* * * * *
FROM 1900 ONWARDS.
[Sidenote: 1900.]
The new year opened auspiciously by the capture of Osman Digna on
the 18th January by Captain F. Burges, Mamur Mohammed Bey, and a
police patrol, in the Warriba Hills, some 90 miles south-west of
Suakin. This notorious Emir was sent to Rosetta to join the other
Dervish prisoners, and is now (1904) at Damietta.
[Sidenote: Sudd and Survey expeditions.]
All the rivers were exceptionally low during the winter of 1899-1900,
and the various expeditions and survey parties which were now started
off had much difficulty in getting through to their posts.
Major Peake commenced clearing the sudd on the last day of December,
and succeeded in opening a channel in the following April (_vide_
p. 304). Sir W. Garstin also came up to study the Bahr el Jebel and
Bahr el Ghazal rivers.
At the end of February parties of English (Uganda) (under Captain
Gage), French (under Lieutenant Tanquedec), and Congolese (under
Commandant Henry) troops arrived at Omdurman, having been found by
Major Peake trying to cut their way through Block 3. The Uganda and
Congolese parties were sent back, and the French (who were evacuating
the Bahr el Ghazal) continued their journey to Europe.
[Sidenote: Abyssinian Frontier.]
With the object of coming to an arrangement with Abyssinia regarding
the frontier between that country and the Sudan, two surveying
expeditions were sent out towards the end of 1899, under Major Austin,
D.S.O., and Lieutenant Gwynn, D.S.O., respectively. The former,
with Lieutenant Bright, surveyed up the Sobat and Baro Rivers to
Gore, and thence in a southerly direction to the Gelo, returning
_viâ_ the Pibor River to Nasser. Owing to obstruction on the part
of local Abyssinian chiefs Major Austin was unable to penetrate to
Lake Rudolf, but the geographical results of his expedition were
most useful. Lieutenants Gwynn and Jackson started up the Blue Nile
to Famaka, thence south along the edge of the Abyssinian plateau,
and across the Sonka to the Garre river, whence they returned _viâ_
Nasser, after doing much valuable survey work.
On 22nd December, 1899, Sir R. Wingate was appointed Sirdar and
Governor-General, vice Lord Kitchener, called to South Africa.
[Sidenote: Millenniumists.]
In January, 1900, an increasing sect in Omdurman, which was
dubbed “the Millenniumists,” and might have led to trouble,
was suppressed.
[Sidenote: Rabeh Zubeir.]
In April Rabeh Zubeir was attacked near Lake Chad by three converging
French columns; he himself was killed, and his kingdom absolutely
destroyed.
The rest of the year was mostly occupied in the Government settling
down to its work, organising the exhausted country, etc.; no events
of any importance took place till the end of the year.
[Sidenote: Kiro.]
A Sudanese post was established in November at Kiro, on the left
bank of the Upper Nile, a few miles north of the Belgian post, about
5° 30′ north lat. This post, finding in April, 1901, that it was
just south of 5° 30′, crossed the river to Mongalla, where it
established itself permanently.
[Sidenote: Occupation of Bahr el Ghazal.]
On November 29th, 1900, an expedition under Lieut.-Colonel Sparkes
left Omdurman in steamers in order to occupy the Bahr el Ghazal. It
consisted of five British and 13 native officers, 82 regulars,
and 266 irregulars, with necessary stores, transport, etc.
[Sidenote: 1901.]
The party arrived at Meshra el Rek on 14th December, 1900, and patrols
were sent out to reconnoitre. Tonj was quickly fixed on as temporary
headquarters (1st January, 1901), and small expeditions were made by
Colonel Sparkes to Wau, Fort Desaix, Rumbek, Amadi, Kiro, Shambe,
and back to Tonj, whilst the remainder of the party consolidated
its position and made friends with the natives. Lieutenant Fell,
R.N., started cutting the sudd in the Jur river, with the object
of opening up a waterway from the Bahr el Ghazal river, but his
arduous labours, lasting for the next 15 months, were not crowned
with success till June, 1902. Major W. Boulnois meanwhile conducted
a patrol to Deim Zubeir, Telgona, Faroge (Forga), and Chamamui,
meeting with a most friendly reception from the chiefs of these
districts, and returned to Tonj on 10th April. Shortly afterwards the
same officer proceded to Rumbek and chastised some raiding Nuers,
with the effect of bringing the Agars and other Dinkas in at once
to acknowledge Government authority.
Colonel Sparkes now made an extensive patrol to the south, to visit
Sultan Tembura of the Nyam Nyams. Here, after many difficulties of
travel, he arrived on 25th June, 1901, and was most cordially received
by the Sultan, whose people were of a comparatively highly civilised
order. Sparkes returned to Wau on the 27th July, and proceeded north
shortly afterwards, suffering severely from fever. In November, as
Major Boulnois, besides many of the troops, was invalided owing to
the same cause, Major Hunter assumed command of the Occupation Force.
[Sidenote: Frontiers.]
In the spring of 1901 the question of the Sudan-Eritrea and Abyssinian
Frontiers claimed the attention of the Sudan Government. Colonel
Hon. M. G. Talbot concluded, with Lieutenant Colli, at Kassala, on
16th April, a treaty[210] regarding the frontier between Sabderat,
the Atbara, Tomat, and Todluk, and a new grazing convention was also
concluded between Colonel Collinson (Mudir of Kassala) and Signor
Martini (Governor-General of Eritrea) on 28th February, 1901. Major
Gwynn, D.S.O., with Captain Smyth, V.C., continued his surveys from
Famaka northwards (he having arrived at this place from Addis Abbaba
on the 14th April), and fixed a series of important points during
his journeys, which extended altogether from Jebel Jerok to Gallabat.
[Sidenote: Major Austin’s expedition.]
Meanwhile Major Austin and Lieutenant Bright had started from Nasser
on a further expedition south-eastwards from Nasser on the 12th
January. They were to find stores provided by the Abyssinians at
Murle, on the north bank of Lake Rudolf, but on arriving at this
point, after making a valuable survey from Nasser, they found no
signs of Abyssinians or stores. They then struck south along the
western shore of the lake, and after suffering severely from hunger
and sickness, and losing 39 out of 53 of their men by starvation,
they eventually arrived at Lake Baringo on the 6th August.
[Sidenote: Darfur.]
Since 1898 Ali Dinar had been with some difficulty establishing
himself on the throne of Darfur. He was appointed Government-Agent
in that country, and in June, 1901, he began paying an annual tribute.
[Sidenote: Raids in Darfur.]
In September Ali Dinar sent a strong force under Tirab Suleiman
against the Maalia and Rizeigat Arabs in the south, whom he wished
to bring under his sway. Tirab raided them heavily, and on their
taking refuge in Kordofan threatened to pursue them thither. The
consequent consternation in Kordofan was only allayed by the Mudir
mobilising a force of camel corps, etc., near the frontier at Foga and
Nahud. Matters quieted down, and Ali Dinar expressed his apologies.
[Sidenote: Wadai.[211]]
To turn to affairs in Wadai:—
At the end of 1898 Sultan Yusef died and nominated his second
son Ibrahim to succeed him, whilst Abdel Aziz his eldest son,
who was a violent and war-like character, was blinded to preclude
the possibility of disturbance. As Dud Murra the youngest of the
three brothers got on well with Ibrahim he was left unmolested,
and the late Sultan Yusef’s body was duly interred at Wara, the
recognised burial place of Wadai Sultans. Ibrahim, on his accession,
though his father Yusef was a strong Senussiist, refused to give up
merissa drinking and declared himself an anti-Senussiist. It was at
Sultan Yusef’s request that Senussi had sent Mohammed El Sunni as
his representative at the Court of Abesher at the end of 1897.
Owing to widespread animosity against Ibrahim, caused partly by this
friction with the Senussiists and partly by his execution of several
of the Agids[212] he determined to leave Abesher on the pretext of
going on pilgrimage to Wara, but in reality to seek refuge in the
mountains of Abu Sinun. Sheraf El Din now took charge of affairs
with the tacit consent of Jerma Othman the chief Agid, and sent an
expedition to bring back the fugitive Ibrahim alive or dead. He was
eventually betrayed by the ex-dervish Emir Zogal[213] and brought
to Abesher, where after being, it is reported, blinded, he died of
his wounds and was buried (1900). “Better,” he said, “to die
as a Sultan in my Palace than to flee shamefully before slaves.”
(The party sent to capture Ibrahim was under the command of the
slave Gorani Gelma.) In 1902 his remains were transferred to Wara.
Thereupon Ahmed Abu Ghazali (so-called on account of his long neck),
the son of the former Sultan Ali, was proclaimed Sultan through the
influence of Sheraf El Din, who continued to have the chief hand in
the government. This direction of affairs by a eunuch was, however,
extremely unpopular and, as a protest, in September, 1901, Sultan
Bekhit of Dar Sula refused to comply with orders from Abesher. Jerma,
too, endeavoured to install Asil as Sultan in place of Ahmed Ghazali,
but as the latter threatened to have Asil’s eyes put out, he fled
to Fitri and surrendered near there to Lieut.-Colonel Destenave,
in the French sphere. Ahmed now became annoyed with Jerma, as he
considered him responsible for the flight of Asil, whilst the people,
on the other hand, by whom Jerma was much liked, demanded the head of
Ghazali’s chief adviser, Sheraf El Din. The Senussi agent, however,
Mohammed El Sunni, now stepped in and effected a reconciliation
between Jerma and Sheraf El Din, but the Sultan deeply incensed at
the conduct of Jerma determined to kill him. Mohammed Sunni, hereupon,
again intervened at the critical moment and obtained his reprieve.
[Illustration: _By kind permission of Capt. Amery._
SONS OF THE MAHDI AND KHALIFA.
(_Now being educated in Egypt._)]
With Jerma free again the Sultan and Sheraf El Din considered they
were no longer safe at Abesher and both resolved to seek refuge in
Dar Salamat. On the flight of the Sultan, Jerma at once assumed the
direction of affairs at the capital and unsuccessfully attacked the
fugitive Sultan’s rearguard soon after it had quitted Abesher. The
pursuit was continued and a severe engagement took place about
40 miles further south. Another action was subsequently fought in
Dar Salamat in November, 1901, and Ghazali continued his flight to
El Batha.
Jerma now returned to Abeshe and in December 1901 proclaimed Dud
Murra, a youth of barely 20 years of age and brother of Sultan
Ibrahim, as Sultan.
[Sidenote: Mohammed El Sunni.]
Mohammed El Sunni, the Senussi agent, is reported (1903) to be dead,
and since the death of the Senussi, in May, 1902, the prestige of
that doctrine is said to have materially decreased in Wadai.
[Sidenote: Rome Conference.]
In November, in consequence of difficulties in the frontier
negotiations between the Sudan, Eritrea and Abyssinia, a Conference
was held in Rome, which resulted in agreements satisfactory to all,
and included customs, postal and telegraph conventions between the
Sudan and Eritrea (_vide_ pp. 292-295).
[Sidenote: Recapitulation to the end of 1901.]
Meanwhile the Sudan Government had been settling itself, exploring
its vast territories, organising and administering the country,
instituting legislation, extending communications, and in general
laying the foundations of good government. Various small disturbances,
not necessary to chronicle in detail, had occurred, chiefly in the
neighbourhood of the frontiers, slave-raiding or refusal of sections
of tribes to pay tribute being the chief causes; but on the whole,
in spite of deficiency of population, limited numbers of officials,
and rigid but necessary economy, the Sudan settled down into an era
of peace and growing prosperity.
[Sidenote: 1902. Bahr el Ghazal.]
In January, 1902, Captain A. M. Pirie occupied Deim Zubeir and
Chamamui, and was then recalled, owing to the murder of Lieutenant
Scott-Barbour by the Agar Dinkas. This officer had been in charge
of a camel convoy between Shambe and Rumbek, and was treacherously
assassinated on the banks of the Naam river (Rohl) on 10th January. A
punitive expedition was quickly organised by Major Hunter, and in
a series of rapid marches it killed many of the Agars, burned their
villages and captured their cattle. A further expedition under Captain
L. Stack, arriving _viâ_ Shambe from Khartoum in March, completed the
punishment. Myang Matyang, the chief offender, died in July of wounds
received, and the Agars came in and sued for peace, which was granted.
[Sidenote: Ali Dinar.]
In January Ali Dinar was seriously ill, and was at one time reported
to be dead; but he recovered completely.
[Sidenote: Nuer expedition.]
A small exploring expedition sent under Major Blewitt up the Khor
Filus into the Nuer country, belonging to Denkur, in April only
resulted in the Nuers first defying the troops, and then fleeing
further into the interior.
[Sidenote: Sudd.]
Meanwhile Major G. E. Matthews had been hard at work for five months
on the 15th block of sudd, but, owing to there being no current to
take away the cut blocks, it was practically a hopeless task, and was
temporarily given up, the “false channel” which circumvented this
portion of the sudd proving sufficient for purposes of navigation.
[Sidenote: Surveys.]
During the spring Major Gwynn continued his surveys along the
Sudan-Eritrea frontier, fixing points up to Ras Kasar on the Red Sea,
and eventually finishing up at a point 100 miles north of Suakin.
[Sidenote: Treaty with Menelek.]
On the 15th May a treaty was signed at Addis Abbaba, defining the
Sudan-Abyssinian frontier line, and containing other important clauses
(_vide_ p. 296).
[Sidenote: Western Sudan.]
The great religious Sheikh El Senussi, who had previously been
residing at the oasis of Kufra, becoming uneasy at the advance of
the French in the Lake Chad region, as well as being apprehensive of
the possible eventualities that might follow the victory of Omdurman,
moved his headquarters to Geru,[214] about 10 days north of Abesher,
in the year 1900. In order, too, to extend his influence and safeguard
his interests, he established a zawia at Bir Alali about four days
north of Lake Chad and wrote on three separate occasions to Sultan
Ali Dinar of Darfur requesting him to prepare zawias for him in Jebel
Marra and in Dar Zaghawa. The Sultan, however, was unwilling to be
saddled with such an illustrious but inconvenient guest, and the
matter eventually fell through in 1902. From that time no visits of
Senussiists to El Fasher have been reported.
At last the situation in the west was brought to a head by a French
patrol searching a Senussiist zawia in Kanem for reported arms. A
collision ensued some time in August, 1901, which was insignificant
and partook of the nature of a raid. On 19th November, however, a
more serious collision took place, in which a small French force was
defeated by Sheikh el Barrani, the Senussi representative in Kanem.
On the 18th January, 1902, the French, strongly reinforced, attacked
the Senussiists at the zawia of Alali, in Kanem, and the latter,
though assisted by the Aulad Suleiman (Tuareg) tribe, sustained a
severe defeat.
The Jehad was now proclaimed by the Senussi, and hundreds of his
adherents flocked into Geru from Tripoli, Wadai, and the surrounding
deserts. It appears, however, that the intention of the Senussi
was merely to act on the defensive, for no forward movement was
undertaken; there were even rumours that the Sheikh intended to retire
north to Kufra to avoid collision with the enemy. At a third action,
however, which appears to have been fairly decisive, Mohammed Abu
Egeil, the Senussi general in Kanem, was killed, and the Senussiists
fell back eastwards and northwards.
During May, 1902, the Sheikh el Senussi sickened, owing, it is said,
to his anxiety regarding the situation. He is reported to have died
on 30th May, and to have nominated his nephew, Ahmed el Sherif,
as his successor. The story of his death was not confirmed, and
for a long time rumours were rife of his appearance at Kufra, at
Jaghbub, etc., with the intention of proclaiming himself a Mahdi,
of going to Mecca on pilgrimage, etc., etc.; the shrine in which
he was buried was reported to have been opened, and found empty,
and many other stories of his reappearance were told. It seems,
however, most probable that he did die on or about the date given,
and it is certain that his successor has removed himself and all
his property back to Kufra.
[Sidenote: Darfur.]
In July Ali Dinar reported that Arabi Dafaalla, ex-Dervish Emir on
the Upper Nile, had surrendered to him with all his men and 3,000
rifles, and had received the “Aman.”
[Sidenote: Cholera.]
During the summer the cholera, which had been ravaging Egypt, made
its appearance at Halfa, and eight natives died. Owing, however,
to the strict surveillance there and at Suakin no further cases
occurred in the Sudan.
On the 20th July Major Hunter, Acting Commandant of Bahr el Ghazal,
died of blackwater fever.
[Sidenote: British garrison.]
During the winter of 1902-03 the British garrison of Khartoum
was raised from one company, which up to this time had remained
only during the cold weather, to a whole battalion, permanently
quartered there.
[Sidenote: Small disturbances.]
Various small raids into the Sudan took place during the years
1900-03 along the Abyssinian frontier, the chief offenders being
Wad Mahmud in the Keili district, and a brigand named Hakos on the
border near Gallabat. Appeals to the higher Abyssinian authorities
produced little result, owing to their want of control over these
outlying districts. The end of these two brigands is recorded later.
In Kordofan the restless tribes of the southern hill districts were
never at peace, but the inter-tribal disturbances were purely local,
and in no way threatened the stability of the Government in these
parts.
[Sidenote: 1903.]
In the Eastern Sudan the Rasheida slave-traders and the Gemilab
tribe threatened at various times to give trouble, but they have
quieted down, and the latter tribe has “come in.”
[Sidenote: Delimitations.]
At the end of 1902 Major C. W. Gwynn proceeded, with Major
C. E. Wilson, to the further delimitation of the Abyssinian
frontier. He completed the demarcation from the Setit to just south of
Kirin, and returning, _viâ_ Kodok, in May, 1903, settled the limits
of the new Sudanese leased territory of Itang on the Upper Baro River.
Colonel Hon. M. G. Talbot also met the Italian delegates at Kassala
in February, 1903, and together they delimitated the frontier from
Abu Gamal to the Setit, opposite the mouth of the Khor Royan, which
point now forms the junction of Eritrea, Abyssinia, and the Sudan
(_vide_ p. 290).
[Sidenote: Bahr el Ghazal.]
Colonel Sparkes set out on 13th January on a patrol to Hofrat el
Nahas, the famous copper mines in Southern Darfur. He arrived there
on March 1st, and was told that no European had visited it since
1876. The country was totally deserted, and it was evident that if
the mines were worked, transport, although perhaps possible on the
Bahr el Arab during some parts of the year, would be a matter of
great difficulty. Colonel Sparkes returned to Deim Zubeir on 21st
March, having marched a distance of 667 miles.
A patrol was meanwhile sent to open up relations with the powerful
Azande chief, Yambio. Its commander, Captain Armstrong, was most
unfortunately killed by an elephant on the 23rd February, and
although the journey was continued by Colour-Sergeant Boardman,
R.M.A., the expedition did not meet with success, for on reaching
the Nyam Nyam country it was attacked by Yambio’s son (Mangi),
and had to retire, though without loss (except of baggage, etc.).
[Sidenote: Wadai.]
After continual fighting with Dud Murra, Ahmed El Ghazali was caught
(20th March, 1903) in an ambush; his eyes were put out, and he was
kept a captive with the Agid Salamat at Abesher. Wadai now became
more or less settled, and trade was reopened to the north and east.
[Sidenote: Bahr el Ghazal negotiations.]
During the past three years negotiations with the Government of the
Congo Free State on the subject of the Bahr el Ghazal have been taking
place; up to date, however, they have produced no definite result.
[Sidenote: Shilluks.]
In April, Kur Wad Nedok, Mek of the Shilluks, was deposed for
malpractices, and Fadiet Wad Kwad Keir elected in his place.
[Sidenote: Kordofan. False prophet, September.]
On the 1st September, 1903, it was reported from El Obeid that a
certain Mohammed El Amin, who had recently returned from Mecca and
settled in Jebel Tagale, had proclaimed himself Mahdi. Colonel Mahon,
C.B., D.S.O., left Khartoum at once with a squadron of cavalry,
and marching _viâ_ the Fachi-Shoya-Sherkeila route surprised
and captured the false prophet at Ageila without fighting. He was
conducted to El Obeid, where he was hanged on the 27th September.
[Sidenote: October.]
It having been reported that Mansur Abdel Rahman, a cousin of Sultan
Ali Dinar of Darfur, was raiding or collecting taxes from people in
Kordofan, Captain Carter proceeded with a small force of Camel Corps
from El Eddaiya and surprised the party, numbering some 40 rifles
and horsemen, at Sherafa, and captured Mansur, who was subsequently
liberated after the restoration of the property he had taken.
[Sidenote: Nile-Red Sea Railway.]
Work on this railway was commenced in November, 1903.
[Sidenote: Darfur.]
During the summer of 1903 one or more treasonable conspiracies to
seize the throne of Darfur were nipped in the bud by the present
Sultan Ali Dinar. Adam Rijal, the Commandant of Jebel El Hella, and
Tirab Suleiman, another important general, both suffered the death
penalty in consequence. The ex-Dervish Emirs, Zogal and Karamalla
Kirkesawi, were also both mysteriously put out of the way.
In December, 1903, at the Sultan’s request, the boundaries of
Darfur were clearly explained to him in writing.
[Sidenote: Mahmal.]
The first Mahmal[215] to leave Darfur for Mecca since the conquest
of that country by Zubeir Pasha in 1873 arrived at Khartoum in
November. The value of the “Surra”[216] was stated to be about
£450. The Mahmal proceeded _viâ_ Suakin to Jedda, and returned to
Khartoum at the end of June.
[Sidenote: Upper Nile. Thalweg Agreement.]
A provisional agreement defining the Thalweg of the Nile between
N. Lat. 5° and 5° 30′ was drawn up on 13th September by Captain
R. C. R. Owen, representing the Sudan Government, and the late General
Utterwulghe, on behalf of the Government of the Congo Free State.
[Sidenote: Floods.]
The winter of 1903-04 will be memorable for the exceptional height
of the Nile and its tributaries in the Upper Nile region, consequent
on which there followed very extensive floods.
[Sidenote: Eastern Sudan. Hakos.]
The brigand Hakos, who had caused considerable annoyance by raiding
and robbery along the frontier between the Setit and Gallabat, was
reported to have been killed on 16th December near Nogara. Had his
career not been thus suddenly terminated, the Emperor Menelik had
agreed with the Sudan Government to take combined action against him.
[Sidenote: Abyssinian Coal Expedition.]
An expedition to prospect for coal in the valley of the Goang (Upper
Atbara), near Chelga, was despatched by the Sudan Government from
Khartoum in December, 1903.
[Sidenote: 1904. Itang.]
Captain H. H. Wilson left Kodok on the 23rd December, 1903, with
merchants to establish a trading station at Itang on the Baro. After
making the preliminary arrangements there he visited Ras Tesemma
Nado at Gore. His Excellency, the Governor-General, subsequently
visited Itang in May, 1904.
[Sidenote: Ibrahim Wad Mahmud.]
In April, 1903, after the delimitation of the Abyssinian frontier,
Ibrahim Wad Mahmud, the notorious slave raider of J. Jerok, was
informed that as his village fell within the limits of the Sudan,
he must cease raiding and settle down. As Ibrahim, however, in
spite of a second letter of warning, continued to raid and openly
defied the Government, in February a mixed force of about 800 men
(partly irregulars) with two guns was sent under the command of
Lieutenant-Colonel Gorringe (Governor, Sennar), to capture him. The
expedition was completely successful and Jebel Jerok was surprised;
Ibrahim, who succeeded in escaping, was handed over to Major G. de
H. Smith[217] by Sheikh Hamed of Asosa on the 3rd of March. He was
subsequently brought to Wad Medani, where he was tried and hanged
on the 23rd May, 1904.
[Sidenote: Bahr El Ghazal. Lemaire Expedition.]
In October, 1903, a scientific mission hailing from the Congo Free
State, under the leadership of the explorer Lemaire, arrived at Mvolo
in the south-east Bahr El Ghazal. It withdrew in the following spring,
but was again seen in 1905.
[Sidenote: 1904. Yambio Patrol.]
On the 27th January a strong patrol, under the command of Captain
P. Wood, left Tonj to visit the Nyam Nyam Sultan Yambio. The object
of the patrol was to establish friendly relations with the Nyam Nyam
chiefs Riketa, Yambio, and Mangi. On arrival at Riketa’s (a son
of Yambio, and avowedly friendly), the patrol met with a treacherous
and hostile reception. Riketa’s village was accordingly destroyed,
and the patrol returned to Tonj. Captain H. E. Haymes, R.A.M.C., who
was wounded in the head, subsequently died at Tonj on the 15th March.
Yambio is now dead. Owing to his persistent treachery and hostility,
a column under Major Boulnois was sent against him, and in a smart
action by Major Carter, February 9th, 1905, Yambio and ten of his
men were killed.
[Sidenote: Sudan-Eritrean Frontier.]
A provisional agreement regarding a slight rectification of the
Sudan-Eritrea frontier near Karora was drafted by representatives
of both Governments in January. It has not yet been ratified.
[Sidenote: Sudd.]
The work of opening the 15th block of sudd on the Bahr El Jebel
was recommenced by Lieutenant Drury, late R.N., in October, 1903,
and continued during the succeeding 6 months, but eventually had
to be again abandoned before the real channel of the river had been
entirely cleared. The clearing of this block will probably be resumed,
and it is hoped, completed in 1905.
[Sidenote: Kordofan.]
In the spring of 1904, as several of the Meks of the Nuba Mountains
continued to disregard Government orders to cease raiding and
return looted property, punitive measures of a minor description
were undertaken after repeated warnings, with most satisfactory
results. In September, 1904, Major O’Connell with a force of 340
rifles, 3 guns and friendlies, successfully enforced the submission
of the Nubas of Jabel Daier, about 60 miles south of El Obeid.
[Sidenote: Sketch of events in the Lado Enclave.]
After their defeat of the Dervishes at Rejaf in February, 1897
(_vide_ p. 263), the Belgians, under Chaltin, proceeded to occupy
the territory leased to King Leopold under the Treaty of May, 1894,
whilst Arabi Dafaalla and his Dervishes retreated to his deim at Bor
and thence, at the end of 1898 or beginning of 1899, across the Bahr
El Ghazal to Kalaka and Dar Kara.
Chaltin at once commenced to build and fortify stations at Lado
(which had ceased to exist), Kiro, Loka, and Yei, whilst further
south, Dufile (now moved to New Dufile), and Mahaji, etc., were
occupied. At the end of 1901 Captain Hanolet was appointed Commandant
Supérieur of the Enclave, and continued to improve the stations and
communications with great energy. In August, 1903, Captain Hanolet
was replaced by Commissaire Général G. Utterwulghe. The lamented
death of this able and universally popular officer took place at
Yei on the 8th May, 1904; he was succeeded by Commandant Wacquez.
Lado is now the headquarters of the Lado Enclave, whilst Yei, a
fortified military station on the river of that name, is next in
importance. Good roads connecting the stations on the Nile with
Yei are in course of construction, and automobiles are now being
used with some success to assist in the supply of the troops in the
Enclave. These number some 2,000-3,000 native regulars, who are said
to be excellent soldiers.
A railway connecting the Congo at Stanleyville with the shores of
Lake Albert Nyanza at Mahaji, immediately to the south of the Enclave,
is now in course of construction.
[Sidenote: Mahdi on Blue Nile.]
In August, 1904, a religious fanatic named Adam, having first obtained
promises of support from the Kenana Kawatil, openly declared himself
Mahdi in the Kenana Khot near Senga. Prompt measures were taken to
effect his arrest, and in the fight which ensued on his refusal
to surrender the Mahdi and the whole of his adherents (11), were
annihilated, while the Egyptian Mamur of Senga was unfortunately
killed by the rebels.
[Sidenote: Progress in 1903-04]
During 1903-1904 the Sudan Government extended its influence over and
established posts in some of the remotest parts of its territory. In
the north, the desert west of Dongola was widely explored and a
post established on the Arbain road. The Arab tribes living in the
wildest regions of the Southern Atbai were visited and much of this
country mapped. Further south, the heart of the district inhabited by
the redoubtable Gemilab tribe was reconnoitred and surveyed. Posts
were established in the little-known country, previously infested
by Abyssinian brigands, between the River Setit and Gallabat, and
in consequence of these measures for public security the trade with
Abyssinia at the latter place rapidly increased.
South of Roseires the administration was extended to the mountainous
district of J. Tabi, hitherto practically unexplored and unknown,
and inhabited by a shy and distinctive Negro race. Further south,
the country of the more northern Burun adjoining the Abyssinian
frontier and, until recently, the happy hunting ground of border slave
raiders, was pacified and effectively garrisoned by regulars, whilst
the opening up of trade routes from the border districts of Abyssinia
to the Blue and White Niles and Sobat was commenced. In the Upper
Nile Province, the Shilluk tribe was brought under the more direct
control of the Government, whilst considerable progress was made with
the Dinkas on the Sobat and the deeply suspicious Nuers of the Bahr El
Zeraf, whose country had long remained unexplored by a white man. The
Pibor river was navigated for 170 miles beyond the Akobo junction,
or 240 miles from its mouth, and its source was roughly determined.
At Mongalla a suitable station was constructed and the almost unknown
tribes, Beri and Aliab, visited in the spring of 1904, posts being
established where necessary.
In the Bahr El Ghazal Province,[218] patrols traversed a great part
of the country and the main roads were improved sufficiently to admit
of the successful introduction of wheeled transport. In Southern
Kordofan effective administration was extended, and detachments of
regular troops were quartered throughout the Nuba mountains.
The most important step taken by the Government during 1903-1904
for the economic development of the Sudan was the commencement of
a railway connecting the port of Suakin with the present main line
near the Atbara mouth. In addition, reconnaissances were carried
out for a branch line from Abu Hamed to Merowe and Affat in the
Dongola Province.
The future advancement of the country was further enhanced by the
efforts made by the Government to encourage the cultivation of cotton,
both by the issue of large grants of seed as well as by an arrangement
through which a fair price was guaranteed to the producer for all
cotton placed on the market.
[Sidenote: Visits of distinguished persons.]
It only remains to be stated that in January 1900, and again in
February 1905, T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, and in
November 1901 His Highness the Khedive, visited Khartoum; a year later
General Lord Kitchener did the same and opened the Gordon College;
whilst Lord Cromer paid visits in December 1899, January 1901 and
January 1903, proceeding as far as Gondokoro in the latter year.
H.R.H. Princess Henry of Battenberg, accompanied by the Princesses
Victoria of Battenberg and Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg, visited Khartoum
in February 1904.
Sir William Garstin visited the White Nile, Bahr El Ghazal, Bahr El
Zeraf and Blue Nile in 1899-1904, and the Bahr El Jebel in 1901 and
again in 1904, when he also explored the River Atem or “Gertrude”
Nile. In 1903 he visited Uganda, Semliki River, Albert Nyanza, as
well as the Bahr El Jebel. The results of these journeys have now
been published, August 1904 (F.O. Blue Book, Egypt, No. 2, 1904).
[Sidenote: Explorers.]
The following noted travellers, in addition to numerous distinguished
sportsmen, have passed through Khartoum at different times since
1898: Wellby, Grogan, Donaldson-Smith, Henri, Gibbons, Neumann,
Austin, Bright, Lionel Decle, Macmillan, and Bulpett, Sir C. Eliot,
Powell Cotton, and Pierre. The latter arrived in January, 1904,
from Zemio in Haut Ubangi _viâ_ Deim Zubeir and Wau.
GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF THE SUDAN.
-----------------------+-------------------------
| Date.
Name. +-----------+-------------
|Mohammedan.| Gregorian.
-----------------------+-----------+-------------
Osman Bey | 1240 | 1825
| |
Maho Bey | 1241 | 1826
| |
Khurshid Pasha | 1241 | 1826
| |
Ahmed Pasha Abu Udn | 1254 | 1839
| |
Ahmed Pasha El Minikli | 1259 | 1844
| |
Khaled Pasha | 1262 | 1846
| |
Abdel Latif Pasha | 1266 | 1850
| |
Rustem Pasha | 1267 | 1851
| |
Ismail Pasha Abu Jebel | 1268 | 1852
| |
Selim Pasha | 1269 | 1853
| |
Ali Pasha Sirri | 1270 | 1854
| |
Ali Pasha Sharkas | 1271 | 1855
| |
Arakil Bey | 1273 | 1857
| |
Hassan Bey Salama | 1275 | 1859
| |
Mohammed Bey Rasikh | 1278 | 1862
| |
Musa Pasha Hamdi | 1279 | 1863
| |
Jaafar Pasha Sadek | 1281 | 1865
| |
Jaafar Pasha Mazhar | 1282 | 1866
| |
Mumtaz Pasha | 1287 | 1871
| |
Ismail Pasha Ayub | 1289 | 1873
| |
Gordon Pasha | 1293 | 1877
| |
Rauf Pasha | 1296 | 1879
| |
Abdel Gader Pasha | 1299 | 1882
| |
Ala El Din Pasha | 1300 | 1883
| |
Gordon Pasha | 1301 | 1884[219]
| |
| |
Kitchener Pasha | 1316 | 1899
| |
Wingate Pasha | 1317 | 1899
-----------------------+-----------+-------------
[Illustration: _By kind permission of M. Venieris._
RECEPTION OF LORD KITCHENER AT THE GORDON COLLEGE, KHARTOUM. NOVEMBER,
1902.]
[Footnote 210: Subsequently for the greater part cancelled (_vide_
p. 290.)]
[Footnote 211: Taken chiefly from an account of Wadai written by
Captain Julien, formerly resident at Kuti, published in “L’Afrique
Française.”]
[Footnote 212: The Agids are the important men in Wadai, _i.e._,
the chief noblemen, governors of districts, generals, etc.]
[Footnote 213: _Vide_ p. 255.]
[Footnote 214: Approximately N. Lat. 19°, E. Long. 20° 10′.]
[Footnote 215: “Mahmal” means literally “something carried.”
It is said to have been originated about the 12th Century A.D. by a
certain Queen of Egypt named Shagar El Durr, of the Ayubite Dynasty,
who prepared a very sumptuous litter (hodag), on which she intended
to visit Mecca by camel. State affairs, however, prevented her
making personal use of the “hodag,” which she therefore sent
to Mecca with presents of money. This sending of the “hodag”
to Mecca gradually became a custom, and was eventually copied in
Syria. Nowadays a Mahmal leaves Cairo and Damascus simultaneously each
year, and consists of a richly ornamented dome-shaped “hodag”
or litter which is carried on a camel to Mecca and lodged in the
“Kaaba” there until the Mahmal returns, when it is taken back
again. The richly embroidered curtains, however, are presented to
the “Kaaba” or Mosque.]
[Footnote 216: Surra means “package”—in this case a package
of money: it is sent partly as a present to the Sherif of Mecca for
the maintenance of the “Kaaba” and partly to the Arab Sheikhs
along the road, who otherwise would endeavour to loot the Mahmal on
its journey.]
[Footnote 217: Died at Khartoum, October 10th, of blackwater fever.]
[Footnote 218: H. E. Governor-General visited Wau in November, 1904;
H. E. left Khartoum at 3 a.m. on the 7th November, and arrived
at Wau at 11 a.m. on the 17th, the journey having occupied 10½
days. The return journey was accomplished, including the inspection
of intermediate stations, in under 8 days—a “record.”]
[Footnote 219: To 26th January, 1885.]
=APPENDIX A.=
* * * * *
TEXT OF TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS REGARDING THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
* * * * *
(1.)
AGREEMENT BETWEEN HER BRITANNIC MAJESTY’S GOVERNMENT AND THE
GOVERNMENT OF HIS HIGHNESS THE KHEDIVE OF EGYPT RELATIVE TO THE
FUTURE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SUDAN.
WHEREAS certain provinces in the Sudan which were in rebellion against
the authority of His Highness the Khedive have now been reconquered by
the joint military and financial efforts of Her Britannic Majesty’s
Government and the Government of His Highness the Khedive;
AND whereas it has become necessary to decide upon a system for the
administration of and for the making of laws for the said reconquered
provinces, under which due allowance may be made for the backward and
unsettled condition of large portions thereof, and for the varying
requirements of different localities;
AND whereas it is desired to give effect to the claims which have
accrued to Her Britannic Majesty’s Government, by right of conquest,
to share in the present settlement and future working and development
of the said system of administration and legislation;
AND whereas it is conceived that for many purposes Wadi Halfa and
Suakin may be most effectively administered in conjunction with the
reconquered provinces to which they are respectively adjacent;
Now, it is hereby agreed and declared by and between the Undersigned,
duly authorized for that purpose, as follows:—
ARTICLE I.
The word “Sudan” in this Agreement means all the territories
South of the 22nd parallel of latitude, which:
1. Have never been evacuated by Egyptian troops since the year
1882; or
2. Which having before the late rebellion in the Sudan been
administered by the Government of His Highness the Khedive,
were temporarily lost to Egypt, and have been reconquered by Her
Majesty’s Government and the Egyptian Government, acting in
concert; or
3. Which may hereafter be reconquered by the two Governments acting
in concert.
ARTICLE II.
The British and Egyptian flags shall be used together, both on
land and water, throughout the Sudan, except in the town of Suakin,
in which locality the Egyptian flag alone shall be used.
ARTICLE III.
The supreme military and civil command in the Sudan shall be vested
in one officer, termed the “Governor-General of the Sudan.”
He shall be appointed by Khedivial Decree on the recommendation
of Her Britannic Majesty’s Government, and shall be removed only
by Khedivial Decree, with the consent of Her Britannic Majesty’s
Government.
ARTICLE IV.
Laws, as also Orders and Regulations with the full force of law,
for the good government of the Sudan, and for regulating the holding,
disposal, and devolution of property of every kind therein situate,
may from time to time be made, altered, or abrogated by Proclamation
of the Governor-General. Such Laws, Orders and Regulations may
apply to the whole or any part named of the Sudan, and may, either
explicitly or by necessary implication, alter or abrogate any existing
Law or Regulation.
All such Proclamations shall forthwith be notified to Her Britannic
Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General in Cairo, and to the President
of the Council of Ministers of His Highness the Khedive.
ARTICLE V.
No Egyptian Law, Decree, Ministerial Arrêté, or other enactment
hereafter to be made or promulgated shall apply to the Sudan or
any part thereof save in so far as the same shall be applied by
Proclamation of the Governor-General in manner hereinbefore provided.
ARTICLE VI.
In the definition by Proclamation of the conditions under which
Europeans, of whatever nationality, shall be at liberty to trade
with or reside in the Sudan, or to hold property, within its limits,
no special privileges shall be accorded to the subjects of any one
or more Power.
ARTICLE VII.
Import duties on entering the Sudan shall not be payable on goods
coming from Egyptian territory. Such duties may, however, be levied
on goods coming from elsewhere than Egyptian territory, but in the
case of goods entering the Sudan at Suakin, or any other port on the
Red Sea littoral, they shall not exceed the corresponding duties for
the time being leviable on goods entering Egypt from abroad. Duties
may be levied on goods leaving the Sudan, at such rates as may from
time to time be prescribed by Proclamation.
ARTICLE VIII.
The jurisdiction of the Mixed Tribunals shall not extend, nor be
recognised for any purpose whatsoever, in any part of the Sudan,
except in the town of Suakin.
ARTICLE IX.
Until and save so far as it will be otherwise determined by
Proclamation, the Sudan, with the exception of the town of Suakin,
shall be and remain under martial law.
ARTICLE X.
No Consuls, Vice-Consuls, or Consular Agents shall be accredited in
respect of nor allowed to reside in the Sudan, without the previous
consent of Her Britannic Majesty’s Government.
ARTICLE XI.
The importation of slaves into the Sudan, as also their exportation,
is absolutely prohibited. Provision shall be made by Proclamation
for the enforcement of this Regulation.
ARTICLE XII.
It is agreed between the two Governments that special attention
shall be paid to the enforcement of the Brussels Act of 2nd July,
1890, in respect to the import, sale, and manufacture of fire-arms
and their munitions, and distilled or spirituous liquors.
Done in Cairo, the 19th January, 1899.
(Signed) BOUTROS GHALI—CROMER.
(2.)
WHEREAS, under our Agreement made the 19th day of January, 1899,
relative to the future administration of the Sudan, it is provided
by Article VIII. that the jurisdiction of the Mixed Tribunals shall
not extend nor be recognised for any purpose whatsoever in any part
of the Sudan except in the town of Suakin;
And Whereas no Mixed Tribunal has ever been established at Suakin and
it has been found to be inexpedient to establish any such tribunal in
that locality, by reason notably of the expenses which the adoption
of this measure would occasion;
And Whereas grievous injustice is caused to the inhabitants of
Suakin by the absence of any local jurisdiction for the settlement
of their disputes, and it is expedient that the town of Suakin should
be placed upon the same footing as the rest of the Sudan;
And Whereas we have decided to modify our said agreement accordingly
in manner hereinafter appearing;
NOW, it is hereby agreed and declared by and between the Undersigned
duly authorised for that purpose, as follows:
ARTICLE I.
Those provisions of our Agreement of the 19th day of January, 1899,
by which the town of Suakin was excepted from the general regime
established by the said Agreement for the future administration of
the Sudan, are hereby abrogated.
Done at Cairo, the 10th of July, 1899.
(Signed) BOUTROS GHALI—CROMER.
(3.)
DECLARATION.
_Signed at London, March_ 21, 1899.
[_Ratifications exchanged at Paris, June_ 13. 1899.]
The undersigned, duly authorised by their Governments, have signed
the following Declaration:—
The IVth Article of the Convention of the 14th June, 1898, shall be
completed by the following provisions, which shall be considered as
forming an integral part of it:—
1. Her Britannic Majesty’s Government engages not to acquire
either territory or political influence to the west of the line
of frontier defined in the following paragraph, and the Government
of the French Republic engages not to acquire either territory or
political influence to the east of the same line.
2. The line of frontier shall start from the point where the
boundary between the Congo Free State and French territory meets
the water-parting between the watershed of the Nile and that of
the Congo and its affluents. It shall follow in principle that
water-parting up to its intersection with the 11th parallel of
north latitude. From this point it shall be drawn as far as the 15th
parrallel in such manner as to separate, in principle, the Kingdom of
Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the Province of Darfur; but it
shall in no case be so drawn as to pass to the west beyond the 21st
degree of longitude east of Greenwich (18° 40′ east of Paris),
or to the east beyond the 23rd degree of longitude east of Greenwich
(20° 40′ east of Paris).
3. It is understood, in principle, that to the north of the 15th
parrallel the French zone shall be limited to the north-east and east
by a line which shall start from the point of intersection of the
Tropic of Cancer with the 16th degree of longitude east of Greenwich
(13° 40′ east of Paris), shall run thence to the south-east until
it meets the 24th degree of longitude east of Greenwich (21° 40′
east of Paris), and shall then follow the 24th degree until it meets,
to the north of the 15th parallel of latitude, the frontier of Darfur
as it shall eventually be fixed.
4. The two Governments engage to appoint Commissioners who shall
be charged to delimit on the spot a frontier-line in accordance
with the indications given in paragraph 2 of this Declaration. The
result of their work shall be submitted for the approbation of their
respective Governments.
It is agreed that the provisions of Article IX of the Convention of
the 14th June, 1898, shall apply equally to the territories situated
to the south of the 14° 20′ parallel of north latitude, and to the
north of the 5th parallel of north latitude, between the 14° 20′
meridian of longitude east of Greenwich (12th degree east of Paris)
and the course of the Upper Nile.
Done at London, the 21st March, 1899.
(L.S.) (Signed) SALISBURY.
(L.S.) (Signed) PAUL CAMBON.
(4.)
AGREEMENT BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND HIS MAJESTY KING LEOPOLD II,
SOVEREIGN OF THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF THE CONGO, RELATING TO THE
SPHERES OF INFLUENCE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF
THE CONGO IN EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA.
_Signed at Brussels 12th May_, 1894.
The undersigned, the Honorable Sir Francis Richard Plunkett, a
Knight Grand Cross of the most distinguished Order of St. Michael
and St. George, Her Britannic Majesty’s Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary to the King of the Belgians on behalf of
the British Government, and M. van Eetvelde, Officer of the Order
of Leopold, Grand Cross of the Orders of St. Gregory the Great, of
Christ of Portugal, and of the African Redemption, etc., Secretary
of State of the interior of the Independent State of the Congo, on
behalf of the Government of the Independent State of the Congo, duly
authorised by their respective Governments, have agreed as follows:—
His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Sovereign of the Independent
State of the Congo, having recognised the British sphere of influence,
as laid down in the Anglo-German Agreement of the 1st July, 1890
(No. 129), Great Britain undertakes to give to His Majesty a lease
of territories in the Western basin of the Nile, under the conditions
specified in the following Articles:
_Boundary. North of German Sphere. Watersheds between the Nile
and the Congo._
Art. I. (_a_) It is agreed that the sphere of influence of the
Independent Congo State shall be limited to the north of the German
sphere in East Africa by a frontier following the 30th meridian
east of Greenwich up to its intersection by the watershed between
the Nile and the Congo, and thence following this watershed in a
northerly and north-westerly direction.
(_b_) (Defines boundary from R. Zambezi to Lake Tanganyika.)
_Lease of certain territories by Great Britain to the Congo
State. West shore of Lake Albert and Watershed between the
Nile and the Congo._
Art. II. Great Britain grants a lease to His Majesty King Leopold II,
Sovereign of the Independent State of the Congo, of the territories
hereinafter defined, to be by him occupied and administered on the
conditions and for the period of time hereinafter laid down.
_Boundaries._
The territories shall be bounded by a line starting from a point
situated on the west shore of Lake Albert, immediately to the south
of Mahagi, to the nearest point of the frontier defined in paragraph
(_a_) of the preceding Article. Thence it shall follow the watershed
between the Congo and the Nile up to the 25th meridian east of
Greenwich, and that meridian up to its intersection by the 10th
parallel north, whence it shall run along that parallel directly to
a point to be determined to the north of Fashoda. Thence it shall
follow the “thalweg” of the Nile southward to Lake Albert, and
the western shore of Lake Albert to the point above indicated south
of Mahagi.
This lease shall remain in force during the reign of His Majesty
King Leopold II, Sovereign of the Independent Congo State.
Nevertheless, at the expiration of His Majesty’s reign, it
shall remain fully in force as far as concerns all the portion of
the territories above-mentioned situated to the west of the 30th
meridian east of Greenwich, as well as a strip of 25 kilom. in
breadth, to be delimitated by common consent, stretching from the
watershed between the Nile and the Congo up to the western shore of
Lake Albert, and including the port of Mahagi.
This extended lease shall be continued as long as the Congo
territories as an Independent State or as a Belgian Colony remain
under the sovereignty of His Majesty and his Majesty’s successors.
_Flag._
Throughout the continuance of a lease there shall be used a special
flag in the leased territories.
_Lease of Territory by Congo State to Great Britain between Lake
Tanganyika and Lake Albert Edward._
[Art. III.[220] The Independent Congo State grants under lease to
Great Britain, to be administered when occupied under the conditions
and for a period hereinafter determined, a strip of territory 25
kilom. in breadth, extending from the most northerly port on Lake
Tanganyika, which is included in it, to the most southerly point of
Lake Albert Edward.
This lease will have similar duration to that which applies to the
territories to the west of the 30th meridian east of Greenwich.]
_Self-Denying Declaration._
Art. IV. His Majesty King Leopold II, Sovereign of the Independent
Congo State, recognises that he neither has nor seeks to acquire
any political rights in the territories ceded to him under lease
in the Nile basin other than those which are in conformity with the
present Agreement.
Similarly, Great Britain recognises that she neither has, nor seeks
to acquire, any political rights in the strip of territory granted
to her on lease between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Albert Edward other
than those which are in conformity with the present Agreement.
_Telegraphic Communication._
Art. V. The Independent Congo State authorises the construction
through its territories by Great Britain, or by any Company
duly authorised by the British Government, of a line of telegraph
connecting the British territories in South Africa with the British
sphere of influence on the Nile. The Government of the Congo
State shall have facilities for connecting this line with its own
telegraphic system.
This authorisation shall not confer on Great Britain or any Company,
person, or persons, delegated to construct the telegraph line,
any rights of police or administration within the territory of the
Congo State.
_Equality of Treatment in Territories Leased._
Art. VI. In the territories under lease in this Agreement the subjects
of each of the Contracting Parties shall reciprocally enjoy equal
rights and immunities, and shall not be subjected to any differential
treatment of any kind.
In witness whereof the undersigned have signed the present Agreement,
and have affixed thereto the seal of the arms.
Done in duplicate at Brussels, this 12th day of May, 1894.
(L.S.) FRANCIS RICHARD PLUNKETT.
(L.S.) EDM. VAN EETVELDE.
_Claims of Turkey and Egypt in Basin of the Upper Nile not Ignored._
(1) Sir F. Plunkett to Mr. van Eetvelde.
British Legation, Brussels,
12th May, 1894.
M. LE SECRÉTAIRE D’ETAT,
The Earl of Kimberley, in authorising me to sign the Agreement of
this day’s date for a lease of certain territories in the British
sphere of influence in East Africa to His Majesty King Leopold II,
has directed me to record the assurance that the parties to the
agreement do not ignore the claims of Turkey and Egypt in the Basin
of the Upper Nile.
I avail, etc.,
F. R. PLUNKETT.
(2) M. van Eetvelde to Sir F. Plunkett.
Brussels,
12th May, 1894.
SIR,
In signing on behalf of His Majesty King Leopold II, the Agreement of
this day’s date, for a lease of certain territories in the British
sphere of influence in East Africa, I reciprocate the assurance that
the parties to the Agreement do not ignore the claims of Turkey and
Egypt in the Basin of the Upper Nile.
I avail, etc.,
EDM. VAN EETVELDE.
_Explanatory Despatch relating to the above Agreement between
Great Britain and the Congo State, of 12th May_, 1894.
The Earl of Kimberley to Mr. Hardinge.
Foreign Office,
23rd May, 1894.
SIR,
Claims of Egypt and Turkey to Equatorial Provinces.
* * * * * * * * *
On approaching His Majesty, Her Majesty’s Government found him
fully disposed to enter into an arrangement which, while enabling him
to continue the work he had commenced, would record his recognition
of the position of Great Britain in her sphere, and of such claims
as Egypt, and, through her, Turkey, may have to the Equatorial
Provinces whose administration was abandoned owing to the evacuation
of the Sudan.
I enclose copy of agreement by which His Majesty, having recognised,
on behalf of the Congo State, the British sphere of influence as
laid down in the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, received from Great
Britain leases of the territory specified in the Agreement under
certain conditions.
Her Majesty’s Government are satisfied that, under the Agreement,
this portion of the British sphere will be administered in a spirit
in full accordance with the requirements of civilisation, and of
the Acts of Berlin and Brussels.
* * * * * * * * *
I have, etc.,
KIMBERLEY.
(4a.)
DECLARATION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE CONGO FREE STATE,
WITHDRAWING ART. III OF THE AGREEMENT OF 12TH MAY, 1894, RESPECTING
THE TERRITORY BETWEEN LAKE TANGANYIKA AND LAKE ALBERT EDWARD.
_Brussels, 22nd June_, 1894.
DECLARATION.
In compliance with the request made by His Majesty the King of
the Belgians, Sovereign of the Independent State of the Congo,
that the Government of Her Britannic Majesty will consent to the
withdrawal of Art. III. of the Agreement of the 12th May, 1894,
the Undersigned, duly authorised by their respective Governments,
agree that the said Article be withdrawn.
Done, in duplicate, at Brussels, the 22nd day of June, 1894.
F. R. PLUNKET.
EDMOND VAN EETVELDE.
(5.)
AGREEMENT _re_ TRIBES BETWEEN KHOR BARAKA AND RED SEA.
With a view to establishing in a permanent manner the dependence
of the semi-nomadic tribes which exist on the frontier between the
Baraka and the Red Sea, and to determining precisely the frontier
separating the Italian and Egyptian territory in this region,
H.E. Ferik Sir Herbert Kitchener, Pasha, Sirdar of the Egyptian Army,
and H.E. Cavaliere Oreste Baratieri, Lieut. General, Governor of
the Colony of Eritrea, authorised by their respective Governments
have agreed to the following articles:—
I. In the district between the Red Sea and the Baraka, the frontier
line between Egypt and Eritrea shall follow a line which, starting
from Ras Kasar joins the principal branch of the Karora about 2
kilom. from the coast, and follows the course of the Karora up to
a point marked Karora on the map. The frontier then follows the
watershed between the torrents Aiet and Merib on the north and the
torrents Falkat and Sela on the south, up to a point on the plateau
of Hagar Nush, to be fixed by the delineators, and from that point
so fixed shall proceed to join the Baraka at a point which is also
left to the delineators to establish, following a clearly determined
natural line. From the Baraka, the line of frontier goes straight to
the intersection of the 17th parallel north with the 37th meridian
east of Greenwich.
II. The semi-nomadic tribes on the frontier known as the Hazerandowa
(Ad-Azeri), Felunda (Aflenda), Beit Maleh, and Rashaida, together
with the sections of the Beni Amer at present acknowledging the
authority of Sheikh Idris Hamen, are recognised as dependent on the
Egyptian Government; and the Beni Amer acknowledging Sheikhs Ali
Husseid, and Mahmud Sherif, as well as the Hababs, are recognised
as dependent on the Government of Eritrea.
III. The two Governments bind themselves to concede reciprocally,
reserving themselves the power of imposing a moderate tax in payment,
rights of pasturage and cultivation in their respective territories
to such alien tribes as apply for the concession through their
respective Governments. Such concession shall be limited only by
the requirements of public safety and by the needs of other local
tribes dependent on the Government giving the concession.
IV. The two Governments bind themselves reciprocally to oppose as far
as is practicable, and without necessarily having recourse to force,
the settlement in their respective territories of tribes who may cross
the frontier in consequence of rebellion or defection of their chiefs.
In the interests of public tranquility, the two Governments
further bind themselves to take into consideration according to
the circumstances of each case, the expediency of total or partial
disarmament of the tribes on the frontier, due allowance being made
for the requirements of their defence.
Each of the two Governments, however, reserves to itself full
liberty to decide upon the measures which it shall take in its own
territory, both as regards the means of opposing the immigration of
rebellious tribes, and in respect to the time, method and extent of
the disarmament to which this article refers.
(Signed) HERBERT KITCHENER, _Sirdar_.
Asmara,
_25th June_, 1895.
(Signed) GENERALE O. BARATIERI.
_7th July_, 1895.
(6.)
ERITREA-SUDAN FRONTIER BETWEEN RAS KASAR AND THE KHOR BARAKA,
AS SETTLED BY THE PARSONS-MARTINI AGREEMENT, SIGNED AT ASMARA,
7TH DECEMBER, 1898.
Being desirous of determining the Sudan and Italian frontier between
Ras Kasar and Baraka, and thus ratifying the Kitchener-Baratieri
Convention of the 7th July, 1895, the undersigned, El Lewa Parsons
Pasha, Governor of Suakin and Commandant of Kassala Station, on
behalf of His Highness the Khedive of Egypt; and Chevalier Ferdinando
Martini, Extraordinary Civil Commissioner of the Colony of Eritrea,
on behalf of His Majesty the King of Italy, have agreed as follows:—
Art. I. Starting from the Cape of Ras Kasar on the Red Sea
the frontier between the Sudan and Eritrea follows a line which,
following the heights of Halabai (Halibai) and Gaba Keli (Gabei-Helli)
joins the bed of the Karora (Carora) and ascends the latter to the
heights of Tefleinai (Teflanait), whence _viâ_ Abbeinedu mountain
it reaches the watershed between the valleys of Karora (Carora)
and Tabbeh (Tabeh) on the south and the Aitara (Aitera) and Areirib
(Arerib) on the north, it then runs in a westerly direction along the
above-mentioned watershed to the hillock of Mashonkole (Sciancolet),
and thence by the slopes of Sigat Alim (Sigat Tellim) it reaches a
little to the north of Roribet mountain, the plateau of Hagar Nush
(Nusch); thence it follows its northern edge to the summit of Hamoiet
(Hamoet) and along the Hafta (Afta) torrent to the wells of the same
name, thence to Jebel Aar (Monte Haar) over the undulating region
which forms the watershed between the middle course of the Ambakta
(Ambacta) and the Lui (Loi) torrent; from that rocky region it
proceeds to the Baraka (Barca) and joins it at its confluence with
the Ambakta (Ambacta) following the slopes which limit on the north
the lower portion of this last named valley.
Art. II. Two Commissioners, delegated one by the Egyptian Government,
and the other by the Italian Government, will proceed within six
months to demarcate the frontier by erecting boundary pillars.
Done at Asmara in duplicate, in Italian and Arabic, on the 7th day
of December, 1898.
(Signed) CHARLES PARSONS, PASHA.
(Signed) MARTINI.
(Names in brackets as spelt in Italian version—G.)
(7.)
DELIMITATION OF FRONTIER BETWEEN ERYTHRÆA AND THE EGYPTIAN-SUDAN.
From the point of junction of the Ambakta with the Baraka, the line
of frontier follows the course of the latter (Baraka) up-stream
to its junction with the Khor Dada, and then turning in a westerly
direction follows the Dada throughout its course to its source at
the foot of the Iskénié range of hills.
The line now turns southwards and follows the watershed between the
streams flowing directly to the Baraka on the east and those flowing
to the Gash and Langeb on the west. This watershed is defined by the
Iskénié Koreb and Yaet (Tai-yé) ranges of hills, by Jebel Meesat
and finally by Jebel Benefer.
From Jebel Benefer the line of frontier passes in almost a direct
line to the Sabderat range, being defined south of Jebel Benefer
by the low hill Tedelaié, by Jebel Afada-Gumbib, by the hills
Gelmabai and Dobadob, and finally by the peak called Deberenis on
the Sabderat range.
From Deberenis the line crosses the Sabderat range by Jebel Eunice
to the peak called Kwasana, and thence crosses Khor Sabderat to a
point on the range of hills south of the Khor.
This point has been marked by a pillar.
The cliff of Shababit is left in Sudanese territory.
W. J. WALTER.
CAPT. W. MEYER.
BONGIOVANNI SIMONE.
Sabderat,
_1st June_, 1899.
(The above is the sense of the original British and Italian versions
combined: they are not exact translations of each other.—G.)
(8.)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTIER BETWEEN THE SUDAN AND ERITREA
FROM SABDERAT TO TODLUC. (_With Map._)
Commencing from the last pillar erected in 1899 by Major Walter
and Captain Bongiovanni on the south of the Kassala-Sabderat road,
the boundary runs in a southerly direction practically in a straight
line to Jebel Anderaib, situated about 3 kilom. from the right bank of
the Gash; from there it runs nearly due west to a point on the Gash
south of Jebel Gulsa, which it leaves entirely in Sudan territory;
from the right bank of the Gash it runs straight to the highest
point of Jebel Abu Gamal.
[221][From Jebel Abu Gamal it proceeds in a straight line to a point
in latitude 14° 52′ north, on the right bank of the Atbara in
the small district of El Egeiri, which is bounded on the north by
the districts of El Yoya and El Rumeila, and on the south by that
of El Alim.]
[221][From this point it ascends the deepest channel of the Atbara
till it reaches its junction with the Setit, where it leaves the
Atbara and ascends the deepest channel of the Setit to a point
between the districts of El Gereiish and Abuda.]
[221][From here it proceeds in a straight line on a true bearing of
about 56° east of north to Todluc, leaving within the territory of
Eritrea the group of low hills known as Jebel Alaklai.]
Done in double original at Todluk, the 16th day of April, 1901.
(Signed) M. G. TALBOT, _Miralai,
Commissioner for the Sudan_.
(Signed) GIUSEPPE COLLI DI FELIZZANO,
_Tenente Piemonte Reale
Cavalleria incaricato per il
Governo dell’ Eritrea_.
(9.)
DESCRIPTION OF THE LINE AGREED UPON FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF
THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND THE COLONY OF
ERYTHRÆA. (_With Map._)
The rectified boundary shall run from the highest summit of Jebel
Abu Gamal to the highest point of the group of low hills known as
El Burak, situated on the magnetic bearing of 175° from Abu Gamal
and 14 kilometres distant.
From El Burak it shall run in a straight line to the eastern ridge
of the Koraiteb Hills, passing through the highest rock of this
ridge, the highest of the whole group, and leaving to the Sudan the
water-holes in the Koraiteb Rocks to the west of this line. The Sudan
Government, however, shall allow Erythræan subjects with caravans
from Sogada to Noggara, or _vice versâ_, or engaged in collecting
gum in Erythræan territory, to use these water-holes. This privilege
shall not be extended to hunters in Erythræan territory.
Between El Burak and Koraiteb, owing to the necessity of avoiding
the tracts of pathless bush so frequently met with in this waterless
area, the Commission was compelled to keep to the west of the direct
line. It was, consequently, impossible to do more than to ascertain
that the little hill of Murawi, the ridge of Ginjar, or Wad Ganjar,
and the pond or marsh of Um Sagit, lie within Sudan territory without
constituting them boundary points.
From Koraiteb the boundary shall pass in a straight line to the
conspicuous clump of trees surrounded by stones at the western end
of the hill known as J. Nuwar, and from there, on a magnetic bearing
of 166°, to the road cleared this winter by Bimbashi Savile between
Umbrega and El Hafeira, and striking it on the ridge between Wad
Mizammil and El Hafeira at a distance of about 520 metres, measured
along the track from the point where it crosses the nearest water
channel immediately west of the ridge.
The right of passage between the hills of J. Nuwar and J. El Batiota,
as through the area known as El Makhram El Batiota, shall be enjoyed
by the subjects of both Governments.
From the above-mentioned point on the Umbrega-El Hafeira road, now
marked by a blazed “heglig” tree on the north side of the road,
the boundary shall run straight to the bend of the Setit immediately
opposite the mouth of the Khor Royan.
(Signed) M. G. TALBOT, _Colonel, Commissioner for the Sudan_.
Umbrega Camp,
_February_ 18, 1903.
Copy given to the Erythræan Commissioner.—M. G. T.
(10.)
DECLARATION REGARDING THE SETTLEMENT OF THE
ABYSSINIAN-SUDANESE-ERYTHRÆAN FRONTIERS.
It is agreed that, in order to complete the delimitation of the
frontier between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Erythræa, a line shall
be drawn from Abu Gamal (_see_ Talbot-Colli map) to be eventually
demarcated by special delegates in accordance with geographical
features, in a southerly direction as far as the junction of the
Khor Um Hagar with the River Setit. (_See_ Talbot-Colli map 36°
37′ east long.)
The territory to the east of this line which has been recognised
as Sudanese territory by the Emperor Menelik shall be transferred,
subject to his consent, to Erythræa.
The parallelogram west of this line and north of the Tomat-Todluk
line shall be ceded by Italy to the Sudan.
As a consequence of this arrangement the boundary line between the
Sudan and Abyssinia from the Setit to Matamma shall be deflected
towards the west, so as to leave on the Abyssinian side Nogara and
the trade-route from Gondar northwards towards Erythræa.
The British and Italian Agents in Abyssinia will work together
in concert to obtain from the Emperor Menelik in return for this
extension of the Abyssinian boundary, a zone of territory to the
East of Todluk-Maieteb line, which will give to Erythræa the whole
of the Kunama tribe up to the Mareb.
Should these negotiations, after a reasonable lapse of time, prove
unsuccessful, negotiations shall be resumed in Rome between the
Italian and British delegates with the object of tracing the boundary
between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia on the basis of the
Todluk-Ombrega or Maieteb-Jebel Obar lines, whilst, as regards the
boundary between the Sudan and Erythræa, the _status quo ante_
of the territory North of the Tomat-Todluk line shall be preserved.
The arrangement contemplated in the present declaration shall be
regarded as secret until the consent of the Emperor Menelik has
been obtained.
Done at Rome, this twenty-second day of November, in the year one
thousand nine hundred and one.
(Signed) F. MARTINI. RENNELL RODD.
G. AGNESA. GLEICHEN, _Kaimakam_.
F. CICCODICOLA. J. L. HARRINGTON.
A. BODRERO.
(11.)
SABDERAT AGREEMENT.
Between the undersigned:—Colonel John Collinson, C.B., Mudir of
Kassala, on the part of the Anglo-Egyptian Government, and Chevalier
Ferdinando Martini, Royal Commissioner of Eritrea, on the part of
the Government of His Majesty the King of Italy, have agreed to the
following Convention:—
ARTICLE I.
From the 1st March, 1901, “The Parsons-Martini Convention”
regarding the question of pasturage[222] in the territory of the
Erithrean Government signed at Asmara on the 7th of December, 1898,
is abrogated.
ARTICLE II.
Each Government reserves to itself to permit or forbid the temporary
emigration into its territory of tribes, or fractions of tribes,
who desire to enter its territory for the purpose of pasturage of
their flocks and herds, and reserves to itself the conditions under
which such permission will be granted.
ARTICLE III.
When temporary permission for grazing is given under Article II of
this Convention, it is to be understood that those persons to whom
such permission is given, are, from the time they cross the frontier,
amenable to the laws at that time in force in the country they enter.
Made at Sabderat in duplicate in Italian and English this
twenty-eighth day of February, 1901.
(Signed) J. COLLINSON, _Colonel, Mudir, Kassala_.
MARTINI.
N.B.—The originals of this agreement in English and Italian are
retained in the Kassala office.
(Signed) J. COLLINSON.
(12.)
CUSTOMS CONVENTION BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND ERYTHRÆA.
ARTICLE I.
On the importation into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan
of any goods coming from the Italian Colony of Erythræa, no other
or higher duties shall be imposed than those which are, or may be
payable under the Egyptian Tariff for the time being in force on
the importation into Egypt of the like goods coming from any third
country, the most favoured in this respect, provided always that
such duties shall not exceed five per cent. in the case of natural
produce which may be proved, to the satisfaction of the Sudanese
Custom House authorities at the place of entry into the Sudan, to
be the bonâ fide produce of the said Colony of Erythræa, intended
for consumption in the Sudan. Such goods however passing through
the Sudan for consumption in Egypt, will have, on entering Egypt,
to make good the difference between the duty here specified and the
duty imposed by the Egyptian Tariff.
ARTICLE II.
On the importation into the Italian Colony of Erythræa, of any
goods coming from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan,
no other or higher duties shall be imposed than those which are,
or may be payable under the Tariff for the time being in force in
the said Colony on the importation into the said Colony of the like
foreign goods coming from any third country, the most favoured in
this respect, provided always that such duties shall not exceed five
per cent. in the case of natural produce which may be proved to the
satisfaction of the Erythræan Custom House authorities at the place
of entry into the said Colony to be the bonâ fide produce of the
Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan.
ARTICLE III.
Tobacco in all its forms coming from the Colony of Erythræa may
be legally imported into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan
under the same conditions as may be applicable to tobacco imported
into Egypt.
Tobacco in all its forms coming from the Anglo-Egyptian territory
of the Sudan may be legally imported into the Colony of Erythræa
on conditions to be established by the Governor of that Colony.
ARTICLE IV.
The importation of arms and ammunition of all kinds from the
Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into Erythræa and from
Erythræa into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan is expressly
prohibited.
ARTICLE V.
The importation of salt and of all alcoholic liquors into the
Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan from Erythræa and from the
Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into Erythræa shall be subject
to such conditions and restrictions as may be from time to time laid
down by the respective Governments, which may at any time prohibit
such importation if they shall think fit.
The importation of sugar and of manufactured cotton of all kinds
from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into the Colony of
Erythræa shall be subject to the conditions which shall be laid
down by the Government of the Colony.
ARTICLE VI.
On the importation into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan from
the Italian Colony of Erythræa of any produce of the said Colony
such as gum, india-rubber, ivory, or ostrich feathers, upon which
a tax or royalty is imposed in the Sudan, there shall be levied on
such produce the like tax or royalty as that which is for the time
being in force in the Sudan, without prejudice to the payment of
the duties leviable on such produce under the provisions of Article I.
The same dispositions shall apply to these categories of produce
when imported into the Colony of Erythræa from the Anglo-Egyptian
territory of the Sudan.
Provided always that deduction of the amount already paid in respect
of Customs duties on the entry of such produce into either territory
shall be made from the amount payable in respect of the said tax
or royalty.
ARTICLE VII.
As regards the load tax which may be levied in the Sudan on
loaded camels or other loaded transport-animals proceeding towards
Erythræa, no higher tax shall be levied on these than is levied on
transport-animals in the Mudiria of Kassala or the Administrative
District of Suakin.
ARTICLE VIII.
The drawback upon goods coming from the Anglo-Egyptian territory
of the Sudan and passing through the Italian Colony of Erythræa
in transit, as well as that upon goods coming from the said Colony
and passing in transit through the said territory, shall be equal in
amount to the whole of the duty paid on their entry into the country
through which they pass in transit, on condition that they be duly
sealed and accompanied by certificates of origin delivered by the
competent authorities, either Anglo-Egyptian or Erythræan as the
case may be.
Provided always that the provisions of this article shall not apply to
goods imported into Egypt and not intended for re-exportation thence.
ARTICLE IX.
Each of the two Governments shall decide where its own Customs Houses
shall be and shall make its own valuations on imported and exported
goods on the basis of their value at the place of import or export.
These valuations shall be revised every six months and communicated to
each other by the respective authorities, who will exchange views with
the object of establishing by friendly understanding the approximate
cost of transport for the following six months.
ARTICLE X.
Goods exported from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan
into Erythræa will pay the same export duty (not exceeding one
per cent.) as is paid on goods exported from Suakin or other Red
Sea ports.
Goods exported from Erythræa into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of
the Sudan may be subjected to an export or statistical duty of one
per cent.
ARTICLE XI.
The coasting trade between the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the
Sudan and the Italian Colony of Erythræa shall be subject to the
treatment granted to the most favoured nation by either of the
contracting parties.
ARTICLE XII.
The present Convention shall remain in force for ten years, dating
from the day of the exchange of ratifications, but shall be subject
to revision after five years, on the application of either of the
contracting parties, provided that the application is made six months
before the expiration of the five years.
In case neither of the two contracting parties shall have given notice
six months before the expiration of the said period of ten years
of their intention to terminate the present Convention, it shall
remain in force for a further period of five years, and thereafter
for successive periods of the like duration, unless either of the
contracting parties shall have given notice as aforesaid six months
before the expiration of the quinquennial period then current.
Done at Rome this twenty-sixth day of November, in the year one
thousand nine hundred and one.
(Signed) MARTINI.
(Signed) GLEICHEN, _Kaimakam_.
Ratified at Cairo, 2nd January, 1902.
(13.)
POSTAL CONVENTION BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND ERYTHRÆA.
ARTICLE I.
From the date of the present Convention the Post Offices of
the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan and of Erythræa will
carry out the service of ordinary and registered (raccomandate)
correspondence and of money orders between the Sudan and Erythræa,
under the conditions, formalities and tariffs in force in the
Universal Postal Union, except as hereinafter mentioned.
ARTICLE II.
The exchange of mails will take place weekly at Sabderat. Each
Government will provide for the transport of the mails in its own
territory.
ARTICLE III.
The Service of Money Orders between the Colony of Erythræa and the
Sudan is carried out in accordance with the forms and regulations
in force for the Money Order Service between Erythræa and Egypt.
ARTICLE IV.
This Convention is subject to revision every five years, dating
from the exchange of ratifications, on the application of one of the
contracting parties six months before the close of the quinquennial
period.
ARTICLE V.
The Postal Convention (Parsons-Samminiatelli) of the 25th of December,
1897, is hereby cancelled.
Done at Rome this twenty-sixth day of November, in the year one
thousand nine hundred and one.
(Signed) MARTINI.
(Signed) GLEICHEN, _Kaimakam_.
Ratified at Cairo, 8th January, 1902.
(14.)
TELEGRAPHIC CONVENTION BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND
ERYTHRÆA.
ARTICLE I.
Telegrams between the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan and
Erythræa can be despatched from or to any telegraphic station in
either country.
ARTICLE II.
The telegraph line of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is connected with that
of Erythræa at the station of Sabderat which is worked by Italian
personnel. The cost of the working of this telegraphic station will
be divided equally between the two Governments.
ARTICLE III.
The total charge for telegrams between the two countries shall be at
the rate of one lire (forty-two millièmes) for the first fifteen
words or less, and five centesimi (two millièmes) per word after
the first fifteen words.
The money received for such telegrams shall remain in the possession
of the Administration from whose station the telegram is sent.
ARTICLE IV.
Telegrams from or to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through Erythræa and
Perim to (or from) places beyond Perim will pay over and above the
nominal tariff, a transit tax (over Erythræan lines and cables)
of forty centesimi (sixteen millièmes) per word; which sum will
be credited to the Administration of Erythræa in the half-yearly
settlement of accounts.
ARTICLE V.
In like manner telegrams from (or to) the Erythræan Colony passing
over Sudanese or Egyptian telegraph lines to (or from) places outside
Egypt or the Sudan will pay, over and above the normal tariff, a
transit tax of seventy-five centesimi (thirty millièmes) per word
over the lines Kassala-Alexandria or Kassala-Suakin; which sum will
be credited to the Administration of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in
the half-yearly settlement of accounts.
ARTICLE VI.
In case of interruption to the Italian Massawa-Perim cable, or to
the lines and cables between the Sudan and abroad, it is agreed that
the lines or cables of each Government shall be at the service of
the other.
In this case the service telegrams of one Government passing over
the lines and cables of the other will pay only half the transit
taxes above mentioned.
ARTICLE VII.
The authorities of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and of Erythræa will
exchange mutually and free of cost, in English, Italian, or Arabic,
political or military news which might interest each other.
ARTICLE VIII.
The half-yearly accounts above-mentioned shall be regulated on the
1st January and 1st July of each year.
ARTICLE IX.
The said Convention shall remain in force for the space of one year
from the date of exchange of ratifications, but after this period
it shall continue in force _sine die_ until revised at the request
of one of the two contracting parties who shall give at least six
months notice of his wish for such revision.
ARTICLE X.
The Telegraphic Convention (Parsons-Samminiatelli) of the 25th
December, 1897, is hereby cancelled.
Done at Rome this twenty-sixth day of November, in the year one
thousand nine hundred and one.
(Signed) MARTINI.
(Signed) GLEICHEN, _Kaimakam_.
Ratified at Cairo, 8th January, 1902.
(15.)
TREATY BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND ETHIOPIA. (_With Map._)
His Majesty Edward VII, by the Grace of God, King of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions
beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and His Majesty Menelik II, by
the Grace of God, King of Kings of Ethiopia, being animated with the
desire to conform the friendly relations between the two Powers, and
to settle the frontier between the Sudan and Ethiopia; and His Majesty
King Edward having appointed as his plenipotentiary Lieut.-Colonel
John Lane Harrington, a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order,
His Majesty’s Agent at the Court of His Majesty Menelik II, King
of Kings of Ethiopia, whose full powers have been found in due and
proper form, and His Majesty the Emperor Menelik, negotiating in his
own name as King of Kings of Ethiopia, they have agreed upon and do
conclude the following Articles which shall be binding on themselves,
their heirs and successors.
ARTICLE I.
The frontier between the Sudan and Ethiopia agreed on between the
two Governments shall be:—The line which is marked in red on the
map annexed to this Treaty in duplicate, and traced from Khor Um
Hagar to Galabat, to the Blue Nile, Baro, Pibor, and Akobo rivers,
to Helile, thence to the intersection of the 6° lat. north with
the 35° long. east of Greenwich.
ARTICLE II.
The boundary as defined in Article I shall be delimited and marked on
the ground by a Joint Boundary Commission which shall be nominated
by the two High Contracting Parties, who shall notify the same to
their subjects after delimitation.
ARTICLE III.
His Majesty the Emperor Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia,
engages himself towards the Government of His Britannic Majesty not to
construct or allow to be constructed any work across the Blue Nile,
Lake Tsana, or the Sobat which would arrest the flow of their waters
into the Nile, except in agreement with His Britannic Majesty’s
Government and the Government of the Sudan.
ARTICLE IV.
His Majesty the Emperor Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia,
engages himself to allow his Britannic Majesty’s Government and the
Government of the Sudan to select, in the neighbourhood of Itang on
the Baro River, a block of territory having a river frontage of not
more than 2,000 metres, in area not exceeding 400 hectares, which
shall be leased to the Government of the Sudan, to be administered
and occupied as a commercial station so long as the Sudan is under
the Anglo-Egyptian Government.
It is agreed between the two High Contracting Parties that the
territory so leased shall not be used for any political or military
purpose.
ARTICLE V.
His Majesty the Emperor Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, grants
to his Britannic Majesty’s Government and the Government of the
Sudan the right to construct a railway through Abyssinian territory
to connect the Sudan with Uganda. A route for the railway will be
selected by mutual agreement between the two High Contracting Parties.
The present Treaty shall come into force as soon as its ratification
by His Britannic Majesty shall have been notified to the Emperor
of Ethiopia.[223]
In faith of which His Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia,
in his own name, and Lieutenant-Colonel John Lane Harrington on
behalf of his Majesty King Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the
Seas, Emperor of India, have signed the present Treaty in duplicate,
written in the English and Arabic languages, identically, both texts
being official, and have thereto affixed their seals.
Done at Addis Abbaba, this 15th day of May, 1902.
(16.)
NOTE.
ANNEX TO THE TREATY OF 10TH JULY, 1900,[224] REGARDING THE FRONTIER
BETWEEN ETHIOPIA AND ERITREA, AND THE TREATY OF 15TH MAY, 1902,
REGARDING THE FRONTIER BETWEEN THE SUDAN AND ERITREA.
His Majesty the Emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik II, Major Ciccodicola,
Italian Minister in Ethiopia, and Lieutenant Col. Harrington,
H.B.M’s. Agent in Ethiopia, have mutually agreed that:—
ARTICLE I.
The frontier treaty between Ethiopia and Eritrea previously determined
by the line Tomat-Todluc is mutually modified in the following
manner:—Commencing from the junction of the Khor Um Hagar with
the Setit, the new frontier follows this river to its junction with
the Maieteb, following the latter’s course so as to leave Mount
Ala Tacura to Eritrea, and joins the Mareb at its junction with the
Mai Ambessa.
The line from the junction of the Setit and Maieteb to the junction of
the Mareb and Mai Ambessa shall be delimited by Italian and Ethiopian
delegates so that the Cunama tribe belong to Eritrea.
ARTICLE II.
The frontier between the Sudan and Eritrea instead of that delimited
by the English and Italian delegates by the Convention of the 16th
April 1901, shall be the line which from Sabderat, is traced _viâ_
Abu Gamal to the junction of the Khor Um Hagar with the Setit.
The present agreement shall come into force as soon as its
ratification by the British and Italian Governments shall have been
notified to the Emperor of Ethiopia.
In faith of which, His Majesty the Emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik II,
in his own name and that of his successors, Major Ciccodicola in
the name of his Majesty Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, and his
successors, and Lieut.-Col. Harrington in the name of His Majesty
Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India,
and his successors have signed the present note in triplicate;
written in Italian, English, and Amharic languages, identically,
all texts being official, and have thereto affixed their seals.
Done at Addis Abbaba, this 15th day of May, 1902.
(17.)
Sudan Agent’s Office,
Sudan Government, Cairo.
_21st April_, 1902.
MY LORD,
I have the honour to inform Your Lordship that the Sudan Government
has had under consideration the question of duties to be paid on
goods coming from Uganda into or passing through the Sudan.
It has been decided that the Customs Convention[225] recently
concluded with Eritrea shall apply to such goods under the following
conditions:—
1. Certificates of origin should be furnished by the Uganda
authorities in order to facilitate and ensure the efficient collection
of the proper Customs dues.
2. In the event of goods not specially specified in Article VI of
the Convention being imported into the Sudan from Uganda, there
shall be levied the following:—
(_a_) On goods proved to the satisfaction of the Sudanese Custom
House authorities to be the _bonâ fide_ natural produce of Uganda,
a duty equal to that payable under the Egyptian Tariff for the time
being in force on the importation into Egypt of the like goods
coming from any third country but in no case to exceed 5 per cent.
(_b_) On other goods, a duty equal to that payable under the
Egyptian Tariff above-mentioned without the 5 per cent.
reservation. This duty is at present 8 per cent. _ad valorem_
on most articles.
3. On gum, india-rubber, ivory, ostrich feathers, etc., etc., an
import duty in accordance with (_a_) or (_b_) and in addition the
existing royalty (20 per cent. at present), minus the amount of the
import duty paid under (_a_) or (_b_).
In other words, imported goods which are liable to pay royalty in
the Sudan are allowed a drawback of the original amount of import
duty paid.
4. (_a_) Goods duly sealed and accompanied by certificates of
origin delivered by Uganda Authorities, passing in transit through
Anglo-Egyptian territory, other than goods imported into Egypt and not
intended for re-exportation thence, shall be entitled to a drawback
of the whole of the duty paid on their entry into the Sudan, _i.e._,
of import duty, or of royalty, or of both.
(_b_) The maximum time allowed for goods passing in transit through
Anglo-Egyptian territory will be six months.
I have the honour to be, my Lord,
Your Lordship’s most obedient servant,
(Signed) GLEICHEN, _Miralai, Sudan Agent, Cairo_.
(For Governor-General of the Sudan.)
The Right Honourable,
The EARL OF CROMER, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
His Britannic Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General in Egypt.
Foreign Office,
_12th May_, 1902.
MY LORD,
I have received Your Lordship’s despatch No. 61, Confidential
of 23rd ultimo, forwarding copy of a letter from the Agent of the
Government of the Sudan at Cairo in regard to the duties to be paid
on goods coming from Uganda into or passing through the Sudan.
I approve the proposals in Count Gleichen’s letter, and will
communicate them to H.M.’s Commissioner in Uganda.
I am, etc.,
(Signed) LANSDOWNE.
THE EARL OF CROMER, G.C.B., etc., etc.
Cairo.
(18.)
BOUNDARY AGREEMENT BETWEEN FRANCE AND THE CONGO FREE STATE, 14TH
AUGUST, 1894.
The undersigned, Gabriel Hanotaux, Minister for Foreign Affairs of
the French Republic, etc.; Jacques Haussmann, Director of Political
and Commercial Affairs at the Colonial Office, etc.; Joseph Devolder,
ex-Minister of Justice and ex-Minister of the Interior and Education
of His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Vice-President of the
Supreme Council of the Congo Free State, etc.; and Baron Constant
Goffinet, etc., Plenipotentiaries of the French Republic and of the
Congo Free State, deputed to prepare an agreement relative to the
boundaries of the respective possessions of the two states and to
settle the other questions pending between them, have agreed upon
the following provisions:—
_Boundary between the Congo Free State and French Congo, Oubanghi,
etc._
Art. 1. The frontier between the Congo Free State and the Colony
of French Congo, after following the thalweg of the Oubanghi up to
the confluence of the Mbomou[226] and of the Ouelle (or Welle),
shall be constituted as follows:—(1) The thalweg of the Mbomou
up to its source. (2) A straight line joining the watershed between
the Congo and Nile Basins. From this point the frontier of the Free
State is constituted by the said watershed up to its intersection
with long. 30° east of Greenwich (27° 40′ east of Paris).
Arts. 2 and 3. _French right of Police over the waters of the Mbomou._
_Renunciation by Free State of Occupation or Influence over certain
Districts. Watershed of Congo and Nile Basins, etc._
Art. 4. The Free State binds herself to renounce all occupation, and
to exercise in the future no political influence west or north of
a line thus determined:—Long. 30° east of Greenwich (27° 40′
east of Paris), starting from its intersection of the watershed
of the Congo and Nile Basins, up to the point where it meets the
parallel 5° 30′, and then along that parallel to the Nile.
Art. 5. _Ratifications to be exchanged within three months._
Art. 6. In token of which the Plenipotentiaries have drawn up the
present arrangement and affixed their signatures.
Given at Paris in duplicate, August 14, 1894.
G. HANOTAUX.
J. HAUSSMANN.
J. DEVOLDER.
BARON GOFFINET.
(Approved by the Government of the French Republic, by Law of 21st
December, 1894.)
(19.)
AGREEMENT _re_ FRONTIER ERITREA-ABYSSINIA. (_With Map._)
In the name of the Holy Trinity:
His Majesty King Humbert I of Italy, and His Majesty Menelik II,
King of Kings of Ethiopia, being desirous of settling the question of
the frontier between Eritrea and Ethiopia, which was left unsettled
at the conclusion of the Peace Treaty of Addis Abbaba of the 26th
October, 1896, have agreed to conclude the following Convention.
Art. I. The line Tomat-Todluc-Mareb-Belesa-Muna, traced on the
attached map, is acknowledged by the two contracting parties as the
frontier between Eritrea and Ethiopia.
Art. II. The Italian Government hereby binds itself not to
cede or sell to another Power, the territory lying between
the line Tomat-Todluc-Mareb-Mai Ambessa-Mai Feccia-Mai
Maretta-Mai Ha-Mahio-Plain of Pharaoh’s hens (1) and the line
Tomat-Todluc-Mareb-Belesa-Muna, given by his Majesty Menelik II,
King of Kings of Ethiopia, to Italy.
His Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, in his own name,
his heirs and successors, and Captain Ciccodicola, in the name of
His Majesty Humbert I, King of Italy, his heirs and successors, have
with willingness and accord agreed to and written this Convention
in Italian and Amharic, considering both as official (in case of
error, however, in the writing, the Emperor Menelik will adhere to
the Amharic text), and having approved of same they have affixed
their seals thereto.
Written at the City of Addis Abbaba, this 10th day of July, 1900.
(Signed) Seal of the EMPEROR MENELIK.
(Signed) CAPT. FREDERICK CICCODICOLA.
_Representative of H.M. the
King of Italy_.
(1) Line proposed by the Emperor Menelik to Major Nerazzini in 1897.
(20.)[227]
BERLIN ACT, 26.2.85: Free Trade in Congo Basin, etc.
(21.)[227]
BRUSSELS ACT, 2.7.90 (in force since 2.4.94): Slave Trade, Firearms,
Ammunition, etc. Amongst others, Great Britain, France, Italy,
Russia, Turkey, and Abyssinia are Signatories.
[Footnote 220: This Article was withdrawn by a Declaration signed
22nd June, 1894 (_vide_ below).]
[Footnote 221: These three paragraphs have been cancelled by the
later agreement of 18.2.03—G.]
[Footnote 222: Not printed.—G.]
[Footnote 223: Done, September, 1902.—G.]
[Footnote 224: _See_ No. 19.]
[Footnote 225: _Vide_ No. 12.]
[Footnote 226: According to Junker’s map (Gotha, J. Perthes, 1888).]
[Footnote 227: Not printed here, but text may be found in Hertslet’s
“Map of Africa by Treaty,” 1896 Edition, pp. 20 to 47, and pp. 48
to 106 respectively.]
=APPENDIX B.=
* * * * *
THE SUDD.
[Illustration: SUDDSCAPE.]
[Sidenote: General description. (Editor.)]
The “sudd” (in Arabic _sadd_ = block) is a generic name by custom
applied to the huge marshes through which the Bahr El Jebel, Bahr El
Ghazal, Bahr El Zeraf and the lower portion of their tributaries wind
their way. It forms an irregular triangle of which the northern base
extends about 200 miles west from the mouth of the Bahr El Zeraf,
and the southern apex lies about Bor, 250 miles S.S.E. of Lake
No. It is difficult to estimate the area of these vast marshes,
but it cannot be much less than 35,000 square miles.
These marshes are formed by the expansion of the rivers mentioned
over this area, and probably represent the bed of an old prehistoric
lake which has to a certain extent dried up. The theory has been put
forward that in those far-off days a ridge about Kodok, subsequently
broken through by the river, caused the holding-up of waters in this
lake, but this is hardly the place to examine this theory in detail.
Suffice it to say that a great part of this area is covered with a
shallow sheet of water, over almost the whole extent of which thick
reeds and swamp-grasses have sprung up. Except in the actual river
channels this water is probably nowhere more than 2 to 6 feet deep.
[Sidenote: Scenery.]
[Sidenote: Animal life.]
To the eye the effect is one of a vast extent of brilliant green
papyrus, feathery reeds and sword-grass, 5 to 15 feet above the
water, broken by occasional patches of light ambach trees, with
channels of water, pools and lagoons dotting the “swamp-scape,”
and here and there a sparse tree or two on the horizon. Occasionally,
and more especially towards the south, ridges, or patches of mud or
solid ground are visible, and in such parts there is much bird and
animal life. In the lower (northern) reaches of the Sudd nearly all
signs of life—except the brilliant little bee-eater, an occasional
heron, fish-eagle, or “anvil bird,” the ubiquitous crocodile,
and, of course, the insects—disappear; but in the more southerly
parts are found many varieties of game.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
On the Bahr El Jebel, for the first 150 miles south of Lake No there
are no human inhabitants visible. Thereafter occasional Dinkas and
their villages are seen up to about Bor (384 miles); whilst beyond
this the Bari country commences, the population as the Lado Enclave
is approached being considerably thicker on the east than on the
west bank. The Bahr el Ghazal swamps and banks are almost uninhabited.
Of the larger species of game, elephant, giraffe, buffalo, and many
sorts of antelope, including waterbuck, Leucotis, Cobus Maria,
etc., etc., are seen towards the south, whilst the hippopotamus
is excessively numerous almost throughout.[228] From the reeds and
mudbanks arise clouds of wildfowl, crane, geese, (black and white, and
brown), storks (saddleback, black, open-billed and marabou), herons
(white, grey, egret, purple, “squacco,” and “Goliath”),
bustard, and the quaint _balaeniceps rex_ (whale-headed stork),
besides pelican, spoonbill, ibis, and duck of every description; and
of insect life the supply is unnecessarily large throughout. This
latter includes several varieties of persistent and poisonous
mosquitos (from the large scarlet one to the tiny anopheles),
the trumpet-headed sudd insect and other kindred grasshopper-like
creatures, millions of midges and mayflies, the serût fly, moths,
spiders, fireflies, etc., etc. The sudd also swarms with coarse fish,
some running to a considerable size.
[Sidenote: The true Sudd.]
Some confusion has been caused by the word “sudd” being applied
to the whole of these marshes. As a matter of fact, the real sudd is
only the obstructive floating vegetation, originated in the lagoons as
described below, which is driven by force of circumstances into the
river channels and there forms the block or sudd. By far the greater
portion of the marshes are covered by standing reeds, papyrus and
the like, which, although they cover and assist in the formation of
the floating vegetation and even, when uprooted, form part of it,
yet are not, strictly speaking, sudd in their original state.
Thus, the traveller who proceeds along the cleared channel from Lake
No to Gondokoro will, in all probability, although in the middle of
the “sudd,” see little, if any, genuine sudd at all.
[Sidenote: Formation of Sudd. (Sir W. Garstin.)]
In the Bahr El Jebel the main factors in forming sudd are the papyrus
and the “um sûf.” These two, with the earth adhering to their
roots, form the real obstruction. Many of the smaller swimming
plants, such as the “_Azolla_” the “_Utricularia_” and the
“_Otellia Vallisneria_” are mingled with the others, but they
certainly do not play an important part in the formation of the
obstacle. The ambach, too, has been unjustly accused of assisting
in forming this barrier. This is not the case. This plant does not
grow in any great quantity in the vicinity of the Bahr El Jebel, and
its stem is so light and brittle that it would break when subjected
to great pressure.
On the Bahr El Ghazal, on the contrary, the sudd is chiefly composed
of the swimming plants above-mentioned. Their breeding places are
Lake Ambadi and the other shallow lakes to the south.
The Ghazal sudd is much lighter in texture than that of the Jebel,
and is consequently much easier to remove. At the same time, even in
the former river, the sudd is at times dangerous, especially if it
forms down-stream of a vessel, and if the latter has to work upon it
from its up-stream end. The accident to Gessi Pasha’s expedition
in 1880 proves that even the Bahr El Ghazal sudd can be an impassable
obstacle under such circumstances.
Before alluding to the work done in removing the sudd, it may
be as well to say a few words as to the principal causes of this
remarkable barrier.
The Bahr El Jebel traverses the marshes between Bor and Lake No
for some 380 miles of its course. South of Shambe the river has
never been known to be blocked. On either side of the channel,
in these immense swamps, extend large shallow lagoons, some of
them covering a square mile or more of area. These lagoons are
surrounded on every side by a luxuriant growth of aquatic plants,
consisting chiefly of the papyrus and the grass known to the Arabs
as the “um sûf” (the mother of wool). Both these plants grow in
water, but not in any great depth. The papyrus attains a height of
from 15 to 20 feet, with fibrous roots which strike deep into the
ground. The “um sûf” rarely exceeds 5 feet in height, and its
roots do not extend so deeply as do those of the papyrus. They are,
however, very tough and difficult to break or cut through. These
roots are bedded in the soil below the water, but the strong gales
which blow in these regions loosen their hold to a large extent. If
such a storm be accompanied by any rise of the water surface, large
masses of these plants are set free from their original position,
and begin to float on the surface of the lagoons. Their roots form
such a tangled mass that large quantities of the earth in which
they are embedded remain clinging to them. These act as ballast,
and when the island of papyrus or reeds is detached and, under the
influence of the wind, is set drifting about the lagoon, the weight
of the earth retains the plants in their vertical position. Their
roots, the moment they reach a shallow, act as anchors, and speedily
strike down again into the muddy bottom of the lake. Large masses
constantly change their position in this way. If the storm cease,
they remain where they are. Unfortunately, at the commencement and
end of the rainy season, stormy weather is the rule rather than the
exception. At such seasons large areas of the marsh vegetation are
in motion, driven hither and thither by the wind.
The Bahr El Jebel, where it passes through the swamps, has no banks
whatever, and is, as a rule, separated from the lagoons merely by
a narrow belt of papyrus. In many places it is in connection with
them, and the water of the lakes flows in and out of the river,
according to the level of the latter. As the stormy season in these
latitudes heralds the approach of the annual rains, the rise of
the river follows very speedily. The channel of the Bahr El Jebel
being only of sufficient section to carry the low water supply, with
the first rise in the levels the river spreads over the marshes,
flooding them in all directions, and increasing the depth of water
in the lagoons. It thus causes the areas of reed, already detached
by the wind, to float still more easily. The continuous gales which
prevail set hundreds of acres of these floating masses moving in
one direction. Eventually they reach a point on the river where they
are forced into the channel. Once there the current speedily carries
them down-stream. Ere long their course is arrested by a projection
on the edge of the channel or by a sharp bend. It may happen that
an area of reed, several acres in extent, bursts into the river in
a large sheet, and in such a case it must be necessarily arrested
at the first point where the section is contracted. The result is
that the channel is quickly blocked, though, perhaps, not at first
to any great depth. Masses of weed, however, follow one another in
succession, brought down by the stream. The section of the channel
being reduced by the first obstruction, the velocity of the water
rapidly increases, and these masses, following the easiest course,
pass under the obstacle thus created. Each fresh mass arriving
is sucked underneath those originally arrested, until at last the
whole becomes wedged into one solid block, composed partly of earth
and partly of stalks and roots of papyrus and reed, broken up by
the extreme compression into an inextricable tangle. So great is
the pressure applied by the water, that the surface of the block
is often forced several yards above the water-level and is seamed
by alternate ridges and furrows. The thickness varies greatly,
according to the conditions and sections of the channel. In some
cases it is not more than 4 to 6 feet, but it not infrequently
obtains a thickness of 16 feet, below water, and occasionally as
much as 22 feet have been observed.[229] Underneath this bar the
river manages to force an outlet, but with a velocity increased
proportionately to the smallness of the aperture. At the same time,
the up-stream level rises, flooding the marshes in every direction,
the water making use of any side channel that it can find. In time,
doubtless, if left to itself, it would desert its original course,
and the stream would take an entirely new direction, the original
channel becoming permanently blocked. It generally, however, happens
from natural causes, such as strong winds or increased heading-up
of the water, that these blocks burst, and the obstacle is carried
away. On such occasions a great wave passes down the channel, carrying
everything before it, and sweeping away any similar blocks which may
have been formed down-stream. Only in this way can the clearance
of the sudd in certain years which has undoubtedly occurred be
explained. Many of these blocks extend for a considerable length,
some being as much as several miles long. It is easy to understand
that such closures of the river channel cause not only a complete bar
to navigation, but also a very serious obstacle to the free passage
of the water. More than this, each block thus formed assists in
the formation of others, by raising the water level up-stream, and
thus assisting the flotation of further areas of papyrus and reed,
much of which eventually finds its way into the river.
The movement of these great masses of weed, and the way in which
they burst into the river, bears a striking resemblance to the
descriptions given of an icefield when in motion. Their steady and
resistless movement, the manner in which the fields break up, and
the way in which they pile upon one another when an obstruction is
encountered to their course, recall irresistibly what travellers
relate of the action of the ice-floes when the pack is breaking up.
The sudd in this river, and in a less degree that in the Bahr El
Ghazal, constitutes a very real danger to navigation. Should a steamer
happen to be surrounded by it when in motion, the compression would
certainly strain her framework to the risk of crushing it. Even should
she escape this she will most probably be imprisoned for an indefinite
time, owing to the river blocking on either side of her. During
the stormy season, it should if possible always be arranged that
two steamers should work in conjunction, one remaining down-stream,
so as to be able to go to the assistance of the other if necessary.
As no fuel is to be met with throughout the whole length of the sudd
region, a solitary steamer, if detained for some time by a block,
may find herself eventually prevented from proceeding, or from making
any attempt to free herself, owing to the absence of any means of
generating steam in her boilers.
The Bahr El Ghazal sudd is, as has been said, of a different kind
to that of the Bahr El Jebel. It is, as a rule, much lighter in
consistency and easier to remove. This is doubtless due to the fact
that the velocity of this river is very low, and, consequently,
the pressure exerted by the water upon a block is small compared
with that caused by similar conditions in the Bahr El Jebel. Again,
on the Bahr El Ghazal, the papyrus and reeds do not extend on
either side to any distance, nor are continuous and large lagoons
close at hand. Between miles 42 and 52, up-stream of the junction
with the Khor Deleib, there must, it is true, be always a risk of a
block. In this reach the river passes through papyrus swamps, which
are miniature editions of the Jebel marshes. Even here, however,
the obstruction can hardly attain to the same solidity as in the case
of the Jebel sudd, as the sluggish current of the Ghazal would fail
to wedge the mass between the banks as tightly as would the rapid
stream of the other river. Lake Ambadi appears to be a great nursery
for the smaller varieties of the sudd plants. In the beginning of
the rainy season these are carried down-stream and, as the channel
wanders and twists, they form small obstructions. None of these,
however, appear to be lasting, and it is rare that the Ghazal river
is blocked for any length of time. It may be closed for a few months
and then re-open itself. Thus in March and April, 1900, it was clear
throughout its entire length, while in September of the same year it
was blocked in more than one place. On this river, as on the Jebel,
the sudd frequently sinks to the bottom, and decomposes, gradually
raising the bed of the river. In this state it is very hard to remove.
[Illustration: AMBACH.]
[Sidenote: Botanical Composition.]
The sudd-forming plants may be classed in three divisions.[230]
The first, which contains plants whose roots descend to the river bed,
is chiefly composed of the papyrus (_Cyperus Papyrus_), the common
reed or “Bus” (_Phragmites communis_), and the feathery-headed
grass (_Saccharum Spontaneum_).
The second kind is composed entirely of plants whose roots are in the
water, but do not strike down to the ground or bed of river. The
principal plant in this class is the “Um sûf” (_Panicum
pyramidale_), grass, so called by the Arabs (“Mother of wool”)
on account of the irritant hairs found on its leaf-sheaths which
adhere to the skin of anyone touching them. In addition to the above,
the wild bean (_Vigna Nilotica_) and creepers with purple flowers
(_Ipomœa_) are found in profusion.
The third or last class of sudd is composed entirely of plants which
swim upon the surface of the water. These form the cementing medium
which binds the first two classes together.
The following are the principal components of this class:—
_Pistia_, a small cabbage-like plant with bright green
leaves. _Azolla_, resembling moss in texture. _Utricularia_,
_Aldrovandia_ and _Ceratophyllum_, all resembling feathery floating
streamers. The first variety has a series of small bulbs, like
floats, attached to each streamer. The last is common in the canals
and drains of Lower Egypt.
_Otellia_, a plant with big leaves and a white flower like a
lily.[231] It is found everywhere in this class of sudd, and is
met with at Damietta, where it is called by the Arabs “Lughmet el
Kadi,” or the “Kadi’s pudding.”
In and among the above the blue-flowered creeper (_Commellaria_)
is found.
[Sidenote: Detail. (Mr. Broun.)]
Regarding the detail of the formation, the first point of interest
is that all the most important sudd plants propagate themselves by
means of tubular rhizomes which run along the surface of the water
giving out shoots from point to point. These shoots, after developing,
give out other runners which cross the others and weave themselves
into them, a further consolidation being given by twiners which bind
them all together.
[Sidenote: Chief sudd plants.]
The most important sudd plants are, without doubt, Papyrus, “Um
sûf” (_Panicum pyramidale_), and “Bus” (_Phragmites communis_).
“Um sûf” is probably the greatest source of blocks in
the river courses, as it seems to thrive in deeper water than
either the “Papyrus” or “Bus.” But all these give out long
rhizomes. Those of the “Bus,” which is a very tall reed, extend
sometimes quite 20 yards from the parent plants. These rhizomes
either break away when the new shoots have developed and go to form
new colonies elsewhere, or they are driven by the side of the others
and gradually encroach on the river.
Among the climbers which bind the new growth (as well as the old)
together, the principal are three kinds of _Ipomœa_, one vine
and a leguminous twiner _Vigna Nilotica_. One of the _Ipomœas_
(_I. Reptans_) deserves special mention, as it is not only a twiner,
but possesses also tubular rhizomes, which enable it to float along
the rhizomes of Papyrus, “Bus,” or “Um sûf,” and to knit them
together as soon as they give out shoots. Among other plants which
have also hollow stems are _Jussiæa diffusa_, which is also supplied
with bunches of spine-shaped floats, and _Polygonum tomentosum_.
When all these floating masses are being tied together by the
twiners the river brings down other plants as a packing to fill the
interstices. The most common is _Pistia Stratiotes_, but there is also
a constant supply of _Ceratophyllum_, _Utricularia_, _Vallisneria_
and other plants of the same family; also _Trapa bispinosa_ (the
water-nut), _Potomogetum_, _Azolla_, etc. Little nooks are thus
enclosed by runners from the Bus reed, the interior spaces of which
are crammed with smaller plants.
It appears wonderful that with all this enormous mass of vegetation
growing in these vast swamps in which no traces of human habitations
can be seen, the natural decay of the plants does not gradually raise
the level of the soil and force the water to keep to well-defined
channels which, with the greater volume of water which they would
contain would soon force for themselves a less winding course than
they now follow.
[Sidenote: Action of fires.]
It appears that one of the chief causes of continuation of the old
order of things is _fire_. Sparsely inhabited as the swamps are,
they are swept through from end to end by fierce fires which carry
everything before them and kill nearly all the trees which attempt
to gain a footing. Here and there a few Kakamut, Dôm, Deleib,
Dabka or Talh have managed to spring up, but they are so scattered
that they do not count. The papyrus and reeds, instead of dying a
natural death and forming soil by decay, are burnt down, and what
of the ashes is not blown away by the wind is carried away by the
next flood. Were it not for these fires it is probable that trees
of the species mentioned above would spring out more abundantly,
and it would not be a difficult matter to define the banks of the
channel by plantations of these or other river-side trees, such as
are to be found in Ceylon, for example, lining the river, _e.g._,
_Terminalis glabra_, _Vitex Leucoxylon_, _Vateria acuminata_.
[Sidenote: Recent history of blocks and sudd-cutting. (Various.)]
In 1863, 1864, and 1868, heavy sudds blocked the Bahr El Jebel,
and in the first mentioned year they extend to the north of Lake No.
In 1870, Sir Samuel Baker found the Bahr El Jebel closed with sudd
at its mouth in Lake No. He attempted to ascend the Bahr El Zeraf
but failed to reach the Upper Nile, and was obliged to return.
In 1871 he ascended the Bahr El Zeraf, and eventually forced his
way into the main river near Shambe, literally lifting his boats
and steamer over the intervening swamps and shallows.
In 1872 both the Bahr El Jebel and Bahr El Zeraf were closed, and
in 1874 Ismail Pasha Ayub cleared away the sudd in the former river.
In 1878 Emin Pasha found it impossible to ascend the Bahr El Jebel
from the south.
In 1879 and 1880 Marno (an Austrian) cleared the Bahr El Jebel of
obstruction, completing his work in April, 1880.
In this same year Gessi Pasha undertook his disastrous journey in
the Bahr El Ghazal, his steamer being blocked in that river for
many weeks, and his expedition only being extricated by the timely
arrival of another steamer under Marno, not, however, before he had
lost many men.
In 1881 and 1884 the Bahr El Jebel was again closed by the
sudd. During the period of Dervish rule nothing detailed was known
regarding the state of the river, but in 1895 it was reported to
the Intelligence Department that the White Nile was closed by the
sudd. During this period the steamer “Mansurah” sank in the
main channel in what is now known as the 15th block. The steamer
was discovered during the Sudd operations of 1903-04.
As soon as possible after the battle of Omdurman (2nd September,
1898) steamers were sent up-stream to investigate. Major M. Peake
attempted (7th October, 1898) to penetrate the Bahr El Jebel, but
in vain. He steamed, however, up the Bahr El Ghazal nearly as far
as Meshra el Rek. With Major Stanton he shortly afterwards steamed
157 miles up the Bahr El Zeraf, and was then stopped by shallow water.
In the following year, after a visit by Sir W. Garstin and
Lt.-Col. Sparkes in the spring, operations for clearing the Bahr El
Jebel were seriously undertaken, and Major Peake left Omdurman at the
head of an expedition on 16th December, 1899. The party consisted of
five gunboats, five English and some Egyptian officers, some British
N.C.O.’s, 100 Sudanese, and a gang of 800 Dervish prisoners.
By the 27th March 1900, by means of hard and continuous labour, 14
blocks had been cleared out of 19, opening up 82 miles of river. Major
Peake then avoided the remaining blocks by using side channels,
arrived at Shambe, 25th April, 1900, and proceeded in clear water
to Rejaf (5th May, 1900). Four (16th to 19th) out of the remaining
five blocks were cleared by Lieutenant Drury, R.N., in January,
1901, and only the last one, the 15th, 22 miles long, and just
south of Hellet El Nuer, still remained. It was considered, however,
desirable to make renewed efforts to clear this block. Accordingly an
expedition under the direction of Major G. E. Matthews was sent up
in the winter of 1901-02, but did not succeed in completely opening
the channel. The work of clearing this block was vastly increased
owing to the entire absence of current. Nothing was done in 1902-03,
but in 1903-04 Lieutenant Drury, late R.N., was again sent to renew
the clearing operations. Practically no traces of Major Matthews’
work were discernible, and when, after dogged perseverance, the
accomplishment of the task was well in sight the work had to be
again reluctantly abandoned.
The false channel now in use is still liable to slight sudd-blocks,
especially from April to June. A monthly steamer and other craft,
however, keep the fairway open, as a ride, merely by their passage,
and there is little or no danger of the channel being seriously
blocked again.
[Sidenote: Method of clearing.]
The following was the method employed by Major Peake in clearing
the sudd:—
The first operation was to cut and burn the whole of the vegetation
growing on the surface; this was done by a party of men with swords,
fasses,[232] and axes. Immediately this was done the line to be
taken up for the first channel, generally about 12 yards in length,
was marked out; this was trenched by the Dervish prisoners armed
with fasses, picks, axes and saws, into pieces 4 yards square. After
cutting down about 1 foot from the surface the water infiltrated;
the men continued cutting until, owing to the depth of the water,
they were unable to get any deeper. Holdfasts of telegraph poles
were then driven as far as they would go around the edge of each
piece. After this a 1½ inch flexible steel wire hawser was sunk as
deep as it would go by means of the pronged poles, all round the piece
to be removed; the ends of it were made fast to the bullards in the
bow of the gunboat, one on the starboard side and one on the port,
leaving sufficient slack wire to allow the steamer to go astern some
20 to 30 yards before she got the strain; “full speed astern”
was then ordered. Full speed was kept up continually if the piece
showed any sign of becoming detached until it came gradually away;
as soon as the piece was quite clear, one end of the hawser was
cast off and the piece was allowed to float down the stream; the
holdfasts were pulled out by means of a rope, one end of which was
made fast to the bow of the steamer, and the other by a hitch to the
end of the holdfast. If the piece showed no signs of coming away,
the engines were reversed and the steamer was brought close up to
the sudd and then went astern again. This was repeated again and
again until the piece was detached. Some pieces were known to take
as much as two hours to get away. Sometimes with very thin sudd,
after it had been trenched, the steamer would be run up with her bow
on to the sudd, and on going astern would carry the piece with her;
also with light sudd a grapnel anchor fixed to the steamer when
going astern was found sufficient to tear away the piece.
Very often the sudd will be found with its roots adhering to the
bottom; this is especially the case in a year when there is a very
low Nile, like 1899-1900, or close up to the banks, when the first
leading channel is being widened.
In this case a grapnel or ordinary anchor sunk to the bottom of the
river and then dragged along by the steamer is useful. As soon as
the leading steamer has opened up the channel a sufficient length
to enable her not to interfere with a steamer working behind her,
another steamer is put to work, the same way as the first, to widen
the channel. This is generally laborious work, as there is not much
current to act on the sudd, and in consequence it takes longer to
get it away.
In cutting the trenches care should be taken to cut or saw through
all roots.
(For further details of the sudd, _see_ H.B.S., pp. 4 and 207 to 213
inclusive (Dr. Junker’s account); Sir W. Garstin’s invaluable
reports (Egypt Blue Books No. 5 of 1899, pp. 15 to 19, No. 2 of 1901,
pp. 34 to 43, and No. 2 of 1904); Major Peake’s Reports, 1900;
and Mr. Broun’s Note, 27.4.03—from all of which, besides some
original work by the Editor, the above description has been compiled.)
[Illustration: THE BAHR EL JEBEL—PAPYRUS.]
[Footnote 228: The writer counted 72 in one lagoon at Shambe.]
[Footnote 229: Such blocks are so solid that elephants have been
seen to walk on them.]
[Footnote 230: The Director of Forests, Mr. A. Broun, does not agree
with the classification, or all the details, &c., given. He has not
found the feathery-headed grass, and states that the Um sûf would
not, in any case, come in the second class.—Ed.]
[Footnote 231: Query _Boottia Scabra_ or _Nymphaea Lotus_?—A. B.]
[Footnote 232: Native hoes.]
=APPENDIX C.=
* * * * *
ZOOLOGY OF THE SUDAN.
ZOOLOGY.
In preparing the following notes on the Zoology of the country,
it has been assumed that the Mammals and Birds will present the
most general interest. The variety and distribution of the large
“game” animals has been briefly sketched, and, to make space
for this, reference to the Invertebrate animals has been omitted.
MAMMALS.
[Sidenote: _Primates._]
Apes and Monkeys are well represented in the Sudan. The Chimpanzee
(_Anthropopithecus troglodytes schweinfurthi_) occurs in the Bahr el
Ghazal region, where also is found the beautiful black and white
fur-bearing _Colobus guereza_; Baboons (_Papio hamadryas_ and
_P. anubis_), Grivet (_Cercopithecus sabæus_) and Patas Monkeys
(_C. patas_) abound and are widely distributed. Lemurs (_Galago_)
occur, but are seldom met with.
[Sidenote: _Carnivora._]
The Lion is found wherever the country is suited to its habits,
and is in places plentiful. In 1880, one was seen half-way between
Berber and Suakin, but at the present time it ranges little further
north in the Sudan than Kassala. The Leopard, commoner than the Lion,
but warier and less often seen, is even more widely distributed;
the Cheetah or Hunting Leopard (_Cynælurus jubatus_) less so. Among
smaller felines are the Serval, Caracal and Libyan Cat (_Felis
serval_, _F. caracal_ and _F. libyca_).
Hyænas, spotted and striped (_H. crocuta_ and _H. striata_) are
common; much rarer and more local is the Hyæna-like, but smaller,
Aard Wolf (_Proteles cristatus_).
Jackals, Foxes and Fennecs are abundant; the Wild Dog (_Lycaon
pictus_) is scarcer.
Smaller carnivora are Civets, Genets, the Mongoose, the Ratel,
and the pretty little black-and-white Zorillas, which in coloration
remind one of the American Skunks.
[Sidenote: _Insectivora._]
The _Insectivora_ are represented by Hedgehogs and Shrews (_Erinaceus_
and _Crocidura_).
Bats (_Chiroptera_) are plentiful.
[Sidenote: _Rodentia._]
Rodents (_Rodentia_) are represented by the common Porcupine,
Hares, Ground-Squirrels (_Xerus_), Rats, and the Jerboas and
Gerbilles—curious little nocturnal creatures living in holes in
the desert sands. They have long hind legs and tails, progress by
leaps like miniature kangaroos, are of a protective sandy coloration,
and subsist entirely without water.
[Sidenote: _Ungulata._]
Much the most interesting to the general traveller and sportsman
are the _Ungulata_ or hoofed animals, and in this “big game”
the Sudan is particularly rich.
The Elephant is found on the Setit (from which during the Kharif or
rainy season it ranges as far north as the Gash), the Upper Atbara,
the Rahad, the Dinder, and the Blue Nile; it ranges across the Gezira
in smaller numbers and becomes more plentiful again along the Upper
Sobat, Pibor, the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province,
along and west of the Bahr-el-Arab as far north as Kalaka. The ivory
from these southern swampy districts is much larger than that from
the Blue Nile and Abyssinian frontier—tusks running up to 130
lbs. or so in weight—but it is not of quite as good quality. No
organized effort to capture and train adult African elephants has
been made in modern times, and attempts to rear the young on cow’s
or goat’s milk or farinaceous substitutes have generally failed.
The Black Rhinoceros (_R. bicornis_) was found as far north as
the Gash in 1880; a very few still remain on the Setit, the Rahad,
Dinder and Blue Nile; on the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal
Province, and on the Bahr-el-Arab it is less scarce, while there is
some reason to believe that in this last-named tract of country the
White Rhinoceros (_R. Simus_) is not yet extinct. The destruction
of Rhinoceroses in the Sudan is absolutely prohibited.
A curious little animal somewhat doubtfully placed by naturalists near
the Rhinoceroses is the _Hyrax_, a small animal, in shape somewhat
resembling a guinea-pig, which inhabits rocky hills in many parts
of the Sudan.
The Wild Ass is found in some of the Eastern deserts; while Zebras
(probably Grant’s Zebra) just extend into Sudan territory north
of Gondokoro on both banks of the Bahr El Jebel.
Buffalo—the shorter-horned northern form (_Bos caffer
equinoctialis_) are numerous in suitable localities, and appear to
be holding their own; their distribution is roughly the same as that
given for the Elephant.
Of Hartebeests, _Bubalis tora_ is common on the Setit, the Upper
Atbara and the Blue Nile tributaries; _Bubalis jacksoni_ takes
its place on the White Nile, Bahr-el-Ghazal and in S.W. Kordofan;
a much scarcer and more local species, apparently _Bubas Neumanni_
has been found on the White Nile near J. Ahmed Agha. The Tiang[233]
or Bastard Hartebeest (_Damaliscus tiang_) is abundant in the Gezira,
and in the southern and western parts of the Sudan; on the eastern
side of the country it does not range north of the Dinder.
The Water-buck (_Cobus defassa_) is generally distributed where water
and grazing are to be found; the beautiful Mrs. Gray’s Water-buck
(_C. maria_)—the males of which are marked with a snow-white patch
on the withers—is one of the most local of African Antelopes,
inhabiting only the swamps of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel.
The White-eared Cob (_C. leucotis_), commencing near Renk, follows the
White Nile upwards, increasing in abundance in the Bahr-el-Ghazal,
occurring also on the Sobat and the Pibor, and extending along
the Bahr-el-Jebel into Uganda. On this last river the Uganda Cob
(_C. thomasi_) has been shot.
The Roan Antelope (_Hippotragus equinus bakeri_) is locally
distributed from the Setit to the south-west of the Sudan; the Blue
Nile tributaries are perhaps the chief stronghold of this noble beast.
The _Oryx leucoryx_ is plentiful in Western Kordofan; the _Oryx beisa_
occurs in one or two localities east of the Atbara. The Addax ranges
into the deserts of the Western Sudan, but very few have yet been
shot by any European.
The greater Kudu (_Strepsiceros capensis_) is one of the scarcer
Antelopes in the Sudan, occurring locally in Kordofan, and from the
Blue Nile to the neighbourhood of Suakin.
The largest known form of Eland (the _Taurotragus oryx gigas_ of
Von Heuglin) is found in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province.
The Lesser Reedbuck (_Cervicapra bohor_) occurs on both the Blue and
White Niles and their tributaries, the Blue Nile examples carrying
the finest heads. The Bushbuck of the White Nile is _Tragelaphus
scriptus_, the Blue Nile form being _T. decula_.
The commonest Gazelles of the Sudan are the Ariel, the Red-fronted,
the Dorcas, and Isabelline Gazelles (_Gazella sœmmeringi_,
_G. rufifrons_, _G. dorcas_, and _G. isabella_), widely distributed;
more local are the Addra Gazelle[234] of Kordofan (_G. ruficollis_)
and Heuglin’s Gazelle of the Setit (_G. ptilonura_). Smaller
common Antelopes are the Duiker, Dig-dig, and Oribi (_Cephalophus_,
_Madoqua_, and _Ourebia_).
The Klipspringer (_Oreotragus saltator_) is found sparingly on the
hills of the Red Sea Littoral.
Ibex (_Capra nubiana_) frequent the rocky hills of the Kassala and
Suakin districts; Wild Sheep (_Ovis lervia_) have a wider range,
but are much scarcer and shier, and have not been recently shot in
the Sudan.
Giraffes are in parts numerous, their range in the Sudan area being
approximately that of the Elephant, except that they are absent from
localities which are entirely swampy.
A few Hippopotami still remain as far north as Dongola, and a few are
to be found near Khartoum. Up the White Nile and the Bahr-el-Ghazal
they abound, to such an extent that in places they become dangerous
or a positive nuisance.
Wart-hogs (_Phacochærus_) are common and widely spread; while the
Sennar Boar (_Sus sennarensis_) has only been obtained, and very
rarely, in this one district.
[Sidenote: _Edentata._]
A scaly ant-eater (_Manis_) occurs, and also a curious ant-bear
(_Orycteropus æthiopicus_), very similar to the “Aard Vaark”
of the Cape.
[Sidenote: _Cetacea._]
No Cetaceans have been found in the Sudan rivers.
BIRDS.
The Bird fauna of the Sudan is rich and interesting. Visitors will
be most struck by the aquatic species whose abundance on the rivers
forms one of the most pleasing features of the scenery. The practice
of shooting at birds from steamers (forbidden by law, as is all
trading in plumes) cannot be too strongly deprecated. This practice
has within the last 30 years banished most of the bird-life from
the Egyptian parts of the Nile for ever.
Most of the birds, which are summer visitors to Europe, winter in
the Sudan, or pass through it on their way further south. Conspicuous
among these winter visitors are Hoopoes, Golden Orioles, Bee-eaters,
Shrikes, Warblers, Wagtails, Flycatchers, &c. Small resident species
are abundant, the various kinds of Weaver-finches predominating
in numbers and collecting in vast flights. Among this family the
beautiful scarlet and black “Dura-bird” (_Pyromelana franciscana_)
and the long-tailed Whydah Bird (_Steganura paradisea_) are specially
noticeable. The handsome Glossy Starlings—characteristic African
birds—are represented by the genera _Spreo_, _Lamprocolius_, and
_Lamprotornis_. Several species of Nightjars occur, noteworthy among
which is the remarkable Standard-Wing (_Macrodipteryx_), bearing a
large racket-shaped web at the end of an elongated wire-like feather
in each wing.
Colies, or “Mouse-birds,” Kingfishers, Hornbills (chief
among which is the great black-and-white _Bucorax abyssinicus_),
Bee-eaters, Rollers and Cuckoos are well represented, as also are
Larks and Wheatears. Shining little Sun-birds frequent the forests
and enter the gardens in the towns.
Green parrakeets are common, and the grey parrot may be found on
the Uganda boundary.
Of birds of prey there are Vultures, Eagles, Falcons, Ospreys,
Harriers, Buzzards, Hawks, and Owls in great variety—among which
may be mentioned the Noisy River Eagle (_Haliaetus vocifer_),
the Secretary Bird (_Serpentarius secretarius_), and the handsome
Bateleur Eagle (_Helotarsus ecaudatus_).
The rivers abound with Pelicans, Cormorants, Darters, Herons, Egrets,
Bitterns, Storks, Ibises, and Spoonbills. Among these the great
carrion-feeding Adjutant or Marabou (_Leptoptilus crumeniferus_)
is conspicuous. The remarkable and very local Whale-headed Stork
(_Balæniceps rex_) is found in the swamps of the Bahr-el-Ghazal
and Bahr-el-Jebel, while the stately Saddle-billed Stork
(_Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis_)—iridescent black and white with
long brilliantly-coloured bill—is more widely met with. Flamingoes
are scarce; Spur-winged and Egyptian Geese, and Whistling Teal,
resident and plentiful. Their numbers are swelled by large hosts of
northern-breeding ducks, which arrive in the autumn and remain till
the spring. Vast numbers of Plovers, Godwits, Whimbrels, Sandpipers,
and Terns also winter on the Nile. Snipe occur, but in comparatively
small numbers, the area of irrigated land being very limited, and
the grasses of the Nile swamps being too high and thick for them.
[Illustration: COURT OF THE PALACE, KHARTOUM, WITH _Balæniceps rex_.]
Three species of Sandgrouse are very abundant; the commonest
(_Pterocles exustus_) affords the best bird shooting in the
country—in the dry season they daily flight in thousands from the
deserts to drink at the rivers. Doves and Guinea-fowl swarm in most
parts; Francolins are more local and less plentiful. Quail are also
found in parts.
A large Bustard (_Eupodotis arabis_) is plentiful and gives pretty
rifle shooting. Three or four smaller bustards also occur.
The strikingly-beautiful Crowned Crane (_Balearica pavonina_) is
resident and common, and in the winter immense flights of Common
Cranes (_Grus grus_) and smaller numbers of the Demoiselle (_Grus
virgo_) spread over the country.
The Ostrich is generally distributed, but is most abundant in
Western Kordofan.
REPTILES.
The common African Crocodile (_Crocodilus niloticus_) abounds in
the Sudan rivers. Large Monitor Lizards or “Waranas,” reaching
5 or 6 feet in length, are not uncommon: among smaller lizards are
various Chameleons, Geckoes, and Skinks.
Soft-backed river Turtles (_Trionyx_) are plentiful. A common
land Tortoise is _Testudo calcarata_: a common aquatic Tortoise is
_Sternothærus adansoni_.
Of snakes the largest is _Python sebæ_; of poisonous species the
Cobra, the Horned Cerastes, and, further south, the Puff-Adder occur:
harmless species are more numerous. On the whole, snakes in the
Sudan are not plentiful enough to be troublesome, and the mortality
due to snake-bite seems insignificant.
Batrachians are rather poorly represented: a Toad (_Bufo regularis_)
very like the common European species is the most abundant.
FISH.
The Nile fish have recently been very thoroughly investigated, the
collection formed by Mr. Loat, under the auspices of the Egyptian
Government, being the largest ever brought together from one country.
Those interested in the subject may note that the scientific results
of the “fish survey” will shortly be published in the form of
a Monograph, by Mr. G. A. Boulenger.
[Briefly speaking, it may be said that the rivers swarm, almost
throughout, with fish; they are mostly of a coarse kind, some running
to an immense size—40 to 50 lbs. being quite an ordinary weight
for some species.—NOTE BY EDITOR.]
[Footnote 233: Quite recently a closely allied, but rather larger
species, Damaliscus korrigum, has been shot in the deserts of
Western Kordofan. It was previously believed to be entirely a West
African form. Herr Matschie had, in fact, recorded it from near
Lake Victoria, but leading English naturalists seemed inclined to
consider him mistaken. That it ranges as far east as Long. 30° is
now definitely proved.]
[Footnote 234: This species has recently, in the Khartoum Gardens,
for the first time bred in captivity.]
=APPENDIX D.=
* * * * *
THE ANTIQUITIES OF THE SUDAN.
(_Vide_ also pp. 221-228.)
The three decades following the Egyptian conquest of the Sudan
in 1819 were each marked by the appearance of a large work dealing
with the antiquities of the newly-opened provinces. Unfortunately the
authors of these works, Cailliaud, Hoskins, and Lepsius, have found no
successors of equal means and perseverance, so that our knowledge of
the actual remains stands about as Lepsius left it. When Cailliaud
(1820) and Hoskins (1833) visited the Sudan, nothing certain was
known of the ancient relations of Egypt and Ethiopia, and the wildest
philological theories were in the air. The imposing monuments which
these travellers found fitted the theories that Egyptian art was the
oldest art known; Ethiopia was supposed by some to be the mother of
Egypt; here, then, at Meroe, Hoskins fancied that he had found the
cradle, not of Egypt only but of the whole civilised world. Criticism
began with Lepsius (1842): the style of these remains convinced
him that they were not the archaic parents of Egyptian art but the
late offspring of a mésalliance between Egypt and the luxuriant
South. The progress made since his day enables us to recognise more
clearly the main lines of development, though it will require years
of research to fill in the details of our picture.
In the following notes the antiquities are grouped for convenience
into four divisions—the Prehistoric, the Egyptian, the Meroitic,
and the Christian.
1. _Prehistoric._—We know now that the dynastic culture of Egypt was
developed at Abydos, Memphis and elsewhere, long before it reached
the Sudan, but from the very earliest days desire for the products
of the south must have attracted the trader and the soldier, and so
carried the culture of Egypt ever further to the south. The ivory
and the skulls found in pre-dynastic Egyptian tombs, and the dwarfs
and black troops referred to in the Historical Summary, are sporadic
witnesses to a coming and going along the Nile Valley which must
have lasted for tens of thousands of years. What and whom the early
travellers found we cannot say: the country was probably partitioned
among a number of petty princelets like the Meleks whom Burckhardt
describes as reigning in the provinces of Dongola and Berber in
the eighteenth century, and some of the old forts reported in this
region and in the desert may date back to this period. To this epoch
possibly belong also some of the groups of tumuli visible between the
4th and the 6th cataracts and elsewhere, but of them only one,[235]
of the Bronze Age, has been hitherto excavated. A closer study of
the surface will doubtless bring to light vestiges of the Stone Age,
as it has already done in Egypt and Somaliland.
2. _Egyptian._—The first effective occupation of the northern
parts of the Sudan dates from the Middle Empire, but though it is
represented by several monuments noted in the list below, it did not
last for long. The kings and queens of the New Empire returned to the
conquest and exploration of the south, and left much more striking
memorials of their greatness. The tablets found at Tel el Amarna are
full of requests from Syrian princes for gold, which was exported
to them unworked, and by them smelted and wrought into ornaments
and vessels. Now the bulk of this gold came from the numerous mines
which still exist between the Red Sea and the Nile; in a word the
Northern Sudan was the “Rand” of the ancient world. The shafts
and huts of the miners, their washing-tables, grinders, and other
appliances are found still _in situ_, and the position of some of
the finest temples is now seen to be determined by their nearness
to rich auriferous regions. This is, perhaps, the most important
discovery made since the days of Lepsius.
Under the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties the Northern Sudan
was an Egyptian province, an appanage often of the heir-apparent,
and the monuments of this date (see below) are thoroughly Egyptian
in character. Under the twenty-second dynasty the conditions were
reversed and Egypt became an Ethiopian province; but, as is usual,
the civilised power conquered its conqueror, and although Napata
now reached its zenith, the character of buildings, statuary, and
inscriptions, was not native but Egyptian; this was only natural,
seeing that the Ethiopians could command the best workmen in Egypt. It
is not until the sixth century B.C. that we begin to see signs of
a change. The inscriptions of Heru-Sa-Atef and Nastasenen clearly
betray the native origin of their authors; they were written in
hieroglyphics by priests who aimed in vain at reproducing the old
classical idiom of Thebes. Their last editor very aptly compares
them to attempts of a Dongolawi to write Koranic Arabic.
3. _Meroitic._—With the conquests of Alexander and his successors
and the spread of the Roman Empire, Ethiopia was brought into touch
with a wider system than any it had yet seen, and this Greco-Roman
period coincides with the development of a complex original style,
in which the African character seems to find its first articulate
expression. Exact dates for the numerous monuments in this style
cannot be given; some may go back before the time of Alexander, some
of the most elaborate certainly fall late in the Roman period. The
architectural forms of the latter show the gradual supersession of
Egyptian conventions by European designs and construction, while
the rich attire of the rulers portrayed bears witness not less to
their barbaric taste than to the wealth which radiated under the
_Pax Romana_ even beyond the limits of the empire. In this mingling
of East and West these works should be compared with those of other
schools that arose under the shadow of the Roman Empire, such as
the Palmyrene school in Syria and the Greco-Roman Buddhist school
in the north-west of India.
The most characteristic works of this school are to be found in the
Berber province. The pyramids (Bagarawiya) and the avenue of rams
and the pylon-fronted temples (Nagaa and Wadi El Sufra) point back
to Egyptian prototypes, but side by side with these we see temples
where the pylons have given way to columns fluted and spaced in the
fashion of a Roman peristyle shrine, and one small building which
has even been described as a Christian basilica!
The Meroitic Pantheon is equally mixed: we pass from the Ammon of
Thebes to the Ammon of Napata, and from him to a strange Ethiopian
Serapis and a still stranger local or Indian lion-headed god.
The subjects are mostly, like those in Egypt, scenes of adoration
or offerings of spoils of victory, but the persons sculptured are
Egyptian neither in type nor costume. The best-known of these is the
fat Queen “Candace,” whose very fleshly charms are set off by
masses of jewellery, heavy necklaces, armlets, bracelets, sandals, and
clinging feather-like garments. Her consorts and attendants are only
less richly bedizened with jewels and rare stuffs, embroidered with
crosses, crescents, “and other delights.” Other panels represent
water goddesses and hunting scenes with wild beasts (lions, elephants,
etc.), led in captivity by men and genii. The small objects found on
these sites (now mostly at Munich and Berlin) give the same impression
of barbaric wealth, and the relatively numerous bells show that the
Ethiopian of those days was as fond of noise as his black successor.
Unfortunately the inscriptions which accompany these buildings cannot
be deciphered. As we saw above, Egyptian was a foreign language to
the people of Napata in the sixth century. On the Meroitic monuments
not only is the language foreign, but new phonetic values have been
given to the old hieroglyphic signs, which makes even transliteration
impossible until more bilingual inscriptions turn up.[236] And
these hieroglyphics persist until superseded by a script based on
Egyptian demotic or perhaps some Arabian alphabet, which is equally
unintelligible.
4. _Christian._—The Christian antiquities have fared still worse
at the hands of explorers than the earlier ones; the traveller notes
“ruins of a Coptic convent” and hurries on to something more
congenial. Lepsius collected a few inscriptions, and these have been
supplemented from time to time; a few things have been found at Soba
and rough sketches published of one or two churches.
The most interesting building known to the writer is the church at
Old Dongola, a building in two storeys of burnt bricks, subsequently
encased in a thick shell of sun-dried bricks. The ground plan of this
is believed to be unique: it looks like an adaptation to Christian
ends of old Egyptian structural motives. This building and the
ruin-heaps into which many other churches—still called Kanisas
by the natives—have been reduced, show that all the lessons of
construction learnt under the Roman Empire were not forgotten under
the rule of the Christian kings. The pottery of this period was,
so far as one can judge from fragments still lying on the surface,
more finely levigated, better baked, and more variously decorated
than in earlier or later days.
Inscriptions in three languages have been found. At Soba, and perhaps
at Geteina (White Nile), Christian inscriptions occur in an unknown
language, but in the Greek alphabet eked out by five additional
letters; from the Dongola province and from Northern Nubia come
inscriptions in Greek and in Coptic. Some of these are dated in the
eighth and ninth centuries A.D., and the formulæ used in them are
similar to those found in Egypt.
* * * * *
The list of ancient sites, etc., appended does not pretend to be
complete. Those who wish for further information are referred to
the following authorities, which may be supplemented from the
bibliography; but they must remember that the study of these
antiquities is still in its infancy.
[Sidenote: Authorities.]
(1.) _Discoveries._—Cailliaud, “Voyage à Méroé,” Paris,
1826; Hoskins, “Travels in Ethiopia,” London, 1833; Lepsius,
“Denkmäler,” Berlin, 1842, etc.
(2.) _Special Memoirs._—Ferlini, “Relation Historique,”
1838; Maspero, “Études de Mythologie et d’Archéologie
Egyptiennes,” III, Paris, 1898; Heinrich Schäfer, “Die
Aetiopische Königsinschrift des Berliner Museums,” Leipzig, 1901.
(3.) Much valuable information may be obtained also from the large
histories of Egypt by Maspero, Budge, and Petrie, and from the
handbooks published by Murray, Bædeker, and Cook (“The Nile,”
by Dr. Budge). Illustrations and slight descriptions of some of
the antiquities have been published by J. Ward in the “Monthly
Review” for August, 1902, and May, 1903, and of the gold mines in
the prospectuses issued by the companies prospecting.
Space does not suffice to give details of all the antiquities:
a bare list must suffice. The initials given below are as
follows:—Murray’s Handbook of Egypt, 1900 (M.); Dr. Budge’s
“The Nile,” 1901 (B.N.); Lepsius “Denkmäler,” 1842 (L.);
Cailliaud’s “Voyage à Méroé, 1820” (C.); Rawlinson’s Egypt
(Story of the Nation Series) (R.); Dr. Budge’s “A History of
Egypt,” 1902 (B.E.); Hoskins, 1833; J. Ward (articles in “Monthly
Review,” August, 1902, and May, 1903, with illustrations) (W.).
_Antiquities on or near the Nile Banks._
About 2 miles above Halfa, on the west bank, is an ancient Egyptian
site with several temples.
[Sidenote: Abu Sir.]
Five and a half miles above the same town, on the west bank, is the
rock of Abu Sir. The chief historical interest of this spot (from
which a fine view of the 2nd Cataract is obtained) is the variety
of names inscribed on it, reaching back several hundred years.
[Sidenote: Matuka. B.C. 2760? or 2430?]
Three miles south of Abu Sir are remains of the fortress and small
temple of Matuka, built by Usertsen I of the Twelfth Dynasty.
On a large island opposite are the remains of a similar fortress
and on another small island to the south are the ruins of a Coptic
church called Darbe (M. 983)
[Sidenote: Semna and Kumma. B.C. 2320? B.C. 1600? B.C. 2300.]
Forty-three miles south of Halfa are the fortress temples of Semna
and Kumma, built by Usertsen III. Rebuilt and extended by Thothmes
III of the Eighteenth Dynasty. In good preservation. Amenemhat III
also marked the rise of the Nile here (B.N. 489, 490; B.E. iii, 46,
48, etc., iv, 94, vi, 187, and _vide_ p. 222).
[Sidenote: Amara. B.C. 1000?]
At Amara are important ruins of a temple with sculptured columns
(L.; B.N. 491).
At Selima Oasis, 55 miles west of Sagiet El Abd, are remains of
old convents, built out of still older remains, on which there are
unknown inscriptions. (_Vide_ p. 203.)
[Sidenote: Sai. B.C. 1660-1600?]
At Sai Island, 130 miles from Halfa, are remains of a town and Coptic
church, and of cemeteries, also of a temple with inscriptions of
Thothmes III and Amenhotep I (Eighteenth Dynasty).
[Sidenote: Sedinga. B.C. 1800.]
At Sedinga, 6 miles further, are the ruins of a fine temple by
Amenhotep III, a column and a cemetery (B.E. iv, 111).
[Sidenote: J. Dush. B.C. 1620?]
Six miles to the south is Jebel Dush, with a tomb contemporary with
Thothmes III (B.N. 402).
[Sidenote: Solib. B.C. 1500.]
A mile further on is Solib, with the well-preserved remains of a
magnificent temple by Amenophis III (L.; B.N. 492; B.E. iv, 59,
etc.; Hoskins, etc.). Many treasures removed to Jebel Barkal.
[Sidenote: Sesebi. B.C. 1370 or 1275?]
Sesebi, opposite Dalgo, contains a ruined temple by Seti I, father
of Rameses the Great. (L.; B.E. v, 9.)
In the district between Dalgo and Koya are several ancient workings
for gold and copper, which account for the presence of rich temples
near.
[Sidenote: Tombos.]
On the Island of Tombos, near Kerma, are granite quarries and one
statue unfinished.
[Sidenote: Argo.]
On the Island of Argo (Arkaw) are ruins of a temple and of two granite
statues lying on the ground (about 24 feet long, including pedestal),
of Sebekhotep III, of the Thirteenth Dynasty, or else, more probably,
of the Napata period.
[Sidenote: Karman.]
Near Argo, on the right bank at Karman are the ruins of a large town,
and two large mud-brick tombs (B.N. 493, and L.), called Dafufa
and Karman.
Six or seven miles south of New Dongola, on the right bank at a place
named Kawa, is a delicate little Egyptian temple, date unknown, in
good preservation. (Discovered and partially excavated by Colonel
Hon. J. Colborne, 1885.)
Khandak marks the site of an ancient Egyptian town of which traces
may be seen in the citadel.
South of Khandak are traces of Christian or older sites at Firgi
and Khalewa on the west bank (Greek inscriptions have come from the
latter), and on the east bank at Amentogo, Arab Hag (inscription
from obelisk set up in Napata (?) by Piankhi) and a few miles east
of Meganda, the last two in the Latte.
[Sidenote: Old Dongola.]
Old Dongola, now almost deserted, was the capital of the Christian
kingdom of Dongola in the sixth century.
[Illustration: NAGAA: ROMAN BUILDING IN THE DESERT—SHOWING THE
TRANSITION FROM EGYPTIAN TO ROMAN STYLE.]
[Illustration: NAGAA: ROMAN BUILDING IN THE DESERT.]
The upper floor of the fine church there is now used as a mosque. On
a ridge between the church and the river are remains of ancient
fortification. An obelisk of Piankhi, now at Cairo, the fellow to
that at Arab Hag, was found here, but had been probably carried from
Jebel Barkal. Some Christian inscriptions have been found here (_see_
“Journal of Theological Studies,” IV, p. 583).
[Sidenote: Kurru, Zuma, Tangasi.]
At Kurru and Zuma (east bank), and Tangasi, 7 to 10 miles from Merowe,
are remains of large groups of pyramids (B.N. 496), a few of stone,
others of mud-brick from which the stone casing has been removed.
On Gimeti Island are traces of a church.
[Sidenote: Merowe. B.C. 900 to B.C. 200.]
Merowe (north bank) and Abu Dom Sanam (south bank) mark the site of
Napata (Nept or Nepita). The old city appears to have been on the
south bank, and of considerable size (_vide_ p. 222). A few miles from
the river on this bank, in low hills, are the remains of a number
of rock-hewn tombs, and 3 or 4 miles up-stream from Abu Dom, on the
north bank, lie the pyramids and ruins of the temples of Napata.
[Sidenote: Jebel Barkal.]
Jebel Barkal, 302 feet high, the “Holy Mountain” of the
inscriptions, can be seen for many miles round; on the plain by the
side of the hill are ruins of eight or nine pyramids, and on the
rising ground are eight more, varying from 20 to 60 feet in height.
[Sidenote: Circa B.C. 700. Nuri.]
The principal temples are those of Taharka and Piankhi, close to
Jebel Barkal. At Nuri, 7½ miles from Merowe, on the south bank,
are the remains of 35 pyramids, solidly built, and probably of the
Middle (?) Empire. At Wadi Ghazal are the remains of a fine Christian
monastery. (B.N. 496-503; Cailliaud; Lepsius.)
[Sidenote: Belal.]
A few miles beyond Belal (foot of the 4th Cataract) and on the south
bank are the remains of a Coptic church and fortified monastery.
Opposite Hamdab Island, 6 miles further on, are the ruins of
a pyramid.
[Sidenote: Berber.]
No further remains have been discovered for the next 250 miles
or more. There is evidence that Berber was in the ancient days a
starting point, as now, for caravans for Suakin, but there are no
ancient remains, as far as is known.
[Sidenote: Island of Meroe and Bagarawiya. B.C. 400 to A.D. 250.]
On crossing the Atbara the “Island of Meroe” is entered, and
at Bagarawiya, some 45 miles south of the Atbara, three important
groups of pyramids, about 100 in all, are reached. These, also
called the pyramids of Assur, lie about 3 miles from the river,
and are the tombs of kings and princes of the old capital, which
lay somewhere near Shendi. An important find of jewellery of the
Roman period was made here by Signor Ferlini, an Italian doctor,
in 1834. (B.N. 509-513; L.; Cailliaud; Ferlini; W.) Since then the
tops of many pyramids have been damaged in similar searches.
About 29 miles south of Shendi, on the east bank, is the entrance
to the Wadi Ban Nagaa, and near it is a village of that name. Three
miles down the river are the ruins of a small ancient Nubian temple.
[Sidenote: Nagaa.]
Twenty-three miles south-east from the railway station of Wadi Ban
Nagaa, and situated in a low waterless desert, are the extensive
remains of an ancient town. The walls of six temples are still
standing, at least in part, and the foundations of several others
can be traced. Two of them are connected together by an avenue
of rams. One of the temples is almost purely Roman in style, and
belongs, perhaps, to the third century A.D.; others are transitional;
these are in comparatively excellent preservation. (Description by
Rev. L. Gwynne; B.N. 514, 515; Cailliaud [elaborate]; and W.). They
were also visited by Wurt (1811), Demetrio (1822), Holroyd (1837),
and Lepsius.
[Sidenote: El Sufra.]
Twelve miles north-east of Nagaa are the ruins of El Sufra,
also called El Masurat, a group of buildings within walls, of the
Roman period, with a Meroitic inscription (C.; L.; and Hoskins, and
B.N. pp. 515-516). One and a-half miles off are some Christian temples
(?) (B.N. p. 515). A road track leads south-east from Shendi _viâ_
Nagaa temples to Soba, and there are, it is reported, old temples
on the way.
[Sidenote: Khartoum.]
There are no visible ruins of ancient temples at Khartoum, though
it is known that it was the site of a large town (_vide_ p. 228). A
colossal Christian (?) stone lamb has been brought here from Soba
(W.).
[Sidenote: Soba.]
At Soba, believed to be the old capital of the Christian Kingdom of
Alwa, built on the old Ethiopic site of “Sobas,” 13 miles from
Khartoum and on the east bank of the Blue Nile, are some remains of
granite pillars and of a Christian church, including a decorated
base with a large cross carved on it (W.). Little is known about
this. There is said to have been a bridge here over the Blue Nile.
_Miscellaneous._
[Sidenote: J. Geili.]
At Jebel Geili, 92 miles east from Khartoum, there is a carving
in Meroitic style on a huge granite block at the south-eastern end
of the hill, and on a neighbouring rock higher up the hill are the
carved outlines of three horses (dates unknown).
[Sidenote: Koliteb.]
At Koliteb, 113 miles from Tokar, on one of the Kassala roads, there
are ancient and rude carvings of men and camels on the rocks (Junker).
[Sidenote: Mamân.]
At Jebel Mamân, 201 miles from Suakin, on the “Ermenab” route to
Kassala, there are some curious old Christian stone ruins and tombs
(Schweinfurth; Z.A.E., 1865, p. 398).
[Sidenote: Sennar.]
Little or nothing of the old Sennar Kingdom is left.
At Geteina, on the White Nile, some inscribed bricks and pottery
of the Christian period have been found. These are now preserved at
Khartoum in the Gordon College Museum.
[Sidenote: El Ein.]
_Vide_ p. 211.
[Sidenote: W. Mogaddam.]
_Vide_ Vol. II, route Gabra—Korti.
[Sidenote: W. El Fura.]
Just above the wells of El Fura are the remains of a large rectangular
fort (about 60 by 50 yards), with massive stone walls some six feet
high and eight to ten feet thick, with curious square projections,
perhaps for flanking defence. It may belong to the same period as
the great stone fortifications at Old Dongola and Khandak, but the
masonry presents one curious feature not observed there, namely, the
frequent use of stones with the long dimensions vertically placed. It
would serve to command the wells on a road from Merowe to Napata.
[Sidenote: Tombs, Atbai.]
North of the Berber-Suakin road, Lieutenant Newcombe, R.E., reports
some curious tombs. Two are near the Wadi Amur (E. Long. 36° 15″,
N. Lat. 19° 15″), and one is close to the watershed of Khor Garrar
(E. Long. 36° 40″, N. Lat. 20°). The ground plan of these tombs
is octagonal; they were roofed apparently by a dome supported on
a hexagonal (?) drum, and lit by plain rectangular windows. It is
impossible to say whether they belong to the late Christian or the
early Mohammedan period. The rounded battlement which crowns the
corners of the eight walls is a common feature on Sheikhs’ tombs.
It only remains to point out that the surface of Sudan antiquities
has barely been touched. It is hoped that as money becomes available
more of the ancient history of the Sudan may be brought to light,
and more particularly is it hoped that the meaning of the Nubian
and Meroitic hieroglyph inscriptions may shortly be discovered.
The whole matter is being gradually taken up by the Sudan Government,
but want of funds hampers the work.
The distinguished Egyptologist, Dr. Wallis Budge, of the British
Museum, has already paid several visits to the country.
[Footnote 235: The contents of this are now preserved in the Gordon
College Museum at Khartoum.]
[Footnote 236: Two cartouches on an altar preserved in Berlin enable
us to recognise eight signs.]
=APPENDIX E.=
* * * * *
ETHNOLOGY OF THE SUDAN.