Notwithstanding the zeal and success with which the government of the

United States prosecute their discoveries to the west of the Mississippi,

there is still much unexplored country between that river and the Pacific

Ocean. It is possible that lands may lie within the antartic circle, of

which we have hitherto as little notion as we had of South Shetland ten

years ago; but if there are such, they must be most barren and

inhospitable. It is possible also, that, notwithstanding the care and

attention with which the great Pacific has been so repeatedly swept, there

may yet be islands in it undiscovered; but these, however fertile from soil

and climate, must be mere specks in the ocean.

But though comparatively little of the surface of the globe is now utterly

unknown, yet even of those countries with which we are best acquainted,

much remains to be ascertained, before the geography of them can justly be

regarded as complete. Perhaps we are much less deficient and inaccurate in

our knowledge of the natural history of the globe, than in its geography,

strictly so called; that is, in the extent, direction, latitudes and

longitudes, direction and elevation of mountains, rise, course, and

termination of rivers, &c. How grossly erroneous geography was till very

lately, in some even of its most elementary parts, and those, too, in

relation to what ought to have been the most accurately known portion of

Europe, may be judged from these two facts,--that till near the close of

the last century, the distance from the South Foreland, in Kent, to the

Land's End, was laid down in all the maps of England nearly half a degree

greater than it actually is; and that, as we have formerly noticed, "the

length of the Mediterranean was estimated by the longitudes of Ptolemy till

the eighteenth century, and that it was curtailed of nearly twenty-five

degrees by observation, no farther back than the reign of Louis XIV."

To speak in a loose and general manner, the Romans, at the height of their

conquests, power, and geographical knowledge, were probably acquainted with

a part of the globe about equal in extent to that of which we are still

ignorant; but their empire embraced a fairer and more valuable portion than

we can expect to find in those countries which remain to reward the

enterprise of European travellers. The fertile regions and the beautiful

climate of the south of Europe, of the north of Africa, and above all of

Asia Minor, present a picture which we can hardly expect will be

approached, certainly will not be surpassed, under the burning heats of

central Africa, or even the more mitigated heats of the farther peninsula

of India. The short and easy access of all portions of the Roman Empire to

the ocean, gave them advantages which must be denied to the hitherto

unexplored districts in the interior of Asia and Africa. The farther

peninsula of India is infinitely better situated in this respect.

At that very remote period, when sacred and profane history first displays

the situation, and narrates the transactions of the human race, the

countries, few in number, and comparatively of small extent, that were

washed by the waters of the Mediterranean, comprised the whole of the earth

which was then known. Asia Minor, which possessed the advantage of lying

not only on this sea, but also on the Euxine, and which is moreover level

in its surface, and fertile in its soil, seems to have been the first

additional portion of the earth that became thoroughly known. The

commercial enterprize of the Phoenicians, and their colonists the

Carthaginians,--the conquests of Alexander the Great, and of the Romans,

gradually extended the knowledge of the earth in all directions, but

principally in the middle regions of Europe, in the north of Africa, and in

Asia towards the Indus. At the period when the Roman empire was destroyed,

little more was known; and during the middle ages, geography was feebly

assisted and extended by a desire to possess the luxuries of the East,

(which seems to have been as powerful and general with the conquerors of

the Romans as with the Romans themselves,) by the religious zeal of a few

priests, and by the zeal for knowledge which actuated a still smaller

number of travellers.

The desire of obtaining the luxuries of the East, however, was the

predominating principle, and the efficient cause of the extension of

geography. Actuated by it, the passage of the Cape of Good Hope was

accomplished; the eastern limits of Asia were reached; America was

discovered, and even the Frozen Seas were braved and carefully examined, in

the hope that by them a speedier passage might be found to the countries

which produced these luxuries. At length the love of conquest, of wealth,

and of luxury, which alone are sufficiently gross and stimulating in their

nature to act on men in their rudest and least intellectual state, and

which do not loose their hold on the most civilized, enlightened, and

virtuous people, was assisted by the love of science; and though when this

union took place, little of the globe was unknown, as respected its grand

outline, and the general extent and relative situation of the seas and

lands which compose its surface, yet much remained to be accomplished in

determining the details of geography; in fixing accurately and

scientifically the situation of places; in exhibiting the surface of the

land, as it was distinguished by mountains, plains, lakes, rivers, &c.; in

gaining a full and accurate knowledge of the natural history of each

country, and of the manners, customs, institutions, religion, manufactures

and commerce of its inhabitants.

Before we give a sketch of the progress of commercial enterprize during the

last hundred years, it will be proper to notice the advancement of

geographical science during the same period, and the assistance which was

thus afforded, as well as from other sources, to those who travelled both

by sea and land, for the purpose of discovering or exploring foreign and

distant countries. This part of our subject seems naturally to divide

itself into three parts; viz. the improvement of maps, which was equally

advantageous to sea and land travellers; those particulars which rendered

navigation more safe, easy, and expeditious; and those particulars which

bestowed the same benefit on land travellers.

The science of geography dates its origin, as we have already mentioned,

from Mercator, though he was unable to point out and explain the law,

according to which the projection which bears his name might be laid down

on fixed principles: this was effected by an Englishman of the name of

Wright. Mathematical geography, strictly so called, seems to have owed its

origin to the discussion respecting the flattening of the Poles, which took

place, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, among Newton, Huygens,

and Cassini, and which was afterwards continued by some of the most

distinguished mathematicians and natural philosophers of France and

England. Still, however, the construction of maps derived little advantage

from the application of strict science to geography, till Delisle, in

France, and Haase, in Germany, directed their attention and talents to this

particular subject: their efforts were indeed great, but in some measure

unavailing, in consequence of the want of sufficient materials. The same

impediment lay in the way of Busching, notwithstanding he brought to the

task the characteristic patience and research of a German. To him, however,

and the more illustrious D'Anville, accurate delineations and descriptions

of the countries of the globe may first justly be ascribed.

D'Anville possessed excellent and ample materials, in authentic relations,

and plans and delineations made on the spot: with these he advanced to the

task, calling to his aid mathematical principles. He first exhibited in his

maps the interior of Asia free from that confusion and error by which all

former maps had obscured it; and struck out from his map of Africa many

imaginary kingdoms. Ancient geography, and the still more involved and dark

geography of the middle ages, received from him the first illumination; and

if subsequent geographers have been able to add to and correct his labours,

it has been chiefly owing to their possessing materials which did not exist

in his time.

Busching confined himself entirely to modern geography; and though his

minuteness is generally tiresome and superfluous, yet we can pardon it, for

the accuracy of his details: he was patronized and assisted in his labours

by all the governments, of the north, who gave him access to every document

which could further his object.

Since the time of D'Anville and Busching, the description of countries, and

the construction of maps, have proceeded with a rapidly encreasing decree

of accuracy. In ancient geography, Gosselin, Rennell, Vincent, and Malte

Brun, are among the most celebrated names. Two Germans, Voss and Munnert,

have directed their labours to illustrate and explain the geographical

details and hints of the Greek poets. It would be almost endless to

enumerate those to whom modern geography, and the construction of modern

maps are principally indebted. Gaspari and Zimmerman, among the Germans,

have thrown into a philosophical and interesting form the labours and heavy

details which were supplied them by less original but more plodding men.

The English, though, as Malte Brun observes, they are still without a

system of geography which deserves the name, are rich in excellent

materials, which have been supplied by the extent of their dominions and

their commerce in various parts of the globe; by their laudable and happy

union of conquest, commerce, and science; and by the advantage which

Dalrymple, Arrowsmith, and other geographers have derived from these

circumstances. The French, Russians, Spaniards, Danes, and indeed most

nations of Europe, sensible of the vast importance of accurate maps,

especially such as relate to their respective territories, have contributed

to render them much more accurate than they formerly were; so that at

present there is scarcely any part of the globe, which has been visited by

sea or land, of-which we do not possess accurate maps; and no sooner has

the labour of any traveller filled up a void, or corrected an error, than

the map of the country which he has visited becomes more full and accurate.

The most direct and perfect application of mathematical and astronomical

science to the delineation of the surface of the globe, so as to ascertain

its exact form, and the exact extent of degrees of latitude in different

parts of it, has been made by the English and French; and much to their

honour, by them in conjunction. The first modern measurement of degrees of

latitude was made by an Englishman of the name of Norwood: he ascertained

the difference of latitude between London and York in 1635, and then

measured their distance: from these premises he calculated, that the length

of a degree was 122,399 English yards. At this time there was no reason to

suppose that the earth was flattened at the Poles. Shortly afterwards, it

having been discovered that the weights of bodies were less at the equator

than at Paris, Huygens and Cassini directed their attention, as we have

already stated, to the subject of the figure of the earth. In 1670 Picard

measured an arc of the meridian in France; and in 1718, the whole area

extending through France was measured by Cassini and other philosophers.

The results of this measurement seemed to disprove Newton's theory, that

the curvature of the earth diminished as we recede from the equator. To

remove all doubts, an arc near the equator was measured in Peru, by some

French and Spanish astronomers; and an arc near the arctic circle by some

French and Swedish astronomers; the result was a confirmation of Newton's

theory, and that the equatorial diameter exceeded the polar by about 1/204

part of the whole.

Since this period, arcs of the meridian have been measured in several

countries. In 1787 it was determined by the British and French governments

to connect the observatories of Greenwich and Paris by a series of

triangles, and to compare the differences of latitudes and longitudes,

ascertained by astronomical observations, with those ascertained by actual

measurement. The measurement in England was extended to a survey of the

whole kingdom; and the accurate maps thus obtained have been since

published. Arcs of the meridian have also been measured lately from Dunkirk

to Barcelona,--in Lapland, by which an error in the former measurement

there was corrected;--and in India.

We have been thus particular in our notice of this subject, because it is

evident that such measurements must lie at the foundation of all real

improvements in the construction of maps.

Let us next turn our attention to the improvements in navigation which have

taken place during the last and present centuries; these seem to consist,

principally, in those which are derived from physical science, and those

which are derived from other sources.

The grand objects of a navigator are the accurate knowledge of where he

exactly is, in any part of his course, and how he ought to steer, in order

to reach his destination in the shortest time. The means of ascertaining

his latitude and longitude, of calculating how far he has sailed, and at

what rate he is sailing, and the direction of his course with reference to

the port to which he is desirous to proceed, are what he principally

requires. We do not intend, by any means, to enter at any length, or

systematically, on these subjects; but a brief and popular notice of them

seems proper and necessary in such a work as this.

Astronomy here comes essentially to the aid of navigation: we have already

seen how, even in the rudest state of the latter, it derived its chief

assistance from this sublime science, confined as it then was to a

knowledge of the position of a few stars. Astronomy enables the navigator

to ascertain his latitude and longitude, and to find the variation of the

compass. The principal difficulty in ascertaining the latitude at sea,

arose from the unsteady motion of the ship: to remedy this, several

instruments were invented. We have already alluded to the astrolobe; but

this, as well as the others, were imperfect and objectionable, till such

time as Hadley's quadrant was invented, the principle and uses of which

were first suggested by Newton.

To ascertain the longitude was a much more difficult task: there are

evidently two methods of doing this,--by time-keepers or chronometers, and

by making the motions of the celestial bodies serve instead of

time-keepers. About the middle of the seventeenth century, Huygens proposed

the pendulum clock for finding the longitude at sea; but it was unfit for

the purpose, for many and obvious reasons. Watches, even made with the

utmost care, were found to be too irregular in their rate of going, to be

depended upon for this purpose. In the reign of Queen Anne the celebrated

act was passed, appropriating certain sums for encouraging attempts to

ascertain the longitude. Stimulated by this, Mr. Harrison invented his

time-keeper, which on trial was found to answer the purpose with such

tolerable accuracy, that he was deemed worthy to receive the sum awarded by

parliament: it went within the limit of an error of thirty miles of

longitude, or two minutes of time, in a voyage to the West Indies. Since

this period, chronometers have been much improved, and excellent ones are

very generally used: perhaps the most trying circumstances in which any

were ever placed, existed during the voyage for the discovery of a

northwest passage by Captain Parry; and then most of those he had with him

were found to be extremely accurate.

It is evident, however, that chronometers are liable to a variety of

accidents, and that in very long voyages the means of verifying their rate

of going seldom occur. Hence the lunar method, or the method of

ascertaining the longitude by means of the motions of the moon, is more

useful and valuable. Here again, the profoundest researches of Clairaut,

Euler, D'Alembert, and La Place, were brought practically to bear on

navigation. Guided and aided by these, Tobias Mayer, of Gottingen, compiled

a set of solar and lunar tables, which were sent to the lords of the

admiralty, in the year 1755; they gave the longitude of the moon within

thirty seconds. They were afterwards improved by Dr. Maskelyne and Mr.

Mason, and still more lately by Burg and Burckhardt; the error of these

last tables will seldom exceed fifteen seconds, or seven miles and a half.

The computations, however, necessary in making use of these tables, were

found to be very laborious and inconvenient; to obviate this difficulty,

the nautical almanack, suggested by Dr. Maskelyne, was published, which is

now annually continued. The longitude is thus ascertained to such a nicety,

as to secure the navigator from any danger arising from the former

imperfect modes of finding it; "he is now enabled to make for his port

without sailing into the parallel of latitude, and then, in the seaman's

phrase, running down the port, on the parallel, as was done before this

method was practised. Fifty years ago, navigators did not attempt to find

their longitude at sea, unless by their reckoning, which was hardly ever to

be depended on."

Not long after the mariner's compass was employed, its variation was

noticed; as it is obvious that, unless the degree and direction of this

variation are accurately known, the compass would be of little service in

navigation, the attention of navigators and philosophers was carefully

directed to this point; and it was ascertained that the quantity of this

variation is subject to regular periodical changes. By means, therefore, of

a table indicating those changes, under different latitudes and longitudes,

and of what are called variation charts, the uncertainty arising from them

is in a great measure done away. Another source of error however existed,

which does not seem to have been noticed till the period of Captain Cook's

voyages: it was then found, "that the variation of the needle differed very

sensibly on the same spot, with the different directions of the ship's

head." Captain Flinders attributed this to the iron in the ship, and made a

number of observations on the subject; these have been subsequently added

to and corrected, so that at present the quantity of variation from this

cause can be ascertained, and of course a proper allowance made for it. It

does not appear that any material improvement has been made in the

construction and use of the log,--that useful and necessary appendage to

the compass,--since it was invented about the end of the sixteenth century.

These are the most important improvements in nautical knowledge and

science, which renders navigation at present so much more safe and

expeditious than it formerly was; there are, however, other circumstances

which tend to the same object; the more full, accurate, and minute

knowledge of the prevalent winds at different times of the year, and in

various parts of the ocean; the means of foretelling changes of weather;

and, principally, a knowledge of the direction and force of the currents

must be regarded as of essential advantage to the seaman. When to these we

add, the coppering of ships, which was first practised about the year 1761,

and other improvements in their built and rigging, we have enumerated the

chief causes which enable a vessel to reach the East Indies in two-thirds

of the time which was occupied in such a voyage half a century ago.

Nor must we forget that the health of the seamen has, during the same

period, been rendered infinitely more secure; so that mortality and

sickness, in the longest voyages, and under great and frequent changes of

climate, and other circumstances usually affecting health, will not exceed

what would have occurred on land during the same time.

The great advantages which the very improved state of all branches of

physical science, and of natural history, bestow on travellers in modern

times, are enjoyed, though not in an equal degree, by navigators and by

those who journey on land. To the latter they are indeed most important,

and will principally account for the superiority of modern travels over

those which were published a century ago, or even fifty years since. It is

plain that our knowledge of foreign countries relates either to animate or

inanimate nature: to the soil and geology, the face of the surface, and

what lies below it; the rivers, lakes, mountains, climate, and the plants;

or to the natural history, strictly so called:--and to the manners,

institutions, government, religion, and statistics of the inhabitants.

Consequently, as the appropriate branches of knowledge relating to these

objects are extended, travellers must be better able, as well as more

disposed, to investigate them; and the public at large require that some or

all of them should at least be noticed in books of travels. The same

science, and many of the same instruments, which enable the seaman to

ascertain his latitude and longitude, and to lay down full and accurate

charts of the shores which he visits, are also useful to the

land-traveller; they both draw assistance from the knowledge of meteorology

which they may possess, to make observations on the climate, and from their

acquaintance with botany and natural history, to give an account of the

plants and animals. But it is evident that so far as the latter are

concerned, as well as so far as relates to the inhabitants, the land

traveller has more opportunities than he who goes on a voyage.

But there are other advantages enjoyed by modern travellers besides those

derived from superior science: foreign languages are at present better and

more generally understood; and it is unnecessary to point out how important

such an acquisition is, or rather how indispensible it is to accurate

information. The knowledge of the languages of the East which many of the

gentlemen in the service of the East India Company, and the missionaries,

possess, has been of infinite service in making us much better acquainted

with the antiquities, history, and present state of those countries, than

we could possibly have otherwise been. There is at present greater

intercourse among even remote nations; and prejudices, which formerly

operated as an almost insurmountable barrier, are now either entirely

destroyed, or greatly weakened: in proof of this, we need only refer to the

numerous travellers who have lately visited Egypt,--a country which it

would have been extremely dangerous to visit half a century ago. At the

same distance of time, natives of Asia or Africa, especially in their

appropriate costume, were seldom or never seen in the streets of London,

or, if seen, would have been insulted, or greatly incommoded by the

troublesome curiosity of its inhabitants; now there are many such, who walk

the streets unmolested, and scarcely noticed.

Commerce, which has derived such advantages from the progress of

geographical knowledge, has in some measure repaid the obligation, by

creating a much greater, more intimate, and more frequent mutual

intercourse among nations; and by doing away with those prejudices and

antipathies which formerly closed many countries effectually against

Christian and European travellers: and to the zeal and perseverance of

modern travellers, assisted as they are by commercial intercourse, we may

reasonably hope that we shall, before long, be indebted for a knowledge of

the interior of Africa. Those countries still imperfectly known in the

south-east of Asia will, probably, from their vicinity to our possessions

in Hindostan, be explored from that quarter. The encreasing population of

the United States, and the independence of South America, will necessarily

bring us acquainted with such parts of the new world as are still unknown.

But it is difficult to conjecture from what sources, and under what

circumstances, the empires of China and Japan will be rendered more

accessible to European travellers: these countries, and some parts of the

interior of Asia, are cut off from our communication by causes which

probably will not speedily cease to operate. The barriers which still

enclose all other countries are gradually yielding to the causes we have

mentioned; and as, along with greater facilities for penetrating into and

travelling within such countries, travellers now possess greater

capabilities of making use of the opportunities thus enjoyed, we may hope

that nearly the whole world will soon be visited and known, and known, too,

in every thing that relates to inanimate and animate nature.

The progress of commerce during the last hundred years, the period of time

to which we are at present to direct our attention, has been so rapid, its

ramifications are so complicated, and the objects it embraces so various

and numerous, that it will not be possible, within the limits to which we

must confine ourselves, to enter on minute and full details respecting it;

nor would these be consonant to the nature of our work, or generally

interesting and instructive.

During the infancy of commerce, as well as of geographical science, we

deemed it proper to be particular in every thing that indicated their

growth; but the reasons which proved the necessity, or the advantage, of

such a mode of treating these subjects in the former parts of this volume,

no longer exist, but in fact give way to reasons of an opposite

nature--reasons for exhibiting merely a general view of them. Actuated by

these considerations, we have been less minute and particular in what

relates to modern geography, than In what relates to ancient; and we shall

follow the same plan in relation to what remains to be said on the subject

of commerce. So long as any of the causes which tended to advance geography

and commerce acted obscurely and imperfectly--so long as they were in such

a weak state that the continuance of their progress was doubtful, we

entered pretty fully into their history; but after a forward motion was

communicated to them, such as must carry them towards perfection without

the possibility of any great or permanent check, we have thought it proper

to abstain from details, and to confine ourselves to more general views.

Guided by this principle which derives additional weight from the vastness

to which commerce has reached within the last hundred years, we shall now

proceed to a rapid and general sketch of its progress during that period,

and of its present state.

From the first and feeble revival of commerce in the middle ages, till the

discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, the Italian republics, and the

Hanseatic League, nearly monopolized all the trade of Europe; the former,

from their situation, naturally confining themselves to the importation and

circulation of the commodities supplied by the East, and by the European

countries in the south of Europe, and the districts of Africa then known

and accessible; while the latter directed their attention and industry to

those articles which the middle and north of Europe produced or

manufactured.

The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope gave a different direction to the

commerce of the East, while at the same time it very greatly extended it;

but as it is obvious that a greater quantity of the commodities supplied by

this part of the world could not be purchased, except by an increase in the

produce and manufactures of the purchasing nations, they also pushed

forward in industry, experience, skill, and capital. The Portuguese and

Spaniards first reaped the fruits of the discovery of the Cape of Good

Hope; subsequently the Dutch; and at the period at which this part of our

sketch of commerce commences, the English were beginning to assume that

hold and superiority in the East, by which they are now so greatly

distinguished. The industry of Europe, especially of the middle and

northern states, was further stimulated by the discovery of America, and,

indirectly, by all those causes which in the fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries tended to increase information, and to secure the liberty of the

mass of the people. The invention of printing; the reformation; the

destruction of the feudal system, at least in its most objectionable,

degrading, and paralizing features; the contentions between the nobility

and the sovereigns, and between the latter and the people; gave a stimulus

to the human mind, and thus enlarged its capacities, desires, and views, in

such a manner, that the character of the human race assumed a loftier port.

From all these causes commerce benefited, and, as was natural to expect, it

benefited most in those countries where most of these causes operated, and

where they operated most powerfully. In Holland we see a memorable and

gratifying instance of this: a comparatively small population, inhabiting a

narrow district, won and kept from the overwhelming of the ocean, by most

arduous, incessant, and expensive labour,--and the territory thus acquired

and preserved not naturally fertile, and where fertile only calculated to

produce few articles,--a people thus disadvantageously situated, in respect

to territory and soil, and moreover engaged in a most perilous, doubtful,

and protracted contest for their religion and liberty, with by far the most

potent monarch of Europe,--this people, blessed with knowledge and freedom,

forced to become industrious and enterprizing by the very adverse

circumstances in which they were placed, gradually wrested from their

opponents--the discoverers of the treasures of the East and of the new

world, and who were moreover blessed with a fertile soil and a luxurious

climate at home,--their possessions in Asia, and part of their possessions

in America. Nor did the enterprising spirit of the Dutch confine itself to

the obtaining of these sources of wealth: they became, as we have already

seen, the carriers for nearly the whole of Europe; by their means the

productions of the East were distributed among the European nations, and

the bulky and mostly raw produce of the shores of the Baltic was exchanged

for the productions and manufactures of France, England, Germany, and the

Italian states.

From the middle of the eighteenth century, the commerce of the Dutch began

to decline; partly in consequence of political disputes among themselves,

but principally because other nations of Europe now put forth their

industry with effect and perseverance. The English and the French,

especially, became their great rivals; first, by conducting themselves each

their own trade, which had been previously carried on by the Dutch, and,

subsequently, by the possessions they acquired in the East. The American

war, and soon afterwards the possession of Holland by the French during the

revolutionary war, gave a fatal blow to the remnant of their commerce, from

which it has not recovered, nor is likely at any time to recover, at least

nearly to its former flourishing state. For, as we have remarked, the Dutch

were flourishing and rich, principally because other nations were ignorant,

enslaved, and destitute of industry, skill, and capital.

England took the place of the Dutch in the scale of commercial enterprise

and success: the contest between them was long and arduous; but at length

England attained a decided and permanent superiority. She gradually

extended her possessions in the East; and after expelling the French from

this part of the world, became in reality the only European sovereign power

there.

The manufactures of England, those real and abundant causes and sources of

her immense commerce, did not begin to assume that importance and extent to

which they have at present reached, till the middle, or rather the latter

part of the eighteenth century; then her potteries, her hardware, her

woollens, and above all her cotton goods, began to improve. Certainly the

steam engine is the grand cause to which England's wealth and commerce may

be attributed in a great degree; but the perfection to which it has been

brought, the multifarious uses to which it is applied, both presuppose

skill, capital, and industry, without which the mere possession of such an

engine would have been of little avail.

At the termination of the American war, England seemed completely

exhausted: she had come out of a long and expensive contest, deprived of

what many regarded as her most valuable possessions, and having contracted

an enormous debt. Yet in a very few years, she not only revived, but

flourished more than ever; it is in vain to attribute this to any other

causes but those alone which can produce either individual or national

wealth, viz. industry, enterprize, knowledge, and economy, and capital

acquired by means of them. But what has rendered Britain more industrious,

intelligent, and skilful than other nations?--for if we can answer this

question, we can satisfactorily account for her acquisition of capital; and

capital, industry, and skill existing, commerce and wealth must necessarily

follow.

Britain enjoys greater political freedom, and greater security of property

than any other European nation; and without political freedom, the mass of

the people never can be intelligent, or possess either comprehensive views

or desires; and where views and desires are limited, there can be no

regular, general, and zealous industry. Unless, however, security of

property is enjoyed, as well as political liberty, industry, even if it

could spring up under such circumstances, must soon droop and decay. It is

a contradiction in terms to suppose that comprehensive views and desires

can exist and lead to action, when at the same time it is extremely

doubtful whether the objects of them could be realized, or, if realized,

whether they would not immediately be destroyed, or torn from those whose

labour, and skill, and anxious thought had acquired them.

But there are other causes to which we must ascribe the extension of

British manufactures and commerce; of these we shall only enumerate what we

regard as the principal and the most powerful: the stimulus which any

particular improvement in manufactures gives to future and additional

improvements, or rather, perhaps, the necessity which it creates for such

additional improvements; the natural operation of enlarged capital; the

equally natural operation of encreased wealth among the various classes of

the community; the peculiar circumstances in which Britain has been placed

since the termination of the war which deprived her of her American

colonies; and, lastly, her national debt. A short view of each of these

particulars will, we believe, sufficiently account for the present

unparalleled state of British manufactures and commerce.

The direct effect of improvement in the mode of manufacturing any article,

by the introduction of a more powerful machinery, is to encrease the

quantity, and to lower the price of that article. Hence it follows, that

those who manufacture it on the old plan must be undersold, unless they

also adopt such machinery; and as knowledge, both speculative and

practical, has greater chance to improve in proportion as it is spread,

from this cause, as well as from the more powerful cause of rival

interests, wherever improvements in manufactures have begun and been

extended, they are sure to advance.

That this is not theoretical doctrine requires only an appeal to what has

been effected, and is yet effecting in Britain, to prove. A very curious,

interesting, and instructive work might be written on the improvements in

the cotton machinery alone, which have been made in this country during the

last forty years: we mean interesting and instructive, not merely on

account of the tacts relative to mechanical ingenuity which it would

unfold, but on account of the much higher history which it would give of

the mechanism of the human mind, and of the connections and ramifications

of the various branches of human knowledge. In what state would the

commerce of Great Britain have been at this time, if the vast improvements

in the machinery for spinning cotton had not been made and universally

adopted?--and how slowly and imperfectly would these improvements have

taken place, had the sciences been unconnected, or greater improvements,

which at first were unseen or deemed impracticable, not been gradually

developed, as lesser improvements were made. The stimulus of interest, the

mutual connection of various branches of science, and above all the

unceasing onward movement of the human mind in knowledge, speculative as

well as practical, must be regarded as the most powerful causes of the

present wonderful state of our manufactures, and, consequently, of our

commerce.

2. The natural operation of enlarged capital is another cause of our great

commerce. There is nothing more difficult in the history of mankind--not

the history of their wars and politics, but the history of their character,

manners, sentiments, and progress in civilization and wealth--[as->than] to

distinguish and separate those facts which ought to be classed as causes,

and those which ought to be classed as effects. There can be no doubt that

trade produces capital; and, in this point of view, capital must be

regarded as an effect: there can be as little doubt, that an increase of

capital is favourable to an increase of commerce, and actually produces it;

in this point of view, therefore, capital must be regarded as a cause. As

in the physical world action and reaction are equal, so are they, in many

respects, and under many circumstances, in the moral and intellectual

world; but, whereas in the physical world the action and reaction are not

only equal but simultaneous, in the moral and intellectual world the

reaction does not take place till after the immediate and particular action

from which it springs has ceased.

To apply these remarks to our present subject, it is unnecessary to point

out in what manner trade must increase capital; that capital, on the other

hand, increases trade, is not, perhaps, at first sight, quite so obvious;

but that it must act in this manner will be perceptible, when, we reflect

on the advantages which a large capital gives to its possessor. It enables

him to buy cheaper, because he can buy larger quantities, and give ready

money; buying cheaper, he can sell cheaper, or give longer credit, or both;

and this must ensure an increase of trade. It enables him immediately to

take advantage of any improvement in the mode of manufacturing any article;

and to push the sale of any article into countries where it was before

unknown. Such are some of the more important effects on commerce of large

capital; and these effects have been most obviously and strikingly shewn in

the commercial history of Britain for the last thirty years, and thus give

a practical confirmation to the doctrine, that capital, originally the

creature of trade, in its turn gives nourishment, rigour, and enlarged

growth to it.

3. Encreased wealth among the various classes of the community, may be

viewed In the same light as capital; it flows from increased trade, and it

produces a still further increase of trade. The views, and desires, and

habits of mankind, are like their knowledge, they are and must be

progressive: and if accompanied, as they generally are, by increased means,

they must give birth to increased industry and skill, and their necessary

consequences, increased trade and wealth.

Had the views, desires, and habits of mankind, and especially of the

inhabitants of Europe and the United States, continued as they were fifty

years ago, it is absolutely impossible that one half of the goods

manufactured in Great Britain could have been disposed of; and unless these

additional and enlarged views, desires, and habits, had been accompanied

with commensurate means of gratifying them, our manufactures and commerce

could not have advanced as they have done. Minutely and universally divided

as human labour is, no one country can render its industry and skill

additionally productive, without, at the same time, the industry and skill

of other countries also advance. No one nation can acquire additional

wealth, unless additional wealth is also acquired in other nations. Before

an additional quantity of commodities can be sold, additional means to

purchase them must be obtained; or, in other words, increased commerce,

supposes increased wealth, not only in that country in which commerce is

increased, but also in that where the buyers and consumers live.

4. Since the termination of the American war, Britain has been placed in

circumstances favourable to her commerce: the human mind cannot long be

depressed; there is an elasticity about it which prevents this. Perhaps it

is rather disposed to rebound, in proportion to the degree and time of its

restraint. It is certain, however, that the exhaustion produced by the

American war speedily gave place to wonderful activity in our manufactures

and commerce; and that, at the commencement of the first French

revolutionary war, they had both taken wonderful and rapid strides. The

circumstances, indeed, of such a country as Britain, and such a people as

the British, must be essentially changed,--changed to a degree, and in a

manner, which we can hardly suppose to be brought about by any natural

causes,--before its real wealth can be annihilated, or even greatly or

permanently diminished. The climate and the soil, and all the improvements

and ameliorations which agriculture has produced on the soil, must remain:

the knowledge and skill, and real capital of the inhabitants, are beyond

the reach of any destroying cause: interest must always operate and apply

this knowledge and skill, unless we can suppose, what seems as unlikely to

happen as the change of our climate and soil, the annihilation of our

knowledge and skill, or that interest should cease to be the stimulating

cause of industry; unless we can suppose that political and civil freedom

should be rooted out, and individual property no longer secure.

Circumstances, however, though they cannot destroy, must influence,

beneficially or otherwise, the wealth and commerce of a country; and it may

happen that circumstances apparently unfavourable may become beneficial.

This was the case with Britain: during the American war, her manufactures

and commerce languished; during the French wars they increased and throve

most wonderfully. The cause of this difference must be sought for

principally in the very artificial and extraordinary circumstances in which

she was placed during the French war: and of these circumstances, the most

powerfully operative were her foreign loans; her paper circulation; the

conquests and subsequent measures of Bonaparte on the continent; and her

superiority at sea. Foreign loans necessarily rendered the exchange

unfavourable to Britain; an unfavourable exchange, or, in other words, a

premium on bills, in any particular country, enabled the merchant to sell

his goods there at a cheaper rate than formerly, and consequently to extend

his commerce there. The paper circulation of Britain,--though a bold and

hazardous step, and which in a less healthy and vigorous state of public

credit and wealth than Britain enjoyed could not have been taken, or, if

taken, would not have produced nearly the beneficial effects it did, and

would have left much more fatal consequences than we are at present

experiencing,--undoubtedly tended to increase her commerce; and the very

stimulus which it gave to all kinds of speculation has been favourable to

it. The ruinous consequences of such speculation, though dreadful, are

comparatively of short duration; whereas it is impossible that speculation

should be active and vigorous, with commensurate means, without improving

manufactures, and opening new channels for commerce; and these effects must

remain. In what manner the measures of Bonaparte on the continent, and our

superiority at sea, were favourable to our commerce, it is unnecessary to

explain.

Lastly. It only remains to explain how our national debt has been

beneficial to our commerce. Necessity, if it is not absolutely

overpowering, must act as a stimulus to industry as well as interest: the

desire to avoid evil, and the desire to obtain good, are equally powerful

motives to the human mind. In the same manner as an increase of family, by

creating additional expense, spurs a man to additional industry; so the

certainty that he must pay additional taxes produces the same effect.

Individuals may contrive to shift the burden from themselves, and pay their

taxes by spending less; but there can be no doubt that the only general,

sure, and permanent fund, out of which additional taxes can be paid, must

arise from the fruits of additional industry. We wish to guard against

being taken for the advocates for taxation, as in any shape a blessing: we

are merely stating what we conceive to be its effect. But we should no more

regard taxation as a blessing, because it increased commerce, than we

should regard it as a blessing to a man, that, from any cause, he was

obliged to work fourteen hours a day instead of twelve. In both cases,

increased labour might be necessary, but it would not the less be an evil.

The only other nation, the commerce of which has increased very materially

and rapidly, is the United States of America; and if we trace the chief and

most powerful causes of their commercial prosperity, we-shall still further

be confirmed in the opinion, that at least some of the causes which we have

assigned for the extension of British commerce are the true ones; and that,

in fact, commerce cannot generally or permanently increase where these

causes do not exist, and that where they do they must encourage and extend

it

It is not our intention to enter into a detail of the causes of American

prosperity, except so far as they are connected with its commerce. They

may, however, be summed up in a few words. An inexhaustible quantity of

land, in a good climate, obtained without difficulty, and at little

expence; with the produce of it, when obtained and cultivated, entirely at

the disposal and for the exclusive advantage of the proprietor. The same

with regard to all other labour; or, in other words, scarcely any taxes:

and with respect to labour in general, great demand for it, and extremely

high wages. These are causes of increased population and of prosperity, and

indirectly of commerce, peculiar to America. It requires no illustration or

proof to comprehend how the increased produce of a new soil must supply

increased articles for commerce. While Britain, therefore, finds increased

articles for her commerce, from her improvements in the machinery

applicable to manufactures, by means of which the same quantity of human

labour is rendered infinitely more productive,--the United States finds

materials for her increased commerce, in the increasing stock of the

produce of the soil.

Political and civil liberty, and the consequent security of property, are

causes of commercial prosperity, common to the United States and Britain.

It may also be remarked, that the circumstances of Europe, almost ever

since the United States have had a separate and independent existence, have

been favourable to its commerce. The long war between Britain and France

afforded them opportunities for increasing their commerce, which they most

sedulously and successfully embraced and improved. They became, in fact,

the carriers for France, and in many cases the introducers of British

produce into the continent.

There is only another circumstance connected with the United States to

which we deem it necessary to advert in this brief and general developement

of the causes of their commercial prosperity: we allude to the wonderful

facilities for internal commerce afforded them by their rivers, and

especially by the Mississippi and its branches. There can be no doubt that

easy, speedy, cheap, and general inter-communication to internal

trade,--whether by means of roads and canals, as in England, or by means of

rivers as in America, is advantageous to foreign commerce, both directly

and indirectly. It is advantageous directly, in so far as it enables the

manufacturer with great facility, and at little expence, to transmit his

goods to the places of exportation; and to ascertain very quickly the state

of the markets by which he regulates his purchases, sales, and even the

quantity and direction of his labour. It is advantageous indirectly, in so

far as by stimulating and encouraging internal trade, it increases wealth,

and with increased wealth comes the increased desire of obtaining foreign

produce, and the increased means to gratify that desire.

We deemed it proper to preface the details we shall now give on the subject

of the present state of commerce with these general remarks on the

principal causes which have enlarged it, in those two countries in which

alone it flourishes to a very great extent. But, as we have already

remarked, commerce cannot extend in one country, without receiving an

impulse in other countries. While, therefore, British and American commerce

have been increasing, the general commerce of the whole civilized world,

and even of parts hardly civilized, have been increasing; but in no country

nearly to the extent to which it has reached in Britain and the United

States, because none are blessed with the political advantages they enjoy,

or have the improved machinery and capital of the one, or the almost

inexhaustible land of the other.

In the details which we are now about to give, we shall confine ourselves

to the statement of any particular circumstance which may have been

favourable or otherwise to the commerce of any country during the last

hundred years, and to an enumeration of the principal ports and articles of

import and export of each country. We shall not attempt to fix the value of

the imports and exports in toto, or of any particular description of them,

because there are in fact no grounds on which it can be accurately fixed.

We shall, however, in the arrangement of the order of the goods exported,

place ihose first which constitute the most numerous and important

articles.

1. The countries in the north of Europe, including Russia, Sweden, Norway,

Denmark, and the countries generally on the south shores of the Baltic.

From the geographical situation of these countries, and their consequent

climate, the chief articles of the export commerce must consist in the

coarsest produce of the soil. These, and the produce of their mines, are

the sources of their wealth, and consequently of their commerce.

The principal exports of Norway consist of timber, masts, tar, potash,

hides, (chiefly those of the goat,) iron, copper, cobalt, tallow, salted

provisions, and fish. Corn, principally from the southern shores of the

Baltic, is the most considerable article of import. The only event in the

modern history of this country, which can affect its commerce, is its

annexation to Sweden; and whether it will be prejudicial or otherwise, is

not yet ascertained.

Denmark consists of the islands in the Baltic, and the peninsula lying in

the north-west of Germany, comprizing Jutland, Sleswig, and Holstein. The

face of the country, both insular and continental, presents a striking

contrast to that of Norway, being flat, and fertile in corn and cattle.

Denmark possesses a large extent of sea coast, but the havens do not admit

large vessels. The communication between the insular and continental

possessions, the German ocean and the Baltic, and consequently the commerce

of Denmark, was much facilitated by the canal of Keil, which was finished

in 1785. Prior to the year 1797, the commerce was much injured by numerous

restraints on importation. During the short wars between this country and

Britain, it suffered considerably. At present it cannot rank high as a

commercial kingdom. Denmark and the Duchies, as they are called, export

wheat, rye, oats, barley, rape seed, horses, cattle, fish, wooden domestic

articles, &c.; and import chiefly woollen goods, silks, cottons, hardware,

cutlery, paper, salt, coals, iron, hemp, flax, wines, tobacco, sugar, and

other colonial produce.

Sweden in general is a country, the wealth, and consequently the objects of

commerce of which, are principally derived from its mines and woods. Its

principal ports are Stockholm and Gothenburgh. The political event in the

history of this country which gave the most favourable impulse to its

commerce in modern times, is the alteration in its constitution after the

death of Charles XII.; by this the liberties of the people were encreased,

and a general stimulus towards national industry was given: agriculture was

improved, the produce of the mines doubled, and the fishery protected. More

lately, the revolution in 1772, and the loss of Finland, have been

prejudicial to Sweden. The principal exports are, iron, copper,

pine-timber, pitch, tar, potash, fish, &c.; the principal imports are,

corn, tobacco, salt, wines, oils, wool, hemp, soap, cotton, silk and

woollen goods, hardware, sugar, and other colonial produce.

The most important commercial port on the southern shore of the Baltic is

Dantzic, which belongs to Prussia. This town retained a large portion of

the commerce of the Baltic after the fall of the Hanseatic League, and with

Lubec, Hamburgh, and Bremen, preserved a commercial ascendency in the

Baltic. It suffered, however, considerably by the Prussians acquiring

possession of the banks of the Vistula, until it was incorporated with the

kingdom in 1793. Dantzic exports nearly the whole of the produce of the

fertile country of Poland, consisting of corn, hides, horse-hair, honey,

wax, oak, and other timber; the imports consist principally of manufactured

goods and colonial produce. Swedish Pomerania, and Mecklenburgh, neither of

which possess any ports of consequence, draw the greater part of their

exports from the soil, as salted and smoked meat, hides, wool, butter,

cheese, corn, and fruit; the imports, like those of Dantzic, are

principally manufactured goods and colonial produce.

The immense extent of Russia does not afford such a variety, or large

supply of articles of commerce, as might be expected: this is owing to the

ungenial and unproductive nature of a very large portion of its soil, to

the barbarous and enslaved state of its inhabitants, and to the

comparatively few ports, which it possesses, and the extreme distance from

the ocean or navigable rivers of its central parts. We have already

mentioned the rise of Petersburgh, and its rapid increase in population and

commerce. The subsequent sovereigns of Russia have, in this as in all other

respects, followed the objects and plans of its founder; though they have

been more enlightened and successful in their plans of conquest than in

those of commerce. The most important advantage which they have bestowed on

commerce, arises from the canals and inland navigation which connects the

southern and the northern provinces of this vast empire. The principal

commerce of Russia is by the Baltic. Petersburgh and Riga are the only

ports of consequence here; from them are exported corn, hemp, flax, fir

timber, pitch, tar, potash, iron and copper, hides, tallow, bristles,

honey, wax, isinglass, caviar, furs, &c. The principal imports consist of

English manufactures and colonial produce, especially coffee and sugar,

wines, silks, &c. The commerce of the Black Sea has lately increased much,

especially at Odessa. The principal exports are, corn, furs, provisions,

&c.; its imports, wine, fruit, coffee, silks, &c. Russia carries on a

considerable internal trade with Prussia, Persia, and China, especially,

with the latter. Nearly the whole of her maritime commerce is in the hands

of foreigners, the Russians seeming rather averse to the sea; and the state

of vassalage in the peasants, which binds them to the soil, preventing the

formation of seamen. Latterly, however, she has displayed considerable zeal

in posecuting maritime discoveries; and as she seems disposed to extend her

possessions in the north-west coast of America, this will necessarily

produce a commercial marine.

2. The next portion of Europe to which we shall direct our attention

consists of Germany, the Netherlands, and France.

Germany, though an extensive and fertile country, and inhabited by an

intelligent and industrious race of people, possesses few commercial

advantages from its want of ports: those on the Baltic have been already

mentioned; those on the German Ocean are Hamburgh and Embden, of which

Hamburgh is by far the most important, while, to the south, the only port

it possesses is Trieste. It is, however, favoured in respect to rivers: the

Elbe, Weser, Rhine, and Danube, with their tributary streams affording

great facilities, not only for inland commerce, but also for the export and

import of commodities. The chief political disadvantage under which Germany

labours, affecting its commerce, arises from the number of independent

states into which it is divided, and the despotic nature of most of its

governments. As might be expected from such a large tract of country, the

productions of Germany are various. Saxony supplies for exportation, wool

of the finest quality, corn, copper, cobalt, and other metals, thread,

linen-lace, porcelain, &c. Hanover is principally distinguished for its

mines, which supply metals for exportation. The chief riches of Bavaria

arise from its corn and cattle: these, with pottery, glass, linen, and

silk, are the exports of Wurtemburgh. Prussia Proper affords few things for

exportation: the corn of her Polish provinces has been already mentioned,

as affording the principal export from Dantzic. Silesia supplies linen to

foreign countries. Austria, and its dependant states, export quicksilver,

and other metals, besides cattle, corn, and wine.

The commerce of the Netherlands, including Holland, though far inferior in

extent and importance to what it formerly was, is still not inconsiderable.

Indeed, the situation of Holland, nearly all the towns and villages of

which have a communication with the sea, either by rivers or canals, and

through some part of the territory of which the great rivers Rhine, Meuse,

and Scheld empty themselves into the sea, must always render it commercial.

The principal ports of the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and

Antwerp. The exports of the Netherlands consist either of its own produce

and manufactures, or of those which are brought to it from the interior of

Germany: of the former, butter, cheese, madder, clover-seed, toys, &c.

constitute the most important; from Germany, by means of the Rhine, vast

floats of timber are brought. The principal imports of the Netherlands,

both for her own use and for the supply of Germany, consist of Baltic

produce, English goods, colonial produce, wines, fruits, oil, &c.

There is perhaps no country in Europe which possesses greater advantages

for commerce than France: a large extent of sea coast, both on the Atlantic

and the Mediterranean; excellent harbours; a rich soil and genial climate,

adapted to a great variety of valuable productions; and some manufactures

very superior in their workmanship,--all these present advantages seldom

found united. Add to these her colonial possessions, and we shall certainly

be surprized that her commerce should ever have been second, to that of any

other country in Europe. Prior to the revolution it was certainly great;

but during and since that period it was and is vastly inferior to the

commerce of Great Britain, and even to that of the United States.

The extent of sea coast on the Atlantic is 283 leagues, and on the

Mediterranean eighty leagues: the rivers are numerous, but none of the

first class. The canal of Languedoc, though from its connecting the

Atlantic and the Mediterranean it would naturally be supposed highly

advantageous to commerce, is not so; or rather, it is not turned to the

advantage to which it might be applied. In England such a canal would be

constantly filled with vessels transporting the produce of one part to

another. It is not, however, so; and this points to a feature in the French

character which, in all probability, will always render them indisposed, as

well as unable, to rival Britain, either in manufactures or commerce.

Besides the want of capital, which might be supplied, and would indeed be

actually supplied by industry and invention, the French are destitute of

the stimulus to industry and invention. As a nation, they are much more

disposed to be content with a little, and to enjoy what they possess

without risk, anxiety, or further labour, than to increase their wealth at

such a price.

The principal commercial ports of France on the Atlantic are Havre, St.

Maloes, Nantes, Bourdeaux, and Bayonne: Marseilles is the only commercial

port of consequence in the Mediterranean. The principal exports of France

are wines, brandy, vinegar, fruit, oil, woollen cloth of a very fine

quality, silk, perfumery, &c.: the imports are Baltic produce, the

manufactures of England; fruits, drugs, raw wool, leather, &c. from Spain,

Italy, and the Mediterranean states.

3. The next division of Europe comprehends Spain, Portugal, Italy, and

Greece.

Spain, a country highly favoured by nature, and at one period surpassed by

no other kingdom in Europe in civilization, knowledge, industry, and power,

exhibits an instructive and striking instance of the melancholy effects of

political degradation. Under the power of the Arabians, she flourished

exceedingly; and even for a short period after their expulsion, she

retained a high rank in the scale of European kingdoms. The acquisition of

her East Indian and American territories, and the high eminence to which

she was raised during the dominion of Charles V. and his immediate

successors,--events that to a superficial view of things would have

appeared of the greatest advantage to her,--proved, in fact, in their real

and permanent operation, prejudicial to her industry, knowledge, and power.

It would seem that the acquisition of the more precious metals, which may

be likened to the power of converting every thing that is touched into

gold, is to nations what it was to Midas,--a source of evil instead of

good. Spain, having substituted the artificial stimulus of her American

mines in the place of the natural and nutritive food of real industry, on

which she fed during the dominion of the Moors, gradually fell off in

commercial importance, as well as in political consequence and power. The

decline in her commerce, and in her home industry, was further accelerated

and increased by the absurd restrictions which she imposed on the

intercourse with her colonies. All these circumstances concurring, about

the period when she fell into the power of the house of Bourbon,--that is,

about the beginning of the eighteenth century,--she sunk very low in

industry and commerce, and she has, since that period, continued to fall.

And yet, as we have observed, she possesses great natural advantages: a sea

coast on the Atlantic and Mediterranean of considerable extent; a great

variety of climate and soil, and consequently of productions,--she might

become, under a wise and free government, distinguished for her political

power and her commerce.

On the Atlantic, the first port towards the north is Saint Sebastian; then

succeeds Bilboa, St. Andero, Gijon, Ferrol, and Corunna; but though some of

these, especially Ferrol and Corunna, possess excellent harbours, yet the

poverty of the adjacent country prevents them from having much trade. To

the south of Portugal is Seville, on the Guadalquiver, sixteen leagues from

the sea; large vessels can ascend to this city, but its commerce was nearly

destroyed by the transfer of the colonial trade to Cadiz. This last town,

one of the most ancient commercial places in the world, is highly favoured

both by nature and art as a port; and before the French revolutionary war,

and the separation of the American colonies from the mother state, was

undoubtedly the first commercial city in Spain. The exports of the northern

provinces consist principally in iron, wool, chesnuts and filberts, &c.;

the imports, which chiefly come from England, Holland, and France, are

woollen, linen, and cotton goods, hardware, and salted fish.

On the Mediterranean, Malaga may be regarded as the third commercial city

in Spain, though its harbour is not good; the other ports in this sea, at

which trade is carried on to any considerable extent, are Carthagena,

Alicant, and Barcelona, which ranks after Cadiz in commercial importance,

and now that the colonial trade is destroyed, may be placed above it. The

principal exports from these Mediterranean towns are wines, dried fruits,

oils, anchovies, wool, barilla, soap, kermes, antimony, vermilion, brandy,

cork, silk, &c. Barcelona formerly exported an immense number of shoes to

the colonies. The imports consist chiefly of Baltic produce, the articles

enumerated as forming the imports of the north of Spain, and some articles

from Italy and Turkey.

Portugal, not nearly so extensive as Spain, nor blessed with such a fertile

territory, is before her in commerce: she possesses two sea-ports of the

first consideration, Lisbon and Oporto; and five of the second class. There

are few cities that surpass Lisbon in commerce. The principal trade of

Portugal is with England; from this country she receives woollens and other

manufactures; coals, tin, salted cod, Irish linen, salt provisions, and

butter: her other imports are iron from the north of Spain; from France,

linens, silks, cambrics, fine woollens, jewellery; from Holland, corn,

cheese, and drugs for dying; from Germany, linens, corn, &c.; and from

Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, Baltic produce. The principal exports of

Portugal are wine, oil, fruits, cork, &c.

The Italian States, the origin of the commerce of the middle ages, are no

longer remarkable for their trade; the principal ports for commerce are

Leghorn, Naples, Venice, Genoa, Messina, and Palermo. The exports of

Leghorn are silk, raw and manufactured; straw hats, olive oil, fruits,

marble, &c.: its chief trade, however, consists in the importation of

English merchandize, which it distributes to all parts of the

Mediterranean, receiving in return their produce to load the British ships

on their home voyage. The greatest import to Naples consists in European

manufactured goods, and salt fish; its exports are those of Leghorn, with

capers, wool, dye stuffs, manna, wax, sulphur, potash, macaroni, &c. Venice

has declined very much, from the influence of political circumstances: her

exports are olives, looking-glasses, rice, coral, Venice treacle, scarlet

cloth, and gold and silver stuffs; the imports are similar to those of

Leghorn and Naples. The exports and imports of Genoa, consisting

principally of those already enumerated, do not require particular notice.

Sicily, a very rich country by nature, and formerly the granary of Rome,

has fallen very low from bad government: her exports are very various,

including, beside those already mentioned, barilla, a great variety of

dying drugs and medicines, goat, kid, and rabbit skins, anchovies, tunny

fish, wheat, &c.: its chief imports are British goods, salted fish, and

colonial produce.

The principal trade of Greece is carried on by the inhabitants of Hydra, a

barren island. The commerce of the Hydriots, as well as of the rest of

Greece, was very much benefited by the scarcity of corn which prevailed in

France in 1796, and subsequently by the attempts of Bonaparte to shut

British manufactures from the continent. These two causes threw the

greatest part of the coasting trade of the Mediterranean into their hands.

The chief articles of export from Greece are oil, fruits, skins, drugs,

volonia, and gall nuts, cotton and wool. The imports are principally

English goods, and colonial produce, tin, lead, &c.

We have already dwelt on the causes which produced the immense commercial

superiority of England; and we shall, therefore, now confine ourselves to

an enumeration of its principal ports, and the principal articles of its

export and import. London possesses considerably above one-half of the

commerce of Great Britain; the next town is undoubtedly Liverpool; then may

be reckoned, in England, Bristol, Hull, Newcastle, Sunderland, Yarmouth,

&c.; in Scotland, Greenock, Leith, Aberdeen, Dundee, &c.; in Ireland, Cork,

Dublin, Limerick, Belfast, Waterford, &c. From the last return of the

foreign trade of Great Britain it appears, that by far the most important

article of export is cotton manufactures and yarn, amounting in real or

declared value to nearly one-half of the whole amount of goods exported;

the next articles, arranged according to their value, are woollen

manufactures, refined sugar, linen manufactures, iron, steel and hardware,

brass and copper manufactures, glass, lead, and shot, &c. &c.; of colonial

produce exported, the principal articles are coffee, piece goods of India,

rum, raw sugar, indigo, &c. &c. The principal imports of Great Britain are

cotton wool, raw sugar, tea, flax, coffee, raw silk, train oil and blubber,

madder, indigo, wines, &c. &c. The principal imports into Ireland consist

of old drapery, entirely from Great Britain; coals, also entirely from

Great Britain; iron wrought and unwrought, nearly the whole from Great

Britain; grocery, mostly direct from the West Indies; tea, from Britain,

&c. &c. In fact, of the total imports of Ireland, five-sixths of them are

from Great Britain; and of her exports, nine-tenths are to Great Britain.

The principal articles of export are linen, butter, wheat, meal, oats,

bacon, pork, &c. &c.

On the 30th September, 1822, there belonged to the United Kingdom 24,642

vessels, making a total of 2,519,044 tons, and navigated by 166,333 men; of

the vessels employed in the foreign trade, including their repeated

voyages, in the year ending the 5th of January 1823, there were about

12,000, of which upwards of 9,000 were British and Irish, and the rest

foreign vessels. The coasting trade of England is calculated to employ 3000

vessels. We have already stated the proportion which the trade of Ireland

to Britain bore to her trade with the rest of the world; this point may be

still further elucidated by the following fact: that the number of vessels,

(including their repeated voyages,) which entered the ports of Ireland,

from all parts of the world, in the year ending the 5th of January, 1823,

was 11,561, and that all these, except 943, came from Great Britain.

From this rapid view of the commerce of the European states, it appears

that, with the exception of Great Britain, by far the largest portion and

greatest value of the exports of each country consist in the produce of the

soil, either in its raw and natural state, or after having undergone a

change that requires little industry, manual labour, or mechanical agency.

Britain, on the contrary, derives her exports almost entirely from the

produce of her wonderful mechanical skill, which effects, in many cases,

what could alone be accomplished by an immense population, and in a few

cases, what no manual labour could perform.

In reviewing the commerce of the remaining parts of the world, we shall

find the articles that constitute it almost exclusively the produce of the

soil, or, where manufactured, owing the change in their form and value to

the simplest contrivances and skill. We shall begin with Asia.

Turkey possesses some of the finest portions of this quarter of the globe;

countries in which man first emerged into civilization, literature, and

knowledge; rich in climate and soil, but dreadfully degraded, oppressed,

and impoverished by despotism. The exports from the European part of Turkey

are carpets, fruit, saffron, silk, drugs, &c.: the principal port is

Constantinople. From Asiatic Turkey there are exported rhubarb and other

drugs, leather, silk, dye stuffs, wax, sponge, barilla, and hides: nearly

the whole foreign trade is centered in Smyrna, and is in the hands of the

English and French, and Italians. The imports are coffee, sugar, liqueurs,

woollen and cotton goods, lead, tin, jewellery, watches, &c.

China, from the immense number of its population, and their habits,

possesses great internal commerce; but, with the exception of her tea,

which is taken away by the English and Americans, her export trade is not

great. She also carries on a traffic overland with Russia, to which We have

already alluded, and some maritime commerce with Japan. Besides tea, the

exports from China are porcelain, silk, nankeens, &c.; the imports are the

woollen goods, and tin and copper of England; cotton, tin, pepper, &c. from

the British settlements in India; edible birds' nests, furs, &c.

The trade of Japan is principally with China: the exports are copper,

lackered ware, &c.; the imports are raw silk, sugar, turpentine, drugs, &c.

The trade of the Birman empire is also principally with China, importing

into it cotton, amber, ivory, precious stones, betel nuts, &c., and

receiving in return raw and wrought silk, gold leaf, preserves, paper, &c.

European broad cloth and hardware, Bengal muslins, glass, &c. are also

imported into this country.

But by far the most important commerce that is carried on in the eastern

parts of Asia, consists in that which flows from and to Calcutta, Bombay,

and Madras. In fact, the English country trade there, as it is called, is

of great value, and embraces a very great variety of articles. Bombay is

the grand emporium of the west of India, Persia, and Arabia; here the

productions of those countries are exchanged against each other, and for

the manufactures, &c. of England. The principal articles of export from

Bombay to these places, as well as to England, are cotton piece goods,

sugar, and saltpetre, received from Bengal; pepper from Sumatra; coffee

from the Red Sea. The imports from Europe are woollens, tin, lead, &c. A

very lucrative trade is carried on from Bombay to China, to which it

exports cotton in very great quantity, sandal wood, &c., and receives in

return sugar, sugar-candy, camphire, nankeens, &c. There is also

considerable traffic between Bombay and Bengal, Ceylon, Pegu, and the Malay

archipelago. The exports of Ceylon are cinnamon, arrack, coir, cocoa nuts:

the imports are grain, piece goods, and European merchandize. The commerce

of the eastern coast of Hindostan centers in Madras: the exports from this

place are principally piece goods, grain, cotton, &c.; the imports, woollen

manufactures, copper, spirits, pepper, and other spices. The trade of

Bengal may be divided into four branches: to Coromandel and Ceylon, the

Malabar coast, Gulph of Persia and Arabia, the Malay archipelago and China

and Europe. The principal exports by the port of Calcutta are piece goods,

opium, raw silk, indigo, rice, sugar, cotton, grain, saltpetre, &c.: the

principal imports are woollen goods, copper, wine, pepper, spices, tea,

nankeen, camphire, &c.

A considerable trade is carried on in the Malay archipelago from Prince of

Wales Island, which, since it was settled by the English, has become the

emporium of this trade.--Batavia, Bencoolen, and Achen; the principal

articles of export from these islands are cloves, nutmegs, camphire,

pepper, sago, drugs, bichedemer, birds' nests, gold dust, ivory, areca

nuts, benzoin, tin, &c.: the imports are tea, alum, nankeens, silks, opium,

piece goods, cotton, rice, and European manufactures. Manilla is the depôt

of all the productions of the Philippines, intended to be exported to

China, America, and Europe. The exports of these islands are birds' nests,

ebony, tobacco, sugar, cotton, cocoa, &c. The commerce of New Holland is

still in its infancy, but it promises to rise rapidly, and to be of great

value: a soil very fertile, and a climate adapted to the growth of

excellent grain, together with the uncommon fineness of its wool, have

already been very beneficial to its commerce.

The external commerce of Persia is principally carried on by the foreign

merchants who reside at Muscat, on the Persian Gulph: into this place are

imported from India, long cloths, muslins, silks, sugar, spices, rice,

indigo, drugs, and European manufactures; the returns are copper, sulphur,

tobacco, fruits, gum-arabic, myrrh, frankincense, and all the drugs which

India does not produce.

The Red Sea, washed on one side by Asia, and on the other by Africa, seems

the natural transit, from this consideration, of the commerce of the former

quarter of the globe to that of the latter. Its commerce is carried on by

the Arabians, and by vessels from Hindostan: Mocha and Judda are its

principal ports. The articles sent from it are coffee, gums and drugs,

ivory, and fruit: the imports are the piece goods, cotton, and other

produce of India; and the manufactures, iron, lead, copper, &c. of Europe.

Egypt, in which anciently centered all the commerce of the world, retains

at present a very small portion of trade: the principal exports from

Alexandria consist in the gums and drugs of the east coast of Africa,

Arabia, Persia, and India; rice, wheat, dates, oil, soap, leather, ebony,

elephants' teeth, coffee, &c. The imports are received chiefly from France

and the Italian States, and England; and consist in woollen and cotton

goods, hardware, copper, iron, glass, and colonial produce. The commerce of

the Barbary States is trifling: the exports are drugs, grain, oil, wax,

honey, hides and skins, live bullocks, ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.; the

imports, colonial produce, (which indeed finds its way every where,)

cutlery, tin, woollen and linen goods, &c. The exports of the rest of

Africa are nearly similar to those enumerated, viz. gums, drugs, ivory,

ostrich feathers, skins, gold dust, &c. From the British settlement at the

Cape are exported wine, wheat, wool, hides, &c.

The United States claim our first notice in giving a rapid sketch of the

commerce of America: we have already pointed out the causes of their

extraordinary progress in population and wealth. American ships, like

English ones, are found in every part of the world: in the South Sea

Islands, among people just emerging into civilization and industry; among

the savages of New Zealand; on the north-west coast of America; and on the

dreadful shores of New South Shetland. Not content with exporting the

various productions of their own country, they carry on the trade of

various parts of the globe, which, but for their instrumentality, could not

have obtained, or ever have become acquainted with each other's produce.

The exports from America, the produce of their own soil, are corn, flour,

timber, potash, provisions, and salt fish from the northern States; corn,

timber, and tobacco from the middle States; and indigo, rice, cotton, tar,

pitch, turpentine, timber, and provisions, to the West Indies, from the

southern States. The imports are woollen, cotton goods, silks, hardware,

earthen-ware, wines, brandy, tea, drugs, fruit, dye-stuffs, and India and

colonial produce. By far the greatest portion of the trade of the United

States is with Great Britain. The principal ports are Boston, New York,

Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans.

The British settlements in America export, chiefly from Quebec and Halifax,

corn, potash, wheel timber, masts, lumber, beaver and other furs, tar,

turpentine, and salted fish from Newfoundland. The imports are woollen and

cotton goods, hardware, tea, wine, India goods, groceries, &c.

The exports of the West India Islands are sugar, coffee, rum, ginger,

indigo, drugs, and dye stuffs. The imports are lumber, woollen and cotton

goods, fish, hardware, wine, groceries, hats, and other articles of dress,

provisions, &c.

Brazil, and the late Spanish settlements in America, countries of great

extent, and extremely fertile, promise to supply very valuable articles for

commerce; even at present their exports are various, and chiefly of great

importance. Some of the most useful drugs, and finest dye stuffs, are the

produce of South America. Mahogany and other woods, sugar, coffee,

chocolate, cochineal, Peruvian bark, cotton of the finest quality, gold,

silver, copper, diamonds, hides, tallow, rice, indigo, &c. Carthagena,

Porto Cabello, Pernambucco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Ayres, are

the principal ports on the east coast of South America; and Valparaiso,

Calloa (the port of Lima), Guayaquil, Panama, and Acapulco, on the west

coast.

Our sketch of commerce would be incomplete, did it not comprehend a short

notice of the manner in which the trade of great part of Asia and Africa is

conducted, by means of caravans. This is, perhaps, the most ancient mode of

communication between nations; and, from the descriptions we possess, the

caravans of the remotest antiquity were, in almost every particular, very

similar to what they are at present. The human race was first civilized in

the East. This district of the globe, though fertile in various articles

which are well calculated to excite the desires of mankind, is intersected

by extensive deserts; these must have cut off all communication, had not

the camel,--which can bear a heavy burden, endure great famine, is very

docile, and, above all, seems made to bid defiance to the parched and

waterless desert, by its internal formation, and its habits and

instinct,--been civilized by the inhabitants. By means of it they have,

from the remotest antiquity, carried on a regular and extensive commerce.

The caravans may be divided into those of Asia and those of Africa: the

great centre of the former is Mecca: the pilgrimage to this place, enjoined

by Mahomet, has tended decidedly to facilitate and extend commercial

intercourse. Two caravans annually visit Mecca; one from Cairo, and the

other from Damascus. The merchants and pilgrims who compose the former come

from Abyssinia; from which they bring elephants' teeth, ostrich feathers,

gum, gold dust, parrots, monkies, &c. Merchants also come from the Senegal,

and collect on their way those of Algiers, Tunis, &c. This division

sometimes consists of three thousand camels, laden with oils, red caps,

fine flannels, &c. The journey of the united caravans, which have been

known to consist of 100,000 persons, in going and returning, occupies one

hundred days: they bring back from Mecca all the most valuable productions

of the East, coffee, gum arabic, perfumes, drugs, spices, pearls, precious

stones, shawls, muslins, &c. The caravan of Damascus is scarcely inferior

to that of Cairo, in the variety and value of the produce which it conveys

to Mecca, and brings back from it, or in the number of camels and men which

compose it. Almost every province of the Turkish empire sends forth

pilgrims, merchants, and commodities to this caravan. Of the Asiatic

caravans, purely commercial, we know less than of those which unite

religion and commerce; as the former do not travel at stated seasons, nor

follow a marked and constant route. The great object of those caravans is

to distribute the productions of China and Hindustan among the central

parts of Asia. In order to supply them, caravans set out from Baghar,

Samarcand, Thibet, and several other places. The most extensive commerce,

however, carried on in this part of Asia, is that between Russia and China.

We have already alluded to this commerce, and shall only add, that the

distance between the capitals of those kingdoms is 6378 miles, upwards of

four hundred miles of which is an uninhabited desert; yet caravans go

regularly this immense distance. The Russians and Chinese meet on the

frontiers; where the furs, linen and woollen cloth, leather, glass, &c. of

Russia, are exchanged for the tea, porcelain, cotton, rice, &c. of China.

This intercourse is very ancient. There are also caravans of independent

Tartars, which arrive on the Jaik and Oui, and bring Chinese and Indian

commodities, which they interchange for those of Russia.

Tombuctoo is the great depot of central Africa: with it the maritime states

of Egypt, Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, and Morocco carry on a very extensive

and lucrative trade by means of caravans. They take 129 days in travelling

to Tombuctoo from the borders of the desert, but only fifty-four are spent

in actual travelling. There is also another caravan which sets off from

Wedinou, and after collecting salt at West Tagossa, proceeds to Tombuctoo.

This goes as far as the White Mountains, near Cape Blanco, and is occupied

five or six months in its journey. The merchandize carried by these

caravans is German linens, Irish linens, muslins, woollen cloth, coral

beads, pearls, silk, coffee, tea, sugar, shawls, brass nails, &c. &c. In

exchange they bring back chiefly the produce of Soudan, viz. gold dust,

gold rings, bars of gold, elephants' teeth, gum, grains of paradise, and

slaves. There are also several caravans that trade between Cairo and the

interior of Africa, which are solely employed in the traffic of slaves.

There can be no doubt that caravans arrive at Tombuctoo from parts of

Africa very distant from it, and not only inaccessible, but totally

unknown, even by report, to Europeans, and even to the inhabitants of North

Africa.

What a picture does modern commerce present of the boundless desires of

man, and of the advancement he makes in intellect, knowledge, and power,

when stimulated by these desires! Things familiar to use cease to attract

our surprise and investigation; otherwise we should be struck with the

fact, that the lowest and poorest peasant's breakfast-table is supplied

from countries lying in the remotest parts of the world, of which Greece

and Rome, in the plenitude of their power and knowledge, were totally

ignorant. But the benefits which mankind derives from commerce are not

confined to the acquisition of a greater share and variety of the comforts,

luxuries, or even the necessaries of life. Commerce has repaid the benefits

it has received from geography: it has opened new sources of industry; of

this the cotton manufactures of Britain are a signal illustration and

proof:--it has contributed to preserve the health of the human race, by the

introduction of the most valuable drugs employed in medicine. It has

removed ignorance and national prejudices, and tended most materially to

the diffusion of political and religious knowledge. The natural philosopher

knows, that whatever affects, in the smallest degree, the remotest body in

the universe, acts, though to us in an imperceptible manner, on every other

body. So commerce acts; but its action is not momentary; its impulses, once

begun, continue with augmented force. And it appears to us no absurd or

extravagant expectation, that through its means, either directly, or by

enlarging the views and desires of man, the civilization, knowledge,

freedom and happiness of Europe will ultimately be spread over the whole

globe.

[6] Since this part of our work was written, the narrative of Lieutenant

Franklin has been published: from this it appears, that he was engaged

in this arduous undertaking during the years 1819, 1820, 1821, and

1822; that the route he followed to the Coppermine River was to the

east o the routes of M'Kenzie and Hearne; that he reached the river

three hundred and thirty-four miles north of Fort Enterprize; and the

Polar Sea in lat. 67° 47' 50"; and in longitude 115° 36' 49" west;

that he sailed five hundred and fifty miles along its shores to the

eastward, and then returned to Port Enterprize.

CATALOGUE OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.

_Preliminary Observations on the Plan and Arrangement pursued

in drawing up this Catalogue_.

It is obvious, that whoever undertakes to draw up a catalogue of books on

any particular subject, must proceed on one or other of these two

plans,--either to give a complete catalogue of all the works published on

that subject, or a select catalogue of what seems to him the best works. It

is scarcely necessary to point out the objection to the first plan, arising

from the impracticability of making any catalogue absolutely complete; but

it may be said, though not absolutely complete, it may, by sufficient

information and diligence, be rendered nearly so. Let us suppose, then,

that by unwearied assiduity and research, aided and guided by the requisite

knowledge, a catalogue is rendered as perfect as it practically can be

made,--is the utility of such a catalogue enhanced in a proportion any

thing approaching to the labour, research, and time expended upon it; or,

rather, would not such a catalogue be much less useful than one within

smaller compass, drawn up on the plan of selection?

On all subjects there are more bad or indifferent works published than good

ones. This remark applies with peculiar justice and force to modern works

of voyages and travels. A very extensive catalogue, therefore, must contain

a large portion of bad or indifferent books, which are not worth the

purchasing, the consulting, nor the perusing; consequently, if such works

appear in a catalogue drawn up for the purpose of guiding those who purpose

to travel in particular countries, to write on the subject of them, or

merely to read respecting them for the sake of information, it is plain

that such a catalogue cannot be trusted as a safe and judicious guide; as

if the persons consulting it select for themselves, there is an equal

chance of selecting useless books as good ones; and if they attempt to

peruse all, they must waste a great deal of time.

It may be said, however, that this objection can easily be obviated, by

distinguishing such works as are bad or indifferent from such as are good,

either by a short notice, or by a particular mark. The first plan

necessarily must increase the size of the catalogue; and it really appears

a piece of superfluous labour to introduce works not worthy to be perused,

and then, either by a notice or mark, to warn the reader from the perusal

of them. Is it not much more direct to omit such works altogether?

As the object in view in the present catalogue is to render it useful to

the generality of readers, and not valuable to the bibliographer, those

works are omitted which have no other recommendation but their extreme

scarcity. For such works are of course accessible only to very few, and

when obtained, convey little interest or information.

A select catalogue then appears to be the most useful, and of course must

occupy less room. But to this objections start up, which it will be proper

to consider.

In the first place, What is the criterion of good works of voyages and

travels? The antiquarian will not allow merit to such as pass over, or do

not enter, _con amore_, and at great length, into the details of the

antiquities of a country: the natural historian is decidedly of opinion,

that no man ought to travel who is not minutely and accurately acquainted

with every branch of his favourite science, and complains that scarcely a

single work of travels is worthy of purchase or perusal, because natural

history is altogether omitted in them, or treated in a popular and

superficial manner. Even those who regard man as the object to which

travellers ought especially to direct their attention, differ in opinion

regarding the points of view in which he ought to be studied in foreign

countries. To many the travels of Johnson and Moore seem of the highest

merit and interest, because these authors place before their readers an

animated, philosophical, and vivid picture of the human character; whereas

other readers consider such works as trifling, and contend that those

travels alone, which enter into the statistics of a country, convey

substantial information, and are worthy of perusal.

Whoever draws up a catalogue, therefore, must, in some measure, consult the

judgment, taste, and peculiar studies of all these classes of readers, and

endeavour to select the best works of travels in all these branches.

But there is a second objection to a select catalogue to be considered. The

information and research of the person who draws it up may be inadequate to

the task, or his judgment may be erroneous. This observation, however,

applies to a complete catalogue--indeed the first part of it,--the

information and research requisite, in a greater degree to a complete than

to a select catalogue; and with respect to the judgment required, it will

be equally required in a complete catalogue, if the bad and indifferent

works are distinguished from the good ones; and if they are not, such a

catalogue, we have already shewn, can only lead astray into unnecessary or

prejudicial reading.

Whoever draws up a catalogue, or gives to the public a work on any

particular subject, is bound to make it as good as he can; but, after all,

he must not expect that there will be no difference of opinion about his

labours. Some will think (to confine ourselves to the catalogue) that he

has admitted books that ought not to have found a place in it; whereas

others will impeach his diligence, his information, or his judgment,

because he has omitted books which they think ought to have entered into

it. All, therefore, that a person who engages to draw up a catalogue can

do, is to exercise and apply as much research and judgment as possible, and

to request his readers, if they find general proofs of such research and

judgment, to attribute the omission of what they think ought to have been

inserted, or the insertion of what they think ought to have been omitted,

to difference of opinion, rather than to a deficiency in research or

judgment.

It may be proper to remark, with regard to the principle of selection

pursued, that many works are admitted which do not bear the title of

travels; this has been done, wherever, though not under that title, they

are the result of the actual travels and observations, or enquiries of the

authors. The form into which information respecting the agriculture,

manufactures, commerce, antiquities, natural history, manners, &c. of

foreign countries is cast, or the title under which it is communicated to

the world, is obviously of little consequence, provided the information is

not merely compiled by a stranger to the country, and is accurate and

valuable. Such works, however, as are avowedly written for scientific

purposes, and for the exclusive use of scientific men, and are consequently

confined to scientific researches and information conveyed in the peculiar

language of the science, are omitted.

So much for the plan on which this catalogue has been drawn up. Before we

proceed to explain the arrangement pursued, it may be proper to make a few

remarks on some intermediate points. One advantage of a select catalogue

over a complete one is, that it occupies less room. With the same object in

view, only the title in the original language is given where there is no

translation of the work into the English or French; only translations into

English or French are noticed, where such exist, and not the original work;

and all the articles are numbered, so that a short and easy reference may

be made from one article to another.

Room is thus evidently saved, and not, in our opinion, by any sacrifice of

utility. For German or Spanish scholars it is unnecessary to translate the

titles of German or Spanish books, and for the mere English scholar it is

useless. Translations into the French are noticed in preference to the

original, because this language is at present familiar to every literary

man in Britain, and French works can easily be obtained; and the German or

Spanish scholar, who wishes to obtain and peruse the original, can be at no

loss to procure it from the translated title. The advantage of numbering

the articles will be immediately explained in treating of the arrangement.

The catalogue is arranged in the following manner:

After noticing a few of the most useful works which contain instructions to

travellers, in the first place, Collections and Histories of Voyages and

Travels are placed: next follow Voyages round the World;--Voyages and

Travels which embrace more than one quarter of the World;--Travels in

Europe generally;--Travels in more than one Country of Europe;--Travels in

each particular Country of Europe. It is in this particular department of

the Catalogue that the plan of reference by numbers is more especially

necessary and useful; for the Index to the Catalogue being drawn up with

reference to the numbers, not only those travels which are confined to one

country,--France, for instance,--may easily be found, but also all those

travels which comprehend France along with other countries.

The same arrangement is pursued in the other parts of the world,--Asia,

Africa, America, Australasia, and Polynesia. The articles are arranged as

nearly as possible in the chronological order in which the voyages and

travels were performed in each particular country, and the countries are

placed according to their geographical relation to one another.

I.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELERS.

1. L'Utilité des Voyages qui concernent la Connoissance des Inscriptions,

Sentences, Dieux, Larés, Peintures anciennes, Bas Reliefs, &c. Langues,

&c.; avec un Memoire de quelques Observations générales qu'on peut faire

pour ne pas voyager inutilement. Par Ch. C. Baudelot Dairval. 2 vol. 12mo.

Paris 1656.--The Rouen edition is much inferior. This is an excellent

work.

2. C. Linnæus on the Benefit of Travelling in one's own Country. (In

Stillingfleet's Tracts.) This was published in Latin, separately, and in

the Amoenitates Academicæ, in the Select, ex Amoenit.; and in the

Fundamenta Botanices of Gilibert.

3. Instructio Peregrinatoris, Dissertatio. Præside C. Linnæo. 1759, 4to.

4. Mémoire Instructif sur la Manière de rassembler, de préparer, de

conserver, et d'envoyer les diverses Curiosités d'Histoire Naturelle. Par

Turgot. 1758. 8vo.--This work is also appended to "Avis pour le Transport

par Mer des Arbres, des Plantes vivaces, des Semences, et de diverses

autres Curiosités d'Histoire Naturelle. Par L.H. Duhamel." Published at

Paris, 1753. 12mo.

5. Directions in what Manner Specimens of all Kinds may be collected,

preserved, &c. By J.R. Forster. London, 1771.--This tract, worthy of its

well-informed and able author, was published along with his Catalogue of

North American Animals.

6. The Naturalist's and Traveller's Companion. By J.C. Lettsom, M.D.

London, 1799 8vo.

7. Analysis of the Natural Classification of Mammalia, for the Use of

Travellers.

Introduction to the Ornithology of Cuvier, for the Use of Travellers.

Introduction to Conchology, for the Use of Travellers. By T.E. Bowdich.

Paris, 1821-2. 8vo.

8. Instructions for Travellers. By Dean Tucker. 1757. 4to.

9. Essay to direct and extend the Enquiries of patriotic Travellers. By

Count Berchtold.--The second volume contains a Catalogue of Travels in

Europe; the first alone relates to the subject of the title. 2 vols. 8vo.

1789.

10. Essay on the Study of Statistics; intended to assist the Enquiries of

inexperienced Travellers. By D. Boileau. 12mo. 1807.

11. Fried. J. Freyherr von Gunderode Gedanken uber Reisen. Frankfort, 1781.

8vo.

12. Apodenick, oder die kunst zu Reisen von Posselt. Leipsic, 1795.

8vo.--This is an excellent work.

13. Uber den Worth und Nutzen der Fussreisen. Hanover, 1805. 8vo.--We

notice this work, because it points out the superior advantages possessed

by foot travellers, in exploring the natural beauties and natural history

of a country.

II.

COLLECTIONS AND HISTORIES OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.

14. The principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the

English Nation, made by Sea or Over-land, to the remote and farthest

distant Quarters of the Earth. By Richard Hakluyt, 3 vols. fol. 1598, 1599,

1600.--This work is often incomplete; the completeness of it may be

ascertained by its containing the voyage to Cadiz, which was suppressed by

order of Queen Elizabeth, after the disgrace of the Earl of Essex. The

first volume of this collection contains Voyages to the North and

North-east: The True State of Iceland; The Defeat of the Spanish Armada:

The Victory at Cadiz, &c. The second volume contains Voyages to the South

and South-east Parts of the World: and the third to North America, the West

Indies, and round the World. It has lately been republished.

15. S. Purchas, his Pilgrims and Pilgrimages, 5 vols. folio, 1625-26.--The

first volume contains Voyages by the Ancient Circumnavigators of the Globe:

Voyages along the Coasts of Africa to the East-Indies, Japan, China,

Philippines, and the Persian and Arabian Gulphs. Vol. 2. contains Voyages

and Relations of Africa, Ethiopia, Palestina, Arabia, Persia, Asia. Vol. 3.

Tartary, China, Russia, North-west America, and the Polar Regions. Vol. 4.

America and the West Indies. Vol. 5. Early History of the World; of the

East Indies; Egypt; Barbary, &c. &c.

16. A General Collection of Voyages and Travels. Published by Astley. 4

vols. 4to. 1745.

17. A Collection of Voyages and Travels, some now first printed from

original MSS.; others now first published in English. By Churchill. 6 vols.

folio. 1732.

18. Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca. Harris's Collection of

Voyages and Travels, from Hakluyt, Purchas, Ramusio, &c. The whole work

revised and continued, by Dr. John Campbell. 2 vols. fol. 1744.

19. A General Collection of the best and most interesting Voyages and

Travels, in all Parts of the World. By John Pinkerton. 1808-1814. 17 vols.

4to.

20. A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, arranged in

systematic Order. By Robert Kerr. Edin. 1811-22. 18 vols. 8vo.

21. Relation de divers Voyages curieux, qui n'ont point encore été publiés,

et qu'on a traduits ou tirés des Originaux des Voyageurs Français,

Espagnols, Allemands, &c. &c. Par M. Thevenot. Paris, 1696. 2 vol.

fol.--This work is seldom found complete: the marks of the complete and

genuine edition are given in the Bibliothèque des Voyages, vol. i. pp. 82,

83. To this work the following is a proper supplement:

22. Recueil des Voyages de M. Thevenot. Paris, 1681. 8vo.

23. Recueil des Voyages qui ont servi a l'Etablissement et au Progrès de la

Campagne des Indes Orientates Hollandaises. Par Constantin.--The best

editions are those of Amsterdam, 1730, and of Paris and Rouen, 1705; each

in 10 vol. 12mo.

24. Recueil des Voyages au Nord, &c. Amsterdam, 1717. 8 vol. 12mo.

25. Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses. Paris, 1780, 1781. 24 vols. 12mo.

26. Mémoires Orientales. Paris, 1789. 12mo.

27. Collection Portative de Voyages, traduit de différentes Langues

Orientales et Europiennes. Par Langles. Paris, 3 vols. 18mo.

28. Histoire Générale des Voyages. Par Prevot. Paris, 20 vols. 4to.--This

work is valuable for its excellent engravings, maps, plans, &c., but in

other respects its value has fallen, in consequence of the following

abridgment of it:

29. Abrégé de l'Histoire Générate des Voyages de Prevot. Par La Harpe.

Paris, 1780-1786. 23 vols. 8vo.--The last five volumes contain voyages and

travels not given by Prevot. This work also has been continued by Comeyras

in 1798-1801, in 9 vols. 8vo.

30. Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale des Voyages. Par La Harpe. 2 vols. 12mo.

Paris, 1820.--This abridgment is executed with considerable judgment; it is

necessarily confined to the most novel and curious parts of the narratives

and descriptions.

31. Annales des Voyages. Par Malte Brun. 25 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1814-1817.

32. Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Par Malte Brun et Eyries.--Twelve

volumes are already published: four volumes are published annually. Perhaps

the very high character of Malte Brun would lead us to expect a more severe

and judicious selection than some parts of this work exhibit; but, on the

whole, it is valuable.

33. Journal des Voyages, Découvertes et Navigations Modernes, ou Archives

Géographiques du 19me Siècle.--This work began in Nov. 1818, and is

published monthly. Like all collections of this kind, the value of it would

have been encreased, and the bulk much diminished, if the selection had

been more scrupulous.

34. Delle Navigationi e Viaggi raccolti da M.G.B. Ramusio. Venet.--The most

complete and accurate edition of this book consists of vol. 1. of the

edition of 1588; vol. 2. of 1583; the third of 1565; and the Supplement of

1606.

35. J.R. Forster und M.C. Sprengel, Beytrage zur Volker-und Landerkunde.

Leipsic, 1781--94. 13 vols. 8vo.

36. Magazin von merkerurdigen Reisebeschreibungen, aus fremden Sprachen

ubersizt. Von J.R. Forster. Berlin, 1790--1802. 24 vols. 8vo.

37. Bibliothek der neuesten und wichtigstien Reisebeschreibungen. Von M.C.

Sprengel. Weimar, 1801. &c. 22 vols. 8vo.--There are many other

collections in German; the best of which are noticed by Ersch, in his

Literatur der Geschichte und deren Hulfswissenschaften. Leipsic, 1813.

38. Samling af de beste og nyeste Reise-beskriveler. Copen. 1790--5. 12

vols. 8vo.

39. Danskes Reise-iagttagelser. Copen. 1798--1800. 4 vols. 8vo.

40. Versamnelling der gedenkwaardegsten Reisen nae oost en West Indien door

de Bry. Leyden, 1707--10. 30 vols. 8vo.

41. El Viagero Universal. Madrid, 1800.--This work was published originally

in small parts, which form a great many volumes in 8vo.

42. Novus Orbis Regionum et Institutorum Veteribus incognitarum. Basle,

1532. fol. Paris, 1582. fol.

43. Collectiones Peregrinationum in Indiam Orientalem et Occidentalem.

Francfort, 1590--1634. 7 vols. fol., or 9 vols. fol.--The first edition,

when complete, is by far the most valuable. Several dissertations have been

published on this work, which is generally called Les Grands et Petits

Voyages. In 1742 the Abbé de Rothelin published Observationes sur des

Grands et Petits Voyages. In 1802 Camus published Mémoire sur la Collection

des Grands et Petits Voyages; and Debure, in his Bibliographe, has devoted

upwards of one hundred pages to this work. Whoever wishes to ascertain

exactly the best edition, should consult these authors, and the

Bibliotheque des Voyages, vol. 1. 57.

III.

VOYAGES AND TRAVELS ROUND THE WORLD.

Boucher de la Richarderie, the author of the Bibliothèque Universelle

des Voyages, makes some just remarks on the nature and extent of those

voyages to which this appellation is usually applied. He observes that

for the most part, by a Voyage round the World, is understood a voyage

either by the Atlantic Ocean or the Indian Sea to the Pacific or Great

Southern Ocean, the visiting the isles in the last, exploring the

Antarctic Seas, and returning by the route opposite to that by which the

ship went out. This certainly is a voyage round the world, though

probably scarcely any part of Asia, Africa, or America has been explored

or visited, except for the purposes of refitting or provisioning the

ship. But when these quarters of the globe, and especially the unknown

parts of them, have been visited, the application of the term, though

not perhaps so correct verbally, is more justly made. There is a third

class of voyages thus denominated, which, though they embrace the four

quarters of the globe, do not extend to the South Sea, or the

Australasian Lands. All these three classes are comprehended in the

following catalogue, and we have deemed it right also to follow the

author of the Bibliothèque in dividing them into two parts, ancient

voyages round the world, and modern voyages: the first comprehend

voyages of the first class, and were performed from the middle of the

sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century.

44. Il Viaggio fatto dagli Spanuoli attorno il Mondo, 1536. 4to.--This is

the first edition of the Voyages of Pigafetta, who sailed with Magellan in

his celebrated Voyage round the World, but it is incomplete. The genuine

and complete work was published for the first time from a MS. in the

Ambrosian Library of Milan, with notes, by Amoretti, under the following

title:

45. Primo Viaggio, intorno al Globo terraqueo fatto dal Casaglieri Ant.

Pigafetta. Milan, 1800. 4to.--The same editor published a French

translation, with a description of the Globe of Behaim. Magellan's Voyage

is published in the first volume of Harris's Collection.

46. C. Ortoga resumen del primero Viage hecho ad rededor del Mundo. Per H.

Magellanes. Madrid, 1769. 4to.

47. The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, to which is added the

Prosperous Voyage of Mr. Thomas Candish. London, 1741. 8vo. also in Harris,

vol. 1. The second voyage of Candish is in Purchas.

48. The principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffique and Discoveries of the

English Nation. London, 1599. 2 vols. folio.

49. The Discoveries of the World, from their original to 1555, translated

from the Portuguese, by R. Hackluyt. London, 1610. 4to.

50. Funnell's Voyage round the World. London, 1607. 8vo. In Harris, vol. 1.

51. Description du penible Voyage fait autour de l'Univers. Par O. du Nord.

Amsterdam, 1602, in folio.--This is translated from the Dutch. An English

translation is given in Harris, vol.1.

52. Voyage de Jacques l'Hermite autour du Monde. Amsterdam, 1705-12.--This

also is translated from the Dutch.

53. Dampier's New Voyage round the World. London, 1711. 3 vols. 8vo.--The

French translation in 5 vols. 12mo. contains also the voyages of Wafer,

Wood, Cowley, Robert, and Sharp. Dampier's and Cowley's are in Harris, vol.

1.

54. A Voyage round the World. By Captain G. Shelvocke. London, 1757. 8vo.

This is also in Harris, vol. 1.

55. Voyage round the World, by Wood Rogers. London, 1728, 8vo. In Harris,

vol. 1.

56. Voyage round the World, by Lord Anson. By Walter, corrected by Robins.

London, 1749. 4to.

57. Hawksworth's Account of the Voyages for making Discoveries in the

Southern Hemisphere, performed by Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook, 1773.

3 vols. 4to.

58. Captain Cook's Voyage towards the South Pole, and round the World,

1777. 2 vols. 4to.

59. Captains Cook, Clarke, and Gore's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. By Cook

and King, with an introduction by Bishop Douglas, 1784. 3 vols. 4to.

60. G. Forster's Voyage round the World, with Captain Cook, during

1772-75-77. 2 vols. 4to.

61. Bougainville's Voyage round the World, translated from the French. By

J.R. Forster, 1772. 4to.

62. Voyage round the World, more particularly to the North-west Coast of

America, in 1785-88. By Captain Dixon, 1789. 4to.

63. Captain Portlock's Account of the same Voyage; 1789. 4to.

64 A Voyage round the World in 1785-88. By De la Perouse, translated from

the French. 2 vols. 4to. and Atlas of Prints, 1799.

65. Account of a Voyage in search of La Peyrouse, translated from the

French of Labellaidiere. 2 vols. 8vo. and Atlas in 4to. 1800.

66. Marchand's Voyage round the World, 1790-92. 2 vols. 4to. Translated

from the French.

67. A Voyage of Discovery into the North Pacific Ocean, and round the World

in 1790-5. By G. Vancouver, 3 vols. 4to. and an Atlas. 1798.

68. A Missionary Voyage to the South Pacific Ocean in 1796-8. 4to. 1799.

69. Flinder's Voyage to Terra Australis in 1801-3. 2 vols. 4to. with an

Atlas, 1814.

70. Liansky's Voyage round the World, 1803-5, performed by order of

Alexander the First. 4to.

71. Langsdorffe's Voyages and Travels in various Parts of the World,

1803-7. 2 vols. 4to. Translated from the German.

72. Krusenstern's Voyage round the World, 1803-6. 2 vols. 4to. Translated

from the German.

73. A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea, and Behring's Straits, in

1815-18. By Kotzebue. 3 vols. 8vo. 1821. Translated from the German, but

badly.

74. Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde. Par Choris. Livraison, 1-9. Paris,

1821.--This splendid work illustrates Kotzebue's Voyage, by engravings of

the savages of the different parts he visited; their arms, dresses,

diversions, &c. On this account alone, however, we should not have given it

a place here; but it is recommended to the natural historian, by the

descriptions which Cuvier has added to the engravings of animals; and to

the craniologist, by the observations of Gall, on the engravings of human

skulls.

75. Peregrinacion que ha hecho de la mayor partè del Mundo. Par D.P.S.

Cubero. Sarragoss. 1688. folio.

76. Giro del Mondo del G.F. Gemelli Carreri. Naples, 1699. 7 vols. 8vo.

IV.

TRAVELS COMPRISING DIFFERENT QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE.

77. Letters from Barbary, France, Spain, and Portugal. By an English

Officer (Jardine), 1794. 2 vols. 8vo.

78. Cor. de Jong Reisen naer de Cap de Goede Hop, Ierland en Norwégen.

Haarlem, 1802. 8vo.

79. Friedrich, Briefe au einen freund, eine reise von Gibraltar nach Tanger

und von da durch Spanien, und Frankreich, Zurich, nach Deutschland,

betreffend. (In the Historical Magazine of Gottingen, 4th year. 1st

cahier.)

80. Voyage to the Levant in 1700, by Tournefort. Translated from the

French, 3 vols. 8vo.--These travels bear too high a character to be

particularly pointed out. They comprise the Archipelago, Constantinople,

the Black Sea, Armenia, Georgia, the Frontiers of Persia and Asia Minor;

and are rich and valuable in the rare junction of antiquarian and botanical

knowledge.

81. Le Bruyn's Voyage to the Levant, and Travels into Muscovy, Persia, and

the East Indies. Translated from the French. 1720. 8 vols. fol.

82. Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia.

Translated from the German of Baron Strahlenberg. 1738, 4to.

83. Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, with a

Journey of Travels from London, through Russia, Germany, and Holland. By

James Hanway. 1754. 2 vols. 4to.

84. Bell of Antermony's Travels from St. Petersburgh in Russia to several

Parts of Asia. Glasgow, 1763. 2 vols. 4to.

85. Memoirs of B.H. Bruce, containing an Account of his Travels in Germany,

Russia, Tartary, and the Indies. 1782. 4to.

86. A Journey from India to England, in the year 1797. By John Jackson.

1799. 8vo.

87. Histoire des Découvertes faites par divers Voyageurs. Pallas, Gmelin,

Guldenstedt, et Lepechin, dans plusieurs Contrées de la Russe et de la

Perse. La Haye, 1779. 2 vol. 4to. & 6 8vo.

88. Nouvelles Relations du Levant. Par Poullet. Paris, 1688. 2 vols.

12mo.--This is a scarce and valuable work, especially that part of it which

relates to Asiatic Turkey, Georgia, and Persia: there is likewise in it a

particular account of the commerce of the English and Dutch in the Levant

at this period.

89. Le Voyage du Sieur Duloir. Paris, 1654. 4to.--This work, beside much

historical information respecting Turkey, and the Siege of Babylon in 1639,

contains many particulars regarding the Religion, &c. of the Turks. It

comprises the Archipelago, Greece, European Turkey and Asia Minor. It is

likewise particular in the description of antiquities.

90. Les Voyages de Jean Struys en Moscovie, en Tartarie, en Perse, aux

Indes. Traduits du Hollandais. Amsterdam. 4to. 1681. Rouen, 3 vols. 12mo.

1730.--The Travels of Struys, who was actuated from his earliest youth with

an insatiable desire to visit foreign countries, are especially interesting

from the account he gives of Muscovy and Tartary at this period.

91. Voyages très Curieux et très Renommés, faits en Moscovie, Tartarie et

Perse. Par Adam Olearius. Traduits d'Allemagne. Amsterdam, fol.

92. Voyages en différent Endroits d'Europe et d'Asie. Par le P. Avril.

Paris, 1692. 4to.--The object of this voyage, which was commenced in 1635,

principally consisted in the discovery of a new route to China. Turkey,

Armenia, European and Asiatic Russia. Tartary, &c. are comprised in these

Travels.

93. Voyage en Turquie et en Perse. Par M. Otter. Paris, 1748. 2 vols.

12mo.--The chief merit of this work consists in the exactitude of its

descriptions of places, and in the determination of their distances and

true positions, which are further illustrated by maps.

94. Beschreibung der Reise eines Polnishchen Herrn Bothschafters gen

Constantinople und in die Tartary. Nuremberg, 1574. 4to.

95. Sal. Schweiger Reise-beschriebung aus Deutschland nach Constantinopel

und Jerusalem. Nuremberg, 1608. 4to.

96. Reise van Erfurt nach dem gelobten land, auch Spanien, Franckreich,

Holland und England. Erfurt, 1605. 4to.

97. Muntzer von Babenbergh, Reise von Venedig nach Jerusalem, Damascus und

Constantinopel, 1556. Nurembergh. 4to.

98. Brand, Reisen durch Brandenburgh, Preussen, Curland, Liefland,

Plescovien und Muscovien. Nebst, A. Dobbins Beschriebung von Siberien, &c.

Wesel, 1702. 8vo.

99. Itinera Sex a diversis Saxoniæ; Ducibus et Authoribus, diversis

Temporibus, in Italiam, Palæstinam et Terram Sanctum. Studio Balt. Mincii.

Wirtemberg, 1612. 12mo.

100. Edwin Sandy's Travels into Turkey, Palestine, Egypt, and Italy, begun

in 1610. fol. 1658.

101. Travels through Europe, Asia, and into several parts of Africa,

containing Observations especially on Italy, Turkey, Greece, Tartary,

Circassia, Sweden and Lapland. By De la Mottraye. 1723. 2 vols. fol.

Veracity and exactness, particularly so far as regards the copying of

inscriptions, characterise these travels. They are also valuable for

information respecting the mines of the North of Europe.

102. Travels of Thevenot into Turkey, Persia, and India. Translated from

the French, 1687. fol. The 4th edition of the original in 3 vols. is very

rare; the more common one is that of Amsterdam in 5 vols. 12mo. These

travels comprise Egypt, Arabia, and other places in Africa and Asia,

besides those places indicated in the title page. The chief value of them

consists in his account of the manners, government, &c. of the Turks. This

author must not be confounded with the Mel. Thevenot, the author of a

Collection of Voyages.

103. A View of the Levant, particularly of Constantinople, Syria, Egypt and

Greece. By Ch. Parry. 1743. fol. 1770. 3 vols. 4to. This work is much less

known than it deserves to be: the author of the bibliotheque des Voyages

justly remarks, that the circumstance of its having been twice translated

into German is a pretty certain indication that it is full of good matter.

104. Description of the East, and some other Countries: Egypt, Palestine,

Arabia, Syria, Greece, Thrace, France, Italy, Germany. Poland, &c. by Dr.

Richard Pococke. 3 vols. fol. 1743-8. The merits of this work in pointing

out and describing the antiquities of Egypt and the East are well known.

105. Travels through Europe, Asia, and Africa. By Lithgow. Edinburgh, 1770.

8vo.--This is one of the best editions of a book, the chief interest of

which consists in the personal narrative of the author.

106. Travels in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Persia. By Olivier.

Translated from the French, 1802. 4to.

107. Dr. Ed. Dan. Clarke's Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia,

and Africa. 6 vols. 4to. Vol. 1. Russia, Turkey, Tartary. Vol. 2. & 3.

Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land. Vol. 4. The same Countries, and a Journey

from Constantinople to Vienna, and an Account of the Gold Mines of

Transylvania and Hungary. Vols. 5. & 6. Scandinavia.--There is no

department of enquiry or observation to which Dr. C. did not direct his

attention during his travels: in all he gives much information in a

pleasant style; and to all he evidently brought much judgment, talent, and

preparatory knowledge.

108. Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary,

1806-7. 2 vols. 8vo.--Those who admire this author's manner and style

will be gratified with these travels: and those who dislike them, may still

glean much information on antiquities, manners, customs, religion, &c.

109. Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Translated by Charles Stewart. 1814. 3 vols. 12mo.--These travels, of the

genuineness of which there can be no doubt, derive their chief interest, as

depicting the character and feelings of the author, and the impressions

made on his mind by what he saw and heard.

110. Les Observations de plusieurs Singularités et Choses mémorables

trouvées en Greece, en Asie, Inde, Arabie, Egypte, &c. Par Pierre

Belon.--Various editions from 1550 to 1585. 4to. Belon is supposed to

have travelled between 1547 and 1550. His work is rich in botany and

natural history, especially considering the period in which he lived; and

the accompanying plates are very accurate.

111. Voyage à Constantinople, en Perse, en Egypte, dans l'année 1546, et

les années suivantes. Par G. Lues d'Aramon, Ambassadeur de France à

Constantinople. Paris, 1739. 3 vols. 4to.--This relates chiefly to the

manners and customs; other pieces are contained in these volumes, which

relate, in a manner more minute than important and edifying, the various

journies in France, of the Kings of France, from Louis the Young to Louis

XIV. inclusive.

112. Les Navigations, Pérégrinations, et Voyages, faits en Turquie. Par

Nicholas Nicholai, Antwerp, fol. 1576.--This also is instructive,

relative to the manners, &c. of many parts of Europe, Africa, and Upper

Asia: the plates are engraved on wood, after the designs of Titian.

113. Relations des Voyages de M. de Breves, tant en Grèce, Terre Sainte.

Egypte, qu'aux Royaumes de Tunis et Alger. Paris, 1628. 4to. De Breves was

ambassador from Henry IV. to the Porte, and sent afterwards on a special

mission to Tunis and Algiers. What he relates regarding these states is the

most curious and valuable part of his work.

114. Les Voyages et Observations du Sieur Laboulaye-le-Goux, où sont

décrits les Religion, Gouvernment, et Situation, des Etats et Royaumes

d'Italie, Grèce, Natolie, Syrie, Perse, Palestine, &c; Grand Mogul, Indes

Orientales des Portugais, Arabie, Afrique, Hollande, Grande Bretagne, &c.

Paris, 1657. 4to.--This work bears a high character for veracity and

exactness; and is very minute in its account of the casts and religions of

India. Prefixed to it is a short critical notice of travellers who preceded

him, written with great judgment and candour.

115. Voyage de Paul Lucas au Levant. Paris, 1704. 2 vols. 12mo.

116. Voyage de Paul Lucas, dans la Grèce, l'Asie Mineure, la Macedoine, et

l' Afrique. Paris, 1712. 2 vols. 12mo.--The credit and veracity of this

author, which was long suspected, has, in many of his most suspicious

parts, been confirmed by modern travellers.

117. Mèmoire du Chevalier D'Arvieux: contenant ses Voyages à

Constantinople, dans l'Asie, la Palestine, l'Egypte, la Barbarie, &c.

Paris, 1735. 6 vols. 12mo.--This author was well qualified from his

knowledge of the oriental languages, and from the official situations he

filled, to gain an accurate and minute knowledge of the people among whom

he resided. His account of his sojourn among the Bedouin Arabs is

particularly curious.

118. Viaggi di P. della Valle dall Anno 1614, fin al' 1626. Venice, 1671. 4

vols. 4to.--These travels comprehend Turkey, Egypt, Palestine, Persia,

and the East Indies. They are written in a pleasant, lively manner; what

relates to Persia is most valuable. They have been translated into French,

English, and German.

119. Schultz, Reisen durch Europa, Asien, und Africa. Halle, 1771-75. 5

vols. 8vo.