestia sacra placebant,

Inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus. 20

OVID, _Tristia_, IV. x. 15-20.

_The Schoolmaster's life a hard one._

Dummodo non pereat, mediae quod noctis ab hora

Sedisti, qua nemo faber, qua nemo sederet,

Qui docet obliquo lanam deducere ferro;

Dummodo non pereat, totidem olfecisse lucernas, 225

Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset

Flaccus, et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.

JUVENAL, vii. 222-227.

_Early School._

Surgite: iam vendit pueris ientacula pistor,

Cristataeque sonant undique lucis aves.

MARTIAL, XIV. ccxxiii.

_Homogeneous Divisions._

Non inutilem scio servatum esse a praeceptoribus meis morem, qui, cum

pueros in classes distribuerent, ordinem discendi secundum vires ingeni

dabant.

QUINTIL. I. ii. 23.

_Plagosus Orbilius._

Quid tibi nobiscum est, ludi scelerate magister,

Invisum pueris virginibusque caput?

Nondum cristati rupere silentia galli:

Murmure iam saevo verberibusque tonas.

MARTIAL, IX. lxviii. 1-4.

Cf. JUV. x. 114-7; MARTIAL, X. lxii.; HOR. _Ep._ II. i. 69-71.

BOOKS.

Parve (nec invideo) sine me, liber, ibis in urbem:

Ei mihi, quod domino non licet ire tuo.

Vade, sed incultus, qualem decet exsulis esse:

Infelix habitum temporis huius habe. 4

Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia fuco:

Non est conveniens luctibus ille color:

Nec titulus minio nec cedro charta notetur,

Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras. 8

Felices ornent haec instrumenta libellos:

Fortunae memorem te decet esse meae.

Nec fragili geminae poliantur pumice frontes,

Hirsutus sparsis ut videare comis. 12

Neve liturarum pudeat. Qui viderit illas

De lacrimis factas sentiat esse meis.

Vade, liber, verbisque meis loca grata saluta:

Contingam certe quo licet illa pede. 16

OVID, _Trist._ I. i. 1-16.

Lutea sed niveum involvat membrana libellum,

Pumex et canas tondeat ante comas

Summaque praetexat tenuis fastigia chartae

Indicet ut nomen littera facta meum, 12

Atque inter geminas pingantur cornua frontes:

Sic etenim comptum mittere oportet opus.

TIBULLUS, III. i. 9-14.

Qui tecum cupis esse meos ubicumque libellos

Et comites longae quaeris habere viae,

Hos eme, quos artat brevibus membrana tabellis:

Scrinia da magnis, me manus una capit. 4

Ne tamen ignores ubi sim venalis et erres

Urbe vagus tota, me duce certus eris:

Libertum docti Lucensis quaere Secundum

Limina post Pacis Palladiumque forum. 8

MARTIAL, I. ii.

Cf. HOR. _Epist._ I. xx.; CATULL. xxii, 4-8; STATIUS, _Silvae_,

IV. ix.

ARETHUSA.

'_As an eagle pursuing

A dove to its ruin

Down the streams of the cloudy wind._'--SHELLEY.

Lassa revertebar (memini) Stymphalide silva; 585

Aestus erat, magnumque labor geminaverat aestum.

Invenio sine vertice aquas, sine murmure euntes,

Perspicuas ad humum, per quas numerabilis alte

Calculus omnis erat, quas tu vix ire putares. . . . 589

Nescioquod medio sensi sub gurgite murmur 597

Territaque insisto propioris margine fontis.

'Quo properas Arethusa?' suis Alpheos ab undis,

'Quo properas?' iterum rauco mihi dixerat ore. . . . 600

Sic ego currebam, sic me ferus ille premebat, 604

Ut fugere accipitrem penna trepidante columbae,

Ut solet accipiter trepidas urguere columbas.

Usque sub Orchomenon Psophidaque Cyllenenque

Maenaliosque sinus gelidumque Erymanthon et Elin

Currere sustinui; nec me velocior ille.

Sed tolerare diu cursus ego, viribus inpar, 610

Non poteram; longi patiens erat ille laboris.

Per tamen et campos, per opertos arbore montes,

Saxa quoque et rupes et qua via nulla, cucurri.

'_Alpheum fama est huc Elidis amnem

Occultas egisse vias subter mare, qui nunc

Ore, Arethusa, tuo Siculis confunditur undis._' --VERGIL.

Sol erat a tergo: vidi praecedere longam

Ante pedes umbram, nisi si timor illa videbat, 615

Sed certe sonitusque pedum terrebat et ingens

Crinales vittas afflabat anhelitus oris.

Fessa labore fugae 'fer opem, deprendimur,' inquam,

'Armigerae, Diana, tuae, cui saepe dedisti

Ferre tuos arcus inclusaque tela pharetra.' 620

Mota dea est spissisque ferens e nubibus unam

Me super iniecit. lustrat caligine tectam

Amnis et ignarus circum cava nubila quaerit.

Bisque locum, quo me dea texerat, inscius ambit

Et bis 'io Arethusa, io Arethusa' vocavit. . . . 625

In latices mutor, sed enim cognoscit amatas 636

Amnis aquas, positoque viri, quod sumpserat, ore

Vertitur in proprias, ut se mihi misceat, undas.

Delia rupit humum, caecisque ego mersa cavernis

Advehor Ortygiam, quae me cognomine divae 640

Grata meae superas eduxit prima sub auras.

OVID, _Met._ v. 586-641 (sel.).

HYLAS

#Houtô men kallistos Hulas makarôn arithmeitai.#

Namque ferunt olim Pagasae navalibus Argon

Egressam longe Phasidis isse viam,

Et iam praeteritis labentem Athamantidos undis

Mysorum scopulis applicuisse ratem. 20

Hic manus heroum, placidis ut constitit oris,

Mollia composita litora fronde tegit.

At comes invicti iuvenis processerat ultra,

Sacram sepositi quaerere fontis aquam. 24

Hanc circum irriguo surgebant lilia prato 37

Candida purpureis mixta papaveribus.

Quae modo decerpens tenero pueriliter ungui

Proposito florem praetulit officio, 40

Ex modo formosis incumbens nescius undis

Errorem blandis tardat imaginibus.

Tandem haurire parat demissis flumina palmis

Innixus dextro plena trahens umero. 44

Cuius ut accensae Hydriades candore puellae

Miratae solitos destituere choros.

Prolapsum leviter facili traxere liquore:

Tum sonitum rapto corpore fecit Hylas. 48

PROPERTIUS, I. xx. 17-24, 37-48.

_Litus 'Hyla Hyla' omne sonabat._

Continuo, volucri ceu pectora tactus asilo

Emicuit Calabria taurus per confraga saeptis

Obvia quaque ruens, tali se concitat ardens

In iuga senta fuga: pavet omnis conscia late

Silva, pavent montes, luctu succensus acerbo 585

Quid struat Alcides tantaque quid apparet ira.

Ille, velut refugi quem contigit improba Mauri

Lancea sanguineus vasto leo murmure fertur,

Frangit et absentem vacuis sub dentibus hostem,

Sic furiis accensa gerens Tirynthius ora 590

Fertur et intento decurrit montibus arcu.

Heu miserae quibus ille ferae, quibus incidit usquam

Immeritis per lustra viris! volat ordine nullo

Cuncta petens; nunc ad ripas deiectaque saxis

Flumina, nunc notas nemorum procurrit ad umbras. 595

Rursus Hylan et rursus Hylan per longa reclamat

Avia: responsant silvae et vaga certat imago.

VALERIUS FLACCUS, _Argonautica_, iii. 581-597.

Cf. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS, _Argonautica_, i. 1224-1239.

PLAUTUS.

_The Portmanteau Fish._

(TRACHALIO--GRIPUS.)

TR. Quid ais, impudens?

Ausu's etiam comparare vidulum cum piscibus?

Eadem tandem res videtur? GR. In manu non est mea: 60

Ubi demisi rete atque hamum, quidquid haesit extraho

Meum quod rete atque bami nancti sunt, meum potissimumst.

TR. Immo hercle haud est, siquidem quod

vas excepisti.

GR. Philosophe!

TR. Sed tu, enunquam piscatorem vidisti, venefice,

Vidulum piscem cepisse aut protulisse ullum in forum? 65

Non enim tu hic quidem occupabis omnes quaestus quos voles:

Et vitorem et piscatorem te esse, impure, postulas.

Vel te mihi monstrare oportet piscis qui sit vidulus:

Vel quod in mari non natumst neque habet squamas ne feras.

GR. Quid tu? nunquam audisti antehac vidulum

esse piscem? TR. Scelus, 70

Nullus est. GR. Immost profecto: ego qui sum piscator scio.

Verum rare capitur: nullus minus saepe ad terram venit.

TR. Nil agis: dare verba speras mihi te posse, furcifer.

Quo colorest? GR. Hoc colore capiuntur pauxilluli:

Sunt alii puniceo corio, magni autem, atque atri.

TR. Scio: 75

Tu hercle, opino, in vidulum piscem te convortes, nisi caves:

Fiet tibi puniceum corium, postea atrum denuo.

_Rudens_, IV. iii. 58-77.

TERENCE.

'_Humani nil a me alienum puto._'

(CHREMES--MENEDEMUS.)

CH. Numquam tam mane egredior neque tam vesperi 15

Domum revortor, quin te in fundo conspicer

Fodere aut arare aut aliquid ferre. Denique

Nullum remittis tempus neque te respicis.

Haec non voluptati tibi esse satis certo scio.

'Enim,' dices, 'quantum hic operis fiat poenitet.' 20

Quod in opere faciundo operae consumis tuae,

Si sumas in illis exercendis, plus agas.

ME. Chremes, tantumne ab re tuast oti tibi,

Aliena ut cures ea quae nil ad te attinent?

CH. Homo sum: humani nil a me alienum puto. 25

Vel me monere hoc vel percontari puta:

Rectumst, ego ut faciam; non est, te ut deterream.

ME. Mihi sic est usus: tibi ut opus factost, face.

CH. An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?

ME. Mihi. 30

CH. Siquid laborist, nollem: sed quid istuc malist?

Quaeso, quid de te tantum commeruisti?

ME. Eheu.

CH. Ne lacruma, atque istuc, quidquid est, fac me ut sciam;

Ne retice, ne verere, crede inquam mihi:

Aut consolando aut consilio aut re iuvero. 34

_Hautont._ I. i. 15-34.

_Cicero on Terence._

'Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,

Conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum

In medium nobis sedatis vocibus effers,

Quiddam come loquens, atque omnia dulcia miscens.'

SUETON. _Vit. Ter._ p. 34.

_Terence defends his use of 'Contaminatio.'_[38]

Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli

Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit

Paucas Latinas: factum id esse hic non negat,

Neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.

Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi 20

Licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.

_Hautont._ Prol. 16-21.

[Footnote 38: _Contaminatio_ = the _blending_ of the parts of

different comedies into one whole--e.g. the _Andria_ of Terence,

an adaptation of Menander's _Andria_ and _Perinthia_.]

PLINY THE ELDER.

_The Song of the Nightingale._

A. Lusciniis diebus ac noctibus continuis xv garrulus sine intermissu

cantus densante se frondium germine, non in novissimum digna miratu ave.

Primum tanta vox tam parvo in corpusculo, tam pertinax spiritus; deinde

in una perfecta musica scientia: modulatus editur sonus, et nunc

continuo spiritu trahitur in longum, nunc variatur inflexo, nunc

distinguitur conciso, copulatur intorto, promittitur revocato,

infuscatur ex inopinato interdum et secum ipse murmurat, plenus, gravis,

acutus, creber, extentus, ubi visum est, vibrans, summus, medius, imus;

breviterque omnia tam parvulis in faucibus quae tot exquisitis tibiarum

tormentis ars hominum excogitavit, ut non sit dubium hanc suavitatem

praemonstratam efficaci auspicio, cum in ore Stesichori cecinit

infantis. Ac ne quis dubitet artis esse, plures singulis sunt cantus,

nec iidem omnibus, sed sui cuique. Certant inter se, palamque animosa

contentio est: victa morte finit saepe vitam, spiritu prius deficiente

quam captu. Meditantur iuveniores versusque quos imitentur accipiunt:

audit discipula intentione magna et reddit vicibusque reticent;

intelligitur emendatae correptio et in docente quaedam reprehensio.

_Hist. Nat._ x. 81.

PLINY THE YOUNGER.

_A Corinthian Statuette._

B. Ex hereditate, quae mihi obvenit, emi proxime Corinthium signum,

modicum quidem, sed festivum et expressum, quantum ego sapio, qui

fortasse in omni re, in hac certe perquam exiguum sapio: hoc tamen

signum ego quoque intellego. Est enim nudum, nec aut vitia, si qua sunt,

celat, aut laudes parum ostentat. Effingit senem stantem: ossa, musculi,

nervi, venae, rugae etiam ut spirantis apparent: rari et cedentes

capilli, lata frons, contracta facies, exile collum. Aes ipsum, quantum

verus color indicat, vetus et antiquum. Talia denique omnia, ut possint

artificum oculos tenere, delectare imperitorum. Quod me, quamquam

tirunculum, solicitavit ad emendum. Emi autem, non at haberem domi,

verum ut in patria nostri celebri loco ponerem; ac potissimum in Iovis

templo. Videtur enim dignum templo, dignum deo donum.

_Ep._ iii. 6.

METHODS OF WORK.

_Helps to Style._

A. Quaeris, quemadmodum in secessu, quo iam diu frueris, putem te

studere oportere. Utile in primis, et multi praecipiunt, vel ex Graeco

in Latinum, vel ex Latino vertere in Graecum: quo genere exercitationis

proprietas splendorque verborum, copia figurarum, vis explicandi,

praeterea imitatione optimorum similia inveniendi facultas paratur;

simul quae legentem fefellissent transferentem fugere non possunt.

Intelligentia ex hoc et iudicium adquiritur. Nihil obfuerit, quae

legeris hactenus, ut rem argumentumque teneas, quasi aemulum scribere

lectisque conferre, ac sedulo pensitare quid tu, quid ille commodius.

Magna gratulatio, si non nulla tu; magnus pudor, si cuncta ille melius.

Licebit interdum et notissima eligere, et certare cum electis. Poteris

et, quae dixeris, post oblivionem retractare, multa retinere, plura

transire, alia interscribere, alia rescribere. Laboriosum istud et

taedio plenum sed difficultate ipsa fructuosum, recalescere ex integro,

et resumere impetum fractum omissumque, postremo nova velut membra

peracto corpori intexere, nec tamen priora turbare. Fas est et carmine

remitti, non dico continuo et longo (id enim perfici nisi in otio non

potest), sed hoc arguto et brevi, quod apte quantaslibet occupationes

curasque distinguit.

PLINY THE YOUNGER, _Ep._ vii. 9 (sel.)

_Importance of Concentration._

B. Sed silentium et secessus et undique liber animus ut sunt maxime

optanda, ita non semper possunt contingere, ideoque non statim, si quid

obstrepet, abiciendi codices erunt et deplorandus dies, verum incommodis

repugnandum et hic faciendus usus, ut omnia quae impedient vincat

intentio: quam si tota mente in opus ipsum direxeris, nihil eorum, quae

oculis vel auribus incursant, ad animum perveniet. An vero frequenter

etiam fortuita hoc cogitatio praestat, ut obvios non videamus et itinere

deerremus; non consequemur, si et voluerimus? Non est indulgendum causis

desidiae. Nam si nonnisi refecti, nonnisi hilares, nonnisi omnibus aliis

curis vacantes studendum existimaverimus, semper erit propter quod nobis

ignoscamus.

QUINTILIAN, _Inst. Or._ X. iii. 28.

PHAEDRUS.

_De Simonide._

Homo doctus in se semper divitias habet.

Simonides, qui scripsit egregium melos,

Quo paupertatem sustineret facilius,

Circum ire coepit urbes Asiae nobiles,

Mercede accepta laudem victorum canens. 5

Hoc genere quaestus postquam locuples factus est,

Revenire in patriam voluit cursu pelagio;

Erat autem, ut aiunt, natus in Chia insula.

Ascendit navem, quam tempestas horrida

Simul et vetustas medio dissolvit mari. 10

Hi zonas, illi res pretiosas colligunt,

Subsidium vitae. Quidam curiosior:

'Simonide, tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis?'

'Mecum,' inquit, 'mea sunt cuncta.'[39] Tunc pauci enatant,

Quia plures onere degravati perierant. 15

Praedones adsunt, rapiunt quod quisque extulit,

Nudos relinquunt. Forte Clazomenae prope

Antiqua fuit urbs; quam petierunt naufragi.

Hic litterarum quidam studio deditus,

Simondis qui saepe versus legerat 20

Eratque absentis admirator maximus,

Sermone ab ipso cognitum cupidissime

Ad se recepit; veste, nummis, familia

Hominem exornavit. Ceteri tabulam suam

Portant rogantes victum. Quos casu obvios 25

Simonides ut vidit, 'Dixi' inquit 'mea

Mecum esse cuncta: vos quod habuistis, perit.'

iv. 23.

[Footnote 39: Cf. 'Omnia bona mea mecum sunt.' --SENECA, _Ep._ 9.]

_Mons Parturiens._

Mons parturibat, gemitus immanes ciens,

Eratque in terris maxima expectatio.

At ille murem peperit. Hoc scriptum est tibi,

Qui, magna cum minaris, extricas nihil.

iv. 24.

_Nihil ita occultum esse quod non reveletur._

Pastor capellae cornu baculo fregerat:

Rogare coepit, ne se domino proderet ...

'Quamvis indigne laesa, reticebo tamen;

Sed res clamabit ipsa quid deliqueris.'

_Appendix_, 22.

TIBULLUS.

_The Golden Age._

Quam bene Saturno vivebant rege, priusquam

Tellus in longas est patefacta vias! 36

Nondum caeruleas pinus contempserat undas,

Effusum ventis praebueratque sinum,

Nec vagus ignotis repetens compendia terris

Presserat externa navita merce ratem. 40

Illo non validus subiit iuga tempore taurus,

Non domito frenos ore momordit equus,

Non domus ulla fores habuit, non fixus in agris

Qui regeret certis finibus arva, lapis. 44

Ipsae mella dabant quercus, ultroque ferebant

Obvia securis ubera lactis oves.

Non acies, non ira fuit, non bella, nec ensem

Immiti saevus duxerat arte faber. 48

Nunc Iove sub domino caedes et vulnera semper,

Nunc mare, nunc leti mille repente viae.

I. iii. 35-50.

Cf. CATULLUS, lxiv.; VERGIL, _Ecl._ iv.

_Birthday Wishes._

Dicamus bona verba: venit natalis ad aras:

Quisquis ades, lingua, vir mulierque fave.

Urantur pia tura focis, urantur odores,

Quos tener e terra divite mittit Arabs. 4

Ipse suos Genius adsit visurus honores,

Cui decorent sanctas mollia serta comas.

Illius puro destillent tempora nardo,

Atque satur libo sit madeatque mero, 8

Adnuat et, Cornute, tibi quodcumque rogabis.

En age, quid cessas? adnuit ille: roga.

Auguror, uxoris fidos optabis amores;

Iam reor hoc ipsos edidicisse deos. 12

Nec tibi malueris, totum quaecumque per orbem

Fortis arat valido rusticus arva bove,

Nec tibi, gemmarum quidquid felicibus Indis

Nascitur, Eoi qua maris unda rubet. 16

Vota cadunt: utinam strepitantibus advolet alis

Flavaque coniugio vincula portet Amor,

Vincula, quae maneant semper, dum tarda senectus

Inducat rugas inficiatque comas. 20

Hic veniat natalis avis prolemque ministret,

Ludat et ante tuos turba novella pedes.

II. ii.

Cf. TIBULL. I. vii. 49-54; PERSIUS, ii. 1-4.

HUNTING.

_On the delights of hunting with a note-book._

A. Ridebis, et licet rideas. Ego ille, quem nosti apros tres, et quidem

pulcherrimos, cepi. Ipse? inquis. Ipse; non tamen ut omnino ab inertia

mea et quiete discederem. Ad retia sedebam: erat in proximo, non

venabulum aut lancea, sed stilus et pugillares. Meditabar aliquid

enotabamque, ut, si manus vacuas, plenas tamen ceras reportarem. Non

est, quod contemnas hoc studendi genus. Mirum est ut animus agitatione

motuque corporis excitetur. Iam undique silvae et solitudo, ipsumque

illud silentium, quod venationi datur, magna cogitationis incitamenta

sunt. Proinde cum venabere, licebit auctore me ut panarium et lagunculam

sic etiam pugillares feras. Experieris non Dianam magis montibus, quam

Minervam inerrare. Vale.

PLINY, _Ep._ i. 6.

_Oenone Paridi._

Quis tibi monstrabat saltus venatibus aptos

Et tegeret catulos qua fera rupe suos?

Retia saepe comes maculis distincta tetendi;

Saepi cites egi per iuga longa canes. 20

OVID, _Her._ v. 17-20.

_The Hunting Party._

Oceanum interea surgens Aurora reliquit.

It portis iubare exorto delecta iuventus; 130

Retia rara, plagae, lato venabula ferro,

Massylique ruunt equites et odora canum vis.

Reginam thalamo cunctantem ad limina primi

Poenorum exspectant, ostroque insignis et auro

Stat sonipes ac frena ferox spumantia mandit. 135

. . . . . . .

Postquam altos ventum in montes atque invia lustra

Ecce ferae, saxi deiectae vertice, caprae

Decurrere iugis; alia de parte patentes

Transmittunt cursu campos atque agmina cervi

Pulverulenta fuga glomerant montisque relinquunt. 155

At puer Ascanius mediis in vallibus acri

Gaudet equo, iamque hos cursu, iam praeterit illos

Spumantemque dari pecora inter inertia votis

Optat aprum aut fulvum descendere monte leonem.

VERG. _Aen._ iv. 129-135, 151-159.

ROMAN DAY.

_Its Duties and Amusements._

Prima salutantes atque altera conterit hora;

Exercet raucos tertia causidicos;

In quintam varies extendit Roma labores;

Sexta quies lassis; septima finis erit; 4

Sufficit in nonam nitidis octava palaestris;

Imperat exstructos frangere nona toros;

Hora libellorum decima est, Eupheme, meorum,

Temperat ambrosias cum tua cura dapes 8

Et bonus aetherio laxatur nectare Caesar

Ingentique tenet pocula parca manu.

Tunc admitte iocos: gressu timet ire licenti

Ad matutinum nostra Thalia Iovem. 12

MARTIAL, IV. viii.

_The Simple Life. How Horace spent his day._

Hoc ego commodius quam tu praeclare senator, 110

Milibus atque aliis vivo. Quacunque libido est

Incedo solus, percontor quanti holus ac far,

Fallacem circum vespertinumque pererro

Saepe forum, adsisto divinis. Inde domum me

Ad porri et ciceris refero laganique catinum; 115

Cena ministratur pueris tribus, et lapis albus

Pocula cum cyatho duo sustinet, astat echinus

Vilis, cum patera guttus, Campana supellex.

Deinde eo dormitum, non sollicitus, mihi quod cras

Surgendum sit mane, obeundus Marsya, qui se 120

Voltum ferre negat Noviorum posse minoris.

Ad quartam iaceo; post hanc vagor, aut ego, lecto

Aut scripto quod me tacitum iuvet, unguor olivo,

Non quo fraudatis immundus Natta lucernis.

Ast ubi me fessum sol acrior ire lavatum 125

Admonuit, fugio campum lusumque trigonem.

Pransus non avide quantum interpellet inani

Ventre diem durare, domesticus otior. Haec est

Vita solutorum misera ambitione gravique.

His me consolor victurum suavius, ac si 130

Quaestor avus pater atque meus patruusque fuisset.

HORACE, _Sat._ I. vi. 110-131.

Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 20; Lucr. ii. 14-33; Verg. _Georg._ ii. 458-474;

Hor. _Od._ III, i.

TACITUS.

'_Lives of great men all remind us,

We can make our lives sublime._'

A. Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus placet, non cum

corpore extinguuntur magnae animae, placide quiescas, nosque domum tuam

ab inferno desiderio et muliebribus lamentis ad contemplationem virtutum

tuarum voces, quas neque lugeri neque plangi fas est. Admiratione te

potius et immortalibus laudibus et, si natura suppeditet, similitudine

colamus: is verus honos, ea coniunctissimi cuiusque pietas. Id filiae

quoque uxorique praeceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam venerari,

ut omnia facta dictaque eius secum revolvant, formamque ac figuram animi

magis quam corporis complectantur, non quia intercedendum putem

imaginibus quae marmore aut aere finguntur, sed, ut vultus hominum, ita

simulacra vultus imbecilla ac mortalia sunt, forma mentis aeterna, quam

tenere et exprimere non per alienam materiam et artem, sed tuis ipse

moribus possis. Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, quidquid mirati sumus,

manet mansurumque est in animis hominum, in aeternitate temporum, in

fama rerum; nam multos veterum velut inglorios et ignobilis oblivio

obruet: Agricola posteritati narratus et traditus superstes erit.

_Agricola_ 46.

_The Climate and Products of Britain._

B. Caelum crebris imbribus ac nebulis foedum; asperitas frigorum abest.

Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis mensuram; nox clara et extrema

Britanniae parte brevis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine

internoscas. Quod si nubes non officiunt, aspici per noctem solis

fulgorem, nec occidere et exsurgere, sed transire affirmant. Scilicet

extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra non erigunt tenebras, infraque

caelum et sidera nox cadit. Solum praeter oleam vitemque et cetera

calidioribus terris oriri sueta patiens frugum, fecundum: tarde

mitescunt, cito proveniunt; eademque utriusque rei causa, multus umor

terrarum caelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et alia metalla,

pretium victoriae. Gignit et oceanus margarita, sed subfusca ac

liventia.

_Agricola_ 12.

TRIMALCHIO'S SUPPER.

_Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. An Ignorant Connoisseur._

A. Plausum post hoc automatum familia dedit, et 'Gaio feliciter!'

conclamavit: nec non cocus potione oneratus est, et argentea corona

poculumque in lance accepit Corinthia. Quam cum Agamemnon propius

consideraret, ait Trimalchio: 'Solus sum, qui vera Corinthea habeam.'

Exspectabam, ut pro reliqua insolentia diceret sibi vasa Corintho

afferri. Sed ille melius: 'Et forsitan,' inquit, 'quaeris, quare solus

Corinthea vera possideam? Quia scilicet aerarius, a quo emo, Corinthus

vocatur; quid est autem Corintheum, nisi quis Corinthum habeat? Et ne me

putetis nesapium esse, valde bene scio, unde primum Corinthea nata sint.

Cum Ilium captum est, Hannibal, homo vafer, et magnus stelio, omnes

statuas aeneas, et aureas, et argenteas in unum rogum congessit, et eas

incendit; factae sunt in unum aera miscellanea. Ita ex hac massa fabri

sustulerunt, et fecerunt catilla et paropsides et statuncula. Sic

Corinthea nata sunt, ex omnibus in unum, nec hoc, nec illud.'

PETRONIUS ARBITER, 50.

_The Glass Bowl, and its Maker._

B. 'Ignoscetis mihi,' inquit Trimalchio, 'quod dixero: ego malo mihi

vitrea; certe non olunt. Quod si non frangerentur, mallem mihi, quam

aurum; nunc autem vilia sunt. Fuit tamen faber, qui fecit phialam

vitream, quae non frangebatur. Admissus ergo Caesarem est cum suo

munere; deinde fecit se porrigere Caesari, et illam in pavimentum

proiecit. Caesar non pote validius, quam expavit. At ille sustulit

phialam de terra: collisa erat, tanquam vasum aeneum. Deinde marceolum

de sinu protulit, et phialam otio belle correxit. Hoc facto putabat se

solium Iovis tenere, utique, postquam illi dixit: "Numquid alius scit

hanc condituram vitreorum?" Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum

Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus.'

PETRONIUS ARBITER, 51.

PRONUNCIATION.[40]

[Footnote 40: For further information see Dr. Postgate's _How to

pronounce Latin_ (Bell & Sons).]

+H.+

I. Diu deinde servatum ne consonantibus (veteres) adspirarent, ut in

_Graccis_ et in _triumpis_. Erupit brevi tempore nimius usus, ut

_choronae_, _chenturiones_, _praechones_ adhuc quibusdam in

inscriptionibus maneant, qua de re Catulli nobile epigramma est.

QUINT. i. 5. 20.

C_h_ommoda dicebat, si quando commoda vellet

Dicere, et insidias Arrius _h_insidias,

Et tum mirifice sperabat se esse locutum,

Cum quantum poterat dixerat _h_insidias.

Credo, sic mater, sic liber avonculus eius,

Sic maternus avos dixerat atque avia.

Hoc misso in Syriam requierant omnibus aures:

Audibant eadem haec leviter et leviter,

Nec sibi postilla metuebant talia verba,

Cum subito adfertur nuntius horribilis,

Ionios fluctus, postquam illuc Arrius isset,

Iam non Ionios esse, sed _H_ionios.

CATULLUS, lxxxiv.

_A Street Cry._

II. Cum M. Crassus exercitum Brundisii imponeret, quidam in portu,

caricas Cauno advectas vendens, _Cauneas!_ clamitabat. Dicamus, si

placet, monitum ab eo Crassum, caveret, ne iret (_cau[e] n[e] eas_ = _do

not go_): non fuisse periturum, si omini paruisset. Quae si suscipiamus,

pedis offensio nobis et abruptio corrigiae et sternutamenta erunt

observanda.

CICERO, _Div._ ii. 40. 84.

+K. Q. C.+

III. +K+ perspicuum est littera quod vacare possit;

Et +Q+, similis, namque eadem vis in utraque est;

Quia qui locus est primitus unde exoritur +C+,

Quascunque deinceps libeat iugare voces,

Mutare necesse est sonitum quidem supremum,

Refert nihilum, +K+ prior an +Q+ siet an +C+.

TERENTIANUS MAURUS (_circ._ 300 A.D.).

+U.+

IV.

ME. Egon' dedi?

PE. Tu tu, istic, inquam! Vin' adferri noctuam

Quae _tu tu_ usque dicat tibi? Nam nos iam defessi sumus.

PLAUTUS, _Men._ 553-6.

PROVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS.

I. Nam quae volumus et credimus libenter.

CAES. _B. Civ._ ii. 27.

II. Cuiusvis hominis est errare; nullius nisi insipientis in errore

perseverare. Posteriores enim cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiores

solent esse.

CIC. _Phil._ xii. 5.

III. Dimidium facti qui coepit habet.

HOR. _Ep._ I. ii. 40.

IV. Nemo repente fuit turpissimus.

JUV. _Sat._ ii. 83.

V. Velut materiam igni praebentes.

LIVY, xxi. 10.

VI. Et quasi cursores vitai lampada tradunt.

LUCR. ii. 79.

VII.

Non amo te, Sabidi, nec possum dicere quare:

Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te.

MARTIAL, _Ep._ I. xxxii.

VIII.

quem di diligunt

Adulescens moritur.

PLAUT. _Bacch._ I. ii. 36.

IX. Nullumst iam dictum, quod non sit dictum prius.

TERENCE, _Eun. Prol._ 41.

X. Quot homines tot sententiae: suus cuique mos.

TER. _Phormio_, II. iv. 14.

XI. Stultum facit fortuna, quem vult pedere.

PUB. SYRUS.

XII.

Vita brevis est, longa ars.

Vita, si scias uti, longa est.

SEN. _de Brevit. vitae_, i. 2.

XIII. Omne ignotum pro magnifico.

TAC. _Agric._ 30.

XIV. Divina natura dedit agros, ars humana aedificavit urbes.

VARRO, _de Re Rust._ iii. 1.

XV.

Tu ne cede malis, sed contra audentior ito

Quam tua te Fortuna sinet.

VERG. _Aen._ vi. 95.

XVI.

. . . . Sunt hic etiam sua praemia laudi;

Sunt lacrimae rerum, et mentem mortalia tangunt.

VERG. _Aen._ i. 461-2.

CONSOLATIO.

'_Whom the gods love die young._'

A. Una post haec Quintiliani mei spe ac voluptate nitebar: at poterat

sufficere solatio. Non enim flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam decimum

aetatis ingressus annum, certos ac deformatos fructus ostenderat. Iuro

per mala mea, per infelicem conscientiam, per illos manes, numina mei

doloris, has me in illo vidisse virtutes ingeni, non modo ad

percipiendas disciplinas, quo nihil praestantius cognovi plurima

expertus studiique iam tum non coacti (sciunt praeceptores), sed

probitatis, pietatis, humanitatis, liberalitatis, ut prorsus posset hinc

esse tanti fulminis metus, quod observatum fere est, celerius occidere

festinatam maturitatem: et esse nescio quam quae spes tantas decerpat

invidiam, ne videlicet ultra, quam homini datum est, nostra provehantur.

Etiam illa fortuita aderant omnia, vocis iucunditas claritasque, oris

suavitas, et in utracumque lingua, tanquam ad eam demum natus esset,

expressa proprietas omnium litterarum. Sed haec spes adhuc: illa maiora,

constantia, gravitas, contra dolores etiam ac metus robur. Nam quo ille

animo, qua medicorum admiratione, mensium octo valetudinem tulit! ut me

in supremis consolatus est! quam etiam deficiens, iamque _non_

[41]_noster_, ipsum illum alienatae mentis errorem circa solas literas

habuit!

QUINTILIAN, _Inst. Or._ VI. i. 9.

[Footnote 41: Cf. 'Invalidasque tibi tendens, heu _non tua_,

palmas.'

VERG. _G._ iv. 498.]

_Servius Sulpicius to Cicero._

B. Quae res mihi non mediocrem consolationem attulerit, volo tibi

commemorare, si forte eadem res tibi dolorem minuere possit. [42]Ex Asia

rediens, cum ab Aegina Megaram versus navigarem, coepi regiones

circumcirca prospicere. Post me erat Aegina, ante me Megara, dextra

Piraeeus, sinistra Corinthus: quae oppida quodam tempore florentissima

fuerunt, nunc prostrata et diruta ante oculos iacent. Coepi egomet mecum

sic cogitare: 'Hem! nos homunculi indignamur, si quis nostrum interiit

aut occisus est, quorum vita brevior esse debet, cum uno loco tot

oppidum cadavera proiecta iacent? Visne tu te, Servi, cohibere et

meminisse hominem te esse natum?'

CICERO, _Ep. ad Fam._ iv. 5.

[Footnote 42: Cf. Byron, _Childe Harold_, iv. 44-5.]

ELEGIES.

_Catullus at the Grave of his Brother._

Multas per gentes et multa per aequora vectus

Advenio has miseras, frater, ad inferias,

Ut te postremo donarem munere mortis

Et mutam nequiquam alloquerer cinerem, 4

Quandoquidem fortuna mihi tete abstulit ipsum,

Heu miser indigne frater adempte mihi.

Nunc tamen interea haec prisco quae more parentum

Tradita sunt tristes munera ad inferias, 8

Accipe fraterno multum manantia fletu,

Atque in perpetuum, frater, ave atque vale.

CATULLUS, ci.

_To Calvus on the Death of his Wife._

Si quicquam muteis gratum acceptumve sepulcris

Accidere a nostro, Calve, dolore potest,

Cum desiderio veteres renovamus amores

Atque olim amissas flemus amicitias,

Certe non tanto mors immatura dolori est

Quintiliae, quantum gaudet amore tuo.

CATULLUS, xcvi.

_The Plea of Cornelia to her Husband._

Desine, Paule, meum lacrimis urgere sepulcrum:

Panditur ad nullas ianua nigra preces.

Cum semel infernas intrarunt funera leges,

Obserat umbrosos lurida porta locos. . . . 4

Nunc tibi commendo communia pignora natos:

Haec cura et cineri spirat inusta meo.

Te Lepide, et te, Paule, meum post fata levamen;

Condita sunt vestro lumina nostra sinu. 76

Fungere maternis vicibus, pater: illa meorum

Omnis erit collo turba ferenda tuo.

Oscula cum dederis tua flentibus, adice matris:

Tota domus coepit nunc onus esse tuum. 80

PROPERTIUS, IV. (V.) xi. 1-4, 73-80.

_Mors Tibulli._

Memnona si mater, mater ploravit Achillem,

Et tangunt magnas tristia fata deas,

Flebilis indignos, Elegia, solve capillos:

A nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit!

Ille tui vates operis, tua fama, Tibullus

Ardet in exstructo corpus inane rogo.

OVID, _Am._ III. ix. (sel.)

MARTIALIS APOPHORETA[43] (1).

[Footnote 43: Apophoreta (#apophorêta# = to be carried away),

Christmas presents which were interchanged at the Saturnalia.]

_Lectori._

Quo vis cumque loco potes hunc finire libellum:

Versibus explicitumst omne duobus opus.

Lemmata si quaeris cur sint adscripta, docebo,

Ut, si malueris, lemmata sola legas.

_Chartae Epistulares._

I. Seu leviter noto seu caro missa sodali

Omnes ista solet charta vocare suos.

_Theca Libraria._

II. Sortitus thecam calamis armare memento:

Cetera nos dedimus, tu leviora para.

_Umbella._

III. Accipe quae nimios vincant umbracula soles:

Sit licet et ventus, te tua vela tegent.

_Parazonium._

IV. Militiae decus hoc gratique erit omen honoris,

Arma tribunicium cingere digna latus.

_Falx._

V. Pax me certa ducis placidos curvavit in usus.

Agricolae nunc sum, militis ante fui.

_Scrinium._

VI. Selectos nisi das mihi libellos,

Admittam tineas trucesque blattas.

_Candelabrum Corinthium._

VII. Nomina candelae nobis antiqua dederunt.

Non norat parcos uncta lucerna patres.

_Pila Paganica._

VIII. Haec quae difficili turget paganica pluma,

Folle minus laxast et minus arta pila.

_Pila Trigonalis._

IX. Si me mobilibus scis expulsare sinistris,

Sum tua. Tu nescis? rustice, redde pilam.

_Follis._

X. Ite procul, iuvenes: mitis mihi convenit aetas:

Folle decet pueros ludere, folle senes.

_Vergilius in membranis._

I. Quam brevis immensum cepit membrana Maronem!

Ipsius vultus prima tabella gerit.

_Cicero in membranis._

II. Si comes ista tibi fuerit membrana, putato

Carpere te longas cum Cicerone vias.

_Monobyblos Properti._

III. Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenale Properti,

Accepit famam; non minus ipsa dedit.

_Titus Livius in membranis._

IV. Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,

Quem mea non totum bybliotheca capit.

_Sallustius._

V. Hic erit, ut perhibent doctorum corda virorum,

Primus Romana Crispus in historia.

_Lucanus._

VI. Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:

Sed qui me vendit bybliopola putat.

_Catullus._

VII. Tantum magna suo debet Verona Catullo,

Quantum parva suo Mantua Vergilio.

_Fistula._

VIII. Quid me corapactam ceris et harundine rides?

Quae primum structa est fistula talis erat.

_Catella Gallicana._

IX. Delicias parvae si vis audire catellae

Narranti brevis est pagina tota mihi.

_Minerva argentea._

X. Dic mihi, virgo ferox, cum sit tibi cassis et hasta

Quare non habeas aegida. 'Caesar habet.'

_Hercules fictilis._

XI. Sum fragilis: sed tu, moneo, ne sperne sigillum:

Non pudet Alciden nomen habere meum.

_Toga._

XII. 'Romanos rerum dominos gentemque togatam'

Ille facit, magno qui dedit astra patri.

EPITAPHS AND INSCRIPTIONS.

_On Naevius_ (by himself).

I. 'Immortales mortales si foret fas flere

Flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam;

Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro

Obliti sunt Romai loquier lingua Latina.'

_On Ennius_ (by himself).

II. 'Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam:

Hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum.

Nemo me lacrumis decoret nec funera fletu

Faxit. Cur? Volito vivas per ora virum.'

_On Pacuvius_ (by himself).

III. 'Adulescens, tametsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,

Ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est, legas.

Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita

Ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale.'

_On Plautus_ (by himself).

IV. 'Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,

Scena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus, Iocusque,

Et Numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumarunt.'

_On Tibullus._

V. 'Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,

Mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,

Ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores

Aut caneret forti regia bella pede.'

DOMITIUS MARSUS.

_In tumulo hominis felicis._

VI. 'Sparge mero cineres, bene olentis et unguine nardi,

Hospes, et adde rosis balsama puniceis.

Perpetuum mihi ver agit illacrimabilis urna

Et commutavi saecula, non obii.

Nulla mihi veteris perierunt gaudia vitae,

Seu meminisse putes omnia, sive nihil.'

AUSONIUS, _Epit._ 36.

_Thermopylae._

VII. #'Ô xein', angellein Lakedaimoniois, hoti têde

Keimetha, tois keinôn rhêmasi peithomenoi.'#

SIMONIDES _of Ceos_.

'Dic, hospes, Spartae, nos te vidisse iacentes,

Dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur.'

_Transl. by_ CICERO, _Tusc._ i. 42. 101.

EPILOGUE.

_Horace._

Exegi monumentum aere perennius

Regalique situ pyramidum altius,

Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impotens

Possit diruere aut innumerabilis

Annorum series et fuga temporum. 5

Non omnis moriar, multaque pars mei

Vitabit Libitinam: usque ego postera

Crescam laude recens, dum Capitolium

Scandet cum tacita virgine pontifex.

Dicar, qua violens obstrepit Aufidus 10

Et qua pauper aquae Daunus agrestium

Regnavit populorum, ex humili potens

Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos

Deduxisse modos. Sume superbiam

Quaesitam meritis et mihi Delphica 15

Lauro cinge volens, Melpomene, comam.

HORACE, _Od._ III. xxx.

_Ovid._

Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira nec ignis

Nec poterit ferrum nec edax abolere vetustas.

Cum volet, illa dies, quae nil nisi corporis huius

Ius habet, incerti spatium mihi finiat aevi;

Parte tamen meliore mei super alta perennis 875

Astra ferar nomenque erit indelebile nostrum.

Quaque patet domitis Romana potentia terris,

Ore legar populi perque omnia saecula fama,

Siquid habent veri vatum praesagia, vivam.

OVID, _Met._ xv. 871-9.

_Martial._

Ohe, iam satis est, ohe, libelle,

Iam pervenimus usque ad umbilicos:

Tu procedere adhuc et ire quaeris,

Nec summa potes in schida teneri,

Sic tamquam tibi res peracta non sit, 5

Quae prima quoque pagina peracta est.

Iam lector queriturque deficitque;

Iam librarius hoc et ipse dicit

'Ohe, iam satis est, ohe, libelle.'

MARTIAL, _Epig._ IV. lxxxix.

APPENDICES

PAGES

I. List of Important Conjunctions 274-276

II. List of Important Prefixes 277-281

III. List of Important Suffixes 282-286

IV. Groups of Cognate Words 287-288

V. How to Think in Latin 289-292

VI. Short Lives of Roman Authors 293-345

VII. Chronological Outlines of Roman History

and Literature 347-363

[Transcriber's Note:

In Appendixes I-IV, most +boldface+ markup has been omitted for

readability. In general, Latin words are unmarked, while English

translations are _italicized_.]

APPENDIX I

LIST OF IMPORTANT CONJUNCTIONS

+I. CO-ORDINATE.+--These conjunctions join sentences of equal

grammatical _rank_ (+ordo+), that is, each sentence is grammatically

independent of the other.

They are generally divided into FIVE classes:--

(1) COPULATIVE (_link_) conjunctions are those which connect both the

sentences and the meaning.

et, -qu[)e], ac, atque ... _and_.

et ... et, -que ... -que (poet.) ... _both ... and_.

[)e]t[)i]am, qu[)o]que ... _also_.

_Divide +et+ impera._

Divide +and+ control.

(2) DISJUNCTIVE conjunctions join together the sentence but they

_disjoin_ or separate from each other the thoughts conveyed.

aut ... aut, v[)e]l ... v[)e]l (v[)e]) ... _either ... or_.

s[)i]ve (seu) ... seu ... _whether ... or_.

n[)e]c (n[)e]que) ... nec (neque) ... _neither ... nor_.

_+aut+ vincemus +aut+ moriemur._

We will +either+ conquer +or+ die.

(3) ADVERSATIVE conjunctions _oppose_ two statements to each other.

s[)e]d, vêrum, vêrô, cêt[)e]rum ... _but_.

autem, t[)a]men ... _however_.

[)a]t ... _but_, _on the other hand_.

_Ille quidem tardior: tu +autem+ ingeniosus,

+sed+ in omni vita inconstans._

He is a little dull: +while+ you are clever,

+but+ unstable in all your actions.

(4) INFERENTIAL.--The statement of one sentence _brings in_ (+infert+)

or proves the other.

Ergo, [)i]g[)i]tur, [)i]t[)a]que ... _therefore_, _accordingly_.

'_Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem:

+Ergo+ postque magisque viri nunc gloria claret_.'

ENNIUS.

(5) CAUSAL.

nam, namque, [)e]nim, [)e]t[)e]nim ... _for_.

quâpropter, quârê, qu[)a]mobrem ... _wherefore_.

Ex.: '_+quamobrem+, Quirites, celebratote illos dies cum coniugibus

ac liberis vestris: +nam+ multi saepe honores dis immortalibus iusti

habiti sunt, sed profecto iustiores nunquam._'

+II. SUBORDINATE.+--These conjunctions attach to a sentence or clause

another clause which holds (grammatically) a lower or _subordinate_

position, qualifying the principal clause just as an adverb qualifies a

verb.

Thus in 'I will do this, _if_ you do,' the _if_ clause is equivalent to

the adverb _conditionally_.

They are generally divided into EIGHT classes:--

(1) FINAL introduce a clause expressing a _purpose_.

[)u]t, quô ... _that_, _in order to_.

nê, quôm[)i]nus ... _that not_, _lest_.

qui ... _who_ (= ut is ...).

_Edo +ut+ vivam._

_+Ne+ ignavum te putemus, fortiter pugna._

_Pauci mihi sunt +quos+ mittam._

(2) CONSECUTIVE introduce a clause expressing a _consequence_ or

_result_.

[)u]t ... _so that_, _so as to_.

[)u]t nôn, quîn ... _so as not to_.

qui ... _who (of such a kind as to...)_.

Ex.: _Tam fortis adest nemo ut solus muros ascendat._

_Tam fortis est +ut+ hostes +non+ timeat._

_Dignus erat +qui+ rex fieret._

(3) TEMPORAL.

cum, quandô ... _when_.

[)u]b[)-i], [)u]t ... _when_, _as_.

s[)i]m[)u]l, s[)i]m[)u]l atque (ac) ... _as soon as_.

postquam ... _after that_.

dum, dônec, qu[)o]ad ... _until_, _as long as_, _while_.

pr[)i]us ... quam, ant[)e] ... quam ... _before that_.

_Discedere +prius+ noluit +quam+ ducem vidisset._

_Pompeius +ut+ equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit._

(4) CONDITIONAL.

sî, n[)i]s[)-i] (nî), si non, quod sî ... _if_, _unless_, _if not_,

_but if_.

m[)o]d[)o], dumm[)o]do, si m[)o]do ... _if only_, _provided that_.

dumm[)o]do nê (dum nê, m[)o]do nê) ... _provided only not_.

_Ne promiseris unquam +nisi+ fidem praestare potes._

_Never promise +if+ you cannot keep your word._

(5) COMPARATIVE AND PROPORTIONAL.

ut, utî, sîcut, v[)e]lut ... _just as_, _as_.

tanquam, qu[)a]s[)i] ... _as if_.

quo ... [)e]o ... _the more ... the more_.

_Poenas dedit +sicut+ meritus est._

_E corpore +velut+ e carcere, evolat animus._

The soul flies forth from the prison-house of the body.

_+quo+ difficilius +eo+ praeclarius._

(6) CONCESSIVE.

etsî, [)e]t[)i]amsi, t[)a]metsi ... _even if_.

quamquam ... _although_.

quamvîs, quaml[)i]bet ... _however much_.

l[)i]cet, ut, cum ... _though_, _although_.

_+Cum+ liber esse posset, servire maluit._

(7) CAUSAL.

qu[)i][)a], qu[)o]d, qu[)o]n[)i]am, quandô ... _because_.

cum ... _since_.

propt[)e]r[)e]â ... quod ... _for this reason ... that_.

quandôqu[)i]dem, quippe ... _since indeed_, _inasmuch as_.

_Quae +cum+ ita sint, ab urbe discedam._

_Socrates accusatus est +quod+ iuventutem corrumperet._

(8) INTERROGATIVE (with dependent clauses).

cûr, ûtrum ... [)a]n, num ... _why_, _whether ... or_, _if_.

quemadm[)o]dum, ut ... _how_.

[)u]b[)-i], quandô ... _when_.

_Caesar +utrum+ iure caesus fuerit, +an+ nefarie

necatus, dubitari potest._

_Whether_ Caesar was rightfully put to death, +or+ foully

murdered, is open to question.

APPENDIX II

LIST OF IMPORTANT PREFIXES

+I. PREPOSITIONS.+--In these compounds the Prepositions retain their

original adverbial force.

A-, AB-, ABS-, = _away_, _from_ (of the starting-place)

(i) = _separation._

abire = _go away_.

abscêdere = _go away_.

âv[)o]care = _call away_.

(ii) = _consumption._

absûmere = _take away_, _consume_.

[)a]bûti = _use up_.

AD-, AC-, A-, = to (of a person, place, or thing, as the goal of

motion).

(i) = _to_, _at_ (local).

accêdere = _approach_.

adfâri = _speak to_.

(ii) = _in addition._

acquîrere = _get in addition_.

ANTE = before (of place and time).

antecêdere = _come before_.

anteferre = _prefer_.

CIRCUM = around.

circumd[)a]re = _surround_.

circumdûcere }

circumscrîbere } literally, and with secondary meaning, = _cheat_.

circumv[)e]nire }

COM-, CON- (CUM), CO-, COL-, COR-, = together.

(i) = _collectively._

conclâmare = _shout together_.

commiscêre = _mix together_.

(ii) = _completely_ (often apparently only pleonastic).

consectari = _follow persistently_.

confirmare = _strengthen_.

DE-, = down, from.

(i) = _down_, _down off_, _down to._

dec[)i]dere = _fall down_, or _off_.

dev[)e]nire = _come to_.

(ii) = _off_, _away_, _aside._

dêcêdere = _depart_.

deflectere = _turn aside_.

deterrêre = _frighten_.

(iii) = _completely._

dep[)o]p[)u]lari = _lay waste_.

debellare = _bring a war to an end_.

(iv) = _un-_ (negative).

despêrare = _despair_.

deesse = _be wanting_.

E-, EX-, EC-, EF-, = out of.

(i) = _out_, _forth._

excêdere = _go out_.

effundere = _pour forth_.

(ii) = _throughout_, _to the end_, _thoroughly._

explêre = _fill to the brim_.

exposcere = _earnestly ask_.

IN-, IM-, IR-, I-, = in, on, against.

(i) = _in_, _into_, _on._

inclûdere = _shut in_.

inc[)i]dere = _fall on_.

inv[)i]dere = _look at_ (with ill intent),_envy_.

(ii) = _intensive_, almost _pleonastic_.

inc[)i]pere = _take up_, _begin_.

implêre = _fill_.

INTER = between.

(i) = _between_, _among._

intercêdere = _come between_.

intell[)e]gere = _pick among_, _perceive_.

(ii) = _breaking a continuity._

interclûdere = _shut off_, _blockade_.

interf[)i]cere = _destroy_ (lit. _put between_).

OB-, OBS-, OC-, OF-, OP-, O-, = against, on account of.

(i) = _over against_, _before_ (as an obstruction).

offendere = _strike against_.

obl[)o]qui = _speak against_.

(ii) = _towards_, with the idea of _favour_ or _compliance_.

oboedire = _hearken to_.

obs[)e]qui = _follow compliantly_.

PER-, = through, along.

(i) = _through_, _all over._

perrumpere = _break through_.

persp[)i]cêre = _look through_.

(ii) = _thoroughly_, _to completion._

perdiscere = _learn thoroughly_.

perfungi = _go through a duty_, _discharge_.

permagnus = _very large_.

PRAE = in front.

(i) = (of place) _before_, _in front_.

praef[)i]cere = _put at the head of_.

praeses (s[)e]deo) = _guardian_.

(ii) = (of time) _before_, _too soon_.

praediscere = _learn beforehand_.

praev[)e]nire = _outstrip_.

(iii) = _before others_, _in comparison_, _greatly._

praecellens = _surpassing_.

PRO-, PROD-, = before, in front of, forth.

prod-ire = _come forth_.

prov[)i]dêre = _look onwards or ahead_.

SUB-, SUF-, SUM-, SUP-, SUR-, SU-, SUS-, = beneath, under.

(i) = _under._

sub[)i]cere = _throw under_, _subject_.

suppr[)i]mere = _press under_, _suppress_.

(ii) = _up._

succingere = _gird up_.

sust[)i]nêre = _hold up_, _check_.

(iii) = _to the help of_, _close to._

subv[)e]nire = _come up to aid of_.

(iv) = _secretly._

subdûcere = _withdraw secretly_.

(v) = _slightly._

subrîdere = _laugh somewhat_, _smile_.

sublustris = _giving some light_.

SUPER = over, upon.

(i) = _over_, _upon_ (of place).

superpônere_ = place upon_ or _over_.

(ii) = _metaphorically._

sûperesse = _remain_, _survive_, _abound_.

TRANS-, TRA-, = across.

(i) = _across._

transgr[)e]di = _step across_.

(ii) = _a change or transference._

trâdere = _hand over_, _surrender_.

(iii) = _through to the end._

trans[)i]gere = _complete_ a business.

II. SEPARABLE PARTICLES, which do not appear as Prepositions in Latin.

AMB-, AM-, AN-, = around, on both sides.

ambîre = _go around_, _canvass_.

amplecti = _fold oneself round_, _embrace_.

DIS-, DI-, DIF-, DIR-, = in twain.

(i) = _asunder_, _apart._

discêdere = _part asunder_, _depart_.

discernere = _separate_, _distinguish_.

dîmittere = _send in different directions_.

(ii) = _un-_ (negative).

displ[)i]cêre = _displease_.

diffîdere = _distrust_.

(iii) = _exceedingly._

differtus = _crammed to bursting_.

(iv) = _individually_, _separately_.

dîn[)u]m[)e]rare = _count up (singly)_.

IN- (cf. #an-#, #a-#) = UN-, usually with adjectives.

ignoscere = _not to know_, _forget_, _pardon_.

inn[)o]cens = _not guilty_, _harmless_.

PER- (cf. #para#) = in a sense of wrong or injury.

perdere = _destroy_.

perf[)i]dus = _faithless_.

RED-, RE-, = back.

(i) = _back_, _backwards._

r[)e]cumbere = _lie down_.

r[)e]flectere = _bend back_.

(ii) = _in response_, or _return_.

reddere = _give in return_.

(iii) = _against_, _behind._

r[)e]pugnare = _fight against_.

r[)e]linquere = _leave behind_.

(iv) = _again._

r[)e]f[)i]cere = _make again_, _repair_.

r[)e]p[)e]rire = _find again_, _discover_.

(v) = _intensive action._

r[)e]vellere = _pluck by the roots_.

(vi) = _un-_ (negative).

r[)e]fîgere = _unfix_.

SED-, SE-, = apart.

sêcernere = _sift away_, _separate_.

sêcêdere = _go aside_, _withdraw_.

sêd-[)i]tio = _a going apart_, _secession_.

APPENDIX III

LIST OF IMPORTANT SUFFIXES

+I. DERIVATION OF NOUNS.+

(i.) TOR (-SOR), M. } +Agent+ or +doer+ of an action

-TRIX, F. }

ac-tor = _doer_, formed from [Rt]ag = _do_.

auc-tor = _maker_ " [Rt]aug = _increase_.

vic-tor = _conqueror_ " [Rt]vic = _conquer_.

petî-tor = _candidate_ " [Rt]pet = _seek_.

ton-sor = _barber_ " [Rt]tem = _cut_.

(ii.) +Abstract+ Nouns and +Names+ of +Actions+.

-OR, -SUS (= -TUS), M.

-ÊS, -IA (-IES), -TIA (-TIES), -IÔ, -TIÔ,} F.

-TÂS, -TÛS, -TÛDÔ, -DÔ, -GÔ, -NIA, }

-US, -IUM, -ITIUM, -NIUM, -LIUM, -CINIUM, N.

t[)i]m-or = _fear_ formed from t[)i]m-ere = _to fear_.

sen-sus = _feeling_ " sent-ire = _to feel_.

sêd-ês = _seat_ " s[)e]d-êre = _to sit_.

audâc-ia = _boldness_ " audax = _bold_.

segn[)i]t-ies = _laziness_ " segnis = _lazy_.

trist[)i]-tia = _sadness_ " tristis = _sad_.

l[)e]g-io = _a collecting_ } " l[)e]g-ere

a legion_ } = _to collect_.

s[)a]lûtâ-tio = _a greeting_ " salutare = _to greet_.

b[)o]n[)i]-tas = _goodness_ " bonus = _good_.

s[)e]nec-tûs = _age_ " senex = _old_.

magni-tudo = _greatness_ " magnus = _great_.

cupî-dô = _desire_ " cupere = _to desire_.

vertî-go = _a turning_ } " vertere = _to turn_.

_giddiness_ }

p[)e]cû-nia = _money (chattels)_ " pecus = _cattle_.

g[)e]n-us = _race_, _birth_ " [Rt]gen = _to be born_.

ausp[)i]c-ium = an _omen_ " { auspex = _a soothsayer_.

{ avis + spicio

gaud-ium = _joy_ " gaudêre = _to rejoice_.

l[)-a]tro-cinium = _robbery_ " latro = _robber_.

aux[)i]-lium = _help_ " augêre = _to increase_.

(iii.) +Nouns+ denoting +acts+, or +means+ and +results of acts+.

-MÔNIA, F.; -MEN, -MENTUM, -MÔNIUM, N.

qu[)e]ri-monia = _complaint_, formed from qu[)e]ri = _to complain_.

ag-men = _line of march_} " agere [Rt]ag = _to lead_.

_band_ }

m[)o]n[)u]-mentum = a _memorial_, " mon-êre = _to remind_.

nô-men = a _name_ " [Rt]gno = _to know_.

(iv.) Nouns denoting means or instrument.

-B[)U]LUM, -C[)U]LUM, -BRUM, -CRUM, -TRUM, N.

stâ-bulum = _stall_ formed from stare = _to stand_.

v[)e]h[)i]-c[)u]lum = _wagon_ " vehere = _to carry_.

s[)e]pul-crum = _tomb_ " sepelîre = _to bury_.

[)a]râ-trum = _plough_ " arâre = _to plough_.

+II. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES.+

(i.) +Adjectives+ expressing +diminution+, and used as +Diminutive

Nouns+.

-[)U]LUS, -[)O]LUS, -C[)U]LUS, -ELLUS, -ILLUS.

rîv-ulus = a _streamlet_ formed from rîvus = a _brook_.

fîl[)i]-olus = a _little son_ " filius = a _son_.

mûnus-culum = a _little gift_ " munus = a _gift_.

côdic-illi = _writing tablets_ " codex

= a _block of wood_.

l[)i]b-ellus = a _little book_ " l[)i]ber = a _book_.

(ii.) +Patronymics+, indicating +descent+ or +relationship+.

-ADES, -[)I]DES, -ÎDES, -EUS, M.

-AS, -IS, -EIS, F.

Atlanti-adês = _Mercury_ } formed from Atlas.

Atlant-id[)e]s = the _Pleiads_ }

T[-y]d-îdês = _Diomedes_ " Tydeus.

Cissê-is = _Hecuba_ " Cisseus.

(iii.) +Adjectives+ meaning +full of, prone to+.

-ÔSUS, -LENS, -LENTUS.

form-ôsus = _beautiful_ formed from forma = _beauty_.

pesti-lens = _pestilent_ " pestis = _plague_.

v[)i][)o]-lentus = _violent_ " vis = _force_.

(iv.) +Adjectives+ meaning +provided with+.

-TUS, -ÂTUS, -ÎTUS, -ÛTUS.

fûnes-tus = _deadly_ formed from funus (funer-) = _death_.

barb-âtus = _bearded_ " barba = a _beard_.

turr-îtus = _turreted_ " turris = a _tower_.

corn-ûtus = _horned_ " cornu = a _horn_.

(v.) +Adjectives+ meaning +made of+ or +belonging to+, or

+pertaining to+.

-EUS, -[)I]US, -ÂNEUS, -T[)I]CUS,

-ÂLIS, -ÂRIS, -ÎLIS, -ÛLIS,

-ÂNUS, -ÊNUS, -ÎNUS, -ENSIS,

-TER (-TRIS), -ESTER (-ESTRIS), -T[)I]MUS,

-ERNUS, -URNUS, -TURNUS (-TERNUS).

aur-eus = _golden_ formed from aurum = _gold_.

patr-ius = _paternal_ " pater = a _father_.

subterr-aneus = _subterranean_ " sub terrâ = _underground_.

d[)o]mes-ticus = _domestic_ " domus = a _house_.

nâtûr-âlis = _natural_ " natura = _nature_.

p[)o]p[)u]l-aris = _fellow-countryman_ " populus = a _people_.

v[)e]t[)e]r-ânus = _veteran_ " vetus (veter-) = _old_.

s[)e]r-ênus = _calm_, _of " serus = _late_.

evening stillness_

dîv-înus = _divine_ " divus = _god_.

f[)o]r-ensis = _of the forum_ " forum = _a market-place_.

lac-teus = _milky_ " lac (lacti-) = _milk_.

subl-icius = _resting " sublica = a _pile_.

on piles_

p[)a]lus-ter = _marshy_ " palûs = a _marsh_.

silv-ester = _woody_ " silva = a _wood_.

fîn[)i]-timus = _neighbouring_ " finis = a _boundary_.

ver-nus = _vernal_ " vêr = _spring_.

d[)i]-urnus = _daily_ " dies = _day_.

diû-turnus = _lasting_ " diû = _long_ (time).

(vi.) +Adjectives+ expressing the action of the Verb as +a quality+ or

+tendency+.

-AX, -[)I]DUS, -[)U]LUS, -VUS (-UUS, -ÎVUS, -TÎVUS).

pugn-ax = _pugnacious_ formed from pugnare = _to fight_.

c[)u]p-idus = _eager_ " cupere = _to desire_.

b[)i]b-ulus = _thirsty_ " bibere = _to drink_.

(of sand etc.)

n[)o]c-uus = _hurtful_ " nocêre = _to hurt_.

cap-tivus = _captive_ " capere = _to take_.

(vii.) +Adjectives+ expressing +passive qualities+ but +occasionally

active+.

-ILIS, -B[)I]LIS, -[)I]US, -TÎLIS.

fr[)a]g-ilis = _frail_ formed from frangere = _to break_.

[Rt]frag

nô-bilis = _well known_ " noscere = _to know_.

[Rt]gno

ex[)i]m-ius = _choice_, _rare_ " eximere = _take out_.

tex-tilis = _woven_ " texere = _to weave_.

(viii.) +Adjectives originally gerundives.+

-NDUS, -BUNDUS, -CUNDUS.

s[)e]cu-ndus = _second (the } formed from sequi =_to follow_.

following)_, }

_favourable_ }

m[)o]r[)i]-bundus = _dying_ " mori = _to die_.

fâ-cundus = _eloquent_ " fa-ri = _to speak_.

+III. NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES.+

-ÂRIUS, denotes +person employed about+ anything.

argent-ârius = _silversmith_, formed from argentum = _silver_.

_banker_

-ÂRIUM, denotes +place of+ a thing.

aer-arium = _treasury_ formed from aes = _copper_.

-ÎLE denotes +stall of an animal+.

b[)o]v-île = _cattle-stall_ formed from bôs (b[)o]v-) = _ox_.

[)o]v-île = _sheep-fold_ " ovis = _sheep_.

-ÊTUM denotes +place where a tree or plant grows+.

querc-êtum = _oak-grove_ formed from quercus = _an oak_.

+IV. DERIVATION OF VERBS.+

(i.) +From Nouns and Adjectives.+

st[)i]m[)u]lo, -âre = _to goad_, formed from stimulus = _a goad_.

_incite_

n[)o]vo, -âre = _to renew_ " novus = _new_.

v[)i]g[)i]lo, -âre = _to watch_ " vigil = _awake_.

albeo, -êre = _to be white_ " albus = _white_.

m[)e]tuo, -ere = _to fear_ " metus = _fear_.

[)a]cuo, -ere = _to sharpen_ " acus = _needle_.

môlior, -îri = _to toil_ " moles = _mass_.

custôdio, -îre = _to guard _ " custos (custod-)

= _guardian_.

(ii.) +Verbs from other Verbs.+

-SCO denotes the +beginning+ of an action. (Third Conjugation.)

l[)a]bâ-sco = _begin to totter_ formed from labo = _totter_.

mîtê-sco = _grow mild_ " mîtis = _mild_.

-TO, -[)I]TO, (rarely -SÔ), -ESSO, denote +forcible or repeated action+.

iac-to, -[)a]re = _hurl_ formed from iacio = _throw_.

quas-so, âre = _shatter_ " quatio = _shake_.

f[)a]c-esso, -[)e]re = _do_ " facio = _do_.

(with energy)

-T[)U]RIO (-S[)U]RIO) denotes +longing or wishing+.

par-turio, -îre = { _to bring forth_ formed from pario

{ _produce_ = _bring forth_.

ê-surio = _to be hungry_ " edo

(= _ed-turio_) = _to eat_.

APPENDIX IV

GROUPS OF RELATED (COGNATE) WORDS

[Rt]AC = sharp.

English derivative.

âc-er = _sharp_. eager (F. aigre).

[)a]c-erbus = _harsh_, _cruel_. acerbity (= harshness).

[)a]c-ervus = _a heap_.

[)a]c-ies = _edge_, _keen look_. } Fr. acier (= steel).

_army in battle array_. }

[)a]c-idus = _sour_. acid.

[)a]c-uo = _to sharpen_.

[)a]c-utus = _sharpened_, _sharp_. acute (Fr. aigu).

[)a]c-umen = _a point_, _acuteness_. acumen.

[)a]c-us = _a needle_. Fr. aiguille.

[Rt]AUG = be active, strong.

aug-eo = _increase_.

aug-mentum = _an increase_. augment.

auc-tio = _a sale by increase of } auction.

bids_, _an auction_ }

auc-tor = _a maker_, _producer_. author.

auc-toritas = _a producing_, _authority_. authority.

aug-ustus = _majestic_, _august_. august.

aux-ilium = _aid_, _help_. auxiliary.

[Rt]CAP = take hold of, seize.

c[)a]p-io = _take hold of_. captive.

c[)a]p-ax = _capacious_. capacious.

c[)a]p-ulus = _handle_,

_hilt of a sword_.

ac-c[)i]p-io = _take to_, _receive_. accept.

(ad + capio)

ex-c[)i]p-io = _take up_. exception.

(ex_ +capio)

man-c[)i]p-ium = _property_, _a slave_. emancipate.

(manus + capio)

muni-c[)i]p-ium = _a free town_. municipal.

(munia + capio)

prin-ceps = _first_, _chief_. { principal.

(primus + capio) { prince.

[Rt]GEN-, [Rt]GNA- = beget, become, produce.

gi-gn-o = _to beget_. indigenous.

(= gi-g[)e]n-o)

g[)e]n-i-tor = _a father_. (pro)genitor.

gen-s = _clan_, _house_, _race_. gentile.

in-gens = _vast_.

g[)e]n-us = _birth_, _race_. genus (Fr. genre).

in-g[)e]n-ium = _innate quality_,

_character_.

in-g[)e]n-uus = _native_, _free-born_, ingenuous.

_frank_.

in-g[)e]n-iosus = _of good natural } ingenious.

abilities_. }

pro-g[)e]n-ies = _descent_, _descendants_. progenitor.

g[)e]n-er = _son-in-law_.

g[)e]n-ius = _the innate superior } genius.

nature_, _tutelary }

(protecting) deity_. }

indi-g[)e]n-a = _nature_. indigenous.

g[)e]n-erôsus = _of noble birth_, generous.

_noble-minded_

g[)e]n-[)e]ro = _to beget_, _produce_. generate.

g[)e]n-[)e]tivus = _of or belonging to } genitive.

birth_, _genitive_. }

na-scor = _to be born_. native.

= gna-scor

nâ-tûra = _nature_. nature.

nâ-tio = _birth_, _a race_. nation.

APPENDIX V

HOW TO THINK IN LATIN

_Flaminius atones for his rashness._[44]

[Footnote 44: Cf. p. 126.] [[Selection C19]]

Tres ferme horas pugnatum est et ubique atrociter;

circa consulem tamen acrior infestiorque pugna est.

Eum et robora virorum sequebantur, et ipse, quacunque

in parte premi ac laborare senserat suos, impigre ferebat

opem; insignemque armis et hostes summa vi petebant {5}

et tuebantur cives, donec Insuber eques (Ducario nomen

erat) facie quoque noscitans consulem, 'En' inquit 'hic

est' popularibus suis, 'qui legiones nostras cecidit agrosque

et urbem est depopulatus. Iam ego hanc victimam manibus

peremptorum foede civium dabo.' Subditisque calcaribus {10}

equo per confertissimam hostium turbam impetum

facit, obtruncatoque prius armigero, qui se infesto venienti

obviam obiecerat, consulem lancea transfixit; spoliare

cupientem triarii obiectis scutis arcuere.

LIVY, xxii. 6.

The heading and the author will at once suggest the stirring incident in

the Battle of Lake Trasimene, when Flaminius atoned for his rashness by

his gallant example and death.

You have seen how Analysis helps you to arrive at the main thought of

the sentence, and you are familiar with the principles that govern the

order of words in Latin, and the important part played by the emphatic

position of words. So you may now try to +think in Latin+; that is, to

take the thought in the Latin order, without reference to analysis or

the English order. You will do well to follow closely this advice of

experienced teachers:--'Read every word as if it were the last on the

page, and you had to turn over without being able to turn back. If,

however, you are obliged to turn back, begin again at the beginning of

the sentence and proceed as before. Let each word of the Latin suggest

some conception gradually adding to and completing the meaning of the

writer. If the form of the word gives several possibilities, hold them

all in your mind, so far as may be, till something occurs in the

progress of the sentence to settle the doubt.'

1. +Tres ferme horas+ = _for nearly three hours_. This construction

(Acc. of extent of time) will be familiar to you. Notice the emphatic

position of the phrase.

+pugnatum est+ = _the battle was fought_. This use of the so-called

impersonal passive is very frequent, and is generally best translated by

taking the root-idea of the verb as a subject.

+et ubique atrociter+ = _and everywhere fiercely_.

2. +circa consulem tamen+ = _around the consul however_.

+acrior infestiorque pugna est+ = _the battle is more keen and more

vehement_. This presents no difficulty; +acrior+ and +infestior+ must

qualify +pugna+, which follows immediately.

3. +eum+ = _him_, plainly _consulem_ (i.e. Flaminius), for no one else

has been mentioned. Notice the emphatic position of +eum+.

+et robora virorum sequebantur+ = _both the strongest of his troops

followed_. You may know that +robur+ (lit. _hard wood_) is often used of

_the toughest troops_, _the flower of an army_.

+et ipse+ = _and himself_, i.e. the consul (Flaminius).

3-4. +quacunque in parte+ = _in whatever part_.

4. +premi ac laborare senserat suos+ = _he had seen his men hard pressed

and in distress_. No other meaning is possible, nor does the order

present any difficulty, but notice the emphatic position of +suos+.

4-5. +impigre ferebat opem+ = _actively he bore help_.

5. +insignemque armis+ = _and distinguished by his arms_, clearly

referring to +consulem+ (l. 2). Cf. +eum+ (l. 3).

+et hostes summa vi petebant+ = _both the enemy with all their might

attacked_. +et+ might, of course, = _also_ (cf. +et+, l. 2), but the

second +et+ which immediately follows determines the meaning _both_.

6. +et tuebantur cives+ = _and his fellow-citizens_ (Romans) _defended_

(him).

+donec Insuber eques+ = _until an Insubrian trooper_. +donec+ may mean

_while_, but the context shows that _until_ or _at last_ is the right

meaning here.

6-7. +Ducario nomen erat+ = (his) _name was Ducarius_, i.e. _ei nomen

erat Ducario_, where +Ducario+ is possess. dat. in appos. to _ei_

understood. It is, however, possible that the trooper's name was

Ducario, but cf. page 126, l. 2. [[Selection C19, line 645]]

7. +facie quoque noscitans consulem+ = _by his face also_ (i.e. as well

as by his armour) _recognising the consul_.

7-8. +'En' inquit 'his est' popularibus suis+ = _See, said he, to his

fellow-countrymen_ (comrades), _this is the man_.

8. +qui legiones nostras cecîdit+ = _who slaughtered our legions_. There

is a slight difficulty here, but a moment's thought will remove it. It

must be +cecîdit+, perf. of _caedo_, and not _cec[)i]dit_, perf. of

_cado_, which is intransitive.

8-9. +agrosque et urbem est depopulatus+ = _and laid waste our fields

and our city_.

9-10. +Iam ego hanc victimam mânibus peremptorum foede civium dabo+ =

_now I will give this victim to the shades of our countrymen foully

slain_. +Mânibus+ cannot = _hands_ (_m[)a]nibus_), for +peremptorum

civium+, which immediately follows, fixes the right meaning.

10-11. +subditisque calcaribus equo+ = _and putting spurs to his horse_.

You will not attempt to translate this Abl. Absol. literally.

11-12. +per confertissimam hostium turbam impetum facit+ = _through the

closely packed crowd of the enemy he makes his charge_.

12. +obtruncatoque prius armigero+ = _and first cut down the

armour-bearer_ (i.e. of Flaminius).

12-13. +qui se infesto venienti obviam obiecerat+ = _who had thrown

himself in the way of him advancing at the charge_.

+infesto venienti+ is clearly dative with +obviam+.

13. +consulem lancea transfixit+ = _ran the Consul through with his

lance_.

13-14. +spoliare cupientem+ = (him, i.e. Ducarius) _wishing to spoil_

(the consul).

14. +triarii obiectis scutis arcuere+ = _the triarii_ (veterans)

_thrusting their shields in the way kept off_.

This passage is quite simple, but it will serve to show you how you may

with practice learn to +take the thought in the Latin order+, and to

grasp the writer's meaning. All that now remains for you to do is to

write out a translation in good English, using short coordinate

sentences, each complete in itself, in place of the more involved

structure of the original. The following version by the late Professor

Jebb will serve as a model:--

They fought for about three hours, and everywhere with desperation.

Around the consul, however, the fight was peculiarly keen and vehement.

He had the toughest troops with him; and he himself, whenever he saw

that his men were hard pressed, was indefatigable in coming to the

rescue. Distinguished by his equipment, he was a target for the enemy

and a rallying-point for the Romans. At last a Lombard trooper, named

Ducario, recognising the person as well as the guise of the consul,

cried out to his people, 'Here is the man who cut our legions to pieces

and sacked our city--now I will give this victim to the shades of our

murdered countrymen.' Putting spurs to his horse, he dashed through the

thick of the foe. First he cut down the armour-bearer, who had thrown

himself in the way of the onset. Then he drove his lance through the

consul. He was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened

it with their shields.

APPENDIX VI

SHORT LIVES OF ROMAN AUTHORS

DECIMUS MAGNUS AUSONIUS, 309-392 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: AUSONIUS.]

Born at Burdigala (_Bordeaux_), and carefully educated. At the age of

thirty appointed professor of rhetoric in his native University, where

he became so famous that he was appointed tutor to Gratian, son of the

Emperor Valentinian (364-375 A.D.), and was afterwards raised to the

highest honours of the State (Consul, 379 A.D.). Theodosius (Emperor of

the East, 378-395 A.D.) gave him leave to retire from court to his

native country, where he closed his days in an honoured literary

retirement.

2. Works.

A very voluminous writer both in prose and verse.

1. Prose: The only extant specimen is his _Gratiarum Actio_ to Gratianus

for the Consulship.

2. Verse: Of this we have much: it has little value as poetry, but in

point of contents and diction it is interesting and valuable. Some of

his _Epigrammata_ and _Epitaphia_ are worth preserving, but his claim to

rank as a poet rests on his _Mosella_, a beautiful description of the R.

Moselle, which is worthy to be compared with Pliny's description of the

R. Clitumnus (_Ep._ viii. 8).

'In virtue of this poem Ausonius ranks not merely as the last, or all

but the last, of Latin, but as the first of French poets.' --Mackail.

GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR, 102 (or 100?)-44 B.C.

1. Important Events in Caesar's Life.

[Sidenote: CAESAR.]

B.C. 102. Gaius Julius Caesar, nephew of Marius, born July 12th.

" 83. Marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, the friend of Marius.

" 81-78. Served with distinction in Asia.

" 76. Studies oratory at Rhodes.

" 68. Begins his political career as Quaestor, partly at Rome,

partly in Spain.

" 65. Curule Aedile. Incurs enormous debts by his splendid shows.

" 61. Propraetor in Spain: conquers Lusitanians: amasses wealth.

" 60. Coalition of Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus: First

Triumvirate.

" 59. Consul. The Leges Iuliae.

" 58-50. Subjugation of Gaul and two invasions of Britain

(55 and 54).

" 56. Meeting of Triumvirate at Luca.

" 50. The trouble with Pompeius begins.

" 49. Crosses the Rubicon. Civil war with Pompeius. Dictator

a first time.

" 48. Pharsalus. Defeats Pompeius. Dictator a second time.

" 46. Thapsus. Defeats Scipio, Sulla, and Afranius. Declared

Dictator for ten years.

" 45. Munda. Defeats Gn. Pompeius and Labienus. Dictator and

Imperator for life.

" 44. Assassinated in the Senate House on the Ides of March.

2. Works.

(1) +THE DE BELLO GALLICO.+--This work describes Caesar's operations in

Gaul, Germany, and Britain during the years 58-52 B.C., the events of

each year occupying a separate Book.

BOOK I. B.C. 58. The Helvetii and Ariovistus the German defeated.

" II. " 57. The Nervii, the bravest Belgian tribe, almost

exterminated.

" III. " 56. Conquest of the coast tribes of Brittany (Veneti,

&c.) and of the South-West (Aquitani).

" IV. " 55. Inroad of Germans into Northern Gaul repulsed.

Caesar crosses the Rhine a first time. First

invasion of Britain.

" V. " 54. Second invasion of Britain. Fresh risings of the

Gauls put down by Labienus and Q. Cicero.

" VI. " 53. Caesar crosses the Rhine a second time. Northern

Gaul reduced to peace.

" VII. " 52. Uprising of the Gauls under Vercingetorix.

Siege and capture of Alesia. Surrender of

Vercingetorix. He is taken in chains to Rome,

to adorn Caesar's triumph.

" VIII. " 51 (added by HIRTIUS). Final subjugation of Gaul.

Caesar's object was threefold:--

(i) To provide materials for professed historians.

(ii) To justify the conquest he describes.

(iii) To vindicate in the eyes of the world his opposition to the Senate

and the Government.

(2) +DE BELLO CIVILI.+--This work, in three Books, is similar in plan

to the _De Bello Gallico_. It describes the events of the Civil War

during the years 49-48 B.C. Book III. ends abruptly with the words:

_Haec initia belli Alexandrini fuerunt._

BOOK I. B.C. 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. Follows Pompeius to

Brundusium and conquers Afranius in Spain.

" II. " 49. Caesar takes Massilia. Submission of Varro in

Further Spain. Defeat and death of Curio before

Utica.

" III. " 48. Caesar follows Pompeius into Illyria. The lines of

Dyrrachium and the Battle of Pharsalus. The

beginning of the Alexandrine War.

(3) +OTHER WORKS.+--All Caesar's other writings (Speeches, Poems, &c.)

have been lost, with the exception of a few brief Letters to Cicero.

3. Style.

Remarkable for brevity, directness, and simplicity. The simplest facts

told in the simplest way. _Ars est celare artem._

'Caesar's Commentaries are worthy of all praise; they are unadorned,

straightforward, and elegant, every ornament being stripped off as if it

were a garment.' --CICERO.

MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, 234-149 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: CATO.]

For his military and political career, his Consulship (195 B.C.), his

famous Censorship (184 B.C.), and his social reforms, see some good

history, e.g. Mommsen, vol, iii.

2. Works.

His chief works are:--

(1) His treatise +De Re Rustica+ or +De Agri Cultura+ (his only extant

work).--A series of terse and pointed directions following one on

another, somewhat in the manner of Hesiod, and interesting 'as showing

the practical Latin style, and as giving the prose groundwork of

Vergil's stately and beautiful embroidery in the _Georgics_.' --Mackail.

(2) +The Origines.+--'The oldest historical work written in Latin, and

the first important prose work in Roman literature.' --Mommsen. Nepos,

_Cato_, 3, summarises the contents of the seven books.

Cato struggled all his life against Greek influence in literature and in

manners, which he felt would be fatal to his ideal of a Roman citizen.

In a letter to his son Marcus he says _Quandoque ista gens suas litteras

dabit, omnia corrumpet_. He was famous for his homely wisdom, which

gained him the title of _Sapiens_, e.g. _Rem tene: verba

sequentur_--'Take care of the sense: the words will take care of

themselves.'

GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, circ. 84-54 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: CATULLUS.]

Born at Verona, of a family of wealth and position, as is seen from his

having estates at Sirmio:--

_Salve, O venusta Sirmio, atque ero gaude_ (C. 31)

and near Tibur: _O funde noster seu Sabine seu Tiburs_ (C. 44). His

father was an intimate friend of Caesar. He went to Rome early, where he

spent the greater part of his short life,

_Romae vivimus: illa domus,

Illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas_ (C. 68),

with the exception of an official journey to Bithynia, 57 B.C. to better

his fortunes: cf. _Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ... Linquantur

Phrygii, Catulle, campi_ (C. 46). After a life of poetic culture and

free social enjoyment he died at the early age of thirty, 'the young

Catullus,' _hedera iuvenilia tempora cinctus_ (Ovid, _Am._ III. ix. 61).

2. Works.

116 poems written in various metres and on various subjects, Lyric,

Elegiac, Epic.

'The event which first revealed the full power of his genius, and which

made both the supreme happiness and supreme misery of his life, was his

love for Lesbia (Clodia).'--Sellar.

'Catullus is one of the great poets of the world, not so much through

vividness of imagination as through his singleness of nature, his vivid

impressibility, and his keen perception. He received the gifts of the

passing hour so happily that to produce pure and lasting poetry it was

enough for him to utter in natural words something of the fulness of his

heart. He says on every occasion exactly what he wanted to say, in

clear, forcible, spontaneous language.' --Sellar.

'The most attractive feature in the character of Catullus is the warmth

of his affection. If to love warmly, constantly, and unselfishly be the

best title to the love of others, few poets in any age or country

deserve a kindlier place in the hearts of men than "the young

Catullus."'--Sellar.

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, 106-43 B.C.

1. Important Events in Cicero's Life, and chief Works.

[Sidenote: CICERO.]

B.C. 106. Born at Arpinum. Birth of Pompeius.

" 102. Birth of Quintus Cicero, and of Caesar.

" 91. Assumes the _toga virilis_. Q. Mucius Scaevola the augur

becomes his tutor in civil law. Writes an heroic poem in

praise of Marius.

" 89. Serves his first and only campaign under Pompeius Strabo.

" 87. Studies Rhetoric at Rome under Apollonius Molo of Rhodes.

" 81. Delivers his first speech (_causa privata_) +Pro

P. Quinctio+.

" 80. Delivers his first speech (_causa publica_) +Pro S. Roscio

Amerino+.

" 79-7. Studies at Athens and Rhodes. Marries Terentia.

" 75-4. Quaestor at Lilybaeum in Sicily.

" 70. The six speeches +In C. Verrem+.

" 69. Curule Aedile. The +Pro Caecina+.

" 68. Date of the earliest extant letter.

" 67. Praetor. The Lex Gabinia.

" 66. The De Imperio Cn. Pompeii (+Pro Lege Manilia+).

" 64. Birth of his son Marcus. Marriage of Tullia to C. Piso Frugi.

" 63. Consul. The four speeches +In Catilinam+. The +Pro Murena+.

" 62. Cicero hailed 'pater patriae.' The +Pro Sulla+ and +Pro

Archia+.

" 60. Poem 'De consulatu meo.'

" 59. The First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus). The

+Pro Valerio Flacco+.

" 58-7. Cicero in Exile. The four speeches +Post Reditum+.

" 56. The +Pro Sestio+ and +De Provinciis Consularibus+ (his

recantation).

" 55. The +De Oratore+ and +De temporibus meis+.

" 52. The +Pro Milone+. The +De Legibus+: the +De Republica+.

" 51-50. Proconsul of Cilicia. Is granted a _supplicatio_.

" 49. Joins Pompeius at Dyrrachium.

" 47. Becomes reconciled to Caesar.

" 46. The +Brutus+ and +Orator+.

" 45. Death of Tullia. The +De Finibus+ and +Academics+.

" 44. The +Tusculanae Disputationes+: the +De Natura Deorum+: +De

Divinatione+: +De Amicitia+: +De Senectute+: +De Officiis+.

+Philippics i-iv.+

" 43. +Philippics v-xiv.+ The Second Triumvirate (Antonius,

Octavianus, and Lepidus). Murder of Cicero.

2. Works.

(1) +Speeches.+--We possess 57 speeches, and fragments of about 20 more,

and we know of 33 others delivered by Cicero.

'As a speaker and orator Cicero succeeded in gaining a place beside

Demosthenes. His strongest point is his style; there he is clear,

concise and apt, perspicuous, elegant and brilliant. He commands all

moods, from playful jest to tragic pathos, but is most successful in the

imitation of conviction and feeling, to which he gave increased

impression by his fiery delivery.' --Teuffel. Quintilian says of him

that his eloquence combined the power of Demosthenes, the copiousness of

Plato, and the sweetness of Isocrates.

(2) +Philosophical Works.+--The chief are the _De Republica_ (closed by

the _Sommium Sciponis_): the _De Legibus_: the _De Finibus Bonorum et

Malorum_: the _Academics_: _Tusculan Disputations_ with the _De

Divinatione_: the _De Senectute_ and _De Amicitia_: _De natura Deorum_,

and the _De Officiis_.

As a philosopher Cicero had no pretensions to originality. He found the

materials for most of these works in the writings of the Greek

philosophers. 'I have to supply little but the words,' he writes, 'and

for these I am never at a loss.' It was however no small achievement to

mould the Latin tongue to be a vehicle for Greek philosophic thought,

and thus to render the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his

own countrymen.

(3) +Rhetorical treatises.+--The chief are the _De Oratore_ (in 3

Books), perhaps the most finished example of the Ciceronian style: the

_Brutus_ or _De Claris Oratoribus_, and the _Orator_ (or _De optime

Genere Dicendi_).

(4) +Letters.+--Besides 774 letters written by Cicero, we have 90

addressed to him by friends. The two largest collections of his Letters

are the _Epistulae ad Atticum_ (68-43 B.C.) and the _Epistulae ad

Familiares_ (62-43 B.C.).

These letters are of supreme importance for the history of Cicero's

time. 'The quality which makes them most valuable is that they were not

(like the letters of Pliny, and Seneca, and Madame de Sévigné) written

to be published. We see in them Cicero as he was. We behold him in his

strength and in his weakness--the bold advocate, and yet timid and

vacillating statesman, the fond husband, the affectionate father, the

kind master, the warm-hearted friend.' --Tyrrell.

The style of the Letters is colloquial but thoroughly accurate. 'The art

of letter-writing suddenly rose in Cicero's hands to its full

perfection.' --Mackail.

(5) +Poems.+--The fragments we possess show that verse-writing came

easily to him, but he never could have been a great poet, for he had not

the _divinus afflatus_, so finely expressed by Ovid in the line _Est

Deus in nobis, agitante calescimus illo_.

'Cicero stands in prose like Vergil in poetry, as the bridge between the

ancient and the modern world. Before his time Latin prose was, from a

wide point of view, but one among many local ancient dialects. As it

left his hands it had become a universal language, one which had

definitely superseded all others, Greek included, as the type of

civilised expression.' --Mackail.

CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS, flor. 400 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: CLAUDIAN.]

Born probably at Alexandria, where he lived until, in the year of the

death of Theodosius 395 A.D., he acquired the patronage of Stilicho, the

great Vandal general, who, as guardian of the young Emperor Honorius,

was practically ruler of the Western Empire. He remained attached to the

Court at Milan, Rome and Ravenna, and died soon after the downfall of

his patron Stilicho, 408 A.D.

2. Works.

In his historical epics he derived his subjects from his own age,

praising his patrons Stilicho (_On the Consulate of Stilicho_) and

Honorius (_on the Consulate of Honorius_), and inveighing against

Rufinus and Eutropius, the rivals of Stilicho. Of poems on other

subjects, 'his three books of the unfinished Rape of Proserpine are

among the finest examples of the purely literary epic.' --Mackail.

'Claudian is the last of the Latin poets, forming the transitional link

between the Classic and the Gothic mode of thought.' --Coleridge.

3. Style.

'His faults belong almost as much to the age as to the writer. In

description he is too copious and detailed: his poems abound with long

speeches: his parade of varied learning, his partiality for abstruse

mythology, are just the natural defects of a lettered but uninspired

epoch.' --North Pinder.

QUINTUS ENNIUS, 239-169 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: ENNIUS.]

He was born at Rudiae in Calabria (about 19 miles S. of Brundisium),

a meeting-place of three different languages, that of common life

(Oscan, cf. _Opici_), that of culture and education (Greek), that of

military service (Latin). Here he lived for some twenty years, availing

himself of those means of education which at this time were denied to

Rome or Latium. We next hear of him serving as centurion in Sardinia,

where he attracted the attention of Cato, then quaestor, and accompanied

him to Rome, 204 B.C. Here for some fifteen years he lived plainly,

supporting himself by teaching Greek, and making translations of Greek

plays for the Roman stage, and so won the friendship of the elder

Scipio. In 189 B.C. M. Fulvius Nobilior took Ennius with him in his

campaign against the Aetolians, as a witness and herald of his deeds.

His son obtained for Ennius the Roman citizenship (184 B.C.) by giving

him a grant of land at Potentia in Picenum. _Nos sumus Romani, qui

fuimus ante Rudini._ The rest of his life was spent mainly at Rome in

cheerful simplicity and active literary work.

2. Works.

The chief are:--

(1) +Tragedies.+--Mainly translations, especially from Euripides. A few

fragments only remain. 'It was certainly due to Ennius that Roman

Tragedy was first raised to that pitch of popular favour which it

enjoyed till the age of Cicero.' --Sellar.

(2) +Annales.+--An Epic Hexameter poem, in 18 books, which dealt with

the History of Rome from the landing of Aeneas in Italy down to the

Third Macedonian War (Pydna, 168 B.C.). About 600 lines are extant.

'In his Annals he unfolds a long gallery of national portraits. His

heroes are men of one common aim--the advancement of Rome; animated with

one sentiment, devotion to the State. All that was purely personal in

them seems merged in the traditional pictures which express only the

fortitude, dignity and sagacity of the Republic.' --Sellar.

3. Style.

For the first time Ennius succeeded in moulding the Latin language to

the movement of the Greek hexameter. In spite of imperfections and

roughness, his _Annals_ remained the foremost and representative Roman

poem till Vergil wrote the _Aeneid_. Lucretius, whom he influenced, and

to whom Vergil owes so much, says of him:

_Ennius ut noster cecinit, qui primus amoeno

Detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,

Per gentes Italas honinum quae clara clueret;_

'As sang our Ennius, the first who brought down from

pleasant Helicon a chaplet of unfading leaf, the fame of

which should ring out clear through the nations of Italy.'

And later, Quintilian, X. i. 88: 'Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos

adoremus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent

speciem quantam religionem: Let us venerate Ennius like the groves,

sacred from their antiquity, in which the great and ancient oak-trees

are invested, not so much with beauty, as with sacred associations.'

--Sellar.

FLAVIUS EUTROPIUS, fl. 375 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: EUTROPIUS.]

Very little is known of his life. He is said to have held the office of

a secretary under Contanstine the Great (_ob._ 337 A.D.), and to have

served under the Emperor Julian in his ill-fated expedition against the

Persians, 363 A.D.

2. Works.

His only extant work is his

+Breviarium Historiae Romanae.+--A brief compendium of Roman History in

ten books from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens,

364 A.D., to whom it is inscribed.

3. Style.

His work is a compilation made from the best authorities, with good

judgment and impartiality, and in a simple style. Its brevity and

practical arrangement made it very popular.

FLORUS, circ. 120 (or 140?) A.D. (temp. Hadrian).

1. Life.

[Sidenote: FLORUS.]

L. Julius (or Annaeus) Florus lived at Rome in the time of Trajan or

Hadrian. Little else is known of his life.

2. Works.

An Epitome of the Wars of Livy, in two Books:--

Book I. treats of the good time of Rome, 753-133 B.C. (the

Gracchi).

" II. treats of the decline of Rome, 133-29 B.C. (Temple of

Janus closed).

3. Style.

A pretentious and smartly written work abounding in mistakes,

contradictions, and misrepresentations of historical truth. It was,

however, popular in the Middle Ages on account of its brevity and its

rhetorical style. Florus is useful in giving us a short account of

events in periods where we have no books of Livy to guide us.

S. JULIUS FRONTINUS, circ. 41-103 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: FRONTINUS.]

He was _praetor urbanus_ 70 A.D., and in 75 succeeded Cerealis as

governor oi Britain, where, as Tacitus tells us, he distinguished

himself by the conquest of the Silures: _sustinuit molem Iulius

Frontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Siturum

gentem armis subegit_: 'Julius Frontinus was equal to the burden,

a great man as far as greatness was then possible (i.e. under the

jealous rule of Domitian), who subdued by his arms the powerful and

warlike tribe of the Silures.'

In 97 he was nominated _curator aquarum_, administrator of the aqueducts

of Rome: the closing years of his life were passed in studious

retirement at his villa on the Bay of Naples. Cf. Mart. X. lviii.

2. Works.

Two works of his are extant:--

(1) +De Aquis Urbis Romae.+--A treatise on the Roman water-supply,

published under Trajan, soon after the death of Nerva, 97 A.D.; a

complete and valuable account.

(2) +Strategemata.+--A manual of strategy, in three books, consisting of

historical examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy.

3. Style.

Simple and concise: 'he shuns the conceits of the period and goes back

to the republican authors, of whom (and especially of Caesar's

Commentaries) his language strongly reminds us.' --Cruttwell.

As a mark of his unaffected modesty, Pliny (_Ep._ ix. 19) tells us:

_vetuit exstrui monimentum: sed quibus verbis? 'impensa monimenta

supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit, si vita meruimus_.'

AULUS GELLIUS, circ. 123-175 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: GELLIUS.]

All that is known about his life is gathered from occasional hints in

his own writings. He seems to have spent his early years at Rome,

studying under the most famous teachers, first at Rome and afterwards at

Athens, and then to have returned to Rome, where he spent the remaining

years of his life in literary pursuits and in the society of a large

circle of friends.

2. Works.

The +Noctes Atticae+ (so called because it was begun during the long

nights of winter in a country house in Attica) in twenty books consists

of numerous extracts from Greek and Roman writers on subjects connected

with history, philosophy, philology, natural science and antiquities,

illustrated by abundant criticisms and discussions. It is, in fact,

a commonplace book, and the arrangement of the contents is merely

casual, following the course of his reading of Greek and Latin authors.

The work is, however, of special value to us from the very numerous

quotations from ancient authors preserved by him alone.

3. Style.

His language is sober but full of archaisms, which he much affected (he

gives, therefore, no quotations from post-Augustan writers). His style

shows the defects of an age in which men had ceased to feel the full

meaning of the words they used, and strove to hide the triviality of a

subject under obscure phrases and florid expression. Yet, on the whole,

he is a very interesting writer, and the last that can in any way be

called classical.

'_Vir elegantissimi eloquii et multae ac facundae scientiae._' --St.

Augustine, 400 A.D.

QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS, 65-8 B.C.

1. Important Events in the Life of Horace.

[Sidenote: HORACE.]

B.C. 65. Born at Venusia (_Venosa_) on the confines of Apulia and

Lucania.

" 53-46. Educated at Rome under the famous _plagosus_ Orbilius.

" 46-44. At the University of Athens.

" 44-42. Served under Brutus as _tribunus militum_: fought at

Philippi.

" 42-39. Pardoned by Octavianus and allowed to return to Rome.

His poverty compelled him to write verses, prob. _Sat._ I,

ii. iii. iv., and some _Epodes_. Through these he obtained

the notice of Varius and Vergil, who became his fast

friends and

" 38. introduced him to Maecenas, the trusted minister of Augustus.

" 35. +Satires, Book I+ published. (Journey to Brundisium

described, _Sat._ I. v.)

" 33. Maecenas bestowed upon him a Sabine farm (about 15 miles

N.E. of Tivoli). For fullest description see _Epist._

I. xvi.

" 31. +Satires, Book II+, and +Epodes+ published.

" 23. +Odes, Books I-III+ published.

" 20. +Epistles, Book I+ published.

" 17. +Carmen Saeculare+ written at the request of Augustus for

the _Ludi Saeculares_.

" 13. +Odes, Book IV+ published.

" 12. +Epistles, Book II+ published.

" 8. Died in the same year as his friend and patron Maecenas.

3. Works.

(1) +Odes+, in four books, and +Epodes+.--The words of Cicero (_pro

Archia_ 16) best describe the abiding value of the four Books of the

Odes--_Adolescentiam alunt_ (strengthen), _senectutem oblectant,

secundas res ornant, adversis perfugium ac solacium praebent, delectant

domi, non impediunt foris, pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur,

rusticantur_. In them we see a poet, as Quintilian says, _verbis

felicissime audax_--most happily daring in his use of words and endowed,

as Petronius says, with _curiosa felicitas_, a subtle happiness of

expression--'what oft was thought but ne'er so well express'd.'

(2) +Satires (Sermones)+ in two Books.--Horace's chief model is

Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. To touch on

political topics was impossible; Horace employed satire to display his

own individuality and his own views on various subjects. Book I (his

earliest effort) is marred by faults in execution and is often wanting

in good taste; but in Book II 'he uses the hexameter to exhibit the

semi-dramatic form of easy dialogue, with a perfection as complete as

that of Vergil in the stately and serious manner. In reading these

Satires we all read our own minds and hearts.' --Mackail.

(3) +The Epistles (Sermones)+ in two Books, and +Ars Poetica+ (_Ep. ad

Pisones_).--These represent his most mature production. As a poet Horace

now stood without a rival. Life was still full of vivid interest for

him, but years (_fallentis semita vitae_) had brought the philosophic

mind. 'To teach the true end and wise regulation of life, and to act on

character from within, are the motives of the more formal and elaborate

epistles.' --Sellar.

The +Ars Poetica+ is a _résumé_ of Greek criticism on the drama.

3. Style.

'With the principal lyric metres, the Sapphic and Alcaic, Horace had

done what Vergil had accomplished with the dactylic hexameter, carried

them to the highest point of which the foreign Latin tongue was

capable.' --Mackail.

'As Vergil is the most idealising exponent of what was of permanent and

universal significance in the time, Horace is the most complete exponent

of its actual life and movement. He is at once the lyrical poet, with

heart and imagination responsive to the deeper meaning and lighter

amusements of life, and the satirist, the moralist, and the literary

critic of the age.' --Sellar.

JUSTINUS, circ. 150 A.D. (_temp._ Antoninus Pius).

1. Life.

[Sidenote: JUSTINUS.]

We know nothing positively about him, though probably he lived in the

age of the Antonines. Teuffel says 'Considering his correct mode of

thinking and the style of his preface, we should not like to put him

much later than Florus, who epitomised Livy.'

2. Works.

+Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi+, in forty-four

Books.--An abridgment of the Universal History of Pompeius Trogus

(_temp._ Livy). The title _Historiae Philippicae_ was given to it by

Trogus because its main object was to give the history of the Macedonian

monarchy, with all its branches, but he allowed himself, like Herodotus,

to indulge in such large digressions that it was regarded by many as a

Universal History. It was arranged according to nations; it began with

Ninus, the Nimrod of legend, and was brought down to about 9 A.D.

3. Style.

Justinus (as he tells us in his Preface) made it his business to form an

attractive reading-book--_breve veluti florum corpusculum feci_ (an

anthology)--and his chief merit is that he seems to have been a faithful

abbreviator.

DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS, 55-138 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: JUVENAL.]

Of Juvenal's life very little is certainly known. Thirteen lives of him

exist, which are confused and contradictory in detail. From the

evidences of the Satires we learn that he lived from early youth at

Rome, but went for holidays to Aquinum, a town of the Volscians (where

perhaps he was born in the reign of Nero); that he had a small farm at

Tibur, and a house in Rome, where he entertained his friends in a modest

way; that he had been in Egypt; that he wrote Satires late in life; that

he reached his eightieth year, and lived into the reign of Antoninus

Pius. He complains frequently and bitterly of his poverty and of the

hardships of a dependent's life. In short, the circumstances of his life

were very similar to those of Martial, who speaks of Juvenal as a very

intimate friend.

The famous inscription at Aquinum--which Duff considers does not refer

to the poet but to a wealthy kinsman of his--indicates that he had

served in the army as commander of a Dalmatian cohort, and, as one of

the chief men of the town, was superintendent of the civic worship paid

to Vespasian after his deification.

All the Lives assert that Juvenal was banished to Egypt--Juvenal himself

never alludes to this--for offence given to an actor who was high in

favour with the reigning Emperor (Hadrian according to Prof. Hardy), and

that he died in exile.

2. Works.

+Saturae+, sixteen, grouped in five Books.

Books I-III (Satires 1-9) are sharply divided both in form and substance

from Books IV-V (Satires 10-16), which are not satires at all, but moral

essays, in the form of letters. The first nine satires present a

wonderfully vivid picture of the seamy side of life at Rome at the end

of the first century. We must, however, read side by side with them the

contemporary Letters of Pliny, in which we find ourselves in a different

world from that scourged by the satirist.

'His chief literary qualities are his power of painting lifelike scenes,

and his command of brilliant epigrammatic phrase.' --Duff. Nothing, for

instance, could surpass his picture of the fall of Sejanus (Sat. x.

56-97). His power of coining phrases is seen in these _sententiae_:

_nemo repente fuit turpissimus--expende Hannibalem_: _quot libras in

duce summo | invenies_: _maxima debetur puero reverentia_: _mens sana in

corpora sano_--which are familiar proverbs among educated men.

Juvenal tells us that he takes all life, all the world, for his text:

_Quidquid agunt homines, Votum, Timor, Ira, Voluptas,

Gaudia, Discursus, nostri est farrago libelli_

(the motley subject of my page).--_Sat._ i. 85-6.

TITUS LIVIUS PATAVINUS, circ. 59 B.C.-17 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: LIVY.]

Livy was born at Patavium (_Padua_) between the years 59 and 57 B.C.

Little is known of his life, but his aristocratic sympathies, as seen in

his writings, seem to suggest that he was of good family. Padua was a

populous and busy place, where opportunities for public speaking were

abundant and the public life vigorous; thus Livy was early trained in

eloquence, and lived amid scenes of human activity. About 30 B.C. he

settled at Rome, where his literary talents secured the patronage and

friendship of Augustus. But though a courtier he was no flatterer.

'Titus Livius,' says Tacitus (_Ann._ iv. 34), 'pre-eminently famous for

eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such a panegyric

that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to

their friendship.' He returned to his native town before his death, 17

A.D., at the age of about 75.

2. Works.

+History of Rome+ (_Ab urbe condita Libri_), a comprehensive account in

142 Books of the whole History of Rome from the foundation of the City

to the death of Drusus, 9 A.D. It is probable that he intended to

continue his work in 150 Books, down to the death of Augustus in 14

A.D., the point from which Tacitus starts. The number of Books now

extant is 35, about one fourth of the whole number, but we possess

summaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of nearly the whole work. The

division of the History into decades (sets of ten Books), though merely

conventional, is convenient. According to this arrangement the Books now

extant are:

Books I-X, 754-293 B.C., to nearly the close of the Third Samnite War.

Books XXI-XXX, 219-201 B.C., the narrative of the Second Punic War.

Books XXXI-XLV, 201-167 B.C., describe the Wars in Greece and Macedonia,

and end with the triumph of Aemilius Paulus after Pydna, 168 B.C.

3. Style.

His style is characterised by variety, liveliness, and picturesqueness.

'As a master of style Livy is in the first rank of historians. He marks

the highest point which the enlarged and enriched prose of the Augustan

age reached just before it began to fall into decadence. . . . The

periodic structure of Latin prose, which had been developed by Cicero,

is carried by him to an even greater complexity and used with a greater

daring and freedom. . . . His imagination never fails to kindle at great

actions; it is he, more than any other author, who has impressed the

great soldiers and statesmen of the Republic on the imagination of the

world.' --Mackail.

4. The Speeches.

'The spirit in which he writes History is well illustrated by the

Speeches. These, in a way, set the tone of the whole work. He does not

affect in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or

even to imitate the colour of the time in which the speech is laid. He

uses them rather as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character

and motive.' --Mackail. 'Everything,' says Quintilian (X. i. 101), 'is

perfectly adapted both to the circumstances and personages introduced.'

5. The Purpose of his History.

The first ten books of Livy were being written about the same time as

the _Aeneid_; both Vergil and Livy had the same patriotic purpose, 'to

celebrate the growth, in accordance with a divine dispensation, of the

Roman Empire and Roman civilisation.' --Nettleship. Livy, however,

brought into greater prominence the moral causes which contributed to

the growth of the Empire. In his preface to Book I, § 9, he asks his

readers to consider _what have been the life and habits of the Romans,

by aid of what men and by what talents at home and in the field their

Empire has been gained and extended_. Only by virtue and manliness,

justice and piety, was the dominion of the world achieved.

'In ancient Rome he sees his ideal realised, and _romanus_ hence

signifies in his language all that is noble. He thus involuntarily

appears partial to Rome, and unjust to her enemies, notably to the

Samnites and Hannibal.' --Teuffel.

'As the title of _Gesta Populi Romani_ was given to the _Aeneid_ on its

appearance, so the _Historiae ab Urbe Condita_ might be called, with no

less truth, a funeral eulogy--_consummatio totius vitae et quasi

funebris laudatio_ (Sen. _Suas._ VI. 21)--delivered, by the most loving

and most eloquent of her sons, over the grave of the great Republic.'

--Mackail.

M. ANNAEUS LUCANUS, 39-65 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: LUCAN.]

+Important Events in the Life of Lucan.+

A.D. 39. Born at Corduba (_Cordova_) on the R. Baetis

(_Guadalquivir_).

" 40. His father migrates with his family to Rome.

" 54-68. Nero Emperor.

" 55. Lucan under Cornutus, the tutor also of Persius.

" 57-9. At the University of Athens.

" 60. Wins the favour of Nero, who begins to hate Seneca.

" 61. Lucan quaestor: famous as a reciter and pleader.

" 62. Disgrace of Seneca. +Pharsalia I.-III.+ published. Death of

Persius.

" 63. Marries Polla Argentaria, a marriage of affection.

" 64. Nero, from jealousy, forbids Lucan to publish poems or to

recite them.

" 65. Pisonian conspiracy discovered. Lucan compelled to die.

Lucan was a nephew of M. Annaeus Novatus (the Gallio of Acts xviii.

12-17), and of Seneca, the philosopher and tutor of Nero. 'Rhetoric and

Stoic dogma were the staple of his mental training. For a much-petted,

quick-witted youth, plunged into such a society as that of Rome in the

first century A.D., hardly any training could be more mischievous.

Puffed up with presumed merits and the applause of the lecture-room and

the _salon_, he became a shallow rhetorician, devoted to phrase-making

and tinsel ornament, and ready to write and declaim on any subject in

verse or prose at the shortest notice.' --Heitland. Silenced by Nero, in

an enforced retirement--probably in the stately gardens spoken of by

Juvenal vii. 79-80 _contentus fama iaceat Lucanus in hortis

Marmoreis--Lucan may repose in his park adorned with statues and find

fame enough_--he brooded over his wrongs, and despairing of any other

way of restoration to public life, joined the ill-fated conspiracy of

Piso.

2. Works.

The +Pharsalia+ (or _De Bello Civili_), an epic poem in ten Books, from

the beginning of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar is

besieged in Alexandria, 49-48 B.C. His narrative thus runs parallel to

Caesar's De _Bello Civili_, but it contains some valuable additional

matter and gives a faithful picture of the feeling general among the

nobility of the day.

3. Style.

'To Lucan's rhetorical instincts and training, and the influence of the

recitations which Juvenal _Sat._ iii. tells us were so customary and

such a nuisance in his day, are due the great defects of the

_Pharsalia_. We see the sacrifice of the whole to the parts, neglect of

the matter in an over-studious regard for the manner, a self-conscious

tone appealing rather to an audience than to a reader, venting itself in

apostrophes, digressions, hyperbole (over-drawn description), episodes

and epigrams, an unhappy laboriousness that strains itself to be

first-rate for a moment, but leaves the poem second-rate for ever.'

--Heitland.

The general effect of Lucan's verse is one of steady monotony, due to a

want of variety in the pauses and in the ending of lines, and a too

sparing use of elision, by which Vergil was able to regulate the

movement of lines and make sound and sense agree.

'In spite of its immaturity and bad taste the poem compels admiration by

its elevation of thought and sustained brilliance of execution; it

contains passages of lofty thought and real beauty, such as the dream of

Pompeius, or the character which Cato gives of Pompeius, and is full of

quotations which have become household words; such as, _In se magna

ruunt--Stat magni nominis umbra--Nil actum reputans si quid superesset

agendum_ (a line which rivals Caesar's energy).'--Mackail.

The brief and balanced judgment of Quintilian (_Inst. Orat._ X. i. 90)

sums up Lucan in words which suggest at once his chief merits and

defects as a poet: _Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis

clarissimus et magis oratoribus quam poetis imitandus--Lucan has fire

and point, is very famous for his maxims, and indeed is rather a model

for orators than poets_.

GAIUS LUCILIUS, circ. 170-103 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: LUCILIUS.]

Lucilius was born in the Latin town of Suessa of the Aurunci, in

Campania, of a well-to-do equestrian family. Velleius tells us that the

sister of Lucilius was grandmother to Pompeius, and that Lucilius served

in the cavalry under Scipio in the Numantine war, 134 B.C. Lucilius

lived on very intimate terms with Scipio Africanus Minor and Laelius,

and died at Naples (103 B.C.), where he was honoured with a public

funeral.

2. Works.

+Saturae+ in thirty Books, in various metres. Fragments only are extant.

'After Terence he is the most distinguished and the most important in

his literary influence among the friends of Scipio. The form of

literature which he invented and popularised, that of familiar poetry,

was one which proved singularly suited to the Latin genius. He speaks of

his own works under the name of _Sermones_ (talks)--a name which was

retained by his great successor and imitator Horace; but the peculiar

combination of metrical form with wide range of subject and the

pedestrian style of ordinary prose received in popular usage the name

_Satura_ (mixture).'--Mackail.

_Satura quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus insignem laudem adeptus

Lucilius._ --Quint. X. i. 93.

'The chief social vices which Lucilius attacks are those which reappear

in the pages of the later satirists. They are the two extremes to which

the Roman temperament was most prone: rapacity and meanness in gaining

money, vulgar ostentation and coarse sensuality in using it.' --Sellar.

Juvenal says of him (_Sat._ i. 165-7):

'When old Lucilius seems to draw his sword and growls in burning ire,

the hearer blushes for shame, his conscience is chilled for his

offences, and his heart faints for secret sins.'

T. LUCRETIUS CARUS, circ. 99-55 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: LUCRETIUS.]

Very little is known of his life. The subiect of his poem prevented him

from telling his own history as Catullus, Horace, and Ovid have done,

and his contemporaries seldom refer to him. The name Lucretius suggests

that he was descended from one of the most ancient patrician houses of

Rome, famous in the early annals of the Republic. He was evidently a man

of wealth and position, but he deliberately chose the life of

contemplation, and lived apart from the ambitions and follies of his

day. Donatus, in his life of Vergil, tells us that Lucretius died on the

day on which Vergil assumed the _toga virilis_, Oct. 15, 55 B.C.

2. Works.

The +De Rerum Natura+, a didactic poem in hexameter verse in six Books.

The poem was left unfinished at his death, and Munro supports the

tradition that Cicero both corrected it and superintended its

publication. The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear of

death and the terrors of superstition by the new knowledge of Nature:

_Hunc igitur terrorem animi tenebrasque necessest

Non radii solis neque lucida tela diei

Discutiant, sed naturae species ratioque._

_This terror of the soul, therefore, and this darkness must be

dispelled, not by the rays of the sun or the bright shafts of day, but

by the outward aspect and harmonious plan of nature._ --S.

The source of these terrors is traced to the general ignorance of

certain facts in Nature--ignorance, namely, of the constitution and

condition of our minds and bodies, of the means by which the world came

into existence and is still maintained, and, lastly, of the causes of

many natural phenomena. Thus:

Books I and II uphold the principles of the Atomic Theory as held by

Epicurus (_fl._ 300 B.C.).

Book I states that the world consists of atoms and void. At line 694 is

stated the important doctrine that the evidence of the senses alone is

to be believed--_sensus, unde omnia credita pendent, the senses on which

rests all our belief_.

Book II treats of the _motions_ of atoms, including the curious doctrine

of the _swerve_, which enables them to combine and makes freedom of will

possible: then of their _shapes_ and _arrangement_.

Book III shows the nature of mind (_animus_) and life (_anima_) to be

material and therefore mortal. Therefore death is nothing to us:

_Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,

Quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.

Death therefore to us is nothing, concerns us not a jot,

Since the nature of the mind is proved to be mortal._ --(M.)

Book IV gives Lucretius' theory of vision and the nature of dreams and

apparitions.

Book V explains the origin of the heavens, of the earth, of vegetable

and animal life upon it, and the advance of human nature from a savage

state to the arts and usages of civilisation.

Book VI describes and accounts for certain natural

phenomena--thunderstorms, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, and the

like. It concludes with a theory of disease, illustrated by a fine

description of the plague at Athens.

Professor Tyrrell says: 'It is interesting to point to places in which

Lucretius or his predecessors had really anticipated modern scientific

research. Thus Lucretius recognises that in a vacuum every body, no

matter what its weight, falls with equal swiftness; the circulation of

the sap in the vegetable world is known to him, and he describes falling

stars, aerolites, etc., as the unused material of the universe.' The

great truth that matter is not destroyed but only changes its form is

very clearly stated by Lucretius, and his account (Book V) of the

beginnings of life upon the earth, the evolution of man, and the

progress of human society is interesting and valuable.

3. Style.

'Notwithstanding the antique tinge (e.g. his use of archaism, assonance,

and alliteration) which for poetical ends he has given to his poem, the

best judges have always looked upon it as one of the purest models of

the Latin idiom in the age of its greatest perfection.' --Munro.

'The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful, and in its

way so perfect.' --Nettleship.

_Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,

Exitio terras cum dabit una dies._ --Ovid. _Am._ I. xv. 23.

'But till this cosmic order everywhere

Shattered into one earthquake in one day

Cracks all to pieces ... till that hour

My golden work shall stand.' --Tennyson, _Lucretius_.

MARCUS MANILIUS, fl. 12 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: MANILIUS.]

Nothing is known of his life. That he was not of Roman birth (perhaps a

native of N. Africa) is probable from the foreign colouring of his

language at the outset, which in the later books becomes more smooth and

fluent from increased practice.

2. Works.

The +Astronomica+ in five Books of hexameter verse. The poem should

rather be called Astrology, as Astronomy is treated only in Book I. He

is proud of being the first writer on this subject in Latin literature.

A close study of Lucretius is obvious from several passages: he often

imitates Vergil, and in the legends (e.g. of Perseus and Andromeda)

Ovid.

3. Style.

He is not a great poet; but he is a writer of real power both in thought

and style. In his introductions to each Book, and in his digressions, he

shows sincere feeling and poetical ability.

M. VALERIUS MARTIALIS, circ. 40-102 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: MARTIAL.]

He was born at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis (E. Spain), a town

situated on a rocky height overlooking the R. Salo:

_Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri

Monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis._

X. ciii. 1-2.

His father gave him a good education, and at the age of twenty-three (63

A.D.) he went to Rome. After living there for thirty-five years,

patronised by Titus and Vespasian, he returned to Bilbilis soon after

the accession of Trajan (98 A.D.), where he died _circ._ 102 A.D.

At Rome he for a time found powerful friends in his great countrymen of

the house of Seneca (Lucan and Seneca were then at the height of their

fame), and from 79 to 96 (_temp._ Trajan and Domitian) he received the

patronage of the Court, and numbered among his friends Pliny the

Younger, Quintilian, Juvenal, Valerius Flaccus, and Silius Italicus. His

complaints of his poverty are incessant. It is true that he lived

throughout the life of a dependent, but it is probable that Martial was

a poor man who contrived to get through a good deal of money, and who

mistook for poverty a capacity for spending more than he could get.

2. Works.

+Epigrammata+ in fourteen Books (Books XIII and XIV, _Xenia_ and

_Apophoreta_, are two collections of inscriptions for presents at the

Saturnalia); also a +Liber Spectaculorum+ on the opening of the grand

Flavian amphitheatre (the Coliseum) begun by Vespasian and completed by

Titus.

3. Style.

'Martial did not create the epigram. What he did was to differentiate

the epigram and elaborate it. Adhering always to what he considered the

true type of the literary epigram, consisting of i. the _preface_, or

description of the occasion of the epigram, rousing the curiosity to

know what the poet has to say about it; and, ii. the explanation or

commentary of the poet, commonly called the _point_--he employed his

vast resources of satire, wit, observation, fancy, and pathos to produce

the greatest number of varieties of epigram that the type admits

of. . . . What Martial really stands convicted of on his own showing is

of laughing at that which ought to have roused in him shame and

indignation, and of making literary capital out of other men's vices.'

--Stephenson. Among his good points are his candour, his love of nature,

and the loyalty of his friendships.

Pliny says of him: _Audio Valerium Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.

Erat homo ingeniosus, acutus, acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo et

sltis haberet et fellis, nec candoris minus--I hear with regret that V.

Martial is dead. He was a man of talent, acuteness, and spirit: with

plenty of wit and gall, and as sincere as he was witty._ --Pliny, _Ep._

iii. 21.

'The greatest epigrammatist of the world, and one of its most

disagreeable literary characters.' --Merrill.

CORNELIUS NEPOS, circ. 100-24 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: NEPOS.]

Nepos was probably born at Ticinium on the R. Padus. He inherited an

ample fortune, and was thereby enabled to keep aloof from public life

and to devote himself to literature and to writing works of an

historical nature. In earlier life he was one of the circle of Catullus,

who dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull. _C._ i.): 'To whom

am I to give my dainty, new-born little volume? To you, Cornelius.' He

was also a friend and contemporary of Cicero, and after Cicero's death

(43 B.C.) was one of the chief friends of Atticus.

2. Works.

Of his numerous writings on history, chronology, and grammar we possess

only a fragment of his +De Viris Illustribus+ (originally in sixteen

Books), a collection of Roman and foreign biographies. Of this work

there is extant one complete section, +De Excellentibus Ducibus

Exterarum Gentium+, and two lives, those of Atticus and Cato the

Younger, from his +De Historicis Latinis+.

3. Style.

Nepos is a most untrustworthy historian, and his work possesses little

independent value. But his style is clear, elegant, and lively, and he

did much to make Greek learning popular among his fellow-citizens.

PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO, 43 B.C.-18 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: OVID.]

Ovid's own writings (espec. _Tr._ IV. x.) supply nearly all the

information we possess regarding his life. He was born at Sulmo, a town

in the cold, moist hills of the Peligni, one of the Sabine clans,

situated near Corfinium, and about ninety miles E. of Rome. He was of an

ancient equestrian family, and together with his elder brother received

a careful education at Rome, and studied also at Athens. He was trained

for the Bar, but in spite of his father's remonstrances preferred poetry

to public life. 'An easy fortune, a brilliant wit, an inexhaustible

memory, and an unfailing social tact soon made him a prominent figure in

society; and his genuine love of literature and admiration for genius

made him the friend of the whole contemporary world of letters.'

--Mackail. Up to his fiftieth year fortune smiled steadily upon Ovid:

his works were universally popular, and he enjoyed the favour and

patronage of the Emperor himself. But towards the end of 8 A.D. an

imperial edict ordered him to leave Rome on a named day and take up his

residence at the small barbarous town of Tomi, on the Black Sea, at the

extreme outposts of civilisation. Augustus proved deaf to all entreaties

to recall him, Tiberius remained alike inexorable, and Ovid died of a

broken heart at the ago of sixty, in the tenth year of his banishment.

2. Works.

(1) +Amores+, in three Books, poems in elegiac verse, nearly all on

Corinna, who was probably no real person, but only a name around which

Ovid grouped his own fancies, and wrote as the poet of a fashionable,

pleasure-loving society. The _Mors Psittaci_ is pleasing and the _Mors

Tibulli_ is a noble tribute to a brother poet.

(2) +Heroides+, twenty letters in elegiac verse, feigned to have been

written by ladies or chiefs of the heroic age to the absent objects of

their love (15-20 are in pairs, e.g. Paris to Helen and Helen to Paris,

and are probably spurious). 'The Letters 1-14 are thoroughly modern:

they express the feelings and speak the language of refined women in a

refined age, and all exhibit an artificiality both in the substance and

the manner of their pleading.' --Sellar.

(3) +Ars Amatoria+, in elegiac verse in three Books. This is an ironical

form of didactic poetry in which Ovid teaches the art of lying quite as

much as the art of loving.

(4) +Remedia Amoris+, in elegiac verse, while professing to be a

recantation of the _Ars Amatoria_, shows, if possible, a worse taste.

(5) +Metamorphoses+, in hexameter verse in fifteen Books, containing

versions of legends on transformations (_mutatae formae_) from Chaos

down to Caesar's transformation into a star. In some respects this is

his greatest poem: Ovid himself makes for it as strong a claim to

immortality as Horace does for his Odes:

_Quaque patet domitis Romana potentia terris,

Ore legar populi perque omnia saecula fama,

Siquid habent veri vatum praesagia, vivam._

_Met._ XV. 877-end.

'The attractiveness of this work lies in its descriptions; but the

attempt to divest it of the character of a dictionary of mythology by

interweaving stories, after the fashion of the _Arabian Nights_, is only

partially successful.' --Tyrrell.

(6) +Fasti+, in elegiac verse in six Books, a poetical calendar of the

Roman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and Ovid probably

sketched out Books vii-xii, but his exile made it impossible for him to

complete the work. It contains much valuable information on Roman

customs and some exquisitely told stories (_e.g._ the Rape of

Proserpine), but leaves the impression of being an effort to produce on

the reader the effect of a patriotism which the writer did not feel.

(7) +Poems Written in Exile.+

(i) +Tristia+, in elegiac verse in five Books: letters to Augustus,

to Ovid's wife (for whom he had a deep affection) and to friends,

praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome.

(ii) +Epistulae ex Ponto+: similar to the _Tristia_.

'These poems are a melancholy record of flagging vitality and failing

powers.' --Mackail.

3. Style.

The real importance of Ovid in literature and his gift to posterity lay

in the new and vivid life which he imparted to the fables of Greek

mythology. 'No other classical poet has furnished more ideas than Ovid

to the Italian poets and painters of the Renaissance, and to our own

poets--from Chaucer to Pope, who, like Ovid,

'"Lisped in numbers, for the numbers came."'

AULUS PERSIUS FLACCUS, 34-62 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PERSIUS.]

He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman knight

of wealth and rank. At twelve years of age Persius was removed to Rome,

where he placed himself under the guidance of the Stoic Cornutus, who

remained his close friend to the end of his short life. Persius

(_Sat._ v.) touchingly describes his residence with Cornutus, and the

influence of this beloved teacher in moulding his character:

_Pars tua sit, Cornute, animae, tibi, dulcis amice,

Ostendisse iuvat:_

'_My delight is to show you, Cornutus, how large a share of my inmost

being is yours, my beloved friend._'--C.

He was nearly related to Arria, daughter of that 'true wife' who taught

her husband Paetus how to die (Mart. I. xiii.; Pliny _Epist._ i. 16). In

the consistent life of Thrasea (the husband of Arria), who was a Cato in

justice and more than a Cato in goodness, Persius had a noble example to

follow. So during the short span of his life the poet lived and worked,

a man of maidenly modesty, an excellent son, brother, and nephew, of

frugal and moderate habits.

2. Works.

+Saturae+, six Satires in hexameter verse. The first, devoted to an

attack upon the literary style of the day, is the only real Satire: the

other five are declamations or dogmas of the Stoic system (e.g. Sat.

ii., on right and wrong prayers to the gods), interspersed with dramatic

scenes. It was to Lucilius that Persius owed the impulse that made him a

writer of Satire, but his obligations to Horace are paramount. 'He was

what would be called a plagiarist, but probably no writer ever borrowed

so much and yet left on the mind so decided an impression of

originality. Where he draws from his own experience, his portraits have

an imaginative truth, minutely accurate yet highly ideal, which would

entitle them to a distinguished place in any portrait gallery.'

--Nettleship.

3. Style.

'The involved and obscure style of much of his work is the style which

his taste leads him to assume for satiric purposes. He feels that a

clear, straightforward, everyday manner of speech would not suit a

subject over which the gods themselves might hesitate whether to laugh

or weep. As the poet of Stoicism, using the very words of Vergil, he

calls upon a benighted race to acquaint itself with the _causes_ of

things: to an inquiry into the purpose of man's being, the art of

skilful driving in the chariot-race of life, and the ordained position

of each individual in the social system.' --Nettleship.

'Persius is the sole instance among Roman writers of a philosopher whose

life was in accordance with the doctrines he professed.' --Cruttwell.

_Multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro Persius meruit._ --Quint.

_Inst. Orat._ X. i. 94.

PETRONIUS ARBITER, obiit 66 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PETRONIUS.]

He is probably the Petronius of whose life and character Tacitus has

given us a brilliant sketch in the _Annals_, xvi. 18. 19. 'His days were

passed,' says Tacitus, 'in sleep, his nights in the duties or pleasures

of life: where others toiled for fame he had lounged into it. Yet, as

governor of Bithynia, and afterwards as consul, he showed himself a

vigorous and capable administrator; then relapsing into the habit or

assuming the mask of vice, he was adopted as +Elegantiae Arbiter+ (_the

authority on taste_) into the small circle of Nero's intimate

companions. No luxury was charming or refined till Petronius had given

it his approval, and the jealousy of Tigellinus was roused against a

rival and master in the science of pleasure.' Petronius anticipated his

inevitable fate by committing suicide.

2. Works.

+Satirae+ (or +Satiricon+), a character-novel, often called, from its

central and most entertaining incident, _The Supper of Trimalchio_.

'This is the description of a Christmas dinner-party given by a sort of

Golden Dustman and his wife, people of low birth and little education,

who had come into an enormous fortune. The dinner itself, and the

conversation on literature and art that goes on at the dinner-table, are

conceived in a spirit of the wildest humour.' --Mackail.

The chief interest of the _Satiricon_ for us is the glimpse which it

affords of everyday manners and conversation under the Empire among all

orders of society, from the highest to the lowest.

PHAEDRUS (_temp._ Augustus to Nero).

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PHAEDRUS.]

The Latin Fabulist, of whom we know nothing except what may be gathered

or inferred from his fables. He was originally a slave, and was born in

Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria. He was brought to Rome at an

early age, and there became acquainted with Roman literature. His patron

appears to have been Augustus, who gave him his freedom. After

publishing two books of fables he incurred the resentment of Augustus

and was imprisoned. This was due probably to the bold outspokenness of

many of his fables. He survived the attacks made on him, and Book V was

written in his old age.

2. Works.

+Fables+, in five Books, written in _iambic senarii_, like those of

Terence and Publius Syrus. The full title of his work is _Phaedri

Augusti liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri_. 'Phaedrus constantly plumes

himself on his superiority to his model Aesop, but his animals have not

the lifelike reality of those of the latter. With Phaedrus the animals

are mere lay-figures: the moral comes first, and then he attaches an

animal to it.' --Tyrrell.

'The chief interest of the Fables lies in the fact that they form the

last survival of the _urbanus sermo_ (the speech of Terence) in Latin

poetry.' --Mackail.

'Phaedrus is the only important writer during the half-century of

literary darkness between the Golden and the Silver Age.' --Tyrrell.

T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS, circ. 254-184 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PLAUTUS.]

Plautus was born in the little Umbrian town of Sarsina, of free but poor

parents. He came to Rome and made a small fortune as a stage-carpenter,

but lost it by rash investment. He was then reduced to working for some

years in a corn-mill, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to

do so until his death.

2. Works.

+Comedies.+ About 130 plays were current under the name of Plautus, but

only 21 (_Fabulae Varronianae_) were, as Varro tells us, universally

admitted to be genuine. Of these, all except one are extant.

Though his comedies are mainly free versions of Greek originals--of

Philemon, Diphilus and Menander, the writers of the New Comedy 320-250

B.C.--the characters in them act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans,

and he thereby secured the sympatliy of his audience more completely

than Terence could ever have done.

'In point of language his plays form one of the most important documents

for the history of the Latin language. In the freedom with which he

uses, without vulgarising, popular modes of speech, he has no equal

among Latin writers.' --Sellar.

For Horace's unfavourable judgment of Plautus see _Epist._ I. i.

170-176, and A. P. 270-272; Cicero's criticism is more just: _Duplex

omnino est iocandi genus: unum illiberale petulans flagitiosum obscenum

(vulgar, spiteful, shameful, coarse), alterum elegans urbanum ingeniosum

facetum (in good taste, gracious, clever, witty). Quo genere non modo

Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia_ (i.e. of Aristophanes),

_sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt_. --_De Off._

I. civ.

GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, 23-79 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PLINY THE ELDER.]

Born at Comum (_Como_) in the middle of the reign of Tiberius, Pliny

passed his life in high public employments, both military and civil,

which took him successively over nearly all the provinces of the Empire.

He had always felt a strong interest in science, and he used his

military position to secure information that otherwise might have been

hard to obtain. Vespasian (70-78 A.D.), with whom he was on terms of

close intimacy, made him admiral of the fleet stationed at Misenum. It

was while here that news was brought him of the memorable eruption of

Vesuvius in 79 A.D. 'In his zeal for scientific investigation he set

sail for the spot in a man-of-war, and lingering too near the zone of

the eruption was suffocated by the rain of hot ashes. The account of his

death, given by his nephew, Pliny the Younger, in a letter to the

historian Tacitus (_Ep._ vi. 16), is one of the best known passages in

the classics.' --Mackail.

2. Works.

A +Natural History+, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant work.

(For his numerous other writings see Pliny the Younger, _Ep._ iii. 5.)

'It is a priceless storehouse of information on every branch of natural

science as known to the ancient world.' --Mackail.

His work has been called the first popular encyclopedia of natural

science.

_Plinius Aetatis Suae Doctissimus._ --Gellius.

C. PLINIUS CAECILIUS SECUNDUS, 62-113 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PLINY THE YOUNGER.]

Pliny the Younger was the son of C. Caecilius and of Plinia, the sister

of the elder Pliny. He was born at Comum (_Como_), also the birthplace

of his celebrated uncle. His father died when he was eight years old,

and he was placed under the care of a guardian, Verginius Rufus, one of

the most distinguished Romans of the day, since he had held the crown

within his grasp and had declined to wear it, 68 A.D. Verginius was not

much of a student, but Pliny learned from him high ideals of duty and

noble thoughts about the Rome of earlier days, and never lost his

unbounded admiration and respect for his guardian (_Ep._ ii. 1). Under

his uncle's watchful care he received the best education Rome could

give, and studied rhetoric under the great Quintilian. His bachelor

uncle on his death in 79 left him his heir, adopting him in his will.

Gifted with wealth, enthusiasm, taste for publicity, and a wide circle

of influential friends, Pliny could not be content with the career of a

simple _eques_. Accordingly he began the course of office that led to

the Senate and the Consulship, and finally in 111 A.D. was appointed by

Trajan governor of Bithynia, where he discharged his duties with skill

and ability. His service seems to have been terminated only with his

death.

2. Works.

+Epistulae+, Letters in nine Books, to which is added Pliny's

correspondence with Trajan during his governorship of Bithynia. These

and his +Panegyricus+, in praise of Trajan, are his only extant works.

It is on his Letters that Pliny's fame now rests, and both in tone and

style they are a monument that does him honour. In many cases they were

written for publication, and thus can never have the unique and

surpassing interest that belongs to those of Cicero, but they give a

varied and interesting picture of the time. 'In the Letters the

character of the writer, its virtues and its weakness, is throughout

unmistakeable. Pliny, the patriotic citizen,--Pliny, the munificent

patron,--Pliny, the eminent man of letters,--Pliny, the affectionate

husband and humane master,--Pliny, the man of principle, is in his

various phases the real subject of the whole collection.' --Mackail.

'Pliny is an almost perfect type of a refined pagan gentleman.'

--Cruttwell.

SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, circ. 50-15 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PROPERTIUS.]

Of his life little or nothing is known, except what is recorded by

himself. He was an Umbrian by birth, and probably a native of Asisium

(_Assisi_), a town on the W. slope of the Apennines, not far from

Perusia. Like Vergil and Tibullus, he lost his family property in the

confiscation of lands by the Triumvirs in 42 B.C.; but his mother's

efforts secured for him a good education, to complete which she brought

him to Rome. He entered on a course of training for the Bar, but

abandoned it in favour of poetry (IV. i. 131-4).

_Mox ubi bulla rudi dimissa est aurea collo,

Matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,

Tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo

Et vetat insano verba tonare foro._

His earliest poems (Book I, _Cynthia_), published at the age of about

twenty, brought him into notice and gained him admission to the literary

circle of Maecenas. He lived in close intimacy with Vergil, Ovid, and

most of his other literary contemporaries, with the remarkable exception

of Horace, to whom the sensitive vanity and passionate manner of the

young elegiac poet were alike distasteful. He died young, before he was

thirty-five, about 15 B.C.

2. Works.

+Elegies+, in four Books. (Some editors divide Book II into two Books,

El. 1-9 Book II, and El. 10-34 Book III, so that III and IV of the MSS.

and of Postgate become IV and V.)

Books I and II are nearly all poems on Cynthia.

Book III contains, besides poems on Cynthia, themes dealing with

friendship (El. 7. 12. 22) and events of national interest (El. 4. 11.

18). The poet struggles to emancipate himself from the thraldom of

Cynthia and to accomplish work more worthy of his genius.

Book IV contains poems on Roman antiquities (El. 2. 4. 9. 10), written

at the suggestion of Maecenas, the paean on the great victory at Actium

(El. 6), and the noblest of his elegiacs, the Elegy on Cornelia

(El. 11).

3. Style.

The aim of Propertius was to be the Roman Callimachus: +Umbria Romani

patria Callimachi+ (IV. i. 64).

The flexibility and elasticity of rhythm of the finest Greek elegiacs he

made his own. The pentameter, instead of being a weaker echo of the

hexameter, is the stronger line of the two, and has a weightier

movement. In Book I he ends the pentameter freely with words of three,

four, and five syllables, and we find long continuous passages in which

there is scarcely any pause: e.g. in I. xx. 33-37:

_Hic erat Arganthi Pege sub vertice montis

Grata domus Nymphis umida Thyniasin,

Quam supra nullae pendebant debita curae

Roscida desertis poma sub arboribus,

Et circum irriguo surgebant lilia prato

Candida purpureis mixta papaveribus._

'In some respects both Tibullus and Ovid may claim the advantage over

Propertius: Tibullus for refined simplicity, for natural grace and

exquisiteness of touch; Ovid for the technical merits of execution, for

transparency of construction, for smoothness and polish of expression.

But in all the higher qualities of a poet Propertius is as much their

superior.' --Postgate.

AURELIUS PRUDENTIUS CLEMENS, 348-circ. 410 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PRUDENTIUS.]

Prudentius (as he tells us in the brief metrical autobiography prefixed

to his poems) was born in the N. of Spain, and, like so many of the

Roman poets, began his public life as an advocate. He was afterwards

appointed by Theodosius (379-395 A.D.) judge over a district in Spain.

His active and successful discharge of this office induced Theodosius

(or Honorius, 395-423 A.D.) to promote him to some post of honour about

the Emperor's person. His later years he devoted to the composition of

sacred poetry, and published his collected works 405 A.D., after which

date we know no more of his history.

2. Works.

His best known works are his +Cathemerina+, a series of poems on the

Christian's day and life, of which the most graceful and pathetic is the

_Funeral Hymn_, e.g.

_Iam maesta quiesce querella,

Lacrimas suspendite matres,

Nullus sua pignora plangat,

Mors haec reparatio vitae est_,

and his +Peristephanon+ (#peri stephanôn# _liber_) in praise of

Christian martyrs. 'These represent the most substantial addition

to Latin lyrical poetry since Horace.' --Mackail. We also have his

+Contra Symmachum+ in two Books of indifferent hexameter verse, in

which he combats Symmachus (Consul 391 A.D.), the last champion of

the old faith, and claims the victories of the Christian Stilicho as

triumphs alike of Rome and of the Cross.

'Prudentius has his distinct place and office in the field of Latin

literature, as the chief author who bridged the gulf between pagan

poetry and Christian hymnology.' --North Pinder.

MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS, circ. 35-95 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: QUINTILIAN.]

Quintilian is the last and perhaps the most distinguished of that school

of Spanish writers (Martial, the two Senecas, and Lucan) which played so

important a part in the literary history of the first century. Born at

Calagurris, a small town on the Upper Ebro, he was educated at Rome, and

afterwards returned to his native town as a teacher of rhetoric. There

he made the acquaintance of the proconsul Galba (68-9), and was brought

back by him to Rome in 68 A.D., where for twenty years he enjoyed the

highest reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Among his pupils were

numbered Pliny the Younger and the two sons of Flavius Clemens,

grand-nephews of Domitian, destined for his successors. In 79 A.D. he

was appointed by Vespasian professor of rhetoric, the first teacher who

received a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. Domitian (81-96

A.D.) conferred upon him an honorary consulship, and the last ten years

of his life were spent in an honoured retirement, which he devoted to

recording for the benefit of posterity his unrivalled experience as a

teacher of rhetoric.

2. Works.

+Institutio Oratoria+, the _Training of an Orator_, in twelve Books.

This great work sums up the teaching and criticism of his life, and

gives us the complete training of an orator, starting with him in

childhood and leading him on to perfection.

Thus:--

Book I gives a sketch of the elementary training of the child from the

time he leaves the nursery. Quintilian rightly attaches the greatest

importance to early impressions.

Book II deals with the general principles and scope of the art of

oratory, and continues the discussion of the aims and methods of

education in its later stages.

Books III-VII are occupied with an exhaustive treatment of the _matter_

of oratory, and are highly technical. 'Now that the formal study of the

art of rhetoric has ceased to be a part of the higher education these

Books have lost their general interest.' --Mackail.

Books VIII-XI treat of the _manner_ (style) of oratory. In Book X, cap.

i, in the course of an enumeration of the Greek and Latin authors likely

to be most useful to an orator, Quintilian gives us a masterly sketch of

Latin literature, 'in language so careful and so choice that many of his

brief phrases have remained the final words on the authors, both in

prose and verse, whom he mentions in his rapid survey.' --Mackail.

Book XII treats of the moral qualifications of a great speaker. The good

orator must be a good man.

'Quintilian with admirable clearness insists on the great truth that bad

education is responsible for bad life, and expresses with equal

plainness the complementary truth that education, from the cradle

upwards, is something which acts on the whole intellectual and moral

nature, and that its object is the production of the _good man_.'

--Mackail.

3. Style.

The style of Quintilian is modelled on that of Cicero, whom he is never

tired of praising, and is intended to be a return to the usages of the

best period. In spite of some faults characteristic of the Silver Age

(e.g. his excessive use of antithesis) 'for ordinary use it would be

difficult to name a manner that combines so well the Ciceronian dignity

with the rich colour and high finish added to Latin prose by the writers

of the earlier empire.' --Mackail.

For the death of his son, aged ten, a boy of great promise, for whose

instruction he wrote the work, see Preface to Book VI.

_Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,

Gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae._

Mart. II. xc. 1-2.

_Nihil in studiis parvum est._

_Cito scribendo non fit ut bene scribatur,

bene scribendo fit ut cito._

--Quintilian.

GAIUS SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, 86-35 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SALLUST.]

A member of a plebeian family, Sallust was born 86 B.C. at Amiternum, in

the country of the Sabines. As tribune of the people in 52 B.C. he took

an active part in opposing Milo (Cicero's client) and the Pompeian party

in general. In 48 B.C. he commanded a legion in Illyria without

distinction, and next year Caesar sent him to treat with the mutinous

legions in Campania, where he narrowly escaped assassination. He

afterwards followed Caesar to Africa, and apparently did good service

there, for he was appointed in 46 the first governor of the newly formed

province of Numidia. In 45 he returned to Rome a very rich man, and

built himself a magnificent palace, surrounded by pleasure grounds (the

famous Gardens of Sallust, in the valley between the Quirinal and the

Pincius), which in after years emperors preferred to the palace of the

Caesars. After Caesar's death Sallust retired from public life, and it

is to the leisure and study of these ten years that we owe the works

that have made him famous.

2. Works.

(1) +De Catilinae Coniuratione+ (or _Bellum Catilinae_), a monograph on

the famous conspiracy, in which Sallust writes very largely from direct

personal knowledge of men and events.

(2) +Bellum Iugurthinum+ (111-106 B.C.) The writing of this monograph

involved wide inquiry and much preparation.

(3) +Historiae+, in five books, dealing with the events from 78 B.C.

(death of Sulla) to 67 B.C., of which only a few fragments are extant.

3. Style.

'Sallust aimed at making historical writing a branch of literature. He

felt that nothing had yet been done by any Roman writer which would

stand beside Thucydides. It was his ambition to supply the want. That

could only be done by offering as complete a contrast to the tedious

annalist as possible, and Sallust neglected no means of giving variety

to his work. From Thucydides he probably borrowed the idea of his

introductions, the imaginary speeches and the character portraits; from

Cato the picturesque descriptions of the scenes of historical events and

the ethnographical digressions.' --Cook.

'The style of Sallust is characterised by the use of old words and forms

(especially in the speeches). He makes use of alliteration, extensively

employs the Historic Infinitive, and shows a partiality for

conversational expressions which from a literary point of view are

archaic. His abrupt unperiodic style of writing (rough periods without

particles of connexion) has won for Sallust his reputation for brevity.

His style is, however, the expression of the writer's character, direct,

incisive, emphatic, and outspoken; to have been a model for Tacitus is

no slight merit.' --Cook.

_Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:_

'Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,

Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae.'

Quint. VIII. iii. 29.

'The last of the Ciceronians, Sallust is also in a sense the first of

the imperial prose-writers.' --Mackail.

_Primus Romana Crispus in Historia_ (Mart. XIV. cxci.)

L. ANNAEUS SENECA THE YOUNGER, circ. 4 B.C.-65 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SENECA.]

The son of Seneca the Elder, the famous rhetorician, was born at Corduba

(_Cordova_), in Spain, and brought to Rome by his parents at an early

age. His life was one of singularly dramatic contrasts and vicissitudes.

Under his mother Helvia's watchful care he received the best education

Rome could give. Through the influence of his mother's family he passed

into the Senate through the quaestorship, and his successes at the bar

awakened the jealousy of Caligula (37-41 A.D.) By his father's advice he

retired for a time and spent his days in philosophy. On the accession of

Claudius (41-54 A.D.) he was banished to Corsica at the instance of the

Empress Messalina, probably because he was suspected of belonging to the

faction of Agrippina, the mother of Nero. After eight years he was

recalled (49 A.D.) by the influence of Agrippina (now the wife of

Claudius), and appointed tutor to her son Nero, then a boy of ten. When

Nero became emperor, at the age of seventeen (54 A.D.), Seneca, in

conjunction with his friend Burrus, the prefect of the praetorian

guards, became practically the administrator of the Empire. 'The mild

and enlightened administration of the earlier years of the new reign,

the famous _quinquennium Neronis_, may indeed be largely ascribed to

Seneca's influence; but this influence was based on an excessive

indulgence of Nero's caprices, which soon worked out its own

punishment.' --Mackail. His connivance at the murder of Agrippina (59

A.D.) was the death-blow to his influence for good, and the death of

Burrus (63 A.D.) was, as Tacitus says (_Ann._ xiv. 52), 'a blow to

Seneca's power, for virtue had not the same strength when one of its

champions, so to speak, was removed, and Nero began to lean on worse

advisers.' Seneca resolved to retire, and entreated Nero to receive back

the wealth he had so lavishly bestowed. The Emperor, bent on vengeance,

refused the proffered gift, and Seneca knew that his doom was sealed. In

the year 65, on the pretext of complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, he

was commanded to commit suicide, and Tacitus (_Ann._ xv. 61-63) has

shown his love for Seneca, in spite of all his faults, by the tribute he

pays to the constancy of his death.

2. Works.

His chief works are:--

(1) +Dialogorum Libri XII+, of which the most important are the +De Ira+

and the +Consolatio+ to his mother Helvia, whom he tenderly loved.

(2) +De Clementia+, in three Books, addressed to Nero, written in 55-6

A.D., to show the public what sort of instruction Seneca had given his

pupil, and what sort of Emperor they had to expect.

(3) +De Beneficiis+, in seven Books. Seneca proves that a tyrant's

benefits are not kindnesses, and sets forth his views on the giving and

receiving of benefits.

(4) +Epistulae morales ad Lucilium.+ 124 letters are extant, and form

the most important and most pleasing of his works.

(5) +Tragedies.+ Nine are extant, derived from plays by Sophocles and

Euripides. The only extant Latin tragedies.

'As a moral writer Seneca stands deservedly high. Though infected with

the rhetorical vices of the age his treatises are full of striking and

often gorgeous eloquence, and in their combination of high thought with

deep feeling have rarely, if at all, been surpassed.' --Mackail.

'Seneca is a lamentable instance of variance between precept and

example.' --Cruttwell.

SILIUS ITALICUS, circ. 25-100 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SILIUS.]

A letter of Pliny (iii. 7) is the chief source of our knowledge of the

life of Silius. Pliny tells us that Silius had risen by acting as a

_delator_ (informer) under Nero, who made him consul 68 A.D. He goes on

to say 'He had gained much credit by his proconsulship in Asia (under

Vespasian, _circ._ 77 A.D.), and had since by an honourable leisure

wiped out the blot which stained the activity of his former years.'

Martial also, who has the effrontery to speak of him as a combined

Vergil and Cicero, tells us of his luxurious and learned retirement in

Campania, and of his reverence for his master Vergil, 'whose birthday he

kept more religiously than his own.' According to Martial (xi. 49) the

tomb of Vergil had been practically forgotten, and was in the possession

of some poor man when Silius bought the plot of ground on which it

stood:

_Iam prope desertos cineres et sancta Maronis

Nomina qui coleret, pauper et unus erat.

Silius optatae succurrere censuit umbrae,

Silius et vatem, non minor ipse, colit._

2. Works.

The +Punica+, an Epic poem in seventeen Books, on the Second Punic War,

closes with Scipio's triumph, after the Battle of Zama, 202 B.C.

Silius closely followed the history as told by Livy, and without any

inventive or constructive power of his own copies, with tasteless

pedantry, Homer and Vergil. 'He cannot perceive that the divine

interventions which are admissible in the quarrel of Aeneas and Turnus

are ludicrous when imported into the struggle between Scipio and

Hannibal. Who can help resenting the unreality when at Saguntum Jupiter

guides an arrow into Hannibal's body, which Juno immediately withdraws,

or when, at Cannae, Aeolus yields to the prayer of Juno and blinds the

Romans by a whirlwind of dust?'--Cruttwell.

The _Punica_ is valuable for its historical accuracy, but it is one of

the longest and one of the worst Epic poems ever written.

_Scribebat carmina maiore cura quam ingenio._

Pliny, _Epist._ iii. 7.

P. PAPINIUS STATIUS, circ. 60-100 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: STATIUS.]

Statius was born at Naples, but early removed to Rome, where he was

carefully educated and spent the greater part of his life. His father

was a scholar, rhetorician, and poet of some distinction, and acted for

a time as tutor to Domitian. Statius had thus access to the Court, and

repaid the patronage of Domitian by incessant and shameless flattery.

After the completion of his +Thebais+ he retired to Naples, which was

endeared to him by its associations with Vergil, and there satisfied his

real love of nature.

2. Works.

(1) The +Thebais+, an Epic poem in twelve Books, on the strife between

the brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the subsequent history of

Thebes to the death of Creon.

The Thebaid became very famous: Juvenal (_Sat._ vii. 82-4) tells us

_Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae

Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem

promisitque diem_ (i.e. for a public recitation of his poem).

'Its smooth versification, copious diction, and sustained elegance made

it a sort of canon of poetical technique. Among much tedious rhetoric

and cumbrous mythology there is enough imagination and pathos to make

the poem interesting and even charming.' --Mackail.

(2) The +Silvae+, in five Books, are occasional poems, descriptive and

lyrical, on miscellaneous subjects. These may well be considered his

masterpiece. 'Genuine poetry,' says Niebuhr, 'imprinted with the

character of the true poet, and constituting some of the most graceful

productions of Roman literature.'

Among the best known are the touching poem to his wife Claudia (iii. 5),

the marriage song to his brother-poet Arruntius Stella (i. 2), the

_Propempticon Maecio Celeri_ (iii. 2), the _Epicedion_ (funeral song) on

the death of his adopted son (v. 5), and the short poem (v. 4) on Sleep.

The greatest poet of the Decline.

GAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, circ. 75-160 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SUETONIUS.]

The little we know of his life is chiefly gathered from the Letters of

Pliny the Younger, and from scattered allusions in his own works. The

son of an officer of the Thirteenth Legion, Suetonius in early life

practised as an advocate, and subsequently became one of Hadrian's

private secretaries (_magister epistularum_), but was dismissed from

office in 121 A.D. After his retirement from the service of the Court he

devoted the rest of his long life to literary research and compilation,

and published a number of works on a great variety of subjects, so that

he became famous as the Varro of the imperial period.

2. Works.

His extant works are:

(1) +De Vita Caesarum+, the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, in eight Books

(I-VI Julius-Nero; VII Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; VIII Vespasian,

Titus, and Domitian). This is his most interesting and most valuable

work. His Lives are not works of art: he is simply a gatherer of facts,

collected from good sources with considerable care and judgment. 'He

follows out with absolute faithfulness his own theory, which makes it

necessary to omit no possible detail that can throw light upon the

personality of his subject.' --Peck.

(2) +De Viris Illustribus+, a history of Latin literature up to his day.

The greater part of the section +De grammaticis et rhetoribus+ is

extant, as well as the Lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan (partly),

from the section +De poetis+, and fragments of the Life of Pliny the

Elder from the section +De historicis+.

Extracts made from this work by Jerome (_circ._ 400 A.D.) in his Latin

version of Eusebius' Chronicles are the source from which much of our

information as to Latin authors is derived.

'Suetonius is terse, and in that respect he resembles Tacitus; he is

deeply interesting, and there he shows some likeness to Livy; but his

style is one of his own creation. His chief desire is to present the

facts stripped of any comment whatever, grouped in such a way as to

produce their own effect without the adventitious aid of rhetoric; and

then to leave the reader to his own conclusions.' --Peck.

_Probissimus, honestissimus, eruditissimus vir._

Pliny, _Epist. ad Trai._ 94.

PUBLILIUS SYRUS, circ. 45 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SYRUS.]

All we know of him is that he was an enfranchised Syrian slave, a native

of Antioch, and wrote for the stage _mimes_ (farces) which were

performed with great applause. Mime-writing was also practised at this

time by the Knight Laberius, and Caesar is said to have patronised these

writers in the hope of elevating their art.

2. Works.

+Sententiae+ (_Maxims_). We possess 697 lines from his mimes

(unconnected and alphabetically arranged), a collection made in the

early Middle Ages, and much used in schools. As proverbs of worldly

wisdom, and admirable examples of the terse vigour of Roman philosophy,

they are widely known, e.g.

_Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest._

CORNELIUS TACITUS, circ. 54-120 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: TACITUS.]

The personal history of Tacitus is known to us only from allusions in

his own works, and from the letters of his friend the younger Pliny. He

was born early in the reign of Nero, probably in Rome; his education,

political career, and marriage into the distinguished family of Agricola

prove that he was a man of wealth and position. He studied rhetoric

under the best masters (possibly under Quintilian), and had, as Pliny

tells us (_Epist._ II. i. 6), a great reputation as a speaker. He passed

through the usual stages of an official career and was appointed _consul

suffectus_ under Trajan, 98 A.D., when he was a little over forty. From

89 to 93 A.D. he was absent from Rome, probably in some provincial

command, and during these years he may have acquired some personal

knowledge of the German peoples. In 100 A.D. he was associated with

Pliny in the prosecution for extortion of Marius Priscus, proconsul of

Africa, of whom Juvenal says (_Sat._ viii. 120):

_Cum tenues nuper Marius discinxerit Afros._

_Since Marius has so lately stripped to their girdles_ (i.e. thoroughly

plundered) _the needy Africans_.

From this date Tacitus seems to have devoted himself entirely to

literary pursuits and to have lived to or beyond the end of Trajan's

reign, 116 A.D.

2. Works.

(1) +Dialogus de Oratoribus+, an inquiry into the causes of the decay of

oratory, his earliest extant work. In the style of this work the

influence of Quintilian and Cicero is strongly seen.

(2) +De Vita et Moribus Iulii Agricolae liber+, an account of the life

of his father-in-law, particularly of his career in Britain, published

shortly after the accession of Trajan, 98 A.D. 'The Sallustian epoch of

Tacitus finds its expression in the _Agricola_ and _Germania_.'

--Teuffel.

The _Agricola_ is perhaps the most beautiful biography in ancient

literature.

(3) The +Germania+, or _Concerning the Geography, the Manners and

Customs, and the Tribes of Germany_, published in 98 or 99. 'The motive

for its publication was apparently the pressing importance, in Tacitus'

opinion, of the "German question," and the necessity for vigorous action

to secure the safety of the Roman Empire against the dangers with which.

it was threatened from German strength.' --Stephenson.

'The +Germania+ is an inestimable treasury of facts and generalisations,

and of the general faithfulness of the outline we have no doubt.'

--Stubbs.

(4) +Historiae+, consisting originally of fourteen Books, is a narrative

of the events of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus,

and Domitian, 69-96 A.D. Only Books I-IV and the first half of Book V

are extant, and give the history of 69 and most of 70 A.D.

'The style of the _Historiae_ still retains some traces of the influence

of Cicero: it has not yet been pressed tight into the short _sententiae_

which were its final and most characteristic development, but shows in a

marked degree the influence of Vergil.' --Cruttwell.

In the _Historiae_, as Tacitus himself says, 'the secret of the imperial

system was divulged--that an emperor could be made elsewhere than at

Rome'; or, in other words, that the imperial system was a military and

not a civil institution.

(5) The +Annales, ab excessu divi Augusti+, in sixteen Books, containing

the history of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, 14-68

A.D. There are extant only Books I-IV, parts of V and VI, and XI-XVI.

'The old criticism, tracing the characteristics of the style of Tacitus

to poetic colouring (almost wholly Vergilian) and to the study of

brevity and of variety, is well founded. They may be explained by the

fact that he was the most finished pleader of an age which required

above all that its orators should be terse, brilliant, and striking, and

by his own painful consciousness of the dull monotony and repulsive

sadness of great part of his subject, which needed the help of every

sort of variety to stimulate the flagging interest of the reader.'

--Furneaux.

His aim as an historian is best given in his own words: 'I hold it the

chief office of history to rescue virtue from oblivion, and to hold out

the reprobation of posterity as a terror to evil words and deeds'

(_Ann._ iii. 65).

The greatest of Roman historians.

PUBLIUS TERENTIUS AFER, circ. 185-159 B.C.

1. Life

[Sidenote: TERENCE.]

Terence was born probably at Carthage, reached Rome as a slave-boy, and

passed there into the possession of a rich and educated Senator, P.

Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was educated and manumitted, taking from

him the name of Publius Terentius the African. 'A small literary circle

of the Roman aristocracy admitted young Terence to their intimate

companionship; and soon he was widely known as making a third in the

friendship of Gaius Laelius with the first citizen of the Republic, the

younger Scipio Africanus. Six plays had been subjected to the criticism

of this informal academy of letters and produced on the stage, when

Terence undertook a prolonged visit to Greece for the purpose of further

study. He died of fever in the next year, 159 B.C., at the early age of

twenty-six.' --Mackail.

2. Works.

+Comedies.+--All the six plays written and exhibited at Rome by Terence

are extant. They are the _Andria_ (exhibited 166 B.C., when the poet was

only eighteen years of age), the _Heauton Timoroumenos_, _Eunuchus_,

_Phormio_, _Hecyra_, _Adelphoe_.

'With Terence Roman literature takes a new departure. The Scipionic

circle believed that the best way to create a national Latin literature

was to deviate as little as possible, in spirit, form, and substance,

from the works of Greek genius. The task which awaited Terence was the

complete Hellenising of Roman comedy: accordingly his aim was to give a

true picture of Greek life and manners in the purest Latin style. He was

not a popular poet, in the sense in which Plautus was popular: he has

none of the purely Roman characteristics of Plautus in sentiment,

allusion, or style; none of his extravagance, and none of his vigour and

originality.' --Sellar. Terence is, accordingly, in substance and form,

as Caesar styles him, a _dimidiatus Menander (halved Menander)_:

_Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,

Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator._

A Roman only in language, but as _puri sermonis amator_ worthy to be

ranked by the side of Caesar himself and the purest Latin authors.

ALBIUS TIBULLUS, circ. 54-19 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: TIBULLUS.]

Tibullus was a Roman _eques_, and was probably born at Pedum, a Latin

town just at the foot of the Apennines, and a few miles north of

Praeneste, where his father possessed an ample estate. Much of his

inherited property was lost; and it is possible that, like Vergil,

Horace, and Propertius, he was a victim to the confiscations of the

Triumvirs in 42 B.C. He, however, retained or recovered enough to afford

him a modest competence. In 31-30 B.C. he served on the staff of his

life-long friend and patron M. Valerius Messalla, the eminent general

and statesman, not less distinguished in literature than in politics.

The rest of his short life the poet spent on his ancestral farm at

Pedum, amid the country scenes and employments congenial to his nature

and habits.

2. Works.

+Elegies+, in four Books (or three, Postgate). Tibullus published in his

lifetime two Books of elegiac poems: after his death a third volume was

published, containing a few of his own poems, together with poems by

other members of the literary circle of Messalla. Books I and II consist

mainly of poems addressed to Delia and to Nemesis (cf. Ov. _Am._ III.

ix. 31-32):

_Sic Nemesis longum, sic Delia nomen habebunt;

Altera cura recens, altera primus amor._

And to Messalla, e.g. _El._ I. vii. 55-6:

_At tibi succrescat proles, quae facta parentis

Augeat et circa stet veneranda senem._

3. Style.

'Tibullus is pre-eminently Roman in his genius and poetry. He is the

natural poet of warm, tender, and simple feeling. Neither Greek

mythology nor Alexandrine learning had any attractions for his purely

Italian genius. His language may be limited in range and variety, but it

is terse, clear, simple, and popular. His constructions are plain and

direct.' --North Pinder.

'To Tibullus belongs the distinction of having given artistic perfection

to the Roman elegy.' --Sellar.

_Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans

maxime videtur auctor Tibullus._

'_In elegy also we rival the Greeks, of which Tibullus appears to me

the purest and finest representative._' --Quint. _Inst. Or._ X. i. 93.

'Tibullus might be succinctly and perhaps not unjustly described as a

Vergil without the genius.' --Mackail.

'Tibullus and Vergil are alike in their human affection and their piety,

in their capacity of tender and self-forgetful love, in their delight in

the labours of the field and their sympathy with the herdsman and the

objects of his care.' --Sellar.

_Quid voveat dulci nutricula maius alumno,

Qui sapere et fari possit quae sentiat, et cui

Gratia, fama valetudo contingat abunde,

Et mundus victus, non deficiente crumena!_

Horace to Tibullus, _Epist._ I. iv. 8-11.

_Si tamen e nobis aliquid nisi nomen et umbra

Restat, in Elysia valle Tibullus erit._

. . . . .

_Ossa quieta, precor, tuta requiescite in urna,

Et sit humus cineri non onerosa tuo._

Ovid, _Am._ III. ix. 59-60, 67-8.

C. VALERIUS FLACCUS, fl. 70 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VALERIUS FLACCUS.]

He lived in the reign of Vespasian (70-78 A.D.), to whom he dedicated

his poem, in which he refers to Vespasian's exploits in Britain and to

the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, 70 A.D. There are also references to

the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Quintilian is the only Roman writer

who mentions him (X. i. 90): _Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus_,

which shows that he must have died _circ._ 90 A.D.

2. Works.

+The Argonautica+, an Hexameter poem in eight Books, apparently

unfinished. The poem is in part a translation, in part a free imitation

of the Alexandrine epic of Apollonius Rhodius (222-181 B.C.) 'His

descriptive power, particularly shown in touches of natural scenery, his

pure diction and correct style have inclined some critics to set

Valerius Flaccus above his Greek model.' --North Pinder. The rhetorical

treatment of the subject, so characteristic of the period of the

decline, is, however, too prominent throughout his work. Both his rhythm

and language are closely modelled on Vergil.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, fl. 26 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VALERIUS MAXIMUS.]

All that we know of him is that he visited Asia in company with Sextus

Pompeius (the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus), _circ._ 27-30 A.D.

2. Works.

+Facta et Dicta Memorabilia+, in nine Books. Each Book is divided into

chapters on separate subjects (e.g. _De Severitate_, _De Verecundia_,

_De Constantia_), under each of which he gives illustrations from Roman

history and from the history of other nations, in order to show the

native superiority (as he thinks) of Romans to foreigners, and

especially to Greeks. As an historian he is most untrustworthy, but

there are many gaps in Roman history (e.g. owing to the lost books of

Livy) which he helps to supply. His style shows all the faults of his

age and rhetorical training; his work was probably intended to be a

commonplace-book for students and teachers of rhetoric.

M. TERENTIUS VARRO, 116-27 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VARRO.]

Born at Reate, in the Sabine territory, which was the nurse of all manly

virtues, Varro was brought up in the good old-fashioned way. 'For me

when a boy,' he says, 'there sufficed a single rough coat and a single

under-garment, shoes without stockings, a horse without a saddle.' Bold,

frank, and sarcastic, he had all the qualities of the country gentleman

of the best days of the Republic. On account of his personal valour he

obtained in the war with the Pirates, 67 B.C., where he commanded a

division of the fleet, the naval crown. In politics he belonged, as was

natural, to the constitutional party, and bore an honourable and

energetic part in its doings and sufferings. On the outbreak of the

Civil War he served as the legatus of Pompeius in command of Further

Spain, but was compelled to surrender his forces to Caesar, 69 B.C. When

the cause of the Republic was lost Caesar, who knew Varro's worth,

employed him in superintending the collection and arrangement of the

great library at Rome designed for public use. After Caesar's death

Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius, whose drunken revels

and excesses at Varro's villa at Casinum are vividly described by Cicero

(_Phil._ ii. 103 sqq.) Through the influence of his many friends Varro

obtained the protection of Octavianus, and was enabled to live at Rome

in peace until his death, 27 B.C., in his ninetieth year.

2. Works.

Of all the works of Varro, embracing almost all branches of knowledge

and literature, only two have come down to us:

(1) The +De Re Rustica+, in three Books, in the form of a dialogue,

written in his eightieth year. It was a subject of which he had a

thorough practical knowledge, and is the most important of all the

treatises upon ancient agriculture now extant. Book I treats of

agriculture; Book II of stock-raising; Book III of poultry, game, and

fish.

(2) +De Lingua Latina+, in twenty-five Books, of which only V-X have

been preserved. These contain much valuable information not found

elsewhere, but Varro's notions of etymology are extremely crude.

Of his other works, we have much cause to regret the loss of his

+Antiquities of Things Human and Divine+, the standard work on the

religious and secular antiquities of Rome down to the time of Augustus,

and his +Imagines+, biographical sketches, with portraits, of seven

hundred famous Greeks and Romans, the first instance in history of the

publication of an illustrated book.

'Varro belongs to the genuine type of old Roman, improved but not

altered by Greek learning, with his heart fixed in the past, deeply

conservative of everything national, and even in his style of speech

protesting against the innovations of the day.' --Cruttwell.

_Omnium facile acutissimus, et sine ulla dubitatione doctissimus._

--Cicero.

_Studiosum rerum tantum docet, quantum studiosum verborum Cicero

delectat._ --St. Augustine.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, circ. 19 B.C.-31 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.]

All we know of him is derived from his own pages. He descended from a

distinguished family in Campania, and his father was a Praefectus

equitum. He accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, on his

mission to the East, and was present at the interview with the Parthian

king. Two years afterwards, 4 A.D., he served under Tiberius in Germany

as Praefectus equitum. For the next eight years Paterculus served under

Tiberius in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Tiberius' sterling qualities as a

soldier gained him the friendship of many of his officers, and Velleius

by his energy and ability secured that of Tiberius in return. The last

circumstance of his life that he records is the election to the

praetorship of his brother and himself as candidates of Caesar

(Tiberius) in 14 A.D.

2. Works.

The +Historia Romana+ in two Books. The beginning of Book I is lost;

chapters 1-8 in our text are occupied with a rapid survey of universal

history, especially of the East and of Greece. Chapter 8 breaks off at

the rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great gap in the text

before we reach in c. 9 the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 B.C.

Chapters 9-13 carry the narrative down to the destruction of Carthage

and Corinth in 146 B.C. Book II continues the history and ends at the

death of Livia 27 A.D.

'The pretentiousness of his style is partly due to the declining taste

of the period, partly to an idea of his own that he could write in the

manner of Sallust. It alternates between a sort of laboured

sprightliness and a careless, conversational manner full of endless

parentheses. Yet Velleius has two real merits: the eye of a trained

soldier for character, and an unaffected, if not a very intelligent,

interest in literature.' --Mackail.

P. VERGILIUS MARO, 70-19 B.C.

1. Important Events in Vergil's Life, and Chief Works.

[Sidenote: VERGIL.]

B.C. 70. Born at Andes, near Mantua.

" 65. Birth of Horace.

" 55. Assumes the _Toga Virilis_ at Cremona. Death of Lucretius.

" 53. Studies philosophy at Rome under the Epicurean Siron.

" 42. +Eclogues II, III, V+, and perhaps +VI+, written.

" 41. Suffers confiscation of his estate. Takes refuge in

_Siron's_ villa. Estates restored by Octavianus through

Pollio. +Eclogue I+.

" 40. Vergil evicted a second time. +Eclogues IV, VI, IX+.

Becomes a member of the literary circle of Maecenas.

" 39. +Eclogues VIII+ and +X+.

" 38. Introduces Horace to Maecenas.

" 37. Begins the +Georgics+ at the suggestion of Maecenas.

" 29. +Completed Georgics+ read to Octavianus. +Aeneid+ begun.

" 27. Augustus Emperor.

" 26. Banishment and death of his friend Gallus.

" 25. Marriage of Marcellus to Julia, daughter of Augustus.

" 23. Death of Marcellus: +Aeneid, Book VI+, read to the Imperial

family.

" 19. Journey of Vergil to Greece: is taken ill, dies at

Brundusium, and is buried at Naples:

_Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc

Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces._

2. Works.

(1) +Bucolica+ (Pastoral Poems), ten +Eclogues+ (selected pieces),

written 42-39 B.C. These are closely modelled on Theocritus, and have

all the weaknesses of imitative poetry. 'The Eclogues of Vergil have

less of consistency but more of purpose than the Idylls of Theocritus.

They are an advocacy of the charm of scenery and the pleasures of the

country addressed to a luxurious and artificial society of dwellers in a

town.' --Myers.

(2) +Georgica+, in four Books, written 37-30 B.C., at the suggestion of

Maecenas, 'the Home Minister of Augustus, and public patron of art and

letters in the interest of the new government.' --Mackail. 'The details

of his subject Vergil draws mainly from his Greek predecessors, Hesiod,

Xenophon, Aratus, and Nicander, but it is to Lucretius he is chiefly

indebted. The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful,

and in its way so perfect, is echoed a thousand times in the Georgics.'

--Nettleship.

Book I treats of agriculture, Book II of the cultivation of trees, Book

III of domestic animals, Book IV of bees (including the Myth of

Aristaeus, ll. 315-558).

The _purpose of the Georgics_ is to ennoble the annual round of labour

in which the rural life was passed and to help the policy of Augustus by

inducing the people to go back to the land.

'The motto of the Georgics might well be said to be _Ora et labora_.'

--Tyrrell.

'The Georgics represent the art of Vergil in its matured perfection, and

in mere technical finish are the most perfect work of Latin literature.'

--Mackail.

(3) The +Aeneid+, in twelve Books, written 29-19 B.C.

The _choice of the subject_ was influenced by the wish of Augustus to

establish the legendary tradition of the connection of the gens Iulia

with Aeneas through his son Iulus, and by Vergil's own desire to write

an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of Homer. Thus 'the

centre of the mythical background was naturally Aeneas, as Augustus was

the centre of the present magnificence of the Roman Empire. _We surpass

all other nations_, says Cicero (_De Nat. Deor._ ii. 8), _in holding

fast the belief that all things are ordered by a Divine Providence_. The

theme of the _Aeneid_ is the building up of the Roman Empire under this

Providence. Aeneas is the son of a goddess, and his life the working out

of the divine decrees.' --Nettleship.

_Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento;

Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem._

_Aen._ vi. 851-2.

'At a verse from the _Aeneid_, the sun goes back for us on the dial; our

boyhood is recreated, and returns to us for a moment like a visitant

from a happy dreamland.' --Tyrrell.

'In merely technical quality the supremacy of Vergil's art has never

been disputed. The Latin Hexameter, _the stateliest measure ever moulded

by the lips of man_, was brought by him to a perfection which made any

further development impossible.' --Mackail.

'As Homer among the Greeks, so Vergil among our own authors will best

head the list; he is beyond doubt the second epic poet of either

nation.' --Quint. X. i. 85.

'The chastest poet and royalest, Vergilius Maro, that to the memory of

man is known.' --Bacon.

APPENDIX VII.

NOTE

The following Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature are

intended to illustrate the passages selected for translation. Important

events and writers in contemporary History and Literature are added, in

order to emphasise the comparative method of treating History.

The names of those Latin authors from whose works passages have been

selected are printed in capitals in the Literature Column.

A fuller outline of the Imperial Period will be given in a later volume.

PERIODS OF LATIN LITERATURE.

PERIOD I. The Growth of Latin Literature 250-80 B.C.

PERIOD II. The Golden Age of Latin Literature 80 B.C.-14 A.D.

PERIOD III. The Silver Age of Latin Literature 14-117 A.D.

PERIOD IV. The Later Empire from 117 A.D.

CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINES OF ROMAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE

----------------------------------------

B.C.

ROME.

OTHER NATIONS. B.C.

LITERATURE. B.C.

----------------------------------------

PART I.--REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B.C.

----------------------------------------

+Foundation of Carthage+ 878

Amos _c._ 760

753

+Foundation of Rome+

Rise of Corinth 745

Isaiah _c._ 720

753-716

ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. _Spolia opima_ (1)

Captivity of Israel 721

Hesiod _c._ 700

716-673

NUMA POMPILIUS. Religious Institutions

Carentum founded 708

673-640

TULLUS HOSTILIUS. Destruction of _Alba_

Destruction of Sennacherib's host 701

Tyrtaeus (Sparta) _c._ 680

Legend of +Horatii+ and +Curiatii+

Cyrene founded 641

Archilochus. 650

640-616

ANCUS MARTIUS. Conquest of Latin Towns

Josiah's reformation 625

Jeremiah _c._ 625

_Ostia_, first maritime colony

Periander, tyrant of Corinth 625-585

616-578

TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. Public Works: the _Circus Maximus_, _Cloaca

Maxima_, and Temple of Jupiter

Draco, the law-giver at Athens 621

Alcaeus }

Sappho } 600

Solon }

+Massilia founded+ 600

578-534

SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of _Comitia Centuriata_.

The Servian Wall includes the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills,

i.e. Rome of Republican times.

Captivity of Judah 606-536

Solon at Athens 594

Thales 590

Peisistratus at Athens 560-527

Ezekiel 585

Croesus in Lydia 560-546

Aesop _c._ 570

534-509

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of _Gabii_. Tyranny leading to

expulsion of the Tarquins and abolition of the monarchy

Cyrus enters Babylon 538

Theognis 540

Return of Jews under Zerubbabel 536

Pythagoras 530

Expulsion of Peisistratidae 510

Anacreon 530

----------------------------------------