[Illustration: _By kind permission of_
_F. Lundt, Berlin._
H.M. KING EDWARD VII.
_By kind permission of_
_Dittrich, Cairo._
H.H. THE KHEDIVE ABBAS HILMI PASHA.]
(_To face p._ 1.)
[_All rights reserved._
=THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN:=
=A COMPENDIUM PREPARED BY OFFICERS OF THE
SUDAN GOVERNMENT.=
EDITED BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL COUNT GLEICHEN, C.V.O., C.M.G., D.S.O.
(_Late Director of Intelligence, Sudan Government and Egyptian Army,
and Sudan Agent, Cairo._)
* * * * *
IN TWO VOLUMES.
* * * * *
=VOLUME I.=
(GEOGRAPHICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND HISTORICAL.)
(_With eighty-two illustrations._)
* * * * *
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE,
BY HARRISON AND SONS, ST. MARTIN’S LANE,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY.
* * * * *
And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from
WYMAN AND SONS, LTD., FETTER LANE E.C.; or
OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH; or
E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN.
* * * * *
1905.
_Price Ten Shillings._
(Wt. 8207 1500 9 | 05—H & S 3874)
PREFACE.
* * * * *
The following pages contain a comprehensive description of the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1905. This includes revision and amplification
of the “Handbook of the Sudan” (1898) and of the “Supplement to the
Handbook of the Sudan” (1899), besides a great deal of additional
information as to the resources, development, administration, commerce,
etc., of the country, shewing its progress since 1899. It may, however,
be well understood that the description of many parts of the country is
still far from complete.
The chapters have been compiled by various officers in the Sudan
Administration; but the main work of editing and revision has fallen on
Lieut.-Colonel Count Gleichen (the Editor), who, from the somewhat
indiscriminate mass of reports, documents and books at his disposal,
has evolved a compendium which cannot fail to be of great use and value
to the officers and officials of the Sudan Government. I even venture to
hope that such of the general public as may be interested in this vast
country, its history, and its future, will find in the following pages
a useful work of reference until a more complete and comprehensive work
is forthcoming.
[The loss to the Sudan Government of the services of Count Gleichen,
who, since he undertook this work, has been transferred to the Military
Attachéship at Berlin, is much to be regretted, and that he should have
been able to continue the compilation in his new position speaks volumes
for his industry and capacity.]
The Editor’s thanks are particularly due to Sir William Garstin,
G.C.M.G., and Captain Lyons (Director of Egyptian Government Surveys)
for a mass of valuable information about the White Nile, and to Captain
H. H. S. Morant (Assistant Director of Intelligence), for assistance
rendered in compiling and editing.
The work has been divided into three Parts (Geographical and
Descriptive, Historical, and Routes); the last Part, for convenience of
practical reference, being bound separately (by chapters) as the second
volume.
[For practical purposes of travel, sport, etc., the books noted on
p. 213 will be found indispensable.]
REGINALD WINGATE, _Major-General_,
Sirdar and Governor-General of the Sudan.
_Khartoum, 9th January_, 1905.
EDITORIAL NOTE.—_The indulgence of readers is requested in the matter
of possible small errors in cross references, Index, etc., for, during
the progress of the work through the press in London, the majority of
the compilers and proof-correctors have been in the Sudan and the Editor
in Germany._—G.
_Berlin, 23rd March_, 1905.
[Illustration: “THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN”
_I.D.W.O. No 1793_
_Lithd. at the Intell. Div., War Office, Oct. 1903_
=DIAGRAM OF CHAPTERS=
=IN VOL. I,= Part I, & =IN VOL. II.=]
=TABLE OF CONTENTS.=
* * * * *
PART I.
(GEOGRAPHICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.)
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
(_The Editor._)
PAGE
Boundaries; Population; Towns; Administration 1
Army 3
Revenue and Expenditure. (_Bernard_) 4
Communications 7
Resources and Commerce 7
Justice. (_Bonham-Carter_) 9
Religion 10
Education; Climate 11
Game; Slavery; Forests. (_Broun_) 12
CHAPTER II.
THE WHITE NILE.
(_The Editor._)
(i) Introductory — General — Flood — Historical 15
(ii) General Description (down stream);
Albert Nyanza to Mediterranean 16
(iii) River Discharges 17
(iv) Navigability: Boats and Steamers; Landing Places 19
(v) Climate: Winds; Temperature 21
(vi) Detailed Description (up stream);
Section (1). — Halfa to Merowe 22
(2). — Merowe to Khartoum 35
Description of Khartoum and Omdurman 47
(3). — Khartoum to Lake No 52
(4). — Lake No to Gondokoro.
(_Garstin_ and _Lyons_) 73
CHAPTER III.
NORTH-EASTERN SUDAN.
(_Morant._)
(Country bounded on the north by the Sudan-Egyptian frontier,
on the west by the Nile from that frontier to the mouth of the
Atbara, on the south by the Atbara and Abyssinian and Eritrean
frontiers, and on the east by the Red Sea.)
Section 1. — Country between Halfa and the Atbara mouth,
along the Nile banks. (_Jackson_,
_Hayes-Sadler_, etc.) 83
„ 2. — Country between Halfa, Berber, Suakin, and the
intersection of the 22nd parallel with the
Red Sea:—
(_a_) Between the Railway and the Nile.
(_Talbot_) 85
(_b_) East of the Railway (or “the Atbai”).
(_Talbot_, _Bramly_, _Longfield_) 86
(_c_) The Bisharin. (_Bramly_) 91
(_d_) The Ababda. (_Hopkinson_ and _Bramly_) 93
„ 3. — Suakin and District (_Playfair_, _Kerr_, etc.) 94
„ 4. — Country between the Berber-Suakin road, the Atbara,
and the Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers:—
(_a_) Country between the Berber-Suakin road and
latitude of Kassala. (_Parker_) 96
(_b_) Kassala 97
(_c_) The Khor Gash 99
(_d_) Country south of Kassala to the Setit 99
(_e_) „ „ the Setit 99
(_f_) The Atbara and Tributaries 100
CHAPTER IV.
CENTRAL EASTERN SUDAN.
(_Morant._)
(Country between the Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the Atbara
and the Blue Nile.)
Section 1. — Country between the Atbara and the Niles, from El
Damer southwards to the Abu Haraz-Sofi line 103
„ 2. — Gedaref and District 106
„ 3. — Gallabat and District 107
„ 4. — Country between Blue Nile, Dinder, and Rahad,
with description of these rivers 109
Table of distances on the Blue Nile 115
CHAPTER V.
CENTRAL SUDAN.
(_Morant._)
(Country between the White Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the
Blue Nile and Sobat.)
Section 1. — The Gezira (Khartoum to the Sennar-Goz Abu
Guma line) 117
„ 2. — Country south of Sennar-Goz Abu Guma line:—
(_a_) General Description 119
(_b_) Dar Fung (including Burun and Keili).
(_Gwynn_ and _Gorringe_) 122
(_c_) Fazogli. (_Smyth_) 123
(_d_) The Dinkas on White Nile. (_Wilson_) 126
(_e_) Selim Baggara 130
CHAPTER VI.
SOUTH-EASTERN SUDAN.
(_Morant._)
(The Sobat and tributaries, and country south of the Sobat
and north of N. lat. 5° between the Abyssinian frontier and
the Bahr El Jebel, including description of the Bahr El Zeraf,
R. Atem, etc.)
Section 1. — Sobat and tributaries 131
„ 2. — The country south of the Sobat and north of
N. lat. 5°, between Bahr El Jebel and
Abyssinian frontier:—
(_a_) General description 141
(_b_) Bahr El Zeraf. (_Wilson_) 142
(_c_) R. Awai or Atem. (_Liddell_) 144
(_d_) Bor and south. (_Türstig_ and _Borton_) 144
(_e_) The Beri tribe. (_Borton_) 147
(_f_) Country south of the Akobo. (_Austin_) 148
(_g_) The Upper Pibor. (_Comyn_) 151
Table of distances on the Sobat 152
CHAPTER VII.
SOUTH-WESTERN SUDAN.
(_Boulnois._)
(THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.)
1. Introductory 153
2. General Description 153
3. Rivers and Water Supply 154
4. Administration 154
5. Resources. (_Boulnois_ and _Broun_) 154
6. Climate and Hygiene. (_Haymes_) 156
7. Forestry. (_Broun_) 157
8. Communications and Transport 159
9. Tribes 159
10. Game 161
11. Religious Beliefs. (_Cummins_) 162
12. Dinka and Bongo Vocabulary. (_Cummins_ and _Türstig_) 163
13. Itinerary of Bahr el Ghazal River:—Lake No to Meshra
el Rek. (_Garstin_, _Peake_, _Editor_, etc.) 165
CHAPTER VIII.
WESTERN SUDAN.
(_The Editor._)
(KORDOFAN, DARFUR, AND SHILLUK COUNTRY.)
Section 1. — Kordofan. (_Lloyd_):—
1. General Description 173
2. Inhabitants 178
3. Towns 181
4. Animals 182
5. Climate and Health. (_Stallard_) 183
„ 2. — Darfur. (_Morant_) 184
„ 3. — The Shilluks and their Country. (_Editor_, etc.) 192
Appendix: History and Religion of Shilluks.
(_Banholzer_, _Giffen_, etc.) 197
CHAPTER IX.
NORTH-WESTERN SUDAN.
(_Morant._)
(Country west of the Nile, south of latitude 22° and north
of Kordofan.)
Section 1. — Desert west of the Nile and north and west of
Wadi El Gab). (_Hodgson_, _Currie_, etc.) 201
„ 2. — Wadi El Gab. (_Turner_, _Colvile_, _Hunter_,
_Garstin_) 204
„ 3. — “Bayuda Desert.” (_Fowler_, etc.) 207
Report on El Ein. (_Carey_) 210
CHAPTER X.
COMMUNICATIONS
(_The Editor._)
Section 1. — Railways. (_Macauley_) 213
„ 2. — River Communications. (_Bond_) 215
„ 3. — Roads 217
„ 4. — Riding and Transport Animals 217
„ 5. — Posts and Telegraphs. (_Liddell_) 218
* * * * *
PART II.
(HISTORICAL.)
(_The Editor._[1])
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
From the earliest times to the Arab Invasion (A.D. 640) 221
CHAPTER II.
From the Arab Invasion to the time of Mohammed Ali 227
CHAPTER III.
From Mohammed Ali’s conquest (1819) to the end of 1882 231
CHAPTER IV.
Events on the Nile from 1882 to May, 1898 247
CHAPTER V.
The remainder of the Sudan from 1882 to May, 1898:—
(_a_) Darfur, Kordofan and Dar Fertit 255
(_b_) The Eastern Sudan 257
(_c_) Bahr el Ghazal and Equatoria 259
CHAPTER VI.
From May, 1898, to the final destruction of the Dervish
power (end of 1899) 265
CHAPTER VII.
From 1900 onwards 273
Governors-General of the Sudan 280
APPENDICES TO VOL. I.
* * * * *
A.—TEXTS OF TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS REGARDING THE
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
1. Sudan Agreement, 19.1.99 (Great Britain and Egypt) 283
2. Suakin Annex to above, 10.7.99 (Great Britain and Egypt) 285
3. Declaration _re_ Spheres of Influence, 21.3.99
(Great Britain and France) 285
4. Agreement _re_ Bahr El Ghazal, 12.5.94 (Great Britain
and Congo Free State) 286
4A. Withdrawal of clause of above, 22.6.94 „ „ „ 288
5. Agreement _re_ Tribes between Khor Baraka and Red Sea
(_Kitchener—Baratieri_), 25.6.95/7.7 (Egypt and Eritrea) 288
6. Agreement _re_ Frontier between Red Sea and Khor Baraka
(_Parsons—Martini_), 7.12.98 (Egypt and Eritrea) 289
7. Delimitation of Frontier between Khor Baraka and Sabderat
(_Walter—Bongiovanni_), 1.6.99 (Sudan and Eritrea) 289
8. Description of Frontier between Sabderat and Todluk
(_Talbot—Colli_), 16.4.01 (Sudan and Eritrea) 290
9. Description of Frontier between Abu Gamal and Setit
(_Talbot—Martinelli_), 18.2.03 (Sudan and Eritrea) 290
10. Declaration _re_ Sudan—Eritrean—Abyssinian Frontier,
Rome, 22.11.01 (Sudan and Eritrea) 291
11. Grazing Agreement (_Collinson—Martini_), 28.2.01
(Sudan and Eritrea) 291
12. Customs Convention, Rome, 26.11.01 (Sudan and Eritrea).
(_Martini—Gleichen_) 292
13. Postal „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 294
14. Telegraph „ „ „ „ „ „ „ 294
15. Treaty _re_ Frontier, etc., 15.5.02 (Great Britain
and Abyssinia) 295
16. „ „ „ (Great Britain,
Eritrea, and Abyssinia) 296
17. Duties on Uganda goods, 21.4.02 (Sudan and Uganda) 297
TREATIES INDIRECTLY AFFECTING THE SUDAN.
18. Agreement _re_ Bahr El Ghazal, etc., 14.8.94 (France
and Congo Free State) 297
19. „ Frontier, 10.7.00 (Eritrea and Abyssinia) 298
20. [2]Berlin Act, 26.2.85: Free Trade in Congo Basin, etc. —
21. [2]Brussels Act, 2.7.90 (in force since 2.4.94): Slave
Trade, Firearms, Ammunition, etc. Amongst others, Great
Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Turkey and Abyssinia
are Signatories —
B. — THE SUDD. (_Garstin_, _Broun_, the _Editor_, etc.) 299
C. — ZOOLOGY OF THE SUDAN. (_Butler_) 307
D. — ANTIQUITIES OF THE SUDAN. (_Crowfoot_ and _Editor_) 311
E. — ETHNOLOGY OF THE SUDAN. (_Crowfoot_) 317
F. — LIST OF TRIBES AND SHEIKHS. (_Slatin_, _Morant_, etc.) 322
G. — BOUNDARIES OF PROVINCES 335
H. — BIBLIOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY. (The _Editor_) 339
INDEX 351
General Map of Sudan (1:4,000,000) at end.
* * * * *
PART III.
(_Bound as Vol._ 2.)
(ROUTES.)
(Arranged in Chapters corresponding to Chapters III to IX (inclusive)
of Part I., besides an Appendix, describing routes partly outside the
Sudan. For detail, _see_ “Contents” in Vol. 2.)
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
* * * * *
PAGE
The Sovereigns of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (frontispiece) to face 1
Khartoum Palace, from the river. (D. J.) 1
Market scene, Gezira. (D. J.) 8
The Earl of Cromer and Sir W. Garstin to face 15
The Eastern Nile bank, south of Halfa. (K.) 22
Jaalin Shepherd scene; corn-grinding stones, Omdurman. 46
(T.)
The Governor-General and Sirdar 48
Khartoum, looking north from the War Office roof over 51
Tuti Island. (K.)
„ Palace, and garden, from the south-west. (K.) 51
Jebelein (G.); Wooding station near Goz Abu Guma; Jebel 61
Ahmed Agha. (G.)
Akunere, Shilluk village (T.); Shilluk maiden with 65
household utensils. (T.)
Kodok: Roman Catholic Mission Station, Lul. (T.) 69
Taufikia. (G.) 71
Lake No; Shambe 72
Kiro. (P.); Lado. (P.) 78
Gondokoro 81
Mongalla. (G.) 82
On the Blue Nile. (T.) 110
Forest scenery, west bank, Upper Blue Nile. (D. J.) 112
On the Blue Nile. (D. J.) 112
Scenes in the Southern Gezira. (D. J.) 116
In the Dar el Fung; village scene, Burun country. (D. J.) 121
Ingássana village; hill scenery, Dar el Fung (D. J.) 124
Dinka: man and girl. (T.) 127
American Protestant Mission, Sobat. (M.) 133
The Bahr el Zeraf. (G.) 141
Anuak women at Itang. (M.) 150
Woman of Dar Fertit. (T.) 164
Bahr el Ghazal. (G.); River Rohl. (G.) 171
Kordofan Arabs with Chief. (S. D.) 174
Taaisha (Baggara) girl. (T.) 178
Nuba woman, daughter, and baby. (T.) 180
Darfur girl. (T.) 186
Old woman, Darfur. (T.) 187
The Darfur Mahmal passing through Omdurman 188
Shilluk. (T.) 192
„ warriors. (T.) 195
Mek Kur wad Nedok. (T.); Shilluks on a visit. (T.) 198
Shilluk village scene. (T.) 200
Dongolawi merchant. (T.) 203
Bayuda Desert Arabs. (S. D.) 207
Colossal ram of Amenhotep III., Jebel Barkal. (W.) 223
Ethiopian King from Meroe. (W.) 224
One of the animals at Nagaa. (W.) 226
Stone lamb from Soba. (W.) 228
Sudanese women. (T.) 233
„ maiden. (T.) 244
Sir R. von Slatin Pasha 245
General Gordon to face 247
F.-M. Viscount Wolseley 249
Types of Sudanese soldiers.—The raw material. (T.) 250
„ „ „ —The finished article. (T.) 251
Khalifa’s house, Omdurman. (S. D.) 252
Captured Dervish Emirs. (J. K. W.) 254
Old woman of Dar Nuba. (T.) 264
General Viscount Kitchener to face 265
The Mahdi’s tomb, 3rd September, 1898. (S. D.) 266
The late Emir Ahmed Fedil. (J. K. W.) 267
After Um Debreikat; body of the Khalifa in foreground. 269
(J. K. W.).
The end of the Mahdist dominion. (J. K. W.) 272
Sons of the Mahdi and Khalifa 275
Lord Kitchener at the Gordon College, Khartoum. (K.) 281
Sudd-scape 299
Ambach 302
Papyrus. (G.) 305
Balaeniceps Rex at Khartoum. (W.) 309
Nagaa: Egypto-Roman buildings in the desert. (L.) 314
The above are from photographs by the following gentlemen, to all of
whom, especially to the three first named, the warm thanks of the Editor
are due for the kind permission granted to him to use the photographs,
and in many cases the blocks themselves. Those not initialled above are
acknowledged on the illustrations themselves.
T. Mr. B. Türstig, Omdurman.
G. Sir Wm. Garstin.
D. J. Mr. Digby Jones.
K. Mr. Hallil Kemeid, Editor “Standard Guide
to Egypt and Sudan.”
L. Captain Longfield, Egyptian Army.
M. Captain H. H. S. Morant, Egyptian Army.
P. Major Phipps, Egyptian Army.
S. D. Lt.-Col. Stanton, Egyptian Anny, per Mr. Dennis,
Scarborough.
W. Mr. John Ward, F.S.A., Belfast.
J. K. W. Lt.-Col. Watson, Egyptian Army.
Those entirely unacknowledged are by the Editor and his sister.
ABBREVIATIONS (_v._ APPENDIX H.).
* * * * *
H. S. C. History of Sudan Campaign. (Colvile.)
O. G. H. The Nile above the 2nd Cataract. (O’Grady Haly.)
N. O. Report on the Nile and Country between Dongola,
Suakin, Kassala and Omdurman (Gleichen).
H. S. Handbook of the Sudan (Gleichen).
S. H. S. Supplement to Handbook of the Sudan. (Gleichen.)
A. Arabic.
D. Dinka.
S. Shilluk.
N.B.—According to the latest system of transliteration, many words
formerly spelt with a “k” (Kâf ق are now spelt with a “g,” _e.g._, Wadi
el Gab, Yagub, etc. The word for hill is always spelt Jebel, whether
pronounced hard or soft.
* * * * *
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOL. I.[3]
* * * * *
E.A. = Egyptian Army; S.G. = Sudan Government.
Mr. C. H. Armbruster, Deputy Inspector, Kassala.
Attia Effendi, Intelligence Department.
Maj. Austin, C.M.G., D.S.O.
Rev. Father Banholzer, R.C. Mission, Lul.
Dr. A. Balfour, Sanitary Adviser to S.G.
Lt.-Col. E. E. Bernard, Financial Secretary S.G.
Lieut. Bond, R.N., Director of Steamers and Boats.
Capt. N. Borton, Inspector, Mongalla.
Maj. W. Boulnois, Governor Bahr el Ghazal Province.
Mr. A. Jennings-Bramly, Deputy Inspector S.G.
Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of Woods and Forests.
Mr. Bulpett.
Mr. A. L. Butler, Superintendent Game Preservation Department.
Mr. G. R. Carey, Mining Engineer.
Mr. C. E. Bonham-Carter, Legal Secretary S.G.
The Earl of Cromer, G.C.B., etc., etc.
Mr. J. W. Crowfoot, Sudan Education Department.
Col. H. E. Colvile.
Lieut. D. Comyn, Inspector, Upper Nile Province
Capt. S. L. Cummins, R.A.M.C., E.A.
Mr. J. Currie, Director of Education.
Capt. W. Doran, late E.A.
Capt. Dugmore.
Sir J. Fowler, C.E.
Sir W. Garstin, G.C.M.G., Under Secretary of State for Public
Works (Egypt).
Rev. J. K. Giffen, American Protestant Mission, Sobat.
Lt.-Col. Count Gleichen, C.V.O., C.M.G., D.S.O., Editor.
Lt.-Col. G. F. Gorringe, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., Governor
Sennar Province.
Maj. C. W. Gwynn, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., Sudan Surveys.
Rev. Ll. Gwynne, Chaplain, Khartoum.
The late Capt. Haymes, R.A.M.C.
Col. St. G. C. Henry, C.B., A.G., late Governor of Kassala.
Maj. Sir H. B. Hill, Bt., Governor of Berber.
Capt. H. G. Hodgson, Inspector, Dongola.
Maj. H. C. B. Hopkinson, Commandant Alexandria Police, late E.A.
Col. A. Hunter, late E.A.
Col. H. W. Jackson, C.B., Governor of Dongola.
Mr. B. H. Jessen.
Capt. Julien, French Army.
Mr. Kerr, Deputy Inspector, S.G., Suakin.
Commander Colin Keppel, R.N.
Capt. C. H. Leveson, Inspector, Kordofan.
Capt. J. S. Liddell, Director Posts and Telegraphs.
Capt. H. D. W. Lloyd, Inspector, Nahud.
Capt. W. E. Longfield, S.G. Railways.
Capt. H. G. Lyons, late R.E., Director Egyptian Government Surveys.
Maj. G. B. Macauley, Director Sudan Railways.
Maj. G. E. Matthews, Governor of Upper Nile Province.
Maj. W. S. R. May, A.F.S., S.G.
Capt. H. H. S. Morant, Assistant Director of Intelligence, Sudan.
Naum Bey Shoucair, Sudan Agent’s Office.
Mr. Oscar Neumann, Berlin.
Maj. M. Peake, C.M.G., Director of Artillery, E.A.
Capt. A. C. Parker, Deputy Assistant Secretary, S.G.
Capt. N. Playfair, late Acting Governor, Suakin.
Commander R. Poore, R.N.
Capt. W. Hayes-Sadler, Governor, Halfa Province.
Capt. R. V. Savile, Inspector, Kassala.
Maj. Slade, R.A.
Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha, K.C.M.G., Inspector General, S.G.
Maj. N. M. Smyth, V.C., late E.A.
Col. W. S. Sparkes, C.M.G., late Governor Bahr el Ghazal.
Mr. Spires, Collector, Gondokoro.
Capt. H. G. F. Stallard, R.A.M.C.
Maj. E. A. Stanton, Governor of Khartoum.
Col. Hon. M. G. Talbot, Director of Surveys, Sudan.
Lt.-Col. A. E. Turner, late R.A.
Mr. R. Türstig, Photographer, Omdurman.
Mr. J. Ward, F.S.A.
Maj. E. B. Wilkinson, Governor of Kassala.
Capt. H. H. Wilson, Inspector, Sobat.
Maj.-Gen. Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., Sirdar
and Governor-General, Sudan.
[Footnote 1: Except part of Chapter II and most of Chapter III (taken
from “Report on Egyptian Provinces of Sudan,” I.D.W.O., 1884).]
[Footnote 2: Not printed here, but text may be found in Hertslet’s
“Map of Africa by Treaty,” 1896 Edition, pp. 20 to 47, and pp. 48
to 106 respectively.]
[Footnote 3: Including those whose works or reports have been
utilised.]
[Illustration: THE PALACE, KHARTOUM (LOW NILE).]
=PART I.=
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
* * * * *
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
[Sidenote: Boundaries.]
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan comprises that country which is bounded
on the north by the 22nd parallel of north latitude; on the east by
the Red Sea, Eritrea, and Abyssinia; on the west and south-west by a
line running through the Libyan Desert (defined by the Anglo-French
Agreement of March, 1899), by the Sultanate of Wadai, and by the line
of rising ground forming the watershed between the Congo and Shari
on one side, and the Nile on the other; and on the south by the Lado
Enclave[4] and east of the Nile, the 5th parallel of north latitude.
The greatest length from north to south is about 1,250 miles, and
from east to west about 1,080 miles. (_Vide_ Appendix A for text of
Frontier treaties.)
[Sidenote: Area and population.]
The estimated area of the territory is about 1,006,000 square miles,
and the population about 2,000,000. For distribution of population
_vide_ Appendix F., p. 322.
[Sidenote: Capital and main towns.]
The capital and seat of Government of the country is Khartoum,
situated at the junction of the White and Blue Niles (lat. 15° 36′,
long. 32° 32′), and distant, as the crow flies, about 1,250 miles
from the Mediterranean Sea. (For description _see_ Chap. II, p. 49.)
The other chief towns of the country are Khartoum North (formerly
termed Halfaya) and Omdurman (close to Khartoum), Halfa, Merowe,
Berber, Wad Medani, Kassala, Suakin, Dueim, and El Obeid. (Detailed
descriptions will be found in the various chapters dealing with them.)
ADMINISTRATION.
The Sudan is administered by a Governor-General (who is at present
also Sirdar of the Egyptian Army) and under him by Mudirs (governors
of provinces), assisted by inspectors and deputy inspectors[5]
(British: military and civilian), and by Mamurs (Egyptian or Native
officers).
The text of the agreement of 1899, on which the administration is
based, provides for the administration of the territory south of the
22nd parallel of latitude by a Governor-General, appointed by Egypt
with the assent of Great Britain, and declares the general principles
in accordance with which the administration shall be carried on. The
British and Egyptian flags shall be used together; laws shall be made
by proclamation; no duties shall be levied on imports from Egypt,
and duties on imports from other countries shall not exceed those
levied in Egypt; the import and export of slaves is prohibited,
and special attention shall be paid to the Brussels Act of 1890
respecting the import and export of arms, ammunition, and spirits.
The “Capitulations” are not in force in the Sudan, nor are there
any foreign Consuls.
The Sudan is divided into eight first class and four second class
Provinces, as follows:—
-------------------------------+--------------
Province. | Chief Town.
-------------------------------+--------------
FIRST CLASS. |
|
Bahr El Ghazal | Wau
|
Berber | El Damer
|
Dongola | Merowe
|
Kassala | Kassala
|
Khartoum | Khartoum
|
Kordofan | El Obeid
|
Sennar | Senga
|
Upper Nile | Kodok
|
SECOND CLASS. |
|
Halfa | Halfa
|
Suakin | Suakin
|
Gezira (Blue Nile) | Wad Medaui
|
White Nile | Dueim
-------------------------------+--------------
Each Province is divided into a varying number of Districts, each
of which is under an Egyptian or native Mamur, as follows:—
--------------------+---------------------------
Province. | District.
--------------------+---------------------------
FIRST CLASS. |
|
|{ Deim Zubeir
|{
Bahr El Ghazal |{ Wau
|{
|{ Rumbek
|
|{ Robatab
|{
|{ Berber Town
|{
Berber |{ „ District
|{
|{ El Damer
|{
|{ Shendi
|
|{ Argo
|{
|{ Dongola
|{
|{ Khandak
Dongola |{
|{ Debba
|{
|{ Korti
|{
|{ Merowe
|
|{ Kassala
|{
Kassala |{ Gedaref
|{
|{ Gallabat
|
|{ Khartoum
|{
Khartoum |{ Omdurman
|{
|{ Wad Ramla
|
|{ El Obeid
|{
|{ Bara
|{
|{ Khursi (Um Dam)
|{
|{ Taiara
Kordofan |{
|{ Nahud
|{
|{ Dilling
|{
|{ Tendik
|{
|{ Nuba Mountains (Talodi)
|
|{ Sennar
|{
|{ Senga
|{
|{ Abu Naama
Sennar |{
|{ Dinder (Abu Hashim)
|{
|{ Roseires
|{
|{ Dar Fung (Soda)
|
|{ Renk
|{
|{ Kodok
|{
Upper Nile |{ Taufikia
|{
|{ Sobat
|{
|{ Mongalla
|
SECOND CLASS. |
|
|{ Abu Deleig
|{
|{ Kamlin
|{
|{ Rufaa
Gezira (Blue Nile) |{
|{ Mesellemia
|{
|{ Wad Medani
|{
|{ Managil
|
|{ Halfa
|{
Halfa |{ Mahas (Dalgo)
|{
|{ Sukkot (Kosha)
|
|{ Suakin
Suakin |{
|{ Tokar
|
|{ Geteina
|{
|{ Dueim
White Nile |{
|{ Kawa
|{
|{ Gedid
--------------------+---------------------------
The chief Government officials, besides the Governor-General, are the
Secretary-General, the Director of Intelligence and Agent-General
(Cairo), the Inspector-General, the Legal Secretary, Financial
Secretary, Director of Surveys, Director of Works, Director of
Education, Director-General of Irrigation,[6] Principal Medical
Officer, Director of Woods and Forests, Director of Agriculture
and Lands, Director of Railways, Director of Steamers and Boats,
Director of Telegraphs and Posts, Director of Customs, Principal
Veterinary Officer, Director of Slavery Repression Department[6],
and Superintendent of Game Preservation Department.
The duties of these officials sufficiently explain themselves by
their titles.
The following are the names, at present (1904), of the chief
officials:—
Governor-General Major-General Sir F. Reginald Wingate,
K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O.
Secretary-General Colonel F. J. Nason, D.S.O.
Inspector-General El Lewa Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha,
K.C.M.G, C.V.O., C.B.
Legal Secretary E. Bonham-Carter, Esq.
Agent-General, Cairo Lieut.-Colonel Lord E. Cecil, D.S.O.
Financial Secretary „ „ E. E. Bernard.
All the above (with the exception of the Legal Secretary, the
Directors of Education, Woods and Forests, Superintendent of
Game Preservation, and Director of Agriculture and Lands, who
are civilians) are at present British[7] officers attached to the
Egyptian Army.
In addition to one British battalion, at present furnished by
the British Army of Occupation in Egypt and The Army quartered at
Khartoum, nearly the whole of the Egyptian Army may be said to be
in the Sudan. The normal garrisons of the Sudan are as follows:—
[B.: British.
E.: Egyptian.
S.: Sudanese.
H.B.: Horse Battery.
F.B.: Field Battery.
G.C.: Garrison Company.
Misc.: Miscellaneous]
----------+--------------+-----------+--------------------+-----------
| Battalions. |Squadrons. | Artillery. | Misc.
Province.+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+Additional
| B. | E. | S. | E. | S. | H.B. | F.B. | G.C. |Troops.[8]
----------+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+-----------
Bahr El | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |276 men,
Ghazal | | | | | | | | |Gehadia.
| | | | | | | | |
Berber | — | ½ | — | 3 | 1 | — | 1 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Dongola | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Halfa | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |1 Railway
| | | | | | | | |Battalion.
| | | | | | | | |
Kassala | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |1
| | | | | | | | |Battalion
| | | | | | | | |Arab
| | | | | | | | |Camel
| | | | | | | | |Corps.
| | | | | | | | |
Khartoum | 1 | 4 | 1 | — | — | 1 | 2 | 2 |Hd.-Qrs.
| | | | | |(Max.)| | |A.G.’s
| | | | | | | | |Dept. and
| | | | | | | | |Works
| | | | | | | | |Dept.
| | | | | | | | |
Kordofan | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — |4
| | | | | | | | |Companies
| | | | | | | | |Camel
| | | | | | | | |Corps (3
| | | | | | | | |Arab, 1
| | | | | | | | |Sudanese).
| | | | | | | | |
Sennar | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Suakin | — | ½ | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
Upper | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | —
Nile | | | | | | | | |
+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+
Totals | 1 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
----------+----+----+----+-----+-----+------+------+------+-----------
As a rule, the Governor of the Province, being the senior British
officer, is in Military command of the troops in his Province.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
The following gives a table of revenue and expenditure since 1899:—
----------+----------+--------------+-----------
Year. | Revenue. | Expenditure. | Deficit.
----------+----------+--------------+-----------
| £E. | £E. | £E.
| | |
1899 | 126,596 | 511,693 | 385,097
| | |
1900 | 156,888 | 614,780 | 457,892
| | |
1901 | 242,309 | 629,969 | 387,660
| | |
1902 | 270,226 | 639,493 | 369,267
| | |
1903 | 462,605 | 810,019 | 347,414
| | |
1904 | 531,000 | 815,500 | 284,500
| | |
1905[9] | 535,883 | 915,646 | 379,763
----------+----------+--------------+-----------
1 £E. = 100 piastres = £1 0_s._ 6_d._
The deficit is made up by the Egyptian Government, which now
contributes annually to the cost of Civil and Military Administration
in the Sudan the nominal sum of about £E.380,000. The actual sum
contributed is, however, not really so large as this, for about
£E.60,000 is paid in Customs dues in Egypt on goods going to the
Sudan, which sum is absorbed by the Egyptian Government; and the
Sudan Government pays the Egyptian Government an annual amount of
between £E.122,000 and £E.282,000 (£E.186,757 in 1905) for the
maintenance of that portion of the army which is in the Sudan.
Some changes were introduced into the system of accounts in 1903
which caused a considerable increase in the figures on both sides of
the Budget of that year as compared with those for previous years,
but this increase was apparent only and did not affect the amount
of the contribution by the Egyptian Government towards the Civil
and Military expenditure of the Sudan Government.
Besides the above budgetary expenditure, additional credits
to the extent of £E.1,060,114 have been authorised since 1899,
principally for completing and improving the railway between Halfa
and Khartoum, for telegraph extensions, public works and for other
purposes. Moreover, the entire cost of the railway now in course
of construction between Suakin on the Red Sea and the Nile at a
point near the Atbara River in the Berber Province, and expenditure
connected with the new harbour works at Sheikh Barghout to the North
of Suakin, will be borne by the Egyptian Government.
SOURCES OF REVENUE AND TAXATION.
The revenue is derived at present from the following taxes, etc.,
which are imposed according to the circumstances of the Province:—
Land Tax.
Date Tax.
Animal Tax.
Road Tax.
House Tax.
Boat Tax.
Tribute from Tribes.
Royalties.
Customs.
Sales (of Government properties, etc.).
Woods and Forests.
Miscellaneous, including rents, ferries, licences, stamped paper,
market and court fees, slaughtering dues, etc., etc.
LAND TAX.—A proportion of this tax is derived in certain Provinces
from the “Ushur,” or tenth part, tax. This is assessed on the
value of the products of the land, and is paid sometimes in kind,
but generally in cash.
The land tax is assessed on the extent and value of the irrigated
land, and varies from 10 piastres to 60 piastres a feddan (acre). Rain
lands pay less than irrigated lands, whilst those only recently
coming under cultivation pay less than those already long cultivated,
etc., etc.
The DATE TAX is levied on date palms, at the rate of 2 piastres per
tree, whether male or female.
ANIMAL TAX is levied on camels, mules, sheep, horses, etc., etc.,
at the following rates:—
Piastres. | Piastres.
|
Camel 20 | Sheep 1
|
Horse 3 | Head of Cattle 5
|
Mule or donkey 3 | Goat ½
The ROAD TAX is a light tax levied in certain places with the object
of keeping the roads open and safe, and the wells dug and in good
order.
The BOAT TAX amounts to 2 piastres per ardeb capacity.
The HOUSE TAX amounts to one-twelfth of the annual rental value of
the building.
The TRIBUTE FROM TRIBES is levied on those nomad tribes who own
no lands or are not agriculturists. It is assessed by the Governor
broadly on the value of their possessions in herds and other property.
Gum, ivory, ostrich feathers and india-rubber[10] are the articles
at present which pay a ROYALTY of 20 per cent. _ad valorem_ to
Government. The Royalty on ivory has been recently reduced to 15
per cent. as a temporary and tentative measure.
SALES AND MISCELLANEOUS explain themselves.
[Sidenote: Budget.]
The following are the special services and estimated receipts and
expenditure for 1904-5:—
SPECIAL SERVICES.
------------------------------------+---------------+-----------------
| 1905. | 1904.
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
_I.—Loans not yet wholly expended._| | | |
| | | |
| £E. | £E. | £E. | £E.
| | | |
_Loan for the development of the | | |_55,000_|
Sudan Railway_ | | | |
| | | |
_Loan for the purchase of iron | | |_18,500_|
bases for Telegraph poles_ | | | |
| | | |
Loan for improving the Sudan |528,000| | 528,000|
Railway and purchasing Rolling | | | |
Stock | | | |
| | | |
Advance for special survey, | 10,000| | 10,000|
Suakin-Berber projected Railway | | | |
| | | |
Advance for the construction of | 30,985| | 30,985|
the Suakin Port | | | |
| | | |
Advance for the construction of | 15,800| | 15,800|
Light-houses at Suakin | | | |
| | | |
Advance for the excavation of a | 16,000| | 16,000|
cutting and for improving and | | | |
digging wells on the Suakin-Atbara | | | |
line | | | |
+-------+ +--------+
| |600,785| |674,285
| | | |
_II.—Credits not yet wholly | | | |
expended._ | | | |
| | | |
Credit from Wakfs Administration | 5,000| | 10,000|
for building mosques | | | |
| | | |
Credits from the Egyptian | | | |
Government:— | | | |
| | | |
1. Relief of poor Refugees | 4,000| | 4,000|
| | | |
2. Extension of Telegraph line | 12,150| | |
to the Bahr-el Ghazal | | | |
Province | | | |
| | | |
3. Partial cost of a steamer | 2,850| | |
for development of trade | | | |
on the Upper Nile (total | | | |
cost being £E.4,000) | | | |
| | | |
Credits sanctioned against the | 68,200| | |
surpluses of the years 1902 and | | | |
1903 | | | |
+-------+ +--------+
| | 92,200| | 14,000
| | | |
_III.—Services outside the Budget._| | | |
| | | |
Gordon Memorial College | 3,590| | 3,590|
+-------+ +--------+
| | 3,590| | 3,590
| +-------+ +--------
GRAND TOTAL | |696,575| |691,875
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
TABLE SHOWING THE SUDAN GOVERNMENT BUDGET FOR THE YEARS 1904-5.
RECEIPTS.
------------------------------------+---------------+-----------------
| 1905. | 1904.
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
| £E. | £E. | £E. | £E.
| | | |
Khartoum | 10,657| | 9,660|
| | | |
Gezira (Blue Nile) | 18,049| | 25,000|
| | | |
Sennar | 22,489| | 22,126|
| | | |
White Nile | 27,833| | |
| | | |
Kordofan | 43,122| | 55,390|
| | | |
Upper Nile | 7,700| | 8,300|
| | | |
Bahr-el-Ghazal | 5,990| | 5,500|
| | | |
Kassala | 10,425| | 8,310|
| | | |
Berber | 18,820| | 18,000|
| | | |
Dongola | 32,900| | 30,900|
| | | |
Halfa | 12,730| | 11,300|
| | | |
Suakin | 10,845| | 16,000|
+-------+ +--------+
| |221,560| |210,486
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Secretary General’s Department | 800| | |
(Stores Section) | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Legal Department | 4,000| | 3,000|
| | | |
_Controller of Stores’ Department_ | | | _1,000_|
| | | |
Education Department | 250| | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Agriculture and Lands Department | 1,550| | |
| | | |
Game Preservation Department | 1,200| | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Customs | 12,000| | |
| | | |
Hospitals | 795| | 600|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Khartoum Town | 8,055| | 6,000|
| | | |
General Central Receipts | 8,700| | 9,090|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Steamers and Boats | 97,031| | 75,554|
| | | |
Posts and Telegraphs | 25,771| | 22,155|
| | | |
Railways |154,171| | 141,237|
+-------+ +--------+
| |314,323| |258,636
| +-------+ +-------
| |535,883| |469,122
| | | |
Contribution by Egyptian Government | |379,763| |379,763
| +-------+ +-------
TOTAL | |915,646| |848,885
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
[Continued]
EXPENDITURE.
------------------------------------+---------------+-----------------
| 1905. | 1904.
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
| £E.| £E.| £E.| £E.
| | | |
Khartoum | 16,952| | 14,862|
| | | |
Gezira (Blue Nile) | 16,796| | 18,220|
| | | |
Sennar | 28,383| | 21,647|
| | | |
White Nile | 13,495| | |
| | | |
Kordofan | 25,352| | 24,557|
| | | |
Upper Nile | 18,853| | 12,617|
| | | |
Bahr-el-Ghazal | 25,503| | 19,117|
| | | |
Kassala | 16,937| | 14,615|
| | | |
Berber | 20,180| | 17,909|
| | | |
Dongola | 19,350| | 18,045|
| | | |
Halfa | 9,210| | 6,279|
| | | |
Suakin | 16,092| | 14,364|
+-------+ +--------+
| |227,103| |182,232
| | | |
_Central Administration_ | | |_47,187_|
| | | |
Governor General’s Office | 5,808| | |
| | | |
Inspector General’s Office | 2,723| | |
| | | |
Secretary General’s Department | 33,358| | |
| | | |
Finance Department | 17,681| | |
| | | |
Legal Department | 18,630| | 15,760|
| | | |
_Controller of Stores’ Department_ | | |_16,680_|
| | | |
Education Department | 12,806| | 8,552|
| | | |
Forestry Department | 15,602| | 14,289|
| | | |
Agriculture and Lands Department | 4,639| | |
| | | |
Game Preservation Department | 1,051| | 840|
| | | |
_Prisons Department_ | | |_12,568_|
| | | |
Customs | 6,237| | |
| | | |
Hospitals | 13,584| | 10,523|
| | | |
Cattle Plague | 1,670| | 1,622|
| | | |
Survey Department | 7,909| | 5,045|
| | | |
Khartoum Town | 16,002| | 10,385|
| | | |
General Central Expenditure | 38,259| | 29,407|
| | | |
Public Works | 47,314| | 47,245|
| | | |
Steamers and Boats | 92,975| | 90,864|
| | | |
Posts and Telegraphs | 32,260| | 31,508|
| | | |
Railways |133,278| | 140,478|
+-------+ +--------+
| |501,786| |482,953
| +-------+ +-------
| |728,889| |665,185
| | | |
Egyptian War Department for | | | |
maintenance of Army in the Sudan | |186,757| |183,700
| +-------+ +-------
TOTAL | |915,646| |848,885
------------------------------------+-------+-------+--------+--------
COMMUNICATIONS.
(_See_ Chapter X for details.)
Communication in the Sudan is maintained by:—(I) Railways; (II)
River; (III) Roads.
(I) THE RAILWAY.—The Sudan Government Railway, a single line
completed on the last day of 1899, runs from Halfa, crossing the
Nubian desert, to Abu Hamed along the Nile bank to Khartoum North
on the right bank of the Blue Nile opposite Khartoum (575 miles).
Another branch, also single, 203 miles, runs from Halfa to Kerma (35
miles north of Dongola) following the Nile. This is to be abandoned
after the 31st December, 1904.
A line of railway joining Suakin on the Red Sea to the Nile near the
mouth of the Atbara is now under construction; it will be of the
greatest benefit to the trade and development of the Sudan. Other
railway projects at present under consideration are:—Abu Hamed to
Merowe, Thamiam (near Suakin) to Kassala, and Omdurman to El Obeid.
The distance between Halfa and Aswan forms the only break in the
railway communication between Khartoum and the Mediterranean Sea;
a service of Sudan steamers plies on this reach.
(II) RIVER.—North of Khartoum the river is navigable throughout
except at the five cataracts; at certain times of the year
most of these are navigable, with difficulty. South of Khartoum
communication is maintained along the White and Blue Niles and their
affluents. During low Nile—January to June—the Blue Nile is not
navigable. The White Nile is navigable up to Gondokoro in Uganda,
though there are some difficulties in the way of navigation (_vide_
p. 73). The Sobat and Baro are not navigable from January to beginning
of May.
(III) ROADS.—Roads are, and must be for some time to come, the
principal means of communication in the Sudan. Transport is chiefly
performed by camels, mules and donkeys. The greater part of the Sudan,
being level, lends itself without much difficulty to the making of
roads suitable for carriages, though draught transport has not been
in use hitherto to any extent. Bullock wagons are in use in the Bahr
El Ghazal.
Some automobile carriages are now being tried in the different parts
of the Sudan, and have so far given fairly good results.
RESOURCES AND COMMERCE.
The chief natural resources of the Sudan at present lie in the
forests of Kordofan and the Blue Nile, which produce gum (Hashab
and Talh), ebony, furniture woods and fibre; and in those of the
Bahr El Ghazal, which produce india-rubber, gutta-percha, etc.;
also in the products of animals, such as ivory, ostrich feathers,
rhinoceros horns, skins, etc.
There are large quantities of fine cattle in the country, especially
on the Upper White Nile, but export of these is for the present
forbidden.
As regards agricultural products, only the country lying close
to the Nile and its tributaries is, as a rule, cultivated, and
the people do not, so far, grow more than is necessary for their
own use. The principal crops are dura (a kind of millet), beans,
lentils, dukhn, sesame, onions, melons, and a little wheat and
barley. In the Gezira, however, between the White and Blue Niles,
and in the Gedaref district, large tracts are cultivated.
The Dongola Province is rich in date palms, and exports large
quantities of dates.
There is a large opening for the growth and export of cotton. Little
is grown at present, but the soil is favourable and the quality is
good. Inducements, therefore, in the way of seed and promises to
purchase what is grown, are being offered to the natives to cultivate
this invaluable plant, and it is expected that the opening of the
Nile-Red Sea Railway will considerably increase its production.
Sugar could also be grown: there was formerly a sugar factory
at Kamlin.
[Sidenote: Land and settlement.]
The fertility of the land in the Sudan varies enormously, from the
sterile desert wastes of Northern Kordofan and the Eastern Sudan to
the rich soil bordering the river banks. There are also large tracts
of fertile soil round Gedaref, Kassala and Tokar, where rich crops
are grown with little effort.
Inducements are, according to circumstances, held out by the
Government to would-be settlers in the shape of free or easy grants
of lands, remission of taxes for a time, low rates of transport,
etc., and purchasers and cultivators are slowly trickling in. The
settlement, especially in view of the dearth of native population
and labour, must necessarily be a slow one. As larger tracts are
brought into cultivation, as canals are dug, and as irrigation
and communications are improved, so will the export of cereals and
produce of all sorts increase. The Nile-Red Sea Railway is expected
to give Sudan trade a great impetus, and the population is rapidly
increasing. But although those best qualified to judge are convinced
of a great economic future before the country, it can hardly be
expected that the Sudan will pay its own way for some years to come.
[Illustration: MARKET SCENE—GEZIRA.]
[Sidenote: Produce and Industries.]
The following is a list of the chief articles of produce of the Sudan,
with the districts where such are mostly found:—
Cotton Throughout the Sudan in small quantities, but
increasing in Dongola, Berber, and Gezira
Provinces.
Hides Kordofan and Eastern Desert.
Gum Kordofan, Blue Nile, and Gedaref District.
Ivory Bahr El Ghazal, Kordofan, and Upper Nile
Provinces.
India-rubber Bahr El Ghazal and Kordofan.
Feathers Kordofan.
Woods Chiefly up the White and Blue Niles and in the
Bahr El Ghazal.
Grain and Cereals Chiefly Dongola, Tokar, Gedaref, the Gezira,
Sennar, and Upper Nile Provinces.
Sugar Small quantities in Berber. Increasing.
Dates Dongola. Best quality at Sukkot.
Gold Indications in Northern Sudan and Upper Blue Nile.
Copper Hofrat Nahas—Bahr El Ghazal.
Iron Bahr El Ghazal and Kordofan.
Other Minerals Kordofan, Upper Blue Nile and Abyssinian border,
Eastern and Northern Sudan.
Mother of Pearl Suakin.
The native industries are, so far, limited in number. Cultivation
is the usual occupation of the people. Cotton-cloth weaving,
boat-building on the Niles, camel breeding in the northern and
western deserts, and iron-smelting in the Bahr El Ghazal practically
exhaust the list. Agricultural and industrial shows at the chief towns
have, however, been started, and receive considerable support. Minor
industries, such as pottery, leather work, improved carpentry, etc.,
are quickly coming to the fore.
CUSTOMS DUTIES.
For the purpose of Customs duties, the Sudan is, in the main,
considered as forming a part of Egypt. The Government has, however,
concluded a Customs Convention with Eritrea,[11] and applies
practically the same principles to the co-terminous countries of
Uganda, the Congo Free State, the French Congo and Abyssinia.
Broadly, goods exported to these countries from the Sudan pay 1
per cent. _ad valorem_, and imports from those countries 5 to 8 per
cent.; whilst goods in transit thence receive a drawback equal in
amount to the duty paid on entering the country, _i.e._, they can
pass free of duty through the Sudan.[11]
JUSTICE.
The main lines of judicial organisation in the Sudan date from 1899,
at which time the whole country was under Egyptian Martial Law.
Under the code of Criminal Procedure of that year the criminal
courts are directly under the Governor-General, who, however, has
the benefit of the advice of a Legal Secretary. Under “The Civil
Justice Ordinance, 1900,” the civil courts are subordinated to
the Legal Secretary, in his capacity as Acting Judicial Commissioner.
Criminal justice in each province is administered by the Mudir’s
Court (composed of the Mudir or Governor, or his representative,
and two other magistrates), which has general competence; minor
District Courts of three officers, with limited competence; and
magistrates with powers similar to, but more limited than, those
of Indian Magistrates. These magistrates are the members of the
Provincial Administrative Staff, who are either picked officers of
the army or civilian inspectors, who, unless they have had a legal
training, are required to pass an examination in the Codes.
The procedure at the inquiry, and as to arrest, etc., is borrowed
from the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure; that at the hearing is
that of an Egyptian (or substantially, of a British) court-martial,
with which the military officers are familiar.
Sentences passed by the Mudir’s Court are submitted to the
Governor-General for confirmation. Those of the subordinate courts
are either submitted to the Mudir for confirmation, or are open to
appeal before him.
The Governor-General has, in all cases, revising powers similar to
those of an Indian High Court.
The substantive criminal law is contained in the Sudan Penal Code,
which is a copy of the Indian Penal Code, with such modifications
as the circumstances of the country appeared to demand.
The civil courts in each province are those of the Mudir and of the
subordinate magistrates. The procedure is borrowed in part from that
in Indian provinces which do not possess a High Court, and in part
from the Ottoman and African Orders in Council.
The parties appear before the judge, who settles the issues to be
tried before trying the case. Every court has power to sit with
assessors, who, in commercial cases, are frequently of considerable
assistance. Appeals lie to the Mudir, or from the court of the Mudir
to that of the Judicial Commissioner.
This system has been somewhat modified by the appointment of four
civil judges who are trained lawyers. Wherever there is a civil
judge, he has all the powers, civil and criminal, of the Mudir, and
ordinarily takes all the civil and the more responsible criminal
work of that officer. A civil judge has now sat continuously for
the last three years at Khartoum, where all the principal merchants
reside. A system of circuits will probably be shortly instituted in
the outlying provinces; in the meantime provision is made for civil
disputes of special importance or complexity in those provinces by a
section which authorises their transfer, by consent of the parties,
to the court of the Judicial Commissioner. It is very possible that
the latter court may shortly be replaced by a bench of civil judges.
It was not thought advisable to create a body of substantive civil
law at a time when all that was known of the customs of the people
was that they probably differed from those of any country whose
legislation could have been taken as a precedent. Section 3 of the
Civil Justice Ordinance provides for the recognition of customary
law, so far as applicable and not repugnant to good conscience,
in matters of succession, etc.; and Section 4 provides for the
administration of “justice, equity, and good conscience,” a
phrase which has stereotyped custom in large parts of the east,
and filled up the interstices with the principles of English Law.
In commercial matters in the Sudan the judges have inclined to
interpret it as implying the obligation to recognise the principles
of Egyptian Commercial Law in cases in which the law of civilised
countries is not in agreement.
The above-mentioned Codes are applied wherever they may be put in
force by the Governor-General, and they have been gradually extended
to all parts of the Sudan, except the Bahr El Ghazal. In the more
backward provinces in the south, where officers are scattered,
advantage has to be taken of a provision that they shall be applied
with such modifications, not affecting the substance, as the
circumstances may require.[12]
[Sidenote: Mehkema Sharia.]
There are special courts, Mehkema Sharia, for the trial in accordance
with Mohammedan Law, of cases between Mohammedans, involving
questions of personal status, such as succession, wills, gifts,
marriage, divorce, family relations, and also the constitution of
charitable endowments (wakf).
The judges of these courts are Mohammedan Sheikhs, either natives
of the Sudan or Egyptians; of whom the latter have obtained their
training in the Azhar Mosque at Cairo.
The Mehkema Sharia comprise District Courts, which have jurisdiction
over one or more Districts, according to the extent and population of
the Districts, Province Courts, which act as courts of appeal from
the District Courts and have also an original jurisdiction over the
district in which they are situated, and a Supreme Court of Appeal
situated at Khartoum, consisting of the Grand Kadi of the Sudan,
who acts as President, the Mufti, and two judges of appeal.
Though the majority of the inhabitants of the Sudan are followers
of the Maliki School of Mohammedan Law, the courts generally, as in
Egypt, adopt the jurisprudence of the Hanafi School.
LEGISLATION.
Legislation takes the form of Ordinances, issued by proclamation of
the Governor-General. In accordance with Article IV of the Agreement
of the 19th January, 1899, between the British and Egyptian Government
as to the administration of the Sudan, all such ordinances must
be forthwith notified to the British Agent-General in Cairo and the
President of the Council of Ministers of His Highness the Khedive. All
Ordinances are published in the “Sudan Gazette.”
RELIGION.
Except for the negroid tribes the religion of the native population is
that of Islam. The black tribes in their own country are all heathen;
outside it a good many of their members have embraced Islam.
The Arab population is inclined to be fanatical; and to enable the
Government to keep itself informed of the religious feelings of the
people, a consultory board of Ulema (learned men) has been established
at Omdurman.
There are two Christian missionary stations amongst the black tribes:
one (American Protestant) on the Sobat River, and the other (Austrian
Roman Catholic) near Kodok. The latter mission is now establishing
another branch in the Bahr El Ghazal.
There are also several missionary schools at Khartoum and Omdurman. A
British Protestant Church is about to be built at Khartoum, and
there are Roman Catholic, Greek, and Coptic churches in course
of construction.
EDUCATION.
In the Sudan a higher primary school system is gradually being
developed. There are four of these schools (Khartoum, Omdurman,
Halfa, and Suakin), besides a few Kuttab or village schools, where
instruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Every
day shows a greater necessity for a Sudanese class able to read,
write, and cipher sufficiently to fill the minor appointments under
Government. This class is gradually being constructed, but it takes
time, especially as competent teachers are scarce.
All school subjects are taught in Arabic, not English. The latter
language is not encouraged, but it can be taught, as a foreign
language.
The Gordon College, with an endowment of over £E.100,000, was
finished and opened in October, 1903.
At present it contains a Higher Primary School, attended by 150
boys, and a Training College for Schoolmasters and Kadis. Competent
Sudanese teachers of the vernacular are now the chief requirement,
but this want will be remedied as time goes on.
A separate wing of the building affords room for an institute for
bacteriological work,[13] and research into the products and diseases
of the country.
Another invaluable adjunct to the College is found in some
technical workshops generously and completely fitted up by a private
benefactor.[14]
CLIMATE.
The climate of the Sudan naturally varies over such a huge
territory. Roughly speaking, it may be said that from the latitude of
about Shendi northwards the climate is dry throughout the year. South
of this, the rains in the summer, increasing in intensity towards the
south, towards the sea, and towards the Abyssinian hills, cause a damp
climate for two or three months, the remaining months being quite dry.
Between Halfa and Dongola there are a few rainy days in the winter,
and, very exceptionally, some torrential rains in the summer. At
Suakin heavy rains occur at intervals from August to January, with
occasional rainfalls during the spring. The Khor Baraka flood may
be expected at Tokar about the 15th August, and the Gash flood at
Kassala during the first week of July.
The rainy season proper, on the Upper Blue Nile, Atbara, and in
Abyssinia commences about the middle or end of May, the rains lasting
till the middle of September; light rains in January and February;
heavy rains sometimes in October and November.
The rainy season at Khartoum and in the “Bayuda desert” lasts
nominally from the middle of June to the end of September, but during
this period rain rarely falls on more than 15 days. In the Bahr
El Ghazal the rains last from April till October, and in Southern
Kordofan and Darfur from June to October.
Heavy rains occur in addition in the valley of the Upper White Nile
from September to November; also numerous thunderstorms, especially in
the hilly region round Rejaf and the Sudd district to the north of it.
On the Sobat, rains last from May to end of October.
The more unhealthy parts, in each case only during the period
immediately succeeding the rains or the Nile flood, are, in the
order of the evil, the Bahr El Ghazal, the Upper White Nile, the
Upper Blue Nile, Kordofan, Kassala, and Suakin. During the rest of
the year the climate is dry and healthy throughout. The temperature
is, in the summer, undoubtedly hot, the thermometer having on rare
occasions risen to as much as 126°; but on the other hand, except
in the rainy season, the nights are always cool and refreshing.
During the rest of the year, the temperature naturally varies
considerably; but it may be said that the winter is bright and
invigorating throughout, and not too hot. There are even unpleasantly
cold winds at times.
Except during the rainy season, the prevailing winds are, in the
valley of the Nile, always from a northerly direction. In other parts,
the wind varies according to season, but all get their share of the
north wind.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES (KHARTOUM), 1902 and 1903.
---------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
| Temperature, Fahrenheit. |
+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------+
Month. | Maximum. | Minimum. | |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ Mean. |
| Highest. | Lowest | Highest. | Lowest | |
---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|1902.|1903.|
| | | | | | | | | | |
January | 97·7| 91·4| 70·7| 68·9| 68·9| 62·6| 48·2| 42·8| 61·2| 65·5|
| | | | | | | | | | |
February |105·8|100·4| 88·7| 71·6| 74·3| 64·4| 59·0| 48·2| 70·8| 67·1|
| | | | | | | | | | |
March |107·6|104·0| 88·7| 81·5| 79·7| 68·9| 57·2| 55·4| 84·2| 74·3|
| | | | | | | | | | |
April |110·3|113·0| 98·6| 96·8| 82·4| 79·7| 65·3| 61·7| 78·8| 86·4|
| | | | | | | | | | |
May |113·9|109·4|102·2|104·0| 85·1| 82·4| 73·4| 65·3| 93·0| 90·0|
| | | | | | | | | | |
June |113·0|112·1| 99·5|103·1| 86·0| 82·4| 72·5| 68·9| 96·5| 91·4|
| | | | | | | | | | |
July |106·7|105·8| 86·0| 87·8| 80·6| 81·5| 66·2| 71·6| 83·0| 77·9|
| | | | | | | | | | |
August |108·5|104·9| 92·3| 90·5| 81·5| 83·3| 69·8| 64·4| 87·5| 87·8|
| | | | | | | | | | |
September|108·5|105·8| 96·8| 96·8| 80·6| 78·8| 69·8| 60·8| 85·0| 86·1|
| | | | | | | | | | |
October |106·7|106·7| 97·7| 95·0| 83·3| 78·8| 61·7| 67·1| 88·9| 86·9|
| | | | | | | | | | |
November |104·9|105·8| 89·6| 93·2| 80·6| 78·8| 54·5| 64·4| 81·7| 85·5|
| | | | | | | | | | |
December | 91·4|101·3| 77·0| 86·9| 69·8| 69·8| 49·1| 56·3| 74·7| 78·6|
---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
[Continued]
---------+----------------+----------------
| |
| |
Month. | Prevailing | Rain,
| wind. | inches.[15]
| |
---------+-------+--------+-------+--------
| 1902. | 1903. | 1902. | 1903.
| | | |
January | N. | N. | — | —
| | | |
February | N.E. | N. | — | —
| | | |
March | N. | N. | — | —
| | | |
April | N. | N. | — | —
| | | |
May | N.W. | S. | — | 1·0
| | | |
June | W. | S. | — | ·7
| | | |
July | S. | S. | 4·962 | ·5
| | | |
August | S. | S.S.W. | ·197 | ·6
| | | |
September| S. | S.S.W. | ·070 | —
| | | |
October | N. | N. | ·320 | —
| | | |
November | N.E. | N.N.E. | — | —
| | | |
December | N. | N.N.E. | — | —
---------+-------+--------+-------+--------
GAME.
The efforts of the Government are directed towards preserving the
numerous species of game of all sorts which abound in the Sudan, and
to preventing them being exploited wholesale for commercial purposes.
Thus the Government, in the matter of ivory and feathers, has laid
down stringent regulations which control the killing of elephants
and ostriches. By imposing heavy duties and strictly limiting the
numbers it is keeping within reasonable limits the export of live
animals for menageries, etc., in Europe; and traffic in skins,
trophies, etc., of wild animals is strictly prohibited.
As regards the shooting of game for sport, a sanctuary and game
reserve have been instituted, and the licence with which a sportsman
has to provide himself is expensive and only covers the shooting
of a limited number of each species, some species being tabooed
altogether. (For full details of the Game Laws, _vide_ Ordinance for
Preservation of Wild Animals, etc., 1903, and for practical hints,
etc., _re_ shooting, _see_ books mentioned on p. 213.)
SLAVERY.
Slave-running is practically dead, save perhaps in the remotest parts
of the Sudan. The Egyptian Repression of Slavery Department is well
represented by a number of posts dotted about in the regions most
likely to be favourable to this traffic.
FORESTS.
In the Sudan, north of Khartoum, forests are scarce and of little
extent. Scattered trees of “Samr” (_Acacia tortilis_) reach
right into the desert, while on the occasionally flooded “Karu”
land, between the desert and cultivation, is an open growth of the
above with “Selem” (_Acacia Ehrenbergii_), “Sayal” (_Acacia
spirocarpa_), “Hashab” (_Acacia Verek_), “Tundub” (_Capparis
aphylla_), “Marakh” (_Leptadenia Spartium_), etc.
South of Khartoum till about parallel 12° N. the forests consist
mostly of belts, usually not of very great width, lining the banks
of the rivers and khors. In these belts the most valuable tree is
the “Sant” or “Sunt” (_Acacia arabica_), known not only for
the strength of its wood, but for the tanning properties of its bark
and seed pod, and also for its excellence as fuel, as well as for
its value for boat building.
Inland, there are open woods of “Heglig” (_Balanites ægyptiaca_),
“Talh,” and “Hashab,” or dense thickets of “Kittr”
(_Acacia mellifera_) and “Laot” (_Acacia nubica_).
It is in this zone that the open woods of “Hashab” (_Acacia
verek_), in Kordofan, are carefully tended and preserved against fire
for the sake of their gum which is exported as “Hashab Geneina”;
the gum from the unprotected forests fetching a lower price as
“Hashab Gezira,” or “Gezira,” while that from other acacias
is known as “Talh,” as the Talh tree is the chief producer.
South of 12° N., where the rainfall is more abundant, the forest
on the White Nile is, as far as the northern limits of the Sudd,
of similar character, only large tracts have been cleared near the
river by the Shilluks, and Sant has completely disappeared and is
not replaced by trees of equivalent value.
On the Blue Nile the forest changes in character. Not far from
the river are numerous gigantic Baobabs (“Tebeldi,” _Adansonia
digitata_) and “Tarfa” (_Sterculia cinerea_), while the most
abundant trees are the graceful “Silag” (_Anogeissus leiocarpus_)
and the Sudan ebony (“Babanus,” _Dalbergia melanoxylon_).
In these two species, as well as in some others, these forests are
like those on the higher lands of the Bahr El Ghazal province and
parts of Southern Kordofan. The Bahr El Ghazal forests cover the
larger portion of the ironstone deposits in that province, and,
as far as quality goes, are probably the finest found in the Sudan,
many trees of great height and girth being found there, one of them,
the African mahogany (“Homraya,” _Khaya senegalensis_), having a
beautiful timber, already known to commerce. It is in these forests
that rubber-producing lianas are most abundant, the best of them
being “Ndala” or “Odilo” (_Landolphia owariensis_), _vide_
Chapter VII.
The forests on the Bahr El Jebel and the woodlands of the Bahr El
Ghazal province are more like those on the Upper White Nile, but some
other trees appear, and the forests are not only in belts, but cover
large areas. Near Mongalla the ironstone appears, and the forests
partake of the same character as those of the Upper Bahr El Ghazal.
The forests on the Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers have not yet
been explored by an expert.
All over the Sudan the forests suffer greatly from fires which are
set alight by the natives either for purposes of sport, or to clear
the paths, or for grazing after the rains. Owing to these fires
numbers of trees get killed or mutilated, and it is hopeless to
think of developing fine forests until they can be kept under control.
[Sidenote: Fuel.]
One of the great economic questions of the Sudan, which gives
rise to a certain anxiety, is the future supply of fuel. Although
the felling of trees is under control, those alongside the river
necessarily suffer greatly from the demand for steamer fuel, and
there is not an unlimited supply. So far, no coal or petroleum
has been found in the Sudan; it is believed that there are beds of
lignite in the Dongola Province, but up till now they have not been
thoroughly explored. Imported coal now costs from £E.4 to £E.6,
and petroleum £E.6, a ton at Khartoum. (_Vide_ also p. 20.)
[Sidenote: Concessions.]
A certain part of the Sudan—chiefly to the north and north-east
and south-east—has been leased to concessionaires for the purpose
of prospecting for minerals and exploiting them when found. There
are traces of gold and other minerals in most of these areas.
[Sidenote: Survey.]
The Sudan is being surveyed (commenced in 1898) on a scale of
1/250000. So far, over 50 sheets out of 139 projected have been
published, and the work of surveying is proceeding steadily. _Vide_
p. 349.
[Sidenote: Sanitary.]
The population is very gradually being trained in sanitary methods,
but it is a slow process. Efforts are also being made to stamp out
malaria,[16] etc., by the latest scientific methods, but the size
of most of the malarial districts is vastly in excess of the means
so far available to deal with them. At Khartoum and at some of the
other chief towns the steps taken have proved most effectual.
[Footnote 4: Temporarily occupied by the Congo Free State.]
[Footnote 5: Full particulars of Conditions of Service, etc., of
Government Civil Officials in the Sudan may be obtained from the
Secretary to Selection Board, Finance Ministry, Cairo.]
[Footnote 6: This Department is under the Egyptian Government.]
[Footnote 7: Except the Inspector-General.]
[Footnote 8: Detachments of Medical Corps, Supply, Transport,
Stores, Works, and Veterinary Departments are at all stations where
necessary.]
[Footnote 9: Estimate only.]
[Footnote 10: Trade in india-rubber is at present prohibited
(December, 1904).]
[Footnote 11: _See_ Appendix A.]
[Footnote 12: The above observations on Justice are extracted from
Lord Cromer’s Report, Egypt No. 1. (1904), p. 88.]
[Footnote 13: The Laboratory is the generous gift of Mr. Wellcome.]
[Footnote 14: Sir W. Mather, M.P.]
[Footnote 15: The figures for 1904 are:—
July 1·338
August 2·592
September ·787
only. _Vide_ “The Rains of the Nile Basin, 1904,” by
Capt. H. Lyons, Survey Dept., Egypt, just published.]
[Footnote 16: _Vide_ Report on the Wellcome Research
Laboratories—Gordon College—1904.]
[Illustration: _By kind permission of Dittrich, Cairo._
THE EARL OF CROMER.]
[Illustration: _By kind permission of Maull & Fox, London._
SIR WM. GARSTIN.]
(_To face page_ 15.)
CHAPTER II.
* * * * *
THE WHITE NILE.
[_The reader who wishes to study in detail the whole question of the
Nile Basin, its floods, discharges of rivers, schemes of irrigation,
etc., etc., is referred to Sir William Garstin’s invaluable
“Report on the Basin of the Upper Nile,” F.O. Bluebook, Egypt No._
2 (1904). _Price_ 17_s._]
(i.)—INTRODUCTORY.
[Sidenote: General.]
The White Nile and its tributaries form the life blood of the
Sudan. The great river traverses it for 2,029 miles from south to
north, receiving on its course through the country the Bahr El Ghazal,
the Sobat, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara.
Of these four tributaries the Bahr El Ghazal joins the Nile out of
the swamps from the west, whilst the other three join it from the
east, bringing down the fertilizing matter from the Abyssinian hills.
[Sidenote: Flood.]
The rise of the Nile takes place during the summer, but the dates
naturally vary largely at different points.
The causes of the flood are, briefly, as follows:—The rains in
southern Abyssinia cause the Sobat to rise about the middle or end
of April. The yellowish-white water caused by this flood reaches
Kodok the last week in April. The equatorial rains cause the Bahr
El Zeraf and White Nile, above the Sobat, to rise about the end of
May. The effect of the first rise is felt at Halfa about the 20th
May. The Blue Nile begins to rise about this time, and brings the
red fertilizing flood down to Khartoum about the 20th June, and
to Halfa about the middle of July. The muddy Atbara flood (June to
August) rises very rapidly after the Blue Nile, and causes the flood
to attain its maximum about the end of August; at this period the
river is muddiest. The White Nile continues to rise slowly, and its
effects (clear white water) are felt at Halfa till October, when it
falls very slowly. The Blue Nile falls rapidly after the middle of
September, and the Atbara has generally disappeared by October. The
Sobat begins to fall at Nasser early in December.
The Bahr El Ghazal rivers rise slightly in May. These soon subside,
and the main floods take place in July and August.
The above is a description of an average year. An early maximum
(_i.e._, about the middle of August) generally means a low summer
flood, and _vice versâ_. The flood at its height moves at about
100 miles a day (below the Atbara).[17]
The above dates vary largely in accordance with the time and amount
of rainfall in the upper valleys of the rivers.
Of the flood water annually brought down by the rivers, about half
now runs to waste into the Mediterranean sea. The Aswan dam regulates
and utilizes this to a certain extent, but a large proportion remains
over. This it is proposed to utilize in the future for irrigating the
Sudan by means of flood and catchment basins; but the time is still
distant when this surplus will be entirely devoted to this purpose.
[Sidenote: Historical.]
Up to comparatively recent times the sources of the Nile were involved
in mystery.[18] In ancient days many guesses were hazarded at their
origin, some geographers maintaining that the Nile rose in the Atlas
Mountains of Marocco; others were positive that the Niger formed the
upper portion of the great river. During the 17th and 18th centuries
it was held that the sources were to be found in the “Mountains of
the Moon.” These have since been speculatively identified with the
Ruwenzori Mountains between Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, and, if
this theory is correct, the ancient geographers were not so far out.
It was left for Speke and Grant, in 1862, on a journey from the east
coast, to discover that the great lake, now known as the Victoria
Nyanza, was the main source of the White Nile. Sir Samuel Baker,
in March, 1863, working up stream, discovered the Albert Nyanza;
but it was not till some time afterwards that the actual course of
that portion of the river, now known as the Bahr El Jebel, was mapped
and traversed, Lieutenants Watson and Chippendall, R.E., being the
first, under Gordon in 1874, to lay down the actual course. During
the ensuing years, this, the upper portion of the river, was several
times blocked with sudd, and at the re-conquest of the Sudan from the
Dervishes in 1898, it was permanently blocked. An expedition under
Major Peake, however, succeeded in clearing a channel in 1899-1900,
and there is no likelihood of the clear channel now existing being,
except quite temporarily, blocked again.
The sources of the Blue Nile, which for long was considered as the
main river, were, as early as 1770, discovered by Bruce to be near
Lake Tsana (Abyssinia), but to this day the actual course of the
Blue Nile between Lake Tsana and Famaka (Abyssinian-Sudan border)
has never been accurately laid down.
The course of the Atbara, as far up as the junction with it of the
Setit, was roughly known before 1864, when Sir S. Baker made a more
thorough exploration of these rivers, but the courses of the Atbara
and Setit lying within the Sudan have only recently been fairly
accurately laid down. The Atbara rises in the Abyssinian hills,
near Chelga, where it is known as the Goang.
The Sobat was explored by Marno and Junker in the “Seventies”
as far as Nasser, where there was then an Egyptian post. It was
left for British officers, after 1898, headed by Captain Gamble,
to explore the various narrow rivers such as the Baro, Pibor, Akobo,
etc., which join the main stream from South-West Abyssinia, east of
Nasser. The course of the Upper Pibor was explored by Lieut. Comyn
in September, 1904, _vide_ p. 151.
The course of the comparatively short Bahr El Ghazal river, known to
the slave-traders of old times, was laid down by Petherick, Gessi,
etc., in 1864-78; but the courses of the western rivers which flow
into it, such as the Bahr El Arab[19] or El Homr, have not yet been
even roughly determined. Those of the more southerly affluents,
such as the Suei or Jur, etc., though not yet accurately fixed,
have been sketched in by Junker, Marchand, etc., and the British
officers in the Bahr El Ghazal since 1900.
(ii.)—GENERAL DESCRIPTION (DOWN STREAM).
[Sidenote: Albert Nyanza to Khartoum, Bahr el Jebel.]
After leaving the Albert Nyanza, the White Nile (or as it is there
called the Bahr El Jebel) flows for 110 miles in a deep broad arm,
with scarcely any velocity or slope, past Wadelai and Dufile to
Nimule, and then, after a short and troubled course, between high
mountain ranges, tosses over the Fola Rapids in a channel only 50
yards broad. From here it continues in a torrent to about Rejaf. Here
the river is 7 feet deep at low Nile and 15 feet at flood time,
discharging between 18,000 to 60,000 cubic feet per second. The
regulating effects of the great lakes are well felt here. It is
here at its lowest in winter; begins to rise about 15th April,
with a minimum about the end of August.
From Rejaf to Bor, 112 miles, the river is mainly in one channel
with a rapid fall. From Bor to the junction with Lake No, 384 miles,
the river meanders along in numerous marshy channels with a very
gentle slope. The main channel always used is known as the Bahr El
Jebel. In this reach are the dams of living vegetation, known as the
“Sudd” (for description _see_ Appendix B). On one stretch the
true channel is still blocked with sudd, and a “false” channel,
a little to the westwards, has to be used for about 20 miles.
[Sidenote: Lake No.]
At the junction of the Bahr El Ghazal and the Nile in north lat. 9°
29′ is Lake No, or Moghren El Buhur,[20] a shallow expanse of water
surrounded on all sides by reedy marsh and varying in size according
to season, but in summer probably about 60 square miles. It forms a
reservoir for the sluggish streams that drain the extensive plateau
forming the water-shed between the Nile and Congo. In summer the
lake and its swampy surroundings act as an evaporating basin, and
the loss of water is consequently considerable. The waters here also
become polluted with decaying green vegetable matter.
The Bahr El Ghazal enters Lake No at its western extremity, and the
Bahr El Jebel passes through its eastern end. The Bahr El Ghazal
has a feeble discharge and has no effect at any time on the volume
of the White Nile.
In the stretch between Lake No and the Sobat, 81 miles, the current
is slow and the channel occasionally blocked by sudd.
[Sidenote: Sobat.]
During flood, the Sobat has a discharge nearly equal to that of the
Bahr El Jebel above the junction. In the spring the discharge from
the Sobat is feeble, and the river is then unnavigable. The soil
brought down by the Sobat is light and friable.
[Sidenote: White Nile.]
At the Sobat confluence the river changes its name[21] and now
becomes the Bahr El Abiad or White Nile.
From this point down to Omdurman, 530 miles, it receives no more
perennial affluents, but several large khors join it on the east bank
between Kodok and Renk—chief of which are Khor Adar and Khor Rau.
The White Nile flows sluggishly along with a low velocity and gentle
slope; its course is generally straight and its section wide and
shallow, banks low, supply very constant; the colour and limpidity
of its water show very little change throughout the year, and the
variations between the level of high and low supply are very small,
being not more than 2 to 6 feet. The depth of the river in this
stretch ranges from 15 feet at low Nile to 21 feet in flood. In parts,
the channel in flood time is often of immense width.
The result of 94 measurements made in June, 1862, show the mean width
of the river in flood to be 1,870 yards. In many places, however,
the channel is more than 2 miles wide, and in its general appearance
it resembles a lake rather than a river. Its banks, more particularly
the western shore, are very low, and its waters in flood spread for
several miles over them. Their average height is not more than 8 to
10 feet above low water level, and the maximum difference between
high and low supply is not more than 6 feet.
The river is at its lowest by the beginning or middle of April; the
rainfall in the south then causes a constant and gradual rise, but the
flood does not reach its maximum before the beginning of September.
The velocity of the current when in full flood is not more than 2½
to 3 miles an hour, whilst in winter this is reduced to 1½ miles
an hour. The water is of an olive green or yellowish brown tinge. It
owes most of its colour to the creamy-white waters of the Sobat River,
called by the Arabs the Bahr El Asfar, or Yellow River.
[Sidenote: Green water.]
An odd phenomenon, the source of which has not been satisfactorily
explained, is the “green water,” which makes its appearance at
Dueim about the middle of May. The colour is owing to the mass of
minute algæ in the water, which subsequently putrify and stink, but
the origin of the water has not been definitely traced. It is believed
to come from the upper Sobat, or Bahr El Ghazal, and not from the
Bahr El Jebel. This green water reaches Cairo towards the end of June.
[Sidenote: Junction of the Niles at Khartoum.]
At Omdurman, half Nile usually occurs about the middle of July,
high Nile at end of August or beginning of September, lasting about
a month; half Nile end of November, lowest Nile end of April. The
Blue Nile is at its lowest in May, and highest about the end of
August. The result of careful measurements during the last 3 years
has been to prove that when the Blue Nile is in flood, and generally
when its discharge exceeds 5,000 metres cube per second, its waters
hold back those of the White Nile and, owing to the increased depth
in this river, due to the rise in the water levels, the volume coming
from the south floods the Sudd marshes right and left of the channel
and thus reduces the discharge of the White Nile by about 50 per cent.
The average difference between low and high Nile here is 22 feet
(17½ to 26 feet).
[Sidenote: Below Khartoum.]
The river below Khartoum flows steadily along till it reaches the 6th
or Shabluka cataract (_see_ p. 47). Below this it is not disturbed,
except for the rapids of the so-called 5th or El Homar and Bagara
cataracts, till it passes Abu Hamed and enters the 4th or Belal
cataract some way below this point. This cataract, forming the
most complicated and dangerous rapids on the Nile, is for ordinary
purposes unnavigable (_see_ p. 36). Below it there is an open stretch
past Dongola to the 3rd or Hannek cataract, shortly followed by the
Kajbar rapids (_see_ p. 26). A rocky channel full of small islands and
small rapids, increasing in size and importance as the river proceeds,
is entered some 80 miles below Kajbar, and through the Batn El Hagar
the river rumbles along till, after passing the 2nd or Amka cataract,
it emerges past Halfa in a broad and steady stream which lasts till
it arrives at the dam and 1st cataract (Shellal) of Aswan. From here
onwards there are no further obstacles (except sand-banks and canals)
till, _viâ_ the Delta of Egypt, the Mediterranean Sea is gained.
(iii.)—RIVER DISCHARGES.
The following, taken from Sir W. Garstin’s Report above mentioned,
gives a summary of results respecting discharges in the basin of
the Upper Nile:—
1. THE VICTORIA NILE.
The discharge at the Ripon Falls varies between 500 and 650
metres cube per second with a range of 1·1 metres. Downstream
of the Murchison Falls the range is probably 1 metre, and the
maximum and minimum discharges 1,000 and 400 metres cube per
second respectively. The increase in flood is due to the rainfall
throughout the catchment area of the river between these two points,
while the decrease during the low season is due to the Choga Lake,
which undoubtedly has a regulating effect upon the supply issuing
from Lake Victoria. Lastly, the volume which enters Lake Albert by
this river is generally, in flood, greater than that which leaves
it by the Bahr El Jebel.
2. THE BAHR EL JEBEL.
At Wadelai, the first discharge site, the range of the river is about
1·11 metres while the discharge varies from 550 to 950 metres cube
per second. The increase brought in by the streams which feed this
river between Lake Albert and Wadelai is compensated by the loss of
water due to a portion of the discharge of the Victoria Nile passing
south up the lake during the flood season.
At Lado, 381 kilometres, the range is 2·30 metres, and the discharge
in summer averages from 600 to 700 metres cube per second. The maximum
(generally attained in September) varies between 1,000 metres cube
per second in a low flood, and 2,000 metres cube per second in a
high one. This increase in the flood supply is due to the rainfall
throughout the river valley, and to the volume added by the many
important tributaries, such as the Asua, the Kit, etc., which feed
the Bahr El Jebel between Wadelai and Lado.
At Bor, 559 kilometres, the loss of water in flood is some 50
per cent. of the amount passing Lado, and the discharge here can
rarely, if ever, exceed 1,000 metres cube per second. This loss is
due to the filling up of the entire river valley, which thus forms
an immense basin or reservoir, and reduces the discharge passing to
the north. This reservoir extends from Lado to the head of the Bahr
El Zeraf, a distance of some 378 kilometres. As the river falls the
water of this basin, with the exception of the large amount lost by
evaporation, slowly filters back through the marshes into the river
during the winter months, and thus maintains the constancy of supply.
Throughout the “Sudd” region the loss of water in the Bahr El
Jebel, both in summer and in flood, is very considerable. By the time
that Lake No (1,156 kilometres from Lake Albert, and 749 kilometres
from Lado) is reached, 85 per cent. of the discharge at Lado has
been lost in a high flood, and 70 per cent. in a low one. During the
summer months the loss at this point varies between 50 and 60 per
cent. Lastly, the discharge which enters the White Nile from the Bahr
El Jebel is nearly constant at all seasons of the year, and never even
in the highest flood exceeds 300 or 320 metres cube per second. The
regulating effect of the great marshes is thus very apparent.
3. THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.
The discharge of this river, as a feeder of the White Nile, may be
neglected entirely. Its summer volume entering Lake No varies from
20 to 30 metres cube per second, while its flood discharge is even
less, equalling from 12 to 20 metres cube per second. None of this
water enters the White Nile, merely increasing the flooded area of
Lake No. It, however, helps to augment the reservoir area of the
main stream.
4. THE BAHR EL ZERAF.
This branch of the Bahr El Jebel adds to the volume of the White Nile
by an amount varying from 30 to 60 metres cube per second in summer,
and from 80 to 160 metres cube per second when in flood. If, however,
the Bahr El Jebel is closed by “Sudd” then the discharge of the
Bahr El Zaraf increases, possibly to from 300 to 400 metres cube
per second during the flood season.
5. THE SOBAT.
This river is the main supply of the White Nile during the period
of flood. The first effects of its waters are felt in May and June,
while, as it does not reach its maximum until October and November,
the volume of the Blue Nile having then been largely reduced, it
maintains the discharge passing Khartoum to a very considerable
figure. In years of good flood the discharge of the Sobat varies
from 900 to 1,000 metres cube per second. In the early months of the
year its discharge shrinks to very low limits, its waters being held
back by those of the White Nile. When in flood the reverse is the
case. The volume of the Sobat being at that time more than double
that of the White Nile causes a rise in the levels of the latter
upstream of the junction and holds back its water as far as Lake No.
6. THE WHITE NILE.
The discharge of this river below the Bahr El Zeraf junction varies
from 300 to 500 metres cube per second according to the season of the
year and the nature of the flood. It is probable that the last figure
is a maximum and is never surpassed.[22] At El Dueim, 637 kilometres
below the Sobat junction, the summer supply varies between 350 and 500
metres cube per second. The minimum levels are generally attained in
the month of April and the first half of May. The discharge, owing
to the Sobat water, gradually increases until the Blue Nile flood
exceeds the volume of 5,000 metres cube per second at Khartoum. As
soon as this figure is passed the discharge of the White Nile is
reduced by an amount varying from 30 to 60 per cent., and this holding
back continues until the Blue Nile falls again below the figure above
given. This reduction of the White Nile discharge takes place in the
months of August and September. As soon as the Blue Nile discharge
has fallen below 5,000 metres cube per second that of the White Nile
rises very rapidly, attaining its maximum in the months of November
and December, when as much as from 1,500 to 1,700 metres cube per
second have been recorded. This increased discharge is, of course,
partly due to the Sobat, but also to the draining off of the water
which has been ponded up for so long a period. It seems safe to
assume that the White Nile discharge at Khartoum never under any
circumstances exceeds 1,800 cubic metres per second.
To sum up:—The White Nile is at its lowest from March to May. It
rises in June, is checked again in August and September, and attains
its maximum during the months of November and December. Its limits
in a low year are from 300 to 1,500 metres cube per second, and in
one of high flood from 400 or 500 to 1,700 metres cube per second.[23]
7. THE BLUE NILE.
The supply of this river is chiefly derived from the drainage of
the basin through which it runs and from the large tributaries
which enter it downstream of the point where it issues from the
Abyssinian hills. The Tsana lake has but a small influence upon its
supply at any period of the year. It is at its lowest in May, when
its discharge at times shrinks to nothing. It begins to rise in June
and attains its maximum about the end of August. Its discharge in a
year of good flood is as much as 10,000 metres cube per second, and
it seems probable that in a year of exceptional flood 12,000 metres
cube may pass Khartoum. In September it falls very rapidly, and during
the winter months rarely discharges more than from 200 to 400 metres
cube per second. The Khartoum gauges prove that a higher reading is
recorded for a given flood discharge when the river is falling than
is the case when the river is rising. This is probably due to the
filling of the valley between Khartoum and the Shabluka Pass.
8. THE ATBARA.
The first water from this river reaches the Nile in the last week of
June, and the maximum is usually reached in the last days of August,
or in the first week of September. The Atbara generally attains
its maximum before the full flood from Khartoum has arrived at the
junction of the two rivers. After the maximum has been reached,
the fall of the Atbara is rapid, and by the end of the year the
river reverts to its summer state of a series of pools. The maximum
discharge of the Atbara, measured in 1903, was 3,088 metres cube per
second, but this is probably surpassed in a year of very high flood.
9. THE NILE NORTH OF KHARTOUM.
The discharges of 1903 record a maximum of 10,500 metres cube
per second in an average year. If to this be added the volume of
the Atbara, a total of nearly 14,000 cubic metres per second is
reached. As in 1903 the levels at both Halfa and at Cairo did not
pass those of a very ordinary flood supply, it would seem probable
that in very high flood a volume of quite 16,000 metres cube per
second must pass Berber.
In conclusion it may be stated with confidence that the White Nile
contributes practically nothing to the flood which reaches Egypt. This
is entirely derived from the Blue Nile and from the Atbara. On the
other hand, the supply passing Aswan during the spring and early
summer is due, almost entirely, to the water of the great lakes
brought down by the White Nile.
The following are the water-slopes of the two rivers, as worked out
from the discharges:—
Bahr El Jebel—
At Wadelai 1/27000 dry season.
At Bor 1/12100 flood season.
At 830 kilometres from Lake Albert 1/22500 flood season.
At Hellet-el-Nuer 1/40000 flood season.
At „ „ 1/16500 dry season.
At Lake No 1/87500 flood season.
At „ 1/54000 dry season.
White Nile—
Above Sobat 1/20000 dry season.
At Dueim 1/100000 when Blue Nile has
fallen and the While
Nile is at its
maximum.
At Dueim 1/50000 dry season.
Blue Nile
At Khartoum 1/11200 flood season.
(See also footnote on p. 111, giving a short table of comparative
discharges.)
(iv.)—NAVIGABILITY (UP STREAM).
Between Halfa and Khartoum (880 miles) the river may be said to be
navigable throughout at high Nile.
Details are given below as to the various cataracts to be encountered,
but it may be broadly said that, although difficult, it is not
impossible to get boats and steamers through in the time of the
flood. At low Nile most, if not all, of the cataracts are unnavigable.
Before the Nile Expedition of 1884-85 steamers and boats were
taken over the 2nd cataract. During the expedition both were taken
over the 3rd cataract and intervening rapids, and boats (whalers)
successfully surmounted the 4th cataract. In 1897 gunboats and
other steamers were hauled over the latter place, and the rocks of
the 5th and 6th cataracts have never, when there was enough water,
offered serious resistance to the passage of boats or steamers.
From Khartoum to Gondokoro, practically 1,100 miles, the only
obstacles to navigation at any time of the year are:—
1. The Abu Zeid Ford (occasionally only), and the Azalet or
Dankul Rocks near Jebelein, _vide_ p. 59.
2. Scarcity of fuel.
3. The sudd.
4. Sand-banks.
2. FUEL.—One of the great economic questions of the Sudan which
would give rise to anxiety were not the Nile-Red Sea Railway already
in course of construction is the future supply of fuel. Imported coal
now costs £E.4 to £E.6 per ton, and petroleum £6 to £E.11·500
per ton at Khartoum. Though a bed of lignitic coal has been discovered
at Dongola, no other coal, nor even lignite, has so far been located
within our boundaries. Wood therefore, is and will for some time
remain the chief source of fuel supply. The large demand which arose
with the development of Khartoum has caused the destruction of forest
belts along the White and Blue Niles to a considerable distance from
Khartoum, and although the Forest Department has now control of the
fellings, the enormous demand is making inroads into the forests
from which subsequent fires preclude recovery.
Wood stations for steamers are established at different points along
the banks, at distances usually sufficiently near to obviate steamers
taking too heavy a load, but there is a long gap between Khor Attar
wood station and Kanisa (about 380 miles), which necessitates steamers
carrying a large amount of firewood to enable them to cross the sudd
region. As there is a heavy tax on the forests at these wood stations,
the fellings are getting farther and farther away from the bank, and
tramways are necessary to work the more remote portions of the forest.
3. THE SUDD.—A full description of the formation of and methods of
dealing with the sudd are given in Appendix B. The Nile was blocked
by the sudd from 1870-4, 1878-81, in 1884, and from 1895 to 1900.
The Nile, before it flows into Lake No, appears to be a channel
varying from 100 yards to a mile in width, but, from the masthead
of a steamer, it would be seen that there is a sea of papyrus grass,
bulrushes, and reeds on either side of this water channel, and that
the real banks of the river are 4, 8, or even 12 miles distant on
either side. Under all this vegetation is water, which is slowly
making its way down to fill up the void caused by the absorption of
the water by plants and sun. The matted vegetation which floats on
the top of the water is so thick that it is possible to walk on it;
and, were it not for this covering, the evaporation over such a vast
area would greatly diminish the supply of water to Lower Egypt.
A considerable part of the Nuer tribe actually live on the floating
mass of vegetation, fish and the stalks of a water-lily forming
their only food. The surface of the water is covered by a dense
tangled mass of papyrus, ambach, and other water plants, which in
places grow to a height of from 15 to 30 feet.
At the rise and fall of the Nile, quantities of the grass get torn
away and float down stream. If the season is unusually wet, the
stream increases in bulk and rapidity, and innumerable large masses
of the grass, hurried and packed by the wind, are sent floating down;
these jamb in the channels and form the sudd blocks.
The channel of the river is very tortuous; at Lake No, for instance,
where the Bahr El Ghazal flows into the Nile, there is a sharp turn
to the east. If the water contributed simultaneously by the Bahr El
Ghazal happens to be insignificant and incapable of sweeping away
the floating masses, a block is the result at this point.
4. SANDBANKS.—They are not as a rule any considerable obstacle,
but are, of course, more troublesome at low than at high Nile,
and shift about every year.
Steamers with no encumbrances, and with fuel ready cut for them to
pick up, take about 12 days up stream from Khartoum to Gondokoro,
and about 8 days down stream. (Record journey in 1903: 11 days up
and 7 down).
The navigation up to the mouth of the Sobat is at all times easy,
the Abu Zeid Ford and occasional rocks and sandbanks forming the
only difficulties. The deepest channels lie usually towards the east
bank. From the Sobat to Gondokoro a perfect and recent knowledge of
the route is required, in order not to deviate into any of the lateral
branches which are frequently met with, and which, varying from year
to year, are chiefly in evidence during and after the rainy season.
There are also many sandbanks on this stretch. Between Gondokoro and
Rejaf the river is rather difficult when low on account of shifting
sandbanks and islands. There are a few rocks, but not dangerous,
except at one point.
Between Rejaf and Bedden there is the same difficulty of shifting
sandbanks and sunken rocks, which are, however, isolated and few in
number, and might be blasted away. The current here is about 1½ miles
an hour. At Bedden there is a bad rapid necessitating a transhipment;
but from there boats can go to Kiri.
From Kiri to Labore there are awkward rapids, but the river might
be utilised to a great extent. The river continues of much the same
character till the junction of the Asua, when the rapids become more
serious, terminating in the Fola Rapids.
The last 15 miles before reaching Nimule are quite impassable to
any steamers or boats.
From here on, the river is free of any obstacles up to Lake Albert.
Between Dufile and Lake Albert the Nile is very sluggish, and papyrus
islands abound in it. Breadth of channel varies.
BOATS AND STEAMERS.
The usual Nile boats are the “Nugger” and “Gayassa,” varying
in capacity from 5 to 400 ardebs. The latter solidly built, with high
bows, and free board, and lateen-rigged, is the Egyptian boat, whilst
the former, which is found from the 2nd cataract southward, is flat,
with low free board, and is roughly though solidly built without
ribs. Rafts, canoes, inflated waterskins and water-tight pots are
also used for individual navigation. Further up stream “dugouts”
and ambach canoes are seen. Of steamers there are 10 gunboats, 21
other steamers, and 6 launches on the river, mostly stern-wheel;
a few are screw, and one or two paddle. (_Vide_ Chap. X, Part I.)
LANDING PLACES.
From Halfa to Khartoum and from Khartoum up to Goz Abu Guma it
is possible to land almost anywhere on either bank. From there up
to Kodok, owing to the broad reed fringe on either bank, landing
is difficult except at the following places, viz.:—Jebelein, Um
Ashrin, Karshawal, Renk, Meshra Leungtom or Domaia, Meshra Zeraf,
Meshra Rom, Kaka, Kaka Wood Station, Melut and Demtemma. All these,
except Kaka and Um Ashrin, are on the right bank.
As Gordon states, in the stretch between Kodok and 100 miles north
of it, “People do land, but it is over your knees in the rainy
season,” and even if a landing is effected, progress inland is
always liable to be arrested by wide and deep khors which are really
branches or overspills from the main stream: these obstacles are
encountered even in the dry season.
There are easy landing places in many spots between Kodok and Lake No,
then nothing except Hellet Nuer, Shambe, Abu Kuka, and Kanisa for
360 miles till Bor; south of Bor the best known ones are at Kiro,
Lado, Mongalla, Gondokoro and Rejaf, though elsewhere a landing can
generally be effected, especially on the left bank of the western
channel, which leaves the main river near N. Lat. 5° 30′. Above
Rejaf one can land anywhere up to the Fola Rapids. Between Dufile
and Magunga (on Lake Albert) there are five landing places.
(v.)—CLIMATE.
The rains on the Upper Nile in the equatorial regions from the Albert
Nyanza to the Bahr El Ghazal last from February or March to October
or the middle of November.
As one proceeds northwards the heavy rains come later; the
“Kherif,” or rainy season, in the neighbourhood of Kodok, lasts,
as a rule, from the middle of May to the end of October, whilst at
Khartoum it may be said to be during July, August, and September. At
Halfa there is no rainy season.
At Gondokoro the hot weather commences middle of November and lasts
till the end of March.
Colonel Stewart states (1883):—“The rains are very heavy, lasting
10 to 12 hours at a time. From Gondokoro south to the Equator, rainy
seasons increase in length, till on the Equator it may be said that
rain and sunshine succeed each other in rapid succession all the
year round.”
Heavy thunderstorms and rains occur at intervals during the rest of
the year, especially from October to January in the hilly regions
round Rejaf and the Sudd district to the north of it.
WINDS.
During late autumn winds are very variable, blowing from all points
of the compass. East and south-east winds at this period predominate,
especially in the upper reaches. During the rest of the year the north
wind, varying from north-west to north-east, is fairly constant,
except during the summer rains, when the wind shifts to the south
and south-east.
TEMPERATURE.
The average maximum and minimum shade temperatures on the Upper Nile
during the hot months are 99° and 85° respectively, and during
the rest of the year 88° and 74°. Between Khartoum and Halfa the
maximum average is a good deal higher, and the minimum rather lower.
In the Sudd region and south the maximum averages about 85°,
but, owing to the dampness of the district, from April to December
fevers are rife, and the heat and mosquitos are difficult to bear
with equanimity.
(vi.)—DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE NILE FROM THE NORTHERN BOUNDARY
OF THE SUDAN TO GONDOKORO.
SECTION 1.—HALFA TO MEROWE.
The northern boundary of the Sudan (and of the Halfa Province),
though nominally the 22nd parallel of north latitude, begins for
administrative purposes on the Nile at Faras Island, 12 miles north
of the point where that parallel crosses the river and 20 miles north
of Halfa. Opposite Halfa the river is some 900 yards broad, and is
navigable up to the foot of the 2nd cataract, 26½ miles up stream.
Beyond the 2nd cataract the river runs through the broken rocky
country of Batn El Hagar, and is full of rocks and rapids which
require careful steering, even for small boats at high Nile, up to
the Amara rapid. Beyond this the river is fairly easy till the 3rd
or Kajbar Cataract is approached. At this point the Nile again works
its way through broken hilly ground covered with boulders, and from
thence it is plain boating, except for sandbanks, till Merowe.
A road, or rather a fair camel track—total 228 miles from Halfa
to opposite Dongola—runs along the right bank of the river,
taking short cuts across bends (notably for 35 miles across the
desert between Kosha and Abu Sari) all the way, but has naturally
been considerably superseded by the railway. On the left bank there
is also a through camel track, but it keeps further from the river
and is less used than that on the other bank. (For detail, _vide_
I.D.W.O. map No. 1489, sheets Wadi Halfa, Kosha, Dongola, Debba,
and Merowe.)
The railway (3 feet 6 inches gauge) extending from Halfa to Kerma
(203 miles) was started in Ismail Pasha’s time (1877), carried on
nearly to Akasha in 1884-5, almost entirely destroyed by the Dervishes
(1885-96) and rebuilt to provide means of transport for the Dongola
Expedition in 1896. Of necessity it was rapidly and lightly laid,
and it is now (1904) in a bad state of repair. Owing to the great
cost which would be involved in its complete repair, it is to be
abandoned (_see_ Chapter X, Section 1).
(For administrative and economical details of the Halfa and Dongola
Provinces, _vide_ Chapters III and IX.)
N.B.—In the river table, in order to avoid fractions, as a rule
only the nearest mile or kilometre is given. Kilometres, where given,
are in italics: 5 miles = 8 kilometres.
[Illustration: _From Photo by M. Venieris._
THE EASTERN NILE BANK, SOUTH OF HALFA.]
[_Kms._: _Kilometres._
I.: Intermediate.
F.H.C.: From Halfa Camp.]
----------+----------+---------------+----------------+---------------
| Miles. | | |
Place. | _Kms._ | Left Bank. | River and | Right Bank.
+---+------+ | general. |
| I.|F.H.C.| | |
----------+---+------+---------------+----------------+---------------
Ginnis | 2| 115 | |At actual high |The action of
| |_185_ | |Nile the river |Ginnis of
| | | |is navigable |30.12.1885 was
| | | |without |fought on the
| | | |difficulty from |slopes to the
| | | |Kosha to Dongola|west of the
| | | |and above; but a|village. Bank
| | | |fortnight later |mostly low and
| | | |it will be |even. Palm
| | | |impossible to |trees; more
| | | |pass the Kaibar |cultivation.
| | | |and Hannek |
| | | |cataracts, |
| | | |except in small |
| | | |boats |
| | | | |
Amara | 3| 118 |Desert sand |Insignificant |
Rapid | | |comes right |except at low |
| | |down to river |Nile; caused by |
| | | |ridge of broken |
| | | |rocks crossing |
| | | |river bed. |
| | | | |
Arneti | 5| 123 | |Island 3 miles |
| | | |long, lying in |
| | | |curve, which |
| | | |river here makes|
| | | |to the south. |
| | | | |
Sagiet El | 4| 127 |Desert road | |
Abd | | |arrives from | |
| | |N.E. across | |
| | |curve. Here a | |
| | |desert road | |
| | |strikes west to| |
| | |Selima (75 | |
| | |miles) and the | |
| | |Arbain road. | |
| | | | |
Yabri and | 3| 130 | |North end of Sai|
Sai Island| | | |Island. West |
| | | |channel |
| | | |unsurveyed, keep|
| | | |in east channel.|
| | | | |
Koyeka | 5| 135 |Open desert, | |Koyeka
| |_217_ |almost flat for| |district; tomb
| | |many miles | |of Sheikh
| | | | |Idris. Ground
| | | | |gradually rises
| | | | |to E.
| | | | |
Jebel Abud| 5| 140 | |South end of Sai|Abud district.
| | | |Island |Jebel Abud
| | | | |1,598 feet, 4
| | | | |miles inland.
| | | | |
Suarda | 2| 142 | | |Capture here of
| |_228_ | | |Dervish stores
| | | | |by Cavalry
| | | | |after Firket.
| | | | |Rich district.
| | | | |
Gurjan Tau| 14| 156 |Ancient temple.| |
| | | | |
Koya | 8| 164 |Desert road |Channel here |
| |_264_ |leads due south|turns sharp to |
| | |28 miles (no |the east and |
| | |water) to |after 10 miles |
| | |rejoin the Nile|curves S.E. |
| | |at Fakir Benti.| |
| | |Proposed route | |
| | |for railway, | |
| | |1871 | |
| | | | |
Abu Sari | 15| 179 | |Islands become |Desert road
| |_288_ | |more frequent, |from Kosha (36
| | | |and the channel |miles without
| | | |turns again |water,
| | | |definitely to |excellent
| | | |the south |going), reaches
| | | | |river here.
| | | | |
Dalgo | 12| 191 | | |Large and
| |_307_ | | |important
| | | | |district.
| | | | |Railway here
| | | | |rejoins river
| | | | |from Kosha. Hd.
| | | | |Qrs. of the
| | | | |Mahas District
| | | | |
Kaibar | 12| 203 |Banks even and |Thick (450 |Banks low. Palm
Cataract | |_325_ |low, but rocky |yards) low ridge|trees. The
(Kajbar, | | | |of black granite|railway here
Kagbar) | | | |here crosses the|crosses the
| | | |river, 1,200 |river and takes
| | | |yards wide here.|a short cut to
| | | |Difficult even |Kerma.
| | | |for small boats |
| | | |at low Nile; it |
| | | |presents |
| | | |practically no |
| | | |difficulty at |
| | | |high Nile |
| | | | |
| 4| 207 | |Channel bends |Desert road
| | | |sharp to west |cuts across
| | | | |S.W. to Abu
| | | | |Fatma (18
| | | | |miles).
| | | | |
Arduan | 5| 212 | |Arduan Island. |
| | | |Rocky. 9 miles |
| | | |by 4. South |
| | | |channel narrow |
| | | |and unnavigable.|
| | | |Keep to left |
| | | |bank. |
| | | | |
Fakr Benti| 10| 222 |Fakr Benti |River winds |
| | | |through broken, |
| | | |rocky country. |
| | | | |
Jebel | 6| 228 |Jebel Alibersi,| |Jebel Sadek,
Alibersi | | |overlooking | |1,220 feet, 3
and Jebel | | |river | |miles inland.
Sadek | | | | |
| | | | |
Shaban | 1| 229 |Banks low and |Four miles of |Bank broken by
Rapids and| |_368_ |generally even |broken water; |low ridges of
3rd or | | |and cultivated |keep to east |boulder
Hannek | | | |channel except |granite.
Cataract | | | |during highest |
| | | |Nile. 7 to 9 |
| | | |different |
| | | |rapids, the one |
| | | |at the foot |
| | | |being the worst.|
| | | |Not serious at |
| | | |high Nile. Fall,|
| | | |18 feet |
| | | |altogether. The |
| | | |numerous islands|
| | | |are fertile. |
| | | | |
Hannek | 2| 231 |Village. | |
| | | | |
Simit | 2| 233 | |Large island, 3 |
Island | | | |by 1½ miles. |
| | | |Keep to west |
| | | |channel. |
| | | | |
Badin | 8| 241 |Country becomes|Island 6 miles |
Island | | |much flatter |by 1. Keep to |
| | | |east channel. |
| | | | |
Abu Fatma | 2| 243 | | |Rocky and
| |_391_ | | |enclosed. The
| | | | |desert road
| | | | |which left the
| | | | |river at mile
| | | | |207 here
| | | | |rejoins it.
| | | | |British
| | | | |Garrison here
| | | | |1885. Boundary
| | | | |between Halfa
| | | | |and Dongola
| | | | |Provinces.
| | | | |
Kerma | 3| 246 | |The Nile between|Terminus of the
(Rest | |_396_ | |here and Dongola|railway.
house) | | | |becomes |Transport to
| | | |unnavigable for |Dongola is
| | | |steamers from |continued by
| | | |March to June. |land at low
| | | |There is at |Nile, and by
| | | |other times a |steamer at high
| | | |fortnightly |Nile. P.T.O.
| | | |postal steamer |Chief market
| | | |between Kerma |day Weds.
| | | |and Merowe; this|
| | | |runs all the |
| | | |year round from |
| | | |Dongola to |
| | | |Merowe |
| | | | |
Hafir | 2| 248 |British camp | |Village of
(Rest | | |here Summer, | |Kerma.
house) | | |1885. Action | |
| | |here 20.9.1896.| |
| | |Egyptian Army | |
| | |crossed from | |
| | |right to left | |
| | |bank. Market on| |
| | |Saturdays | |
| | | | |
Argo | 4| 252 | |North end of |There are 8 or
Island | |_405_ | |Argo Island, |10 small
(Rest | | | |perhaps the |villages on E.
house) | | | |richest soil in |bank behind
| | | |the Sudan. |Argo Island;
| | | |Thickly |cultivation
| | | |populated and |carried on
| | | |highly |chiefly for the
| | | |cultivated. The |“Demera” crop.
| | | |head man is |
| | | |called the Melik|
| | | |(King) of Argo. |
| | | |The east channel|
| | | |is narrow and |
| | | |navigable for 3 |
| | | |months only. |
| | | |Numerous fertile|
| | | |islands in west |
| | | |channel. Hd. |
| | | |Qrs. of a |
| | | |District |
| | | | |
Zawerat | 19| 271 |Highly |South end of |
| | |cultivated |Argo. |
| | | | |
| | |Chief ferry | |
| | |between W. Bank| |
| | |and S. end of | |
| | |Island, where | |
| | |boats can | |
| | |always be found| |
| | | | |
Dongola | 9| 280 |Better known to|Numerous |
(Rest | |_450_ |the natives as |sandbanks, |
house) | | |El Ordi. Lies 2|sometimes |
| | |miles to the |causing |
| | |north of the |difficulty in |
| | |older pre- |landing. A large|
| | |mahdist town. |island now lies |
| | |Former capital |opposite the |
| | |of the |town. |
| | |Province. | |
| | |British |Between |
| | |garrison there |Dongola and the |
| | |Mar.-July, |foot of the 4th |
| | |1885. 1,000 |cataract the |
| | |inhabitants. |river runs |
| | |Post and |through a plain.|
| | |telegraph |Banks low almost|
| | |office, |throughout; no |
| | |residence of a |obstacles to |
| | |British |navigation |
| | |inspector, and |except sand |
| | |Headquarters of|banks at low and|
| | |District and |half Nile. From |
| | |residence of |Dongola to |
| | |Mamur. The old |Ambugol there is|
| | |forts and |a broad strip of|
| | |earthworks |cultivation on |
| | |built by |one or other |
| | |Mustafa Pasha |bank, rarely on |
| | |Yawar are still|both at the same|
| | |to be seen |time. From |
| | |stretching |Ambugol the |
| | |round the town |cultivated land |
| | | |gradually |
| | |Govt. Mosque, |increases in |
| | |about 60 |extent; both |
| | |permanent shops|banks are |
| | |and 3 or 4 |cultivated, and |
| | |flour mills |the Dar Shaigia |
| | | |is richer and |
| | | |better |
| | | |cultivated than |
| | | |any district |
| | | |south of the |
| | | |Fayum; the |
| | | |vegetation here |
| | | |is quite |
| | | |tropical in |
| | | |character, and |
| | | |all the islands |
| | | |are cultivated. |
| | | |Between Belal |
| | | |and Abu Hamed |
| | | |there is little |
| | | |cultivation, |
| | | |except in the |
| | | |Monasir (El |
| | | |Salamat) |
| | | |country. There |
| | | |are numerous |
| | | |villages on |
| | | |either bank, and|
| | | |the mud houses |
| | | |are all |
| | | |whitewashed and |
| | | |of a better |
| | | |class than those|
| | | |below Dongola, |
| | | |generally a |
| | | |short distance |
| | | |behind the |
| | | |cultivated |
| | | |strip. The |
| | | |weather is |
| | | |variable in |
| | | |October; before |
| | | |reaching Debba |
| | | |the north wind |
| | | |is sometimes |
| | | |lost. Debba to |
| | | |Abu Hamed is a |
| | | |warmer district |
| | | |than the country|
| | | |below and above |
| | | |these places. |
| | | |Prevailing winds|
| | | |from the north; |
| | | |native boats |
| | | |have to be towed|
| | | |between the two |
| | | |places named. |
| | | |The banks |
| | | |themselves are |
| | | |good for towing,|
| | | |but difficulties|
| | | |arise as the |
| | | |river falls. The|
| | | |most serious |
| | | |obstacles are |
| | | |the Sagias, |
| | | |which in some |
| | | |cases are only |
| | | |50 to 100 yards |
| | | |apart. |
| | | | |
Irtidi | 1| 281 |Village. Good |From Dongola to |
| | |road alongside |Debba the river |
| | |river and |is shallow, but |
| | |telegraph line |clear of any |
| | | |serious |
| | | |obstructions all|
| | | |the year round. |
| | | |A few isolated |
| | | |rocks appear at |
| | | |low Nile. |
| | | | |
Khannag | 2| 283 |Village. | |
| | | | |
Sheikh | 1| 284 |Small village, | |The east bank
Sherif | | |¾ of a mile | |is desert sand,
| | |from river. | |and almost
| | |Intervening | |entirely
| | |space highly | |uncultivated.
| | |cultivated. The| |
| | |road from | |
| | |Dongola runs | |
| | |over alluvial | |
| | |soil at some | |
| | |distance from | |
| | |the river, on | |
| | |the outskirts | |
| | |of the | |
| | |cultivation | |
| | | | |
Kajatti | 5| 289 |Name | |
| | |disappearing. | |
| | |Large tomb east| |
| | |of road. Few | |
| | |scattered huts.| |
| | | | |
Ordi El | 1| 290 |Ruined village;|Name |
Monfok | | |good grazing |disappearing. |
| | | | |
Kasr Wad | 1| 291 |A stone ruin on|Islands of |
Nimiri | | |a mound |Lebab, Ab Turki,|
| | |overlooking the|and Derer. Lebab|
| | |river. The |Island is also |
| | |gravel ridge, |spoken of as |
| | |which has |“Geziret |
| | |skirted the |Ashraf,” and was|
| | |road all the |the birthplace |
| | |way, here comes|of the Mahdi. |
| | |down to the | |
| | |river. From the| |
| | |last station | |
| | |the river banks| |
| | |are lined with | |
| | |palms and the | |
| | |ground covered | |
| | |with coarse | |
| | |grass | |
| | | | |
Sahaba | 5| 296 |Rocky ridge | |
| | |widens out; | |
| | |good camping | |
| | |ground; | |
| | |gradually | |
| | |coming under | |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | | | |
Akri | 4| 300 |Stone village. | |
| | | | |
Teit, | 1| 301 |A stone village| |
Taetti | |_483_ |over a mile in | |
| | |length, | |
| | |situated a ¼ of| |
| | |a mile from the| |
| | |river. Between | |
| | |it and the | |
| | |river is a | |
| | |narrow strip of| |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | |The best | |
| | |camping ground | |
| | |is to the south| |
| | |of the village.| |
| | | | |
Saati | 3| 304 |Domed tomb. | |
Beshir | | |Hills within | |
| | |500 yards of | |
| | |river. | |
| | | | |
Urbi | 5| 309 |A large village|Island of same |
| | |built where the|name opposite |
| | |hills leave the|village very |
| | |river, leaving |highly |
| | |a good open |cultivated. |
| | |space for | |
| | |camping | |
| | | | |
Sori | 4| 313 |A long | |
| | |scattered | |
| | |village on the | |
| | |river bank. A | |
| | |strip of | |
| | |cultivation | |
| | |runs along the | |
| | |river; there | |
| | |is, however, a | |
| | |break in it | |
| | |just north of | |
| | |the large tomb.| |
| | |This is a | |
| | |suitable place | |
| | |for a camp. | |
| | | | |
Sali | 4| 317 |The hills, | |Malwad opposite
| | |which had | |south end of
| | |widened out | |Sali.
| | |opposite Sori, | |
| | |here come | |
| | |nearly down to | |
| | |the river, | |
| | |leaving room | |
| | |for a shallow | |
| | |camp. A small | |
| | |scattered | |
| | |village with | |
| | |strip of | |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | |The road from | |
| | |Urbi to this | |
| | |place runs over| |
| | |a sandy plain | |
| | |with scattered | |
| | |mimosa | |
| | | | |
Khandak | 3| 320 |Headquarters of| |
(Rest | | |District, and | |
house) | | |residence of | |
| | |Mamur. Built on| |
| | |a stony mound | |
| | |overlooking the| |
| | |river. Eight | |
| | |and a half | |
| | |hours’ steaming| |
| | |from Dongola | |
| | |(October). The | |
| | |town could be | |
| | |easily defended| |
| | |against a force| |
| | |coming down | |
| | |river or across| |
| | |the desert from| |
| | |the west. | |
| | |Broken mud wall| |
| | |on west and | |
| | |north sides. | |
| | |Old sun-dried | |
| | |brick fort in | |
| | |middle of town | |
| | |on the bank; | |
| | |good storage, | |
| | |accommodation | |
| | |for 200 men | |
| | |(British); | |
| | |commands town | |
| | |and approaches.| |
| | |Also 4 well- | |
| | |built brick | |
| | |houses in the | |
| | |town, capable | |
| | |of housing 300 | |
| | |men. Town of | |
| | |mud huts clean | |
| | |and well built.| |
| | |Market day on | |
| | |Saturday. Four | |
| | |hundred and | |
| | |forty sagias in| |
| | |the district, | |
| | |each | |
| | |representing 4 | |
| | |families. Much | |
| | |wood in the | |
| | |district. Road | |
| | |west into | |
| | |desert to | |
| | |Marghum, etc. | |
| | |Remains of many| |
| | |churches | |
| | | | |
Shebatut, | 1| 321 |About 20 | |
or | | |houses, 400 | |
Shabadud | | |yards from | |
| | |river, at foot | |
| | |of low hills. | |
| | |Cultivation on | |
| | |banks 200 yards| |
| | |wide. Good | |
| | |space between | |
| | |cultivation and| |
| | |village. Best | |
| | |camping ground | |
| | |at south end of| |
| | |village. This | |
| | |spot was | |
| | |extensively | |
| | |used as a | |
| | |camping ground | |
| | |during the Nile| |
| | |Expedition. | |
| | |Light Camel | |
| | |Regiment here, | |
| | |Spring of 1885 | |
| | | | |
Dambo | 2| 323 |Fifteen houses | |
| | |½ mile from the| |
| | |river; no | |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | |Good camping | |
| | |ground east of | |
| | |village; mimosa| |
| | |scrub. Banks | |
| | |shelving; | |
| | |compact | |
| | |village, 40 | |
| | |houses; good | |
| | |landing; | |
| | |numerous palms | |
| | |and acacias | |
| | | | |
Goled |6 2| 329 |Three groups of|Komi Island |East bank
Bahri and | | 331 |huts extending |(cultivated) |gradually
Gibli | | |over 1 mile, ¾ | |becomes more
| | |mile from | |inhabited and
| | |river. Situated| |cultivated.
| | |in broad | |
| | |alluvial plain,| |
| | |running down to| |
| | |river. Monday | |
| | |market; mass of| |
| | |cultivation; 2¾| |
| | |hours’ steam | |
| | |from Khandak; | |
| | |considerable | |
| | |supply of wood,| |
| | |the mimosa | |
| | |trees growing | |
| | |to a great | |
| | |height. On | |
| | |leaving El | |
| | |Goled, the road| |
| | |runs at some | |
| | |distance from | |
| | |the river | |
| | |across a rich | |
| | |alluvial plain | |
| | |(cultivated) | |
| | | | |
Wad Abbas | 3| 334 | |Nani Island |Desert road
| | | | |leads east from
| | | | |Wad Abbas to
| | | | |near Merowe.
| | | | |(76 miles.)
| | | | |
Rumi | 2| 336 |Villages Bahri |Rumi Island 2 |Stone ruins 2
| | |and Gibli |miles on |miles inland to
| | | | |north-east.
| | | | |
Bakri | 4| 340 |On nearing this| |
| | |place the | |
| | |ground becomes | |
| | |more sandy and | |
| | |covered with | |
| | |mimosa scrub. | |
| | |It extends for | |
| | |over 1 mile, | |
| | |amidst palms | |
| | |and | |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | |All supplies | |
| | |plentiful. Good| |
| | |camping ground | |
| | |to south. | |
| | |Saturday | |
| | |market. | |
| | | | |
El | 4| 344 |From Bakri to | |Commencement of
Khelaiun, | | |this spot | |highly
or | | |(which consists| |cultivated
Kheleiwa | | |only of a poor | |Latti district,
| | |hut or two) the| |3 to 4 miles
| | |river banks | |broad, with
| | |have been lined| |numerous
| | |with coarse | |villages,
| | |grass, outside | |_e.g._,
| | |of which is a | |Amentogo, Arab
| | |strip of sand | |Hag, Kodokol,
| | |dunes and | |and Megabda.
| | |mimosa, with | |Quantities of
| | |the road | |date palms and
| | |outside this. | |wood.
| | |Cultivation | |
| | |here takes the | |
| | |place of the | |
| | |grass. Sand | |
| | |dunes still | |
| | |continue. Site | |
| | |of old | |
| | |Christian | |
| | |church. Stones | |
| | |with Greek | |
| | |inscriptions | |
| | |found | |
| | | | |
Kankalab | 1| 345 |Village of 30 |River shallow. |District
| | |tukls, on a |Former site of |narrows down as
| | |high bank |Ghaddar Island |hills approach
| | |overlooking a | |river from
| | |broad strip of | |north-east to
| | |cultivation, | |Ghaddar, etc.
| | |which | |
| | |intervenes | |
| | |between it and | |
| | |the river. Good| |
| | |camping ground | |
| | |1 mile south | |
| | | | |
Old | 6| 351 |Dongola Gharbi.|Baja Island |Old Dongola, on
Dongola, | |_564_ |Well | |the right bank,
locally | | |cultivated, | |is a deserted
pronounced| | |many trees; | |town of ruined
“Tóngălo” | | |shelving banks | |mud houses,
| | |and good | |containing not
| | |landing. A | |more than 30
| | |long, scattered| |able-bodied
| | |village, | |men. The people
| | |separated from | |live in the
| | |the river by a | |island of
| | |broad strip of | |Hamur, a little
| | |cultivation. | |higher up
| | |Between the | |stream, and in
| | |village and the| |the cultivated
| | |desert is a | |districts on
| | |tract covered | |the west bank;
| | |with mimosa and| |much wood in
| | |“dead sea | |surrounding
| | |fruit.” Fairly | |country; 422
| | |well wooded. | |sagias. It is
| | |Wednesday | |built on a
| | |market | |rocky height,
| | | | |overlooking the
| | | | |river and the
| | | | |desert to the
| | | | |east. It is
| | | | |capable of easy
| | | | |defence, and
| | | | |might be held
| | | | |by a very small
| | | | |force. In rear
| | | | |of the town are
| | | | |the ruins of a
| | | | |once strong
| | | | |fort. Severe
| | | | |sand storms are
| | | | |frequent. There
| | | | |is one mosque
| | | | |built over an
| | | | |old Christian
| | | | |church
| | | | |commanding the
| | | | |river, village,
| | | | |and surrounding
| | | | |country.
| | | | |Cliffs, old
| | | | |sandstone,
| | | | |30-70 feet
| | | | |high.
| | | | |
El Ghaba | 4| 355 |A small village|Tangussi Island,|Fertile stretch
| | |with a clump of|very fertile; 8 |opposite
| | |trees. There is|miles long. |Tangussi.
| | |a break in the |Narrow east |
| | |cultivation |channel |
| | |here, and space| |
| | |on the river | |
| | |for good | |
| | |camping ground.| |
| | |Markets | |
| | |Tuesdays and | |
| | |Fridays | |
| | | | |
Abu Gussi | 1| 356 |Was an |Good landing |
| | |important |west bank. On |
| | |village, with |leaving Abu |
| | |road striking |Gussi, the river|
| | |south-west to |changes its |
| | |Omdurman and El|course to nearly|
| | |Fasher. British|east and west. |
| | |Garrison, 1885.|The left bank to|
| | |Now deserted; |Debba is highly |
| | |river eating |cultivated, and |
| | |away banks and |a little |
| | |cultivation |vegetation is |
| | | |visible on the |
| | | |right bank. |
| | | | |
Giref | 4| 360 |The country | |
| | |between Abu | |
| | |Gussi and Debba| |
| | |is hard, sandy | |
| | |going, with low| |
| | |hills on the | |
| | |right hand, and| |
| | |broad patches | |
| | |of cultivation | |
| | |on the left. A | |
| | |desert road to | |
| | |Mahtul, 40 | |
| | |miles, here | |
| | |leaves the | |
| | |river. | |
| | | | |
Karad or | 9| 369 |Just north of |Argi Island |Argi district,
Kurot | | |Debba; 45 | |cultivated.
| | |sagias; steep | |
| | |banks. Good | |
| | |landing for all| |
| | |boats. General | |
| | |Brackenbury’s | |
| | |brigade was | |
| | |quartered here | |
| | |during the | |
| | |spring of 1885 | |
| | | | |
Debba | 2| 371 |Consists of old|River here 750 |Right bank bare
(Rest | |_596_ |field works of |yards wide; |as a rule, with
house) | | |430 yards |course south- |cultivated
| | |perimeter, |east and north- |patches at
| | |enclosing a few|west. Various |intervals.
| | |huts. Was |cultivated |Ruined castle
| | |garrisoned in |islands such as |at Abkor (380).
| | |1884 by 250 |Gira (373), |
| | |Bashi Buzuks. |Tambanarti |
| | |Headquarters of|(382), Ganeti |
| | |the District, |(391, keep to |
| | |and residence |north bank), |
| | |of Mamur. |Jigarnarti |
| | |Wheat, barley, |(397), and |
| | |dura and wood |Husseinarti |
| | |procurable from|(404), dot the |
| | |neighbouring |river hereabouts|
| | |cultivated | |
| | |districts. A | |
| | |direct road to | |
| | |Omdurman starts| |
| | |from here viâ | |
| | |Abu Gerad. The | |
| | |position is | |
| | |excellent, the | |
| | |fort being | |
| | |surrounded on | |
| | |the south by an| |
| | |open sandy | |
| | |plain, covered | |
| | |by slight bush,| |
| | |and abutting on| |
| | |the river on | |
| | |the north, | |
| | |where there is | |
| | |a good landing | |
| | |place, steamers| |
| | |and heavily | |
| | |laden boats | |
| | |being able to | |
| | |come close | |
| | |alongside. | |
| | |Cultivation | |
| | |along the banks| |
| | |of the river | |
| | |recommences | |
| | |about a mile | |
| | |distant, east | |
| | |and west of the| |
| | |fort. The Wadi | |
| | |Melh, a dry | |
| | |shallow valley,| |
| | |debouches on to| |
| | |the plain, | |
| | |where its | |
| | |course is lost | |
| | |in the sand. By| |
| | |following up | |
| | |the course of | |
| | |this valley, | |
| | |the old and now| |
| | |little used | |
| | |Kordofan | |
| | |caravan road is| |
| | |joined, leading| |
| | |to Bir Mahtul | |
| | |and El Obeid. A| |
| | |commercial | |
| | |centre | |
| | |(formerly) for | |
| | |ivory and gum | |
| | |from, and for | |
| | |European | |
| | |merchandise for| |
| | |Kordofan and | |
| | |Darfur. | |
| | |Geological | |
| | |formation, | |
| | |Nubian | |
| | |sandstone, | |
| | |acted on by | |
| | |heat, and | |
| | |metamorphosed | |
| | |on the surface.| |
| | |Petrified wood | |
| | |is found in | |
| | |great | |
| | |quantities | |
| | | | |
Abu Dom | 16| 387 |The road passes|River channel |East bank
| |_623_ |over sand and |now curves, and |becomes more
| | |some slight |runs south-west |cultivated.
| | |sandhills while|and north-east. |Districts of
| | |passing Abu |Easy navigation |Affat, Abseit,
| | |Dom. An |to foot of 4th |Nizezi, Neriko
| | |important |Cataract. |and Difar. Rest
| | |village of | |house at Affat.
| | |about 300 men; | |
| | |the houses are | |
| | |scattered along| |
| | |the edge of the| |
| | |sand; there are| |
| | |30 water-wheels| |
| | |and a few | |
| | |palms. | |
| | |Cultivation: | |
| | |dura, wheat, | |
| | |Indian corn. | |
| | |Market on | |
| | |Wednesdays. The| |
| | |most southerly | |
| | |point on the | |
| | |river before | |
| | |reaching | |
| | |Berber. A more | |
| | |northerly | |
| | |course is then | |
| | |taken. The left| |
| | |bank continues | |
| | |most rich in | |
| | |cultivation; | |
| | |wood abounds. | |
| | |Next districts | |
| | |in order: Abu | |
| | |Kleiwat, Jura | |
| | |(with ruins of | |
| | |Coptic church, | |
| | |road makes | |
| | |short cut to | |
| | |east), | |
| | |Artimoga, | |
| | |Fakrin Koti, | |
| | |Mansur Koti | |
| | | | |
Hetani or | 16| 403 |Rocky Hill | |
Tani | | |Jebel Taraka 1 | |
| | |mile to south; | |
| | |outlying spurs | |
| | |from J. El Nob | |
| | |5 miles to | |
| | |south. Old | |
| | |castle (Galat | |
| | |Hatani) 1 mile | |
| | |on, in ruins, | |
| | |with rock well.| |
| | |Narrow road, | |
| | |camels single | |
| | |file, was held | |
| | |by Emir Heddai | |
| | |against Mudir | |
| | |of Dongola, in | |
| | |1884 | |
| | | | |
— | 6| 409 |Camp of General| |Kori and Takar
| | |Dormer’s | |districts. Bank
| | |Brigade, 1885. | |fairly
| | |Bush gets | |cultivated.
| | |thinner, road | |Districts El
| | |descends to— | |Bar, El Barsa,
| | | | |Karafab (420).
| | | | |
Ambugol | 4| 413 |Large village, | |El Arag,
| |_665_ |standing ½ mile| |Hajeir, Magal,
| | |back. Open | |Bakhit, with
| | |country around.| |hill and ruins
| | |Branch road to | |(431). Low
| | |Korti. Metemma | |rocky hills in
| | |road starts | |distance.
| | |from here. | |
| | |Friday market. | |
| | |The river bank | |
| | |from here to | |
| | |Merowe is well | |
| | |wooded | |
| | |throughout, and| |
| | |the road during| |
| | |the whole | |
| | |distance runs | |
| | |over a sandy | |
| | |plain sparsely | |
| | |covered with | |
| | |mimosa scrub | |
| | | | |
Gowari | 2| 415 |A compact | |
| | |village of many| |
| | |houses. The | |
| | |road from | |
| | |Ambugol runs | |
| | |over an | |
| | |alluvial plain | |
| | |sparsely | |
| | |covered with | |
| | |mimosa scrub. | |
| | |No cultivation | |
| | |along the river| |
| | |banks, and the | |
| | |ground is | |
| | |everywhere | |
| | |favourable for | |
| | |camping. A few | |
| | |palms to the | |
| | |south of the | |
| | |village. | |
| | | | |
Korti[24] | 1| 416 |Two villages: | |
(Rest | |_670_ |one on the | |
house) | | |river, and one | |
| | |1 mile inland. | |
| | |Palms, mimosa, | |
| | |and cultivation| |
| | |along the | |
| | |river. A low | |
| | |sand ridge runs| |
| | |parallel to the| |
| | |river, at a | |
| | |distance of 1 | |
| | |mile from it. | |
| | |Sunday market. | |
| | |Steep banks, 15| |
| | |feet high. | |
| | |Advanced base | |
| | |of Nile | |
| | |Expedition, | |
| | |1884-5. River | |
| | |banks now | |
| | |mostly | |
| | |cultivated, | |
| | |including thick| |
| | |mimosa scrub in| |
| | |parts. Road to | |
| | |Jakdul and | |
| | |Metemma starts | |
| | |from here. The | |
| | |W. Mogaddam | |
| | |joins the Nile | |
| | |here. | |
| | |Headquarters of| |
| | |Mamuria. | |
| | | | |
Ghoreiba | 3| 419 |Fifty well- | |
| | |built houses. | |
| | |No cultivation | |
| | |between here | |
| | |and El Basa, 3 | |
| | |miles on. | |
| | |Passing Usli | |
| | |(426) arrive | |
| | |at— | |
| | | | |
Gureir | 12| 431 |Scattered | |
| | |village, | |
| | |extending for | |
| | |nearly 8 miles.| |
| | |River banks | |
| | |deeply | |
| | |cultivated | |
| | |almost its | |
| | |entire length. | |
| | |Good camping | |
| | |grounds are to | |
| | |be found on the| |
| | |water’s edge | |
| | |just before the| |
| | |village is | |
| | |entered from | |
| | |the south, and | |
| | |at its northern| |
| | |extremity, and | |
| | |at a point 6 | |
| | |miles from its | |
| | |southern end. | |
| | |The cultivation| |
| | |lies on the low| |
| | |ground formed | |
| | |by mud deposits| |
| | |at the salient | |
| | |angles of the | |
| | |river, the | |
| | |village being | |
| | |situated on the| |
| | |original bank; | |
| | |the water is | |
| | |consequently | |
| | |only accessible| |
| | |at the re- | |
| | |entrant angles.| |
| | |Saturday | |
| | |market. | |
| | | | |
Hannek or | 1| 432 |Districts of |Abu Rannat |Large village
Korti | | |Korei, Arak, |Island (436) 3 |of mud huts.
district | | |and Tangassi |miles long |Much wood of
| | | | |considerable
| | | | |size. Then come
| | | | |Magashi, El
| | | | |Zoma, Tulbenab,
| | | | |and Kajabi.
| | | | |
Tangassi | 9| 441 |A large | |
| |_710_ |scattered | |
| | |village with | |
| | |deep | |
| | |cultivation in | |
| | |a salient angle| |
| | |of the river. | |
| | |Tuesday market,| |
| | |the most | |
| | |important in | |
| | |province and | |
| | |well known | |
| | |throughout the | |
| | |Sudan. Police | |
| | |post. | |
| | | | |
El Debeiba| 2| 443 |Small village | |Desert
| | |with wide strip| |sandstone rock
| | |cultivation | |comes down to
| | | | |the right bank,
| | | | |forming cliffs
| | | | |40 to 60 feet
| | | | |high, extending
| | | | |for about 2½
| | | | |miles along the
| | | | |bank.
| | | | |
Abu Dom | 3| 446 |A scattered | |
Sanam | | |village at the | |
(site of | | |confluence of | |
ancient | | |the Khor Abu | |
town of | | |Dom with the | |
Napata) | | |Nile. The | |
| | |cultivation | |
| | |runs a | |
| | |considerable | |
| | |distance inland| |
| | |along the Khor,| |
| | |which delivers | |
| | |a considerable | |
| | |stream during | |
| | |the rainy | |
| | |season. | |
| | |Surrounded by | |
| | |dense | |
| | |vegetation and | |
| | |trees. A road | |
| | |from here joins| |
| | |the Dugiyet- | |
| | |Berber road. | |
| | |Supplies of all| |
| | |kinds | |
| | |plentiful. | |
| | | | |
Merowe | 1| 447 |Merowe. | |Old village of
(capital) | |_719_ |Headquarters of| |Merowe.
| | |province and | |Advanced post
| | |residence of | |during summer
| | |the Governor. | |of 1885, under
| | |It is | |Commander
| | |practically on | |Julian Baker,
| | |the site of the| |R.N.
| | |1896 camp of | |
| | |Abu Dom Sanam. | |Will be
| | |The town has | |terminus of the
| | |yet to be | |branch line
| | |built. At | |from Abu Hamed.
| | |present it only| |From Affat to
| | |consists of | |Merowe boats
| | |about 30 | |will have to be
| | |houses, | |towed by tugs,
| | |including | |as they are
| | |offices, | |unable to
| | |telegraph, etc.| |navigate this
| | | | |bit of river
| | |Desert road to | |against wind
| | |S.E. to Jakdul | |and stream.
----------+---+------+---------------+----------------+---------------
From Kosha onwards both the river banks become more and more
cultivated, and are divided into districts varying from 1 to 4 or 5
miles in length, each containing one or more villages: gaps between
districts in uncultivated parts.
All these districts consist of a greater or lesser amount of
cultivated or uncultivated ground, together with a varying number
of palm trees and huts. Each district is under a headman, and groups
of them form the various sub-Districts, each under a Police Officer,
a varying number of which go to make up a District; and out of these
is formed the Province.
Only the more important sub-Districts will be mentioned in the
River Itinerary.
[_Kms._: _Kilometres._
I.: Intermediate.
F.H.C.: From Halfa Camp.]
----------+----------+---------------+----------------+---------------
| Miles. | | |
Place. | _Kms._ | Left (West) | River and | Right (East)
+---+------+ Bank. | general. | Bank.
| I.|F.H.C.| | |
----------+---+------+---------------+----------------+---------------
Faras | | 20 |Bare, except |Northern point |Cultivated in
Island | | _32_ |for a few huts |of the Sudan |general. Palm
| | |and patches of |Administration |trees. Sandy.
| | |cultivation. |on river. River |Banks 20 feet
| | |Sandy and |some 800 yards |at low Nile, 4
| | |rocky, sloping |in width, |feet at high.
| | |to the river |current 1½ miles|
| | | |per hour at low |
| | | |Nile to 3 miles |
| | | |per hour at high|
| | | |Nile |
| | | | |
Jebel | 12| 8 | |The 22nd |Jebel Sahaba,
Sahaba | | | |parallel crosses|hill on R.
| | | |the river at |bank.
| | | |this point |
| | | | |
Dabarosa | 5| 3 | |Fertile island. |
| | | | |
Halfa | 1½| 1½ | |Difficult |A commercial
| | | |approach to |town of about
| | | |right bank at |2,500
| | | |low Nile. |inhabitants, of
| | | |Numerous |which about 200
| | | |sandbanks |are Greeks.
| | | |appear, varying |(_See_ Chapter
| | | |from year to |III, page 85.)
| | | |year on this |Landing place
| | | |stretch |for goods and
| | | | |passengers.
| | | | |Headquarters of
| | | | |Halfa Province.
| | | | |Terminus of
| | | | |S.G.R.
| | | | |
Halfa Camp| 1½| 0 |Nearly opposite|The best |Headquarters of
(802 miles| | |Halfa is the |description of |the Sudan
by river | | |Quarantine |the river |Railway.
from | | |Camp, on a |between the 2nd |Landing place
Cairo) | | |sandy slope |and 3rd |close to
| | | |cataracts |officers’ mess.
| | | |(including both)|Bank 10 to 30
| | | |is by Commander |feet above
| | | |Hammill, R.N., |river (226
| | | |whose report |miles from
| | | |(1884) is to be |Shellal).
| | | |found in H.S.C.,|
| | | |Vol. I., |
| | | |Appendix O |
| | | | |
Khor Musa | 5| 5 |The bank |Some additional |Fort now in
| | |generally gets |matter, with |ruins. Action
| | |more rocky and |large-scale (but|v. Dervishes
| | |broken |inaccurate) map |1888. Bank
| | | |of the different|broken and
| | | |rapids, is given|rocky. Huge
| | | |in O.G.H., pp. |boulders.
| | | |9-25 |
| | | | |
Foot of | 1½| 6½ | |The cataract, 8½|
2nd | |_10_½ | |miles in length,|
cataract | | | |is impassable |
(Shellal | | | |for steamers and|
el Amka) | | | |nearly so for |
| | | |any but small |
| | | |boats at low |
| | | |Nile, and only |
| | | |navigable with |
| | | |difficulty at |
| | | |high Nile. At |
| | | |high Nile it is |
| | | |a rumbling mass |
| | | |of rapids, |
| | | |whilst at low |
| | | |Nile it is a |
| | | |broken expanse |
| | | |of black rock, |
| | | |with shallow |
| | | |channels finding|
| | | |their way |
| | | |between. The |
| | | |Batn El Hagar |
| | | |(Belly of rocks)|
| | | |is now entered. |
| | | |_See_ Hammill’s |
| | | |report for |
| | | |detail. |
| | | | |
Abu Sir | ½| 7 |High cliff. |The banks of the|
| | |Fine view of |river between |
| | |cataract |this point and |
| | | |Ginnis, where |
| | | |the Batn El |
| | | |Hagar is |
| | | |quitted, differ |
| | | |remarkably in |
| | | |their |
| | | |characteristics.|
| | | |The left or |
| | | |western bank |
| | | |usually presents|
| | | |a steep slope of|
| | | |loose golden |
| | | |sand, driven by |
| | | |the prevailing |
| | | |winds from the |
| | | |great Libyan |
| | | |Desert, varied |
| | | |by black crags |
| | | |jutting out of |
| | | |it and low rocky|
| | | |hills, while the|
| | | |right or eastern|
| | | |bank is |
| | | |generally rocky,|
| | | |free from sand, |
| | | |and in some |
| | | |places almost |
| | | |precipitous. |
| | | | |
Matuka | 3| 10 |Ancient | |
| | _16_ |Egyptian | |
| | |fortress of | |
| | |Matuka (XIIth | |
| | |Dynasty). Small| |
| | |temple to S.E. | |
| | |(_see_ Murray, | |
| | |page 982). | |
| | | | |
Head of | 3| 13 | |Between the head|
2nd | | _21_ | |of the 2nd |
cataract | | | |cataract and the|
| | | |foot of the |
| | | |Semna Rapid the |
| | | |Nile runs |
| | | |through a |
| | | |sterile and |
| | | |uninviting |
| | | |country, the |
| | | |eastern side |
| | | |covered with |
| | | |masses of black |
| | | |rocks, the |
| | | |western with |
| | | |mountains of |
| | | |yellow sand. The|
| | | |navigation is |
| | | |described as |
| | | |“difficult, |
| | | |dangerous, and |
| | | |tedious.” |
| | | | |
Gemai | 2| 15 | | |Used in 1884-5
| | | | |as head of
| | | | |railway,
| | | | |portage for
| | | | |boats, &c.
| | | | |
Murshid | 10| 25 | | |
| | | | |
Sarras | 8| 33 | | |Advanced post
| | _53_ | | |and fort of the
| | | | |Frontier force
| | | | |1886 to 1896.
| | | | |
Ruin | 1| 34 |Ancient | |Railway here
| | |Egyptian fort | |leaves the
| | | | |river bank and
| | | | |enters the
| | | | |rocky desert to
| | | | |the East.
| | | | |
Melik | 6| 40 | |Melik Island; |
| | _64_ | |ancient temple |
| | | |of Sikator I. |
| | | | |
Semna | 3| 43 |Semna Temple on|Here a narrow |Kumna Temple on
Rapid | | |height about |ridge of gneiss |height about
| | |300 feet above |forms an awkward|400 feet above
| | |river. Jebel |barrier. At high|river.
| | |Barga just |Nile the river |
| | |behind |sweeps over it |
| | | |without |
| | | |perceptible |
| | | |diminution of |
| | | |width (430 |
| | | |yards), but at |
| | | |low Nile the |
| | | |rocks are bare |
| | | |save for a |
| | | |narrow channel, |
| | | |45 yards broad |
| | | |and 65 feet |
| | | |deep, formed by |
| | | |erosion. |
| | | |(Gregory.) |
| | | | |
Atiri | 7| 50 | |The obstructions|
Rapid | | _80_ | |to navigation |
| | | |consist of 2 |
| | | |“gates” about 1½|
| | | |miles apart; of |
| | | |these the lower |
| | | |gate presents no|
| | | |difficulty. It |
| | | |is about 300 |
| | | |yards long, and |
| | | |steamers are |
| | | |able to steam up|
| | | |through it at |
| | | |“half Nile” |
| | | |without |
| | | |unloading. The |
| | | |upper “gate” is |
| | | |more troublesome|
| | | |to pass, the |
| | | |channel being |
| | | |obstructed by a |
| | | |great barrier of|
| | | |rocks which |
| | | |stretch quite |
| | | |200 yards across|
| | | |the river, |
| | | |leaving at “low |
| | | |Nile” only a |
| | | |narrow gap |
| | | |towards the |
| | | |western bank. At|
| | | |“high Nile” |
| | | |another channel |
| | | |exists near the |
| | | |opposite bank. |
| | | |Not serious. |
| | | | |
Ambugol | 7| 57 | |One mile long; |
Rapid | | | |channel near |
| | | |right bank. Fall|
| | | |3 feet. Not |
| | | |difficult. |
| | | | |
Tanjur | 15| 72 |Bank low and |Extends for |Bank high and
Rapid | |_116_ |even, desert |about 3 miles. |precipitous,
| | |sand up to |Awkward cross |much broken up.
| | |river |currents at |
| | | |foot. Western |
| | | |channel best. |
| | | |“Gates” at |
| | | |either end |
| | | |straight and |
| | | |clear, but |
| | | |considerable |
| | | |rush of water. |
| | | |Difficult rapid |
| | | |altogether |
| | | | |
Jebel | 2| 74 | | |Road passes to
Alimula | | | | |west of J.
| | | | |Alimula and by
| | | | |a precipitous
| | | | |track cutting
| | | | |off bend to
| | | | |Sonki.
| | | | |
Sonki | 3| 77 | | |
| | | | |
Omka | 2| 79 |Bank low and |Slight rapid, |Range of hills
| | |fairly level |not serious |recedes from
| | | | |river bank low
| | | | |and even.
| | | | |
Hammam | 5| 84 |Hot spring | |
| |_135_ |(sulphur) for | |
| | |rheumatism, | |
| | |etc. | |
| | | | |
Akasha | 1| 85 | |Easy rapid. |At the village
| |_137_ | |Ridge of rocks |of this name
| | | |extends across |the railway
| | | |river. Western |touches the
| | | |channel best |river for the
| | | | |first time
| | | | |since Sarras.
| | | | |Macdonald’s
| | | | |advanced
| | | | |brigade
| | | | |occupied this,
| | | | |April, 1896.
| | | | |Headquarters of
| | | | |District and
| | | | |residence of
| | | | |Mamur.
| | | | |
Kulba | 8| 93 |Late boundary |River begins to |
| |_150_ |(1903) between |open out. |
| | |Halfa District | |
| | |and Dongola | |
| | |Province | |
| | | | |
Dal | 5| 98 |Bank low and |Broken water |Bank higher
Cataract | |_158_ |even. Village |about 4 miles, |than opposite
| | |here and on |numerous islands|one, evenly
| | |adjoining |with high |undulating.
| | |islands. On one|cliffs, |Becomes
| | |island is a |difficult rapid,|gradually
| | |Mameluke fort, |careful pilotage|cultivated.
| | |whence good |required—low |Jebel Dal, 4
| | |view obtainable|ridges and rocks|miles to the
| | | |well covered at |east, tall
| | | |high Nile. |conical hill,
| | | |Channel by right|1,973 feet.
| | | |bank till half- |
| | | |way up, and then|
| | | |cross to left. |
| | | |Total width of |
| | | |river about |
| | | |1,500 yards. |
| | | |Fall of 5 feet |
| | | | |
Sarkamatto| 6| 104 |Desert road |The river from |Cultivated
| |_167_ |here leaves |here to Amara, |tract,
| | |river for a |16 miles on, is |dominated in
| | |short cut of 19|in parts full of|its upper
| | |miles S.W., to |small islands, |portion by
| | |Sakiet El Abd |but offers no |Jebel Firket,
| | | |difficulty |1,880 feet. The
| | | | |action of
| | | | |6.7.1896 took
| | | | |place to the
| | | | |south of this
| | | | |hill, and a
| | | | |mile north of
| | | | |Firket village.
| | | | |The railway,
| | | | |after short cut
| | | | |from Akasha,
| | | | |here comes
| | | | |close to the
| | | | |river, and
| | | | |follows it
| | | | |through Mograka
| | | | |to Kosha, where
| | | | |it turns sharp
| | | | |to the south,
| | | | |following for
| | | | |the first 12
| | | | |miles the
| | | | |desert road to
| | | | |Abu Sari. Seven
| | | | |miles to the
| | | | |east lies Jebel
| | | | |Idris, 1,720
| | | | |feet, and 6
| | | | |miles E.S.E. of
| | | | |the latter
| | | | |rises the mass
| | | | |of Jebel Hamra,
| | | | |2,368 feet.
| | | | |
Jebel | 1| 105 | | |
Firket | | | | |
| | | | |
Firket | 2| 107 |3 miles inland | |Action here
Village | |_172_ |is a hill, | |between E.A.
| | |1,490 feet, | |and Dervishes:
| | |name doubtful | |7.6.96.
| | | | |
Sarghun | 4| 111 | |Island near east|
| | | |bank. |
| | | | |
Kosha | 2| 113 |Road leaves |The channel here|Headquarters of
| |_182_ |river here for |turns in a wide |District and
| | |Selima Oasis |curve to the |residence of
| | | |west. Native |Mamur.
| | | |boats take 8-10 |
| | | |days from here |
| | | |to Dulgo at high|
| | | |Nile with fair |
| | | |wind. |
----------+---+------+---------------+----------------+---------------
RECAPITULATORY TABLE OF DISTANCES.
------------------------+------------------+-------------------
| Intermediate. | From Halfa.
+------+-----------+------+------------
|Miles.|Kilometres.|Miles.|Kilometres.
------------------------+------+-----------+------+------------
Faras Island | — | — | 20 | 32
| | | |
Halfa Camp | 20 | 32 | — | —
| | | |
Foot of 2nd Cataract | 6½ | 10½ | 6½ | 10½
| | | |
Head of „ „ | 6½ | 10½ | 13 | 21
| | | |
Akasha | 72 | 116 | 85 | 137
| | | |
Kosha | 28 | 45 | 113 | 182
| | | |
Dalgo | 78 | 125 | 191 | 307
| | | |
Kaibar Cataract | 12 | 19 | 203 | 325
| | | |
Third (Hannek) Cataract | 26 | 42 | 229 | 368
| | | |
Dongola | 51 | 82 | 280 | 450
| | | |
Debba | 91 | 146 | 371 | 596
| | | |
Korti | 45 | 72 | 416 | 668
| | | |
Merowe | 31 | 50 | 447 | 719
------------------------+------+-----------+------+------------
SECTION 2.—MEROWE TO KHARTOUM.
SUB-SECTION (A). MEROWE TO ABU HAMED.
The distinguishing feature of the river between Merowe and Abu Hamed
is the difficulty of navigation, and also of communications along
either bank. A variety of rapids, mostly impassable except at high
Nile, form the 4th Cataract, which extends practically from Belal
to Shirri, a distance of about 67 miles, whilst there are little or
no cultivation or supplies, except in patches on either bank. This
(Rapids) portion of the river was ascended in whale boats by most
of the River Column in 1885, and the right bank was traversed
by General Hunter’s flying column in 1897, when proceeding to
attack Abu Hamed. Otherwise it is not now generally in use for
communications,[25] owing to these obvious difficulties. A telegraph
line now connects Merowe with Abu Hamed.
[The reader who may wish for further detail than that given below
is referred to “N.O.” 1st and 2nd editions (1897 and 1898),
which give some additional reports by slightly different routes.]
REMARKS ON THE SHAIGIA CATARACTS.
(_Lieut. Poore, R.N., October_, 1884.)
The prevailing winds are north-easterly and boats can rarely use
their sails, excepting occasionally at high Nile when a southerly
wind may blow for a few days.
Boats leaving Ambugol for Abu Hamed invariably have to tow the
whole way.
The pilots state the average passage of a nugger[26] from Merowe to
Abu Hamed as being from 35 to 40 days, but they appear to perform
the journey in parties of about 10 boats, in order to supply their
own hauling labour, thus considerably increasing the time of passage.
Nuggers generally leave Debba on the trip to Abu Hamed 20 days
before high Nile and try to time their arrival at Abu Hamed as soon
as possible after the river begins to fall.
Steamers should not leave Merowe for Abu Hamed later than 10 days
after high Nile.
Nuggers should not leave Merowe for Abu Hamed later than 15 days
after high Nile.
There are men in the village of Bela at the foot of the Gerendid
Cataract and in a few of the villages near Merowe who are acquainted
with the different cataracts, but would seem to be more useful as
guides to point out the different channels than as pilots, their
knowledge of boats or nuggers seeming very limited.
It would be advisable to take pilots for the cataracts from the rais
of nuggers.
Supplies between the cataract of Gerendid and Abu Hamed are very
scanty, a few scattered patches of date palms, wheat and dura
constituting all cultivation.
Between the different cataracts the banks appear to be rocky and
badly adapted for towing. The stream is swift with frequent sharp
bends and the river studded with rocks and small islands.
Confusion may arise from the custom of the pilots and natives in
continuing the terms east and west as regards the river banks after
the river has turned to the northward at Ambugol; the right bank
being invariably termed the east and _vice versâ_ without reference
to the direction of the river. Thus, between Ambugol and Abu Hamed,
a wind which is termed by the pilots south-westerly is in reality
north-easterly.
REPORT ON PASSAGE OF 4TH CATARACT BY NUGGERS AND GAYASSAS.
(_Captain W. Doran, August_, 1897.)
The following is a report on the river between Kassingar and
Amari, together with remarks on points that have come under my
observation:—
Nuggers with a strong favourable wind can get up to Meshra El Abiad,
but there is a strong current below Meshra El Abiad for about 3 or 4
miles, and the track (on the right bank) is rocky, or much obstructed
by sunt trees.
Meshra El Abiad presents no great difficulty. About 50 men will pull
a nugger of 200 ardebs through in half an hour.
For about 3 miles after leaving Meshra El Abiad, the channel on
the right bank presents no difficulty, though the stream is strong,
and the banks steep and covered with sunt bushes, which at high Nile
will impede towing.
About 5 miles from Meshra El Abiad the banks become rocky, and
rapids are met with; the water being very bad, and rocks numerous. I
crossed this rapid, which is about a mile in length, and extends
to just below the village of Shebabik, in half a gale. Otherwise,
I should think the passage would be difficult, as the rocks on the
right bank are very steep, and without a strong wind portage would
probably be necessary. From Shebabik village, by following a channel
on the right bank past the village of Abu Haraz, good water is met
with for about 6 miles, till the cataract of Halfaya is reached.
From Halfaya to the village of Amari, a distance of about 2 miles,
the river is very difficult, tortuous, and rocky, towing being
necessary throughout.
From Amari, I am informed, the river is not difficult.
It must be understood that these remarks refer to the river as
I found it. Any rise or fall may make difficult places easy, and
_vice versâ_.
I would venture to make the following suggestions for future river
convoys:—
1. That only boats of 150 ardebs should be sent up at present. Large
boats are unwieldy, cause great delay, break ropes, and run the risk
of losing stores. For example, one of my boats of 300 ardebs took
4 hours to get up a place which boats of 150 ardebs crossed in an
hour. It broke two ropes, and was nearly wrecked on several occasions,
besides being always a source of delay to the rest of the convoy. The
exertion caused to the men in hauling these heavy boats is very great,
much greater than that of hauling two boats of half the capacity.
2. Each convoy should consist of not more than 20 boats under a
British officer, and should have with it two companies (200 men)
of an Egyptian battalion to haul the boats over the cataracts, and
in the ordinary stream when the wind is unfavourable. If the water
proves easy beyond this place, Amari, these men might return to
Merowe from here by return convoy. Men who are good swimmers should
be selected, if possible, and, as the work entails great exertion
on the men—most of them having to stand work in the water all
day—the companies should be relieved after one or two trips.
Unless considered necessary for safety, these men should not bring
arms or ammunition with them, except just sufficient for a small
guard, as these have to be portaged across bad places, causing delay.
The large cooking pot, “kazan,” is not suitable for these
occasions, as men are often separated on islands from the rest of
the convoy at night time, and are unable to get their proper food
after a hard day’s work. Something of the Flanders kettle type
would be better.
3. Each convoy should be provided with four strong hemp ropes of at
least 200 fathoms each, in addition to the smaller ropes carried by
each boat. These latter should be inspected before the convoy starts.
A small boat of about 50 ardebs would also be most useful to enable
the officer in charge of the convoy to go up and down his convoy,
and also to assist in the portage of stores from the nearer boats
when they get stuck in shallow places or rocks.
REPORT ON THE PASSAGE OF GUNBOATS FROM MEROWE TO ABU HAMED, 9TH
TO 29TH AUGUST, 1897 (_vide_ 1489, MEROWE AND ABU HAMED SHEETS.)[27]
(_Commander Colin Keppel, R.N._)
To Kasinjar on right bank, river broad, navigation simple. No
obstacles. Thence to Kenisha, navigation easy.
At Meshra El Abiad there is a difficult, narrow passage between
two rocky islands, with a very sharp turn. Water very rapid, which
continues until Um Deras Island is reached.
N.B.—The cataract marked on the official map as El Dermi was not
recognisable at this time of the year.
Um Deras Island is practically at the foot of what is termed the Gab
El Abd, or 4th Cataract, it was from thence that a course by the left
bank was followed by the river column in 1884-85. This channel was
found to be so difficult and dangerous at high Nile, it was decided
to examine the channel by the right bank. This was found to be more
easily navigable for steamers at this time of the year. It should,
however, be noted that this channel, though navigable for steamers
at high Nile, and undoubtedly the only channel to be followed with
safety at that time, would be impassable at any other time of the
year. As at low Nile, many parts of it are dry.
From Um Deras Island to the point marked Khor Abu Herejil (north bank)
(A),[27] no great difficulties are encountered.
At this point all guns, ammunition stores, and heavy gear of every
description were taken out of the steamers and portaged to the camp
of El Bana, a distance of about 2 miles.
The following arrangements were then made for passing the steamers
over this cataract:—
A wire hawser was fastened round the ship. Two hawsers were then
led out of the steamer, one for hauling, and other to serve as a guy
to steady her, and to prevent her bow from being taken round by the
force of water.
About 600 yards up-stream, at the junction of a smaller channel (B),
these hawsers were slipped, and the steamer reached the southernmost
point of the next bend (C).
From this point to a point 1,100 yards up-stream (D) the greatest
difficulties were met with, owing to the necessity of passing ropes
on to the island 300 yards up-stream (E). As many men as could swim
had to cross over to this island. The steamer was then hauled up to
the southern end of the island.
The rope had now to be passed from the island (E) to point (D).
At point (D) the haulage became very difficult, as the river thence,
for 600 yards, to point (G), in mid-stream, is intersected by isolated
rocks, upon which it was necessary to have groups of men in order
to pass the rope from one rock to another. From point (G) the hawser
was then led to the mainland. Guy ropes were used throughout.
After passing the rock marked (G) powerful steamers, of the
“Zafir” class, were able to steam, without further haulage, to
El Bana, but otherwise it was necessary to use ropes for hauling up
to El Bana.
On leaving El Bana, the channel on the right bank was followed,
and though the water was rapid in places, rushing between numerous
small islands, no great difficulty was encountered until arrival at
the foot of the Geridu (Geriddo) Rapids (3¼ miles up). Here it was
necessary to tie up to the bank in order that each steamer might
pass over the rapid separately.
It will be seen that the channel takes a very sharp turn here (between
points A and B); a large volume of water rushes with considerable
force between an island (440 yards long, with a rock at the west end)
and the south bank (a promontory on the south bank), where a rope
was attached to a rock, and then gradually eased off to let the bow
go round.
From Geridu to Hosh El Geruf the channel is devoid of obstacles.
The channel taken was by the right, until El Shwadiyat was reached,
whence it crosses to the left bank and continues thus as far as
Rakabat El Gamal; here the river becomes a maze of small islands. The
channel continues by the left (?) bank of Dulka Island (known by the
natives as Dirbi), smaller islands being left on the starboard side.
The current thence became very strong, and continued so until Kirbekan
Rapids was reached.
At the bottom of these rapids the steamers were stopped, but the
cataract, after examination, having been considered passable without
haulage, each steamer went over it separately, in order to prevent
any risk of one hampering another.
The main stream was then followed as far as Uss Rapids; here the
volume of water was very great. From the top of Uss Rapids the channel
followed was by the left bank as far as Sherari Island, whence it
passes by the right bank of that island, and thence between it and
Shirri Island to the right bank of the river.
The river now becomes very broad, and navigation is practicable
on either bank from Salamat to Hebi. From Hebi to Abu Selem the
channel is by the left bank. In Huella Rapids there was a strong
rush of water.
The river now becomes much intersected by small islands, and, though
navigation is not very difficult, skilful pilotage is necessary.
Wood was found in the following places:—
El Bana. Salamat.
Hosh El Geruf. Abu Selem.
Uss village. Left bank, just below Mograt Island.
ITINERARY (LEFT BANK) FROM ABU DOM SANAM TO OPPOSITE HEBI (OR HEBBA)
(_Major Slade, R.A., February_, 1885.)
--------------+---------------------+--------------------------------
| Distance in miles. |
Names of +-------------+-------+
Places. | | Total | Description.
|Intermediate.| from |
| |Merowe.|
--------------+-------------+-------+--------------------------------
El Dueim | 3 | 3 |A small scattered village; a
| | |large white-domed tomb makes it
| | |visible for some distance.
| | |
Sagag | 1 | 4 |A compact hamlet, mostly of
| | |straw huts, ¼ mile from the
| | |river. The banks, which for the
| | |last 4 miles have been bare,
| | |here become studded with palms.
| | |
Gereif | 1 | 5 |A collection of wells and
| | |sagias from which the ground is
| | |cultivated. The uncultivated
| | |ground is covered with coarse
| | |grass. A low range of hills
| | |here touches the south of the
| | |road.
| | |
Nurri | 2 | 7 |This village extends a
| | |considerable distance inland.
| | |Near it, to the south of the
| | |road are 11 pyramids. Soon
| | |after leaving them the alluvial
| | |ground over which the road has
| | |hitherto passed gives place to
| | |sand.
| | |
Belal | 1 | 8 |A large well-built village. The
| | |road here runs close to the
| | |river between small patches of
| | |cultivation and a track of very
| | |broken rocky ground, which
| | |comes to within ¼ mile of the
| | |river. This stony tract is
| | |about 50 feet above the
| | |alluvial ground. At the east
| | |end of the village a break in
| | |the cultivation leaves room for
| | |a small camp on the river bank.
| | |
Khor-el-Sorawi| 3 | 11 |A dry watercourse, 20 yards
| | |wide. It shows signs of out-
| | |pouring a considerable stream
| | |in the rainy season. 1 mile
| | |further to the east the river
| | |makes a sharp bend to the
| | |north-east, the edge of broken
| | |ground continuing to run in an
| | |easterly direction. The road
| | |takes an intermediate course
| | |across a plain of firm gravel
| | |which lies between the rocks
| | |and the river.
| | |
Kanisa | 1 | 12 |A small village ½ mile to the
| | |north of the road, at the foot
| | |of a small rocky hill, in an
| | |angle of the river.
| | |
El Dugaiyet | 1 | 13 |A scattered village. The broken
| | |ground here again comes to
| | |within ½ mile of the river.
| | |There is a good camping ground
| | |on the river bank near the
| | |village. The road to Bir Sani
| | |and Berber here branches off.
| | |It runs at first over very
| | |rocky ground. There are said to
| | |be 90 islands in the river
| | |between this place and Belal.
| | |The cultivation of the district
| | |is for the most part on these
| | |islands.
| | |
Hamdab | 5 | 18 |A very long village with a fair
| | |amount of cultivation. The road
| | |from Dugaiyet runs between the
| | |broken ground and thick bush.
| | |Just before reaching Hamdab the
| | |rocky ground opens out
| | |considerably at the mouth of
| | |the Khor El Shungui. A good
| | |camping ground on the river
| | |bank. The road described from
| | |Hamdab onwards was followed by
| | |part of River Column, 1885.
| | |
| | |Dates, dura, cotton, dukhn, and
| | |barley grown. The road to
| | |Berber leaves the river about 2
| | |miles below Hamdab, crossing
| | |the rocky ground at a point
| | |marked by two solitary dom
| | |palms.
| | |
| | |Good camping ground for a large
| | |force, commanded by rocky
| | |ridge, 400 yards from river.
| | |
Jebel Kulgeili| 4 | 22 |The road as far as Jebel
| | |Kulgeili skirts the belt of
| | |cultivation, which is
| | |interspersed with a few native
| | |houses. It is commanded the
| | |whole way by a low ridge of
| | |rocks, at a distance from the
| | |river varying from 50 to 500
| | |yards.
| | |
| | |Jebel Kulgeili, 400 feet high,
| | |commands the surrounding
| | |country for a distance of
| | |several miles. The direct
| | |desert road to Berti (19 miles)
| | |leaves the river at the foot of
| | |this hill.
| | |
| | |The road, after leaving
| | |Kulgeili, becomes rocky and
| | |much cut up by ravines and
| | |sandy khors, gradually becoming
| | |more difficult as the islands
| | |of Auli are approached. The
| | |river between Hamdab and Auli
| | |is quite open, and free from
| | |broken water.
| | |
Auli | 8 | 30 |At Auli the cataract of Terai
| | |commences; but it is not
| | |difficult. There are several
| | |houses and much cultivation on
| | |the islands and on the left
| | |bank. Good camping grounds are
| | |to be found.
| | |
El Kabur | 3 | 33 |Cultivation extends along the
| | |road, broken at times by rocky
| | |and barren ground. At El Kabur,
| | |which is situated at the end of
| | |the nest of islands which forms
| | |the 4th or Edermi Cataract,
| | |there is scanty cultivation and
| | |a few houses.
| | |
| | |From Auli to El Kabur by water
| | |the boat channel follows the
| | |right bank. There is one
| | |difficult gate, about two-
| | |thirds of the way up, at which
| | |heavy stores have to be
| | |portaged. The country to the
| | |east of the road along the left
| | |bank is very rocky and broken,
| | |and nearly impracticable for
| | |cavalry.
| | |
Kabeinat | 1 | 34 |The road leaves the river at El
(ruined forts)| | |Kabur and follows the bed of a
| | |sandy khor until an old ruined
| | |fort built upon a rocky
| | |prominence commanding the river
| | |is reached. The rocky and
| | |broken ground skirts the river
| | |between El Kabur and Kabeinat,
| | |and is impracticable for
| | |cavalry. Opposite this ruined
| | |fort there is another of a
| | |similar kind. The river between
| | |these two forts is very narrow,
| | |and forms the commencement of
| | |the Kabeinat Cataract.
| | |
Mushani ridge | 5 | 39 |The road skirts the river bank;
| | |but although the country is
| | |more open than that previously
| | |travelled it is broken at parts
| | |by rocky ridges and deep
| | |ravines. Much acacia and many
| | |dom palms are found.
| | |
| | |Kabeinat Cataract presents no
| | |difficulty to navigation, and
| | |although the current is rapid,
| | |no broken water offering
| | |serious impediments to the
| | |passage of boats, is met with
| | |until the Gab El Abd Gate, 2
| | |miles above the ruined forts,
| | |is reached. Here there is a
| | |direct fall of water which,
| | |however, can be avoided by
| | |going over to the right bank.
| | |From this point to Mushani
| | |ridge, which may be called the
| | |upper end of Gab El Abd
| | |Cataract, the river presents
| | |most serious difficulties.
| | |Tracking from rocks and islands
| | |has invariably to be resorted
| | |to, and at low Nile it is
| | |doubtful whether even light
| | |boats could be taken up this
| | |part of the river.
| | |
| | |Mushani Ridge commands the
| | |country to the north-east as
| | |far as the distant hills
| | |overlooking Berti. The ridge
| | |runs at right angles to the
| | |river, and the rocks and
| | |boulders in which it terminates
| | |come down close to the left
| | |bank of the river. There is but
| | |little cultivation along this
| | |part of the river, except on
| | |the islands of Umderas and
| | |Amri, the former of which is
| | |passed just after leaving
| | |Kabeinat, and at the village of
| | |Shebabik on the right bank
| | |opposite the lower end of
| | |Umderas Island.
| | |
Warrak | 1 | 40 |There is a large tomb and a few
| | |detached huts at this point,
| | |with a certain amount of
| | |cultivation, very good camping
| | |grounds, much mimosa, and many
| | |dom-palm trees.
| | |
| | |The cataract of Um Hababoa is
| | |here met with, lying between
| | |Kandi Island and the left bank.
| | |It is very difficult, and it is
| | |supposed, from the remains of
| | |wreckage found lying about, it
| | |was near this point that Ismail
| | |Pacha abandoned his boats in
| | |1820.
| | |
| | |This cataract can be avoided at
| | |high Nile by going between the
| | |islands of Amri and Kandi, the
| | |passage between which islands
| | |was nearly dry in February,
| | |1885.
| | |
| | |A track leads from Warrak to
| | |Berti, across rocky and broken
| | |ground; but it is not much
| | |shorter than that generally
| | |followed.
| | |
Gamra | 2 | 42 |The road skirts the river
| | |through considerable
| | |cultivation, mostly dukhn. At
| | |Gamra, which is opposite the
| | |upper end of Kandi Island,
| | |there are several native huts,
| | |and good camping grounds can
| | |everywhere be found.
| | |
| | |The river between Warrak and
| | |Gamra is not difficult; but
| | |there is a very swift current,
| | |and tracking is necessary at
| | |certain points from the left
| | |bank.
| | |
| | |One mile beyond Gamra the road
| | |leaves the river to avoid the
| | |rocky kopjes which command the
| | |foot and mark the commencement
| | |of the Rahami Cataract. It
| | |strikes the river again 2 miles
| | |below Berti. It is very rocky,
| | |and much cut up by deep khors
| | |and ravines.
| | |
| | |A broad, sandy khor leaves the
| | |river 1½ miles above Gamra, and
| | |runs away to the east until
| | |lost in the desert.
| | |
| | |By following this khor until it
| | |strikes the Kulgeili-Berti
| | |road, the mountains and rocky
| | |country overlooking Berti can
| | |be avoided, and Berti entered
| | |at its upper end.
| | |
| | |The river between the foot of
| | |Rahami Cataract and Berti
| | |offers most serious obstacles
| | |to navigation. The boat channel
| | |lies along the right bank.
| | |
Berti | 6 | 48 |Berti is a scattered village
| | |extending over a length of 2
| | |miles. It is situated mostly on
| | |an island which, however, forms
| | |part of the mainland at low
| | |Nile. The cultivation is very
| | |rich and plentiful, and barley,
| | |dura, cotton, wheat, beans,
| | |dates, and dukhn grow in great
| | |abundance. This is the boundary
| | |between Dongola and Berber
| | |Provinces.
| | |
| | |The lower end of the village is
| | |situated in rocky ground, but
| | |the larger portion lies in the
| | |open.
| | |
| | |The direct road from Jebel
| | |Kulgeili enters near the house
| | |of Suleiman Wad Gamr, about
| | |half-way up the village.
| | |
| | |Berti is the head-quarters of
| | |the Monasir tribe, and is on
| | |the boundary between Berber and
| | |Dongola Provinces.
| | |
| | |The island of Ishashi is passed
| | |just before reaching Berti, and
| | |is very richly cultivated.
| | |
Jebel Kirbekan| 8 | 56 |Between Berti and El Kirbekan
| | |there are several pieces of
| | |broken water, but nothing
| | |worthy of the term “cataract”
| | |is to be met with until
| | |opposite Dulka Island, where
| | |the cataract of Ragabat El
| | |Gamal obstructs the river; it
| | |is not difficult. Boni Island
| | |lies on the right side of the
| | |river, abreast of and
| | |overlapping Dulka Island, and
| | |between it and the right bank
| | |the cataract of Abu Sayal is
| | |situated. It is impassable at
| | |low Nile. In the centre of Boni
| | |Island, and in prolongation of
| | |the Kirbekan ridge, is a
| | |remarkable round-topped
| | |mountain, which can be seen for
| | |several miles before Boni
| | |Island is reached.
| | |
| | |On leaving the belt of
| | |cultivation at Berti, the track
| | |leaves the river and winds
| | |through a mass of rocks and
| | |boulders until it again strikes
| | |the river opposite a small
| | |island, on which are the
| | |remains of a ruined castle
| | |(Castle Camp of River Column);
| | |distance from Berti, 6 miles.
| | |Scant cultivation and a good
| | |camping ground for a small
| | |force are here to be found.
| | |
| | |After leaving the bank opposite
| | |the ruined castle, the track
| | |again quits the river and
| | |follows the bed of a sandy
| | |khor, interrupted in parts by
| | |belts of rocks and boulders
| | |until the river is again struck
| | |opposite Dulka Island (6½ miles
| | |from Castle Camp), where there
| | |is a good camping ground amidst
| | |patches of cultivation. One and
| | |a half miles beyond this point
| | |the long razor-backed hill,
| | |running at right angles to the
| | |course of the Nile, and known
| | |as Jebel Kirbekan (300 feet),
| | |is situated. It completely
| | |blocks the road, but can be
| | |easily turned by marching round
| | |its south-west extremity.
| | |
| | |The action of 10.2.85 took
| | |place here.
| | |
El Kirbekan | 4 | 60 |On leaving Jebel Kirbekan, the
(village) | | |track follows the bed of a
| | |sandy khor, much broken in
| | |places by rocks, &c., for 4
| | |miles, when the village of El
| | |Kirbekan, at the lower entrance
| | |of the Shukuk Pass, is reached.
| | |Here there are a few mud
| | |houses, palm trees, and some
| | |scant vegetation; barley, dura,
| | |and dukhn.
| | |
| | |The Wadi El Arku, which breaks
| | |up into several outlets on
| | |nearing the river, comes out at
| | |this point, and it is here that
| | |the direct road to Abu Egli (78
| | |miles), _viâ_ the Jura Wells
| | |(48 miles), leaves the river.
| | |
Shukuk Pass | ½ | 60½ |The Shukuk Pass is entered
(south end) | | |immediately after leaving El
| | |Kirbekan. The track leaves the
| | |river, and follows the bed of a
| | |sandy khor, completely
| | |commanded by rocky heights
| | |varying from 20 feet to 100
| | |feet, until Jebel Shukuk (350
| | |feet) is reached. This
| | |mountain, with its conspicuous
| | |marble tops, marks the half-way
| | |through the Pass.
| | |
| | |Leaving Jebel Shukuk on the
| | |left-hand side, the track
| | |inclines towards the river, the
| | |Pass becomes narrower and more
| | |difficult, and at places it is
| | |impossible for more than one
| | |loaded camel to pass at a time.
| | |The track at this point is
| | |nearly impracticable, and it is
| | |with the greatest difficulty
| | |that even horses can keep their
| | |footing.
| | |
Shukuk Pass | 7½ | 68 |The Shukuk Pass terminates
(north end) | | |suddenly opposite the upper end
| | |of Uss Island, and at the
| | |commencement of Shoar Island,
| | |on which latter island there
| | |are many small villages, and
| | |much cultivation.
| | |
| | |The Shukuk Pass can be turned
| | |by leaving the river at El
| | |Kirbekan, striking into the
| | |desert and skirting the whole
| | |block of mountains through
| | |which the pass runs. This is an
| | |easy half-day’s camel ride, but
| | |there is no water along the
| | |road.
| | |
| | |Capt. Maxse says (1897) the
| | |pass is 7 miles long; there is
| | |water at each end, and the
| | |going is good, with the
| | |exception of ½ mile at the
| | |south-west entrance, and ¾ mile
| | |at the north-east exit.
| | |
| | |During that first ½ mile at the
| | |entrance the roadway is narrow
| | |and intricate, the path being
| | |strewn with quantities of small
| | |loose locks and boulders. These
| | |could be cleared away. The
| | |labour thus expended would
| | |greatly facilitate all
| | |subsequent movements of troops
| | |and transport.
| | |
| | |The ¾ mile of exit could
| | |similarly be much improved by
| | |manual labour. A little
| | |blasting would help still more
| | |here.
| | |
| | |There is, however, 100 yards of
| | |pathway at the bottom of a deep
| | |cutting, which would defy
| | |ordinary appliances. Still
| | |there is room for a loaded
| | |camel, and the removal of loose
| | |stones would make even this bit
| | |easy.
| | |
| | |The interior of the pass is
| | |mostly a broad, level, sandy
| | |khor, varying in width from 5
| | |yards to 200 yards.
| | |
| | |Should the pass be held by a
| | |stubborn foe, it can be turned
| | |without difficulty from the
| | |east.
| | |
| | |The river between El Kirbekan
| | |and the end of the Shukuk Pass
| | |is clear and free from
| | |obstacles, though it flows at
| | |times between steep and rocky
| | |banks.
| | |
| | |Just as the upper end of Uss
| | |Island is reached, a small
| | |rapid has to be passed which is
| | |not, however, very difficult.
| | |
| | |Both north and south of the
| | |Shukuk Pass there are numerous
| | |drawings of a rough description
| | |representing cattle, monkeys,
| | |and dogs, probably the same
| | |period as those at Murrat—2nd
| | |and 3rd century A.D. (Major Sir
| | |H. Hill, Bart.).
| | |
Salamat | 12 | 80 |On debouching from the Shukuk
| | |Pass, the country commences to
| | |open out, and the hills to
| | |recede further from the river.
| | |The track follows the bank,
| | |which now commences to become
| | |more generally cultivated. Just
| | |before coming abreast of Shoar
| | |Island, the track ascends a
| | |rocky plateau, from the summit
| | |of which the first view of
| | |Jebel Osma is obtained.
| | |
| | |The Island of Sherrai follows
| | |Shoar Island, but it is very
| | |barren and rocky. One mile up
| | |this island the cataract of
| | |Tuari is passed. It is very
| | |difficult, and the river is
| | |here much broken by rocks and
| | |shallows.
| | |
| | |After passing Tuari Cataract
| | |the cultivation increases still
| | |more, and sagias and groups of
| | |date palms occur at frequent
| | |intervals along the bank. The
| | |fertile and densely populated
| | |Island of Sherri succeeds that
| | |of Sherrari.
| | |
| | |The track continues along the
| | |bank of the river, deviating
| | |occasionally to avoid clusters
| | |of rocks on a khor, until
| | |Salamat, opposite the upper end
| | |of Sherri Island, is reached.
| | |
| | |It is at this point that the
| | |cataract of Um Deras is placed
| | |on the official maps, but no
| | |impediment to navigation
| | |exists.
| | |
| | |Salamat, the principal village
| | |in the Monasir country, is a
| | |long straggling village of
| | |fairly-built mud huts, the
| | |principal of which belong to
| | |Suleiman Wad Gamr and his
| | |uncles, Omar and Abu Bakr. The
| | |country is very rich and there
| | |are several large groups of
| | |palm trees.
| | |
| | |The desert comes down to the
| | |bank of the river on the right
| | |bank, just above Salamat.
| | |
| | |The track, after leaving
| | |Salamat, follows the bank of
| | |the river until Jebel Osma is
| | |reached, 3 miles
| | |
| | |Leaving this solitary mountain
| | |on the left, a detour of 1 mile
| | |is made, where the river is
| | |again struck. A broad sandy
| | |khor runs at the foot of Jebel
| | |Osma. The bank is now followed
| | |until abreast of the village of
Opposite Hebi,| 8 | 88 |Hebi, situated on the right
or Hebba | | |bank. The road is good
| | |throughout. Patches of rich
| | |cultivation are constantly met
| | |with, near groups of huts built
| | |in the rocks and boulders,
| | |which are left on the right-
| | |hand side.
| | |
| | |There are two broad khors
| | |running into the desert between
| | |Salamat and Jebel Osma. Mimosa
| | |or sûnt trees, of an unusually
| | |large size, are met with along
| | |the road. The river is free
| | |from obstruction.
| | |
| | |If going to Abu Hamed, it is
| | |advisable to cross the Nile
| | |opposite Hebi, where the river
| | |affords great facilities for
| | |crossing and swimming animals.
| | |The island of Kan and smaller
| | |islands on the right bank may
| | |be utilized in the crossing.
| | |Lieut.-Colonel Stewart’s
| | |steamer, on its way from
| | |Khartoum, was wrecked on the
| | |island of Kan on the 18th
| | |September, 1884, and he and his
| | |party were treacherously
| | |murdered in the house of one
| | |named Othman Fakri, commonly
| | |known as Othman Amian, in the
| | |village of Hebi.
| | |
| | |Hebi is a straggling village,
| | |composed of small mud huts,
| | |built in the rocks. There are
| | |some conspicuous palm trees on
| | |the bank of the river. The
| | |village was completely
| | |destroyed by the British troops
| | |in February, 1885. There is
| | |much cultivation in and near
| | |Hebi: dura, dukhn, barley,
| | |beans, etc., growing in
| | |luxuriance.
--------------+-------------+-------+--------------------------------
OLD MEROWE TO ABU HAMED, BY THE RIGHT BANK OF THE NILE.
(_Major Hon. M. G. Talbot, R.E., October_, 1897.)
General Notes.
(i.) The grazing for camels is moderate.
(ii.) The places where water can be obtained depend on the time of
the year. The bed of the river is the only source of supply.
(iii.) No considerable elevation is crossed anywhere. Probably the
road is never more than 100 to 150 feet above high Nile level.
(iv.) Telegraph line follows road where not otherwise mentioned.
(v.) No supplies obtainable on right bank.
--------------+---------------------+--------------------------------
| Distance in miles. |
Names of +-------------+-------+
Places. | | Total | Description.
|Intermediate.| from |
| |Merowe.|
--------------+-------------+-------+--------------------------------
Old Merowe | | |Village.
| | |
J. Barkal | 4 | 4 |Two miles inland. Ancient
| | |ruined pyramids at base. Desert
| | |road from Dongola joins river
| | |here.
| | |
Kasinjar | 4 | 8 |Telegraph line crosses from
| | |left to right bank here.
| | |
| | |Small fort.
| | |
Amrao | 19 | 17 |On leaving Kasinjar fort the
| | |road curves round with the
| | |river, but gradually recedes
| | |from it. After 2 miles of good
| | |firm sand, with thin thorny
| | |scrub, the road turns away from
| | |the river to the north-east,
| | |passing to the right of Jebel
| | |Wad El Duga, beyond which it
| | |turns N.N.E., over undulating,
| | |stony ground, draining to
| | |right. The going is good to 11
| | |miles. At about 13 miles road
| | |passes into a shallow basin
| | |draining east, from which it
| | |emerges at 14½ miles, and
| | |begins to descend to river by a
| | |bad path down and across small
| | |khors. Reaches river at Meshra
| | |El Abiad, a good watering
| | |place, at 15¾ miles. From 11 to
| | |14½ miles the road, though
| | |generally good, is less so than
| | |before, and passes over bits of
| | |stony ground, which would be
| | |very troublesome at night or
| | |even for a considerable body
| | |marching by day. From Meshra El
| | |Abiad road runs along river
| | |bank; good going for camels,
| | |and some grass and thorn
| | |grazing. A few huts at Amrao,
| | |where there is plenty of room
| | |to camp and some shade.
| | |
| | |There is also a road by the
| | |river, which was used by
| | |General Hunter’s column. It is
| | |said to be bad and to take
| | |baggage camels 5 hours.
| | |
| | |Desert road leaves river at
| | |once and follows telegraph wire
| | |for 3½ miles, when latter
| | |strikes off to right to river,
| | |and continues along it to Abu
| | |Haraz. To 3½ miles road is
| | |good, in flat khor, few bushes
| | |on left, and gigantic boulders
| | |on right. Keeps on straight to
| | |8 miles, crossing plain strewn
| | |with scattered ridges of
| | |granite boulders, and then
| | |turns slightly to right down to
Abu Haraz | 9½ | 36½ |river at Abu Haraz, 9 miles,
| | |where there are a few ruined
| | |mud houses, and a clump of
| | |palms at 9½ miles, with camp
| | |and shade for a battalion. No
| | |water along road.
| | |
| | |For 4½ miles road winds in and
| | |out of low slaty and granitic
| | |ridges, with strip of good sand
| | |between, keeping generally near
| | |the river. It then leaves the
| | |river near Khor Abu Herejil and
| | |strikes across low slatey
| | |ridges to about 7½ miles, when
| | |it again strikes an arm of the
| | |river, dry at this season,
| | |along which it keeps for 1
| | |mile, and then across broad,
Hosh El Geruf | 12 | 48½ |low open plateau to Hosh El
| | |Geruf. Like all the names in
| | |this part, Hosh El Geruf is
| | |applied to a strip along the
| | |river, rather than to any one
| | |spot or village. The spot
| | |referred to here is a clump of
| | |palms, at the foot of a low
| | |hill, near a little
| | |cultivation.
| | |
| | |Road generally bad, quite
| | |unsuitable for wheels. It
| | |follows river at starting for 1
| | |mile, and then, leaving it,
| | |winds up and down khors and
| | |over low rocky ridges almost
| | |the whole way. From about 8½ to
| | |10 miles is the worst bit. Here
| | |horses should be led in single
| | |file, after that road enters
| | |sandy plain and is good to 13
| | |miles, when it commences to
| | |cross low ridges again. At 13½
| | |miles the river is seen for the
| | |first time and the road
Salmia | 14 | 62½ |descends to Salmia, which
| | |consists of two or three groves
| | |of palms, with a field or two
| | |of dura and three or four
| | |houses of Monasir. Room to camp
| | |three or four battalions, with
| | |a little shade.
| | |
| | |Road leaves river at once, and
| | |for 1¾ miles crosses stony
| | |ground strewn with boulders. It
| | |then gets on to sandy and more
| | |open ground, and is good to 3
| | |miles when it drops down to
| | |valley of river by a bad path.
| | |Then very good sand to 4 miles,
| | |where it strikes river bank at
| | |Kamasab, just opposite Jebel
| | |Us. From here road is bad
| | |nearly to 6 miles, when a strip
| | |of good going takes it as far
| | |as Shukoka, 9 miles, where
| | |there is a little cultivation
| | |on the bank of the river and on
| | |a backwater. Southern end of
Dakhfili, | 12½ | 75 |Dakhfili is reached at 12½
south end | | |miles, road being partly along
| | |river and never very far from
| | |it, and passing several small
| | |groups of huts. Dakhfili is a
| | |large camping ground ¾ mile
| | |long, opposite Shirri Island.
| | |It has a few palms and some
| | |large sunt trees. No
| | |cultivation to speak of.
| | |
| | |There is another route to
| | |Dakhfili from Hosh El Geruf,
| | |which leaves the river at much
| | |the same place, and keeps
| | |straight across the desert to
| | |Dakhfili. It was much used by
| | |convoys, even at night, and is
| | |undoubtedly much better going
| | |than the Salmia route, and
| | |probably a couple of miles
| | |shorter, but there is no water
| | |along it.
| | |
| | |At the north-east end of
| | |Dakhfili, road leaves the
| | |river, and after 1 mile over
| | |heavy sand and sand-covered
| | |rock, emerges into the open
| | |Khor Haweili, 500 to 600 yards
| | |wide, and bounded by low sand-
| | |covered slopes. (From this
| | |point a track leads to the
| | |river and round by it to Um
| | |Duema, distance 14 to 15 miles,
| | |bad going.) Road continues up
| | |khor to 7 miles over sand and
| | |gravel, generally very good for
| | |camels, but a little soft for
| | |men and horses. Room to march
| | |in any formation. (From here
| | |desert road continues almost
El Gab, _viâ_ | 19 | 94 |straight on to El Gab, 17
Um Duema | | |miles, mostly good going, but
| | |some heavy sand for the last 3
| | |or 4 miles.) At 7½ miles the Um
| | |Duema road strikes off to right
| | |by an easy but unfrequented
| | |path over low hills partly
| | |covered with sand, and descends
| | |by a baddish path between Ab
| | |Rumeila and Hebi at 11 miles.
| | |Road continues easy but narrow
| | |along the bank, passing Hebi,
| | |12 miles, where there are a few
| | |houses, with some palms and a
| | |little cultivation, and Um
| | |Duema at 13 miles, which is
| | |similar to Hebi. At 14 miles,
| | |road enters sand which lasts to
| | |El Gab. It is heavy in places
| | |and bad for men and horses. El
| | |Gab is an ancient ruined post
| | |on a low rock overlooking the
| | |river. There is a small patch
| | |of cultivation and a few palms.
| | |Plenty of room to camp.
| | |
| | |Sand continues heavy to 2½
| | |miles, where direct road by
| | |desert leaves river and strikes
| | |it again at about 10 miles. (I
| | |did not follow this, but
| | |believe it is fairly good
| | |going.) It is possible to march
| | |along the river bank, a little
| | |longer, but the sand is
| | |heavier.
| | |
Khulla, north | 16 | 110 |Khulla is a strip of the bank
end direct | | |some 4 miles long; no houses
road | | |nor cultivation, only a few
| | |shepherds’ huts; many sunt
| | |trees and dom palms. Much room
| | |to camp and plenty of shade.
| | |The sand is piled with hillocks
| | |along the bank, and the road
| | |runs on lower ground from 100
| | |to 600 yards from river.
| | |Northern boundary of Khulla is
| | |Khor Hamadein. This was the
| | |furthest point attained by the
| | |River Column, 1885.
| | |
| | |After crossing Khor Hamadein,
| | |road keeps due east for about 4
| | |miles and passes through
| | |Gemmeiza, a district similar to
| | |Khulla, but not so well wooded.
| | |Low gravelly hills approach on
| | |right bank, and at several
| | |points tracks branch off to the
| | |left forming short cuts over
Ab Tin, by | 20 | 130 |these hills towards Ab Tin. (I
river road | | |did not travel by any of these,
| | |but I understand they are easy
| | |going.) The telegraph line
| | |follows one of these. At 4
| | |miles road turns north by
| | |baddish track, heavy and stony,
| | |following river bank, and
| | |passes small village of Tibna
| | |at 6 miles. Fair but heavyish
| | |going to 10 miles, where short
| | |cuts from Khulla and telegraph
| | |line join in. Bad going to 11
| | |miles over low, rocky ridges
| | |covered with sand; then
| | |excellent going to Ginefab, 14
| | |miles. Then ½ mile of bad
| | |going, and 5 miles good going
| | |to Shellal Gurgurib over open
| | |ground with many sunt trees; ¾
| | |mile more of good going to Ab
| | |Tin at 20 miles. This, though
| | |quite a small place, is the
| | |largest village that has been
| | |passed. It has a small area of
| | |cultivation and some palms.
| | |
| | |Road good and open, though
| | |heavy in places, for 5 miles,
| | |till it strikes railway; then
| | |heavy sand with small hillocks
| | |and many dom palms and other
| | |trees to 9 miles, where road
| | |and river turn south and track
| | |gets harder. The railway
| | |station is about 1 mile north
| | |of Abu Hamed village. Residence
| | |of Mamur and headquarters of
Abu Hamed | 10 | 140 |the district.
--------------+-------------+-------+--------------------------------
[Sidenote: Abu Hamed.]
Abu Hamed used to be chiefly notable as being the point of arrival
and departure of the various caravan routes which traverse the Korosko
Desert, and takes its name from a highly venerated sheikh, whose tomb
is here situated. The merchants were in the habit of depositing here
any articles with which they did not wish to encumber themselves
during their journey through the desert, and the environs of the
tomb used to be surrounded by every sort of superfluous impedimenta,
left by their owners to await their return, with no other protection
than that afforded by the sanctity of the defunct sheikh.
Considerable plantations of acacias and doms are found in the
neighbourhood of the village, which is also remarkable for the
numerous “dunes” or sand hills collected by the winds from the
surrounding desert.
It is a small village, utterly destitute of supplies. The sterile
desert extends to the very margin of the Nile. Altitude 1,040 feet
above sea level. Desert perfectly flat. Deep sand. Major-General
Hunter attacked and took the place from the Dervishes on the 7th
August, 1897. (_Vide_ p. 254.) The railway reached this point from
Wadi Halfa on 31st October, 1897. It is now a watering station for
trains, with modern bathrooms for tourists, etc. It is the residence
of the Mamur and inspector of the Monasir and Robatab Districts. It
is also proposed as the junction of a branch line to Merowe.
SUB-SECTION (B).—ABU HAMED TO KHARTOUM.
Little has been recorded of the actual navigation of the river
and the description of its banks between Abu Hamed and Khartoum,
and especially of the stretch between Abu Hamed and Berber.
Between these two latter places the desert is broken by numerous
ravines and studded with acacias and “dom” palms; the river
channel is full of reefs and rapids, and navigation is at all
times difficult and somewhat dangerous; cultivation only exists in
scanty patches, and the inhabitants are poor and few in number. The
inhabitants and cultivation are, however, increasing on both banks.
[Sidenote: Mograt Rapid.]
A couple of miles above Abu Hamed is the Mograt Rapid, consisting of
a few miles of bad passages (at low Nile). After clearing the Mograt
Rapid, the navigation of the river is unimpeded for about 32 miles,
until Mero Island, opposite Abu Hashim, is reached.
[Sidenote: Bagara Rapid.]
As an obstacle to navigation the Abu Hashim Rapid is unimportant,
and from the Mograt Rapid there exists a reach of about 50 miles of
practically open water to the rapid of Bagara.
The Nile here takes a bend to the west, and for the space of 2 or
3 miles the bed of the river is filled with masses of black rocks,
in some places forming dams, over which the river roars in its
swift descent (December). This rapid is passable at high Nile,
but impracticable at low or even mean Nile.
The cataract of Bagara is not long, but during low or even medium
water it is rather rapid.
The banks of the river present no features of interest, and the
country on the eastern shore is an almost uninhabited desert, the
usual “doms,” which fringe the shore being the only vegetation
to be seen, with here and there a scanty patch of cultivation; but,
as the Bagara Rapid is approached, an improvement takes place on
the western shore.
[Sidenote: 5th Cataract.]
The 5th Cataract, or Shellal el Homar, 24 miles from El Bagara,
is a system of tortuous rapids running through irregular dangerous
rocks. It is formed by a ridge of black rocks, broken up into
islands, of which the main one is termed Draka. Here there are
really two distinct cataracts—one to the north, which has two
rather dangerous and difficult passages, in consequence of the
banks being covered with brushwood rocks and mimosa trees, which
prevent the tow rope being employed; the other to the south, called
Shellal el Homar. These cataracts, like those that precede them,
are dangerous and impracticable during low water.
They were successfully surmounted by the gunboats of the Nile
Expedition in September, 1897 (high Nile).
From the 5th Cataract, where the Dar Robatab is quitted and the Dar
Berber commences, a path exists on both banks for 30 miles to the
town of Berber. About half-way the nature of the soil changes from
the primitive desert to sandstone, and ranges of hills formed of the
latter begin to show themselves on both banks, but more prominently
on the western shore, where, opposite El Hasa, the edge of a stony
plateau, about 100 feet high, known as Jebel Nakam, advances to within
200 yards of the water’s edge; thence the road follows the western
shore at a distance of about ¾ of a mile, the intervening land
being well cultivated and acacias and “dom” palms fairly abundant.
On the right bank, although a fringe of acacias borders the Nile,
cultivation is almost entirely absent except in the immediate
neighbourhood of the villages, which are met at frequent intervals;
and the country, after entering the sandstone formation, consists
of nothing but one vast desert plain extending as far as the eye
can reach.
In view of the railway running the whole way along the river bank
from Abu Hamed to Khartoum the description of the itineraries along
the banks is omitted. The reader who desires such is referred to
N.O. (pp. 63-70).
[Sidenote: Berber.]
Berber, 131 miles from Abu Hamed (for description, _vide_ Chap. III,
p. 85).
Between Berber and the Atbara (20 miles) the cultivation improves,
and a fairly broad band runs parallel to the east bank of the river;
the inhabitants in this reach are fairly numerous.
The current here runs at the rate of from 2 to 3½ miles per hour; but
above it, where the river increases in width, a proportional decrease
in the rate of the stream takes place, and it does not exceed 2 miles.
[Sidenote: Atbara confluence.]
The Atbara River, at its point of junction with the Nile, has a deep,
well-defined section, and a bed-width of some 400 yards; the banks
are steep and high. Although the channel is dry in summer, the flood
marks register a height of 25 feet above the bed. The velocity of
the Atbara current in flood is so great that it forces the water of
the Nile across on to the western bank. The sandbank thus formed
causes considerable difficulty to navigation, and in the early
spring of 1898 caused the division of the fleet of gunboats into
two isolated halves, neither of which could have moved if required
to the assistance of the other.
[Sidenote: El Damer.]
South of the junction lies the town of El Damer, formerly celebrated
for its learning and university. It is now again a town of growing
importance, and is to supersede Berber as the headquarters of the
Province. Railway bridge over the Atbara here. The Nile-Red Sea
Railway branches off up the right bank of the Atbara, north of
the bridge.
From the Atbara to Khartoum the distance, by water, is about 200
miles. On this reach the slope of the river is separated by the
Shabluka Cataract into three portions. This cataract begins at
some 35 miles from Khartoum, and continues as far as Wad Habashi,
55 miles further north.
The average bed-slopes are:—
From Khartoum to head of Cataract 1/11000
Cataract and Rapids 1/5500
From Wad Habashi to Atbara 1/12500
Between the Atbara and Shendi (86 miles) there is little variety
in the river scenery.[28] The average height of the banks over the
river is from 25-28 feet; the channel is broad and interspersed with
many sandbanks and islands. The eastern bank is flat, and covered
with a thick growth of scrub and thorn bushes; the soil is good,
but the halfa grass, owing to years of neglect, has got such a hold
that very considerable labour is necessary in order to remove it
and render the land fit for cultivation. The western bank is lower,
and the strip of cultivable land much narrower than on the eastern
shore. In places, ravines or “khors” run back from the river,
and these in flood must be full of water. The whole tract has a
most desolate appearance; villages are few and poor; inhabitants
and cattle are wanting, although a few small flocks of sheep and
goats are occasionally met with; here and there a sagia is at work;
but the cultivation is confined chiefly to the foreshore of the
river and to the islands. At certain points low ranges of hills,
such as Jebel Egerdan and Jebel Umali approach the river on either
side. Fuel is fairly plentiful, and everywhere the thorn jungle
has encroached and swallowed up the areas which were once under
cultivation. The depopulation of this district must date from a
period anterior to the Dervish rule. Sir Samuel Baker, on visiting
the country in 1869, noted the deterioration and desolation which
had ensued since his visit of a few years previous. He attributed
this ruin to the misgovernment of the Turkish Governor-General.
The “Pyramids of Meroe” are passed about the 17th parallel;
they lie close to villages named Maruga and Sur. The district here
between the Atbara and the Nile was in ancient times termed the
“Island” of Meroe. (_See_ Chap. IV and Appendix D.)
[Sidenote: Shendi.]
Shendi, 86 miles from Atbara mouth, situated on the right bank of
the river and on rocky ground, which extends for half a mile above
and below the town, was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of
Meroe, and is said to have been the residence of the famous Queen of
Sheba. Ismail Pasha, son of Mohammed Ali, was here burnt in his hut
by the Jaalin in 1822, in revenge for his barbarities. The town and
inhabitants were destroyed in 1823 by Mohammed Ali. It is now reviving
considerably, and is the headquarters of the Cavalry in the Sudan;
it owes its selection chiefly to the fine grazing, the gravel soil,
and the level country around it.
[Sidenote: Metemma.]
Four miles beyond Shendi, on the left bank, lies Metemma, the terminus
of the trans-Bayuda route from Korti (_vide_ Vol. II), used by the
Desert Column in 1885. The town was not assaulted or taken by our
troops on that occasion, but was the object of a reconnaissance in
force, 21st January, 1885; it lay dormant until 1897, when it became
the headquarters of a projected rising against the Dervishes by the
Jaalin tribe. Mahmud, however, was warned in time, and exterminated
the conspirators and all their belongings. Over 2,000 Jaalin were
killed and the town was destroyed. It is still a deserted ruin,
lying over a mile from the river, but is easily recognisable by
the solitary grove of date palms which stands out as a landmark
in the flat and treeless plain. Here the western desert approaches
the water’s edge, but a little cultivation is carried on upon the
foreshore and the large island in front of the town. The remains of
five Dervish earthworks still exist upon the bank up-stream of the
town, and another (masked) upon the island. One-and a half miles
up-stream lies the former village of Gubat, the furthest point
reached by the Desert Column in 1885.
Between Metemma and Wad Habashi the whole country appears to be
deserted, and there is a complete absence of life. At one point a
series of honey-combed cliffs approaches the river, and runs parallel
with it for some 5 miles.
[Sidenote: Wad Habashi.]
Wad Habashi (left bank), 42 miles from Shendi, was the starting
point of the 1898 Omdurman Expedition. The soil here is excellent,
and the land must once have been cultivated, as traces of the old
water-courses are still visible. It is now covered with a dense
growth of acacia jungle and halfa grass, which stretches in a thick
belt for some 2 miles from the Nile.
[Illustration: JAALIN SHEPHERD SCENE.]
[Illustration: CORN GRINDING STONES, OMDURMAN.]
[Sidenote: Sixth Cataract.]
About ½ mile inland a large and deep canal runs parallel to
the river. This whole tract is entirely deserted, and, from its
appearance, it seems probable that it was thrown out of cultivation
prior to the rebellion of 1884. Four miles south of Wad Habashi
is the boundary between the provinces of Berber and Khartoum, the
limits being marked by the isolated granite hill on the east bank,
known by the name of “Hagar El Asal.” From this point, the reefs
forming the tail of the Shabluka Cataract begin, and navigation at
low water becomes impossible for steamers.[29] Although the actual
cataract, or rapid, is only some 12 miles in length, the bad water,
above and below the pass, extends for a length of some 55 miles,
_i.e._, to Wad Ramla, or to within 35 miles of Khartoum.
In summer, _i.e._, if the railway is not used, this portion of the
journey has either to be made in native boats, or by camel portage
round the cataract. The land route is shorter than that by the river,
being not more than 26 miles in length.
[Sidenote: Wad Hamed.]
Five miles above Wad Habashi the former cavalry station of Wad
Hamed is passed on the west bank. This place was selected as
the headquarters of the Egyptian cavalry on account of the good
fodder to be found in the vicinity. From here the difficulties of
navigation increase; the river is split into numerous channels,
and winds between picturesque islands, covered with a luxuriant
growth of vegetation. Rocks and reefs appear above the water, and
the swirls and eddies indicate the existence of many more below the
surface. It was in this part of the rapid, on Mernat Island, that
the “Bordein” steamer went aground on returning from Khartoum
in 1885. Low serrated granite ridges confine the river on either side.
At the entrance of the Shabluka gorge, the channel takes a very sharp
turn to the east, and the section is both deep and narrow—not being
more than 200 yards in width anywhere, and in some places even less
than this. The river runs between high granite hills for some 4 or
5 miles, with a very high velocity. The marks upon the rocks show
that the highest flood level is not more than 7 feet above the water
level of the river in March.
The northern entrance to the pass was guarded by five Dervish forts,
now in ruins; four on the western and one on the eastern bank. These
completely command the channel. On emerging from this gorge the river
widens out, and the difficulties of navigation recommence. Reefs,
rocks, and islands appear in all directions; the solitary peaks of
Jebel Royan and Jebel Tyem stand out, one on either bank. At some 20
miles up-stream of the pass Wad Ramla is reached; from this point to
Khartoum navigation, with care, is possible for steamers, even at
lowest Nile. The country on both sides becomes more open, and many
large islands are passed, most of which, notably that of Tamaniat,
bear fine crops of dura. Large quantities of hay are also grown upon
these islands and transported to Omdurman. The land on the east bank
is good, and the cultivable strip extends for a considerable width,
though covered as usual with scrub and rank grass. On the west bank
the desert approaches the river closely.
OMDURMAN, KHARTOUM NORTH, AND KHARTOUM.
[Sidenote: Omdurman.]
At 198 miles from the Atbara, the town of OMDURMAN is reached—the
long low ridge of the Kereri hills to the north marking the scene of
the battle in 1898. This town covers a large area, being some 5½
miles in length by 1 to 1½ miles in breadth. Its eastern frontage
follows the river bank throughout. Two or three broad streets
traverse it, but, with these exceptions, the houses are separated one
from another by a network of twisting lanes. Some of the principal
remaining Dervish houses, notably those of the Khalifa and Yagub, are
spacious and well built. Ebony is much used in the roofs, and where
the span is great, iron girders are inserted to support the roofing.
The “Beit El Amana,” or Dervish storehouse, covers a large
area. Here are the old powder magazines and stores of a most
miscellaneous description. The open-air mosque is simply a large
inclosure, and within the “Sur,” or great wall, is packed a
rabbit-warren of buildings, with narrow and winding streets. The
entire town was, during the Dervish occupation, full of old cess-pits;
these being merely deep holes sunk in the desert, and open to the
air. These pits were probably largely responsible for the disease
for which Omdurman attained such an evil reputation (Cerebrospinal
meningitis), but which has now practically disappeared. The
Mahdi’s tomb and Khalifa’s house, the latter still in good
repair, are objects of interest for the tourist (_vide_ pp. 266 and
252 respectively).
The town lies in a direct line 3 miles from Khartoum—but by water
another mile, some 40 minutes by steamer. Very many of the houses
are now deserted, but the population still numbers some 46,000. It
lies on good gravel soil, and comprises, besides the old Dervish
buildings above-mentioned, barracks for the garrison, which consists
of 2 battalions infantry and 2 maxims. There is a large market (Suk),
where a considerable trade in gum and other produce is carried on. On
the sloping banks a large boat traffic is at work. Steamers and
ferry boats connect the town with Khartoum. It is the residence of
the sub-Governor of Khartoum Province who resides in a house built
in the late Khalifa’s enclosure.
[Illustration: _By kind permission of W. Crooke, Edinburgh_.
MAJ.-GEN. SIR REGINALD WINGATE.
_Governor-General and Sirdar._]
[Sidenote: Khartoum North (Halfaya).]
KHARTOUM NORTH (lately Halfaya) is the terminus of the railway from
Halfa, and lies opposite to Khartoum, on the right bank of the
Blue Nile. It includes storehouses, workshops, the headquarters
and the dockyard of the Steamers and Boats Department, barracks
for an Egyptian garrison, consisting of infantry and artillery,
Custom-house, etc., etc. Population about 2,000. A steam chain ferry,
running every half-hour, connects it with Khartoum.
[Sidenote: Khartoum. Principal towns.]
KHARTOUM, including the towns of Khartoum North (late Halfaya) and
Omdurman, together with a little hinterland (_vide_ App. G.), forms
a Province by itself. It is once again the capital of the Sudan and
the seat of Government, though Omdurman still is, and Khartoum North
will probably become in a few years, the principal trade centre.
Khartoum (meaning elephant’s trunk—with reference to the point
of land jutting out between the two Niles) is a rapidly growing
town, on the left bank of the Blue Nile, just before it joins
the White Nile, and is built on the site of the old town of the
same name, which was so gallantly held by Gordon and destroyed by
the Dervishes in 1885. Its population is now 8,500 souls, and is
gradually increasing. The soil is alluvial; bank of Blue Nile about
30 feet above the river at low Nile. In 1898 the old town was found
entirely deserted and in ruins.
The main buildings are the Palace (built in 1899), the seat of the
Governor-General; the Government Buildings (including the local
War Office and the Offices of the Sudan Government); the Nuzl or
Government store, the Post and Telegraph buildings, the Mosque,
the Department of Works, the Mudiria (Governor’s office), branches
of the National Bank and the Bank of Egypt, the Gordon College, the
British barracks (holding one battalion of British troops), houses
of the chief officials, and a small town of well-built mud-brick
and stone houses (including a market square, landing place, a good
European hotel, club, brick kilns, Zoological Gardens, etc., etc.),
which is daily increasing in size.
[Sidenote: Barracks.]
At intervals along the line of the old entrenchments from east to
west are the barracks occupied by the Egyptian Army which are named
after Ismail, Tewfik, and Abbas Pashas.
Outside these lines are villages of mud-built and grass-roofed houses
of various Sudanese tribes, whose members are employed mostly in
building and in other pursuits. (_Vide_ also Chap. V.)
Higher up the Blue Nile at Buri are the Gordon College and British
barracks.
[Sidenote: Town, etc.]
The town is symmetrically laid out with wide avenues planted with
shady trees, and the class of buildings erected must be in strict
conformity with the standard fixed for each particular quarter.
The public gardens and “Zoo” are situated at the west end of
the town; these, especially the latter, have only as yet reached an
embryo stage.
[Sidenote: Garrison.]
The normal garrison of Khartoum consists of one battalion
of British Infantry, relieved annually in October, and three
battalions of Infantry of the Egyptian Army, as well as Cavalry and
Artillery. (_Vide_ p. 3.)
[Sidenote: Market.]
The market at Khartoum is poor and more expensive than that at
Omdurman, which is much larger and better. Meat is usually PT.3
per oke (2¾ lbs.) and dura varies from PT.25 to PT.90 per ardeb
(300 lbs.) according to the season and the year.
Building and fire-wood have to be brought long distances from up
the Blue and White Niles, and are consequently both expensive.
Labour is scarce and difficult to obtain owing to the many buildings,
etc., at present under construction.
[Sidenote: Rainfall.]
The rainfall is very variable but that of an average year is very
slight;[30] rain seldom falls on more than 10 to 15 days in the
year, but when it does it is generally in heavy thunderstorms, which
occur at intervals from June to October, and are usually preceded
by duststorms, very similar to those at Kassala. In some years heavy
storms occur as early as May.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The climate is comparatively good all the year round, though in
August, September, and October, and occasionally at other seasons,
a certain amount of fever is prevalent.[31] Khartoum is 1,253 feet
above the Mediterranean.
The hottest month, according to the monthly average maximum
temperatures recorded for 1901, is April (110·66° Fahr.), and the
coolest January (88·34° Fahr.). April, May and June are here,
as elsewhere, as a rule, throughout the Sudan, usually the three
hottest months of the year. _Vide_ also p. 12.
The highest temperature recorded in 1901 was in July (116·6° Fahr.),
and the lowest (51·8°) in December.
The wind blows from the north almost continuously from November to
April, after which it varies considerably, and finally settles down
in May or June to blow pretty consistently from the south until the
end of October or beginning of November.
[Sidenote: Posts and telegraphs.]
There is a bi-weekly mail to and from the north, weekly to and from
El Obeid, Wad Medani, Goz Abu Guma, and intermediate stations on
the White Nile, fortnightly to Kodok, and monthly to stations on
the Upper Nile and Bahr El Ghazal.
Telegraphic communication with the following and intermediate
stations: Cairo, Dongola, Merowe, Suakin, Massaua _viâ_
Kassala, Gedaref, Gallabat, Roseires, Renk, Kodok, Taufikia and
El Obeid. Telegrams to Addis Abbaba can be sent _viâ_ Kassala and
Asmara. _Vide_ also p. 219.
[Sidenote: Ferries, etc.]
A Government ferry keeps up communication with Omdurman, and a steamer
runs twice daily to and from Omdurman and Khartoum North, calling
at Khartoum. There is also, as before mentioned, a steam ferry from
Khartoum to Khartoum North and several of the native boat ferries.
The suburbs of these three towns include an additional population
of 11,000 souls.
Recapitulatory table of distances by river in section:—
_Merowe to Khartoum._
-------------------------------+------------------+-------------------
| Intermediate. | From Merowe.
+------+-----------+------+------------
|Miles.|Kilometres.|Miles.|Kilometres.
-------------------------------+------+-----------+------+------------
Merowe | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0
| | | |
Foot of 4th Cataract | 9 | 14 | 9 | 14
| | | |
Head „ „ | 77 | 124 | 86 | 138
| | | |
Abu Hamed | 62 | 100 | 148 | 238
| | | |
El Bagara Rapid | 55 | 88 | 203 | 327
| | | |
Foot of 5th Cataract | 24 | 38 | 227 | 364
| | | |
Head „ „ | 2 | 3 | 229 | 367
| | | |
Berber | 30 | 48 | 259 | 416
| | | |
Mouth of Atbara | 20 | 32 | 279 | 447
| | | |
Shendi | 86 | 138 | 365 | 585
| | | |
Metemma | 4 | 6 | 369 | 592
| | | |
Foot of 6th Cataract | 54 | 87 | 423 | 678
| | | |
Head „ „ | 12 | 19 | 435 | 697
| | | |
Omdurman | 41 | 66 | 476 | 764
| | | |
Khartoum junction of Niles | 3 | 5 | 479 | 771
-------------------------------+------+-----------+------+------------
[Illustration: INSIDE OF OLD PALACE, KHARTOUM.]
[Illustration: _By kind permission of M. Venieris._
KHARTOUM: LOOKING NORTH FROM THE WAR OFFICE ROOF OVER TUTI ISLAND.]
[Illustration: _By kind permission of M. Venieris._
THE PALACE AND GARDEN, KHARTOUM, FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.]
SECTION (3).—KHARTOUM TO LAKE NO.
[_Kms._: _Kilometres._
I.: Intermediate.
F.O.: From Omdurman.]
----------+-----------+--------------+---------------+----------------
| Miles. | | |
Place. | _Kms._ | Left Bank. | River and | Right Bank.
+--+--------+ | General. |
|I.|F.O.[32]| | |
----------+--+--------+--------------+---------------+----------------
Omdurman | | |On the W. |In the first 15|
| | |bank, after |miles up stream|
| | |getting clear |of Khartoum the|
| | |of the houses |country on |
| | |of Omdurman, a|either side is |
| | |hard, sandy |low, flat, and |
| | |track is |treeless; |
| | |followed |cultivation is |
| | |skirting the |carried out on |
| | |edge of the |the mud flats, |
| | |cultivation |and on the |
| | | |islands, which |
| | | |appear as the |
| | | |water falls. |
| | | |The water |
| | | |channel is |
| | | |fully 2 miles |
| | | |wide in this |
| | | |reach. It is |
| | | |very shallow, |
| | | |and landing is |
| | | |almost |
| | | |impossible on |
| | | |account of the |
| | | |shelving banks.|
| | | |On these last, |
| | | |as the water |
| | | |falls, a crop |
| | | |of grass |
| | | |springs up, |
| | | |which affords |
| | | |grazing to |
| | | |large flocks of|
| | | |cattle and |
| | | |sheep. Further |
| | | |up stream the |
| | | |channel gets |
| | | |narrower, but |
| | | |it is still |
| | | |over a mile in |
| | | |width. Both |
| | | |banks are low |
| | | |and fringed |
| | | |with thin and |
| | | |low thorny |
| | | |jungle, and |
| | | |except for the |
| | | |isolated hills |
| | | |of Jebel Auli |
| | | |and Jebel Gurun|
| | | |the country is |
| | | |a dead flat. On|
| | | |leaving |
| | | |Omdurman the |
| | | |water channel |
| | | |at once opens |
| | | |out, at high |
| | | |Nile, to 2 or 3|
| | | |miles, course |
| | | |for steamer |
| | | |close to R. |
| | | |bank |
| | | | |
| | |Left bank low,| |Right bank;
| | |sandy, some | |several
| | |scrub, and | |villages, low,
| | |further on | |sandy, or swampy
| | |mimosa woods | |bank.
| | |extending to | |
| | |river | |
| | | | |
Kalakla |8 | 8 | | |Road from
| | | | |Khartoum passes
| | | | |through village
| | | | |Kalakla in large
| | | | |clump of trees
| | | | |and then
| | | | |continues on
| | | | |open desert sand
| | | | |about 2 miles
| | | | |from river; very
| | | | |good going.
| | | | |
Sheikh |3 | 11 | | |Sheikh Salim or
Salim | | | | |Wad Um Meriam.
| | | | |
| | | | |Village with
| | | | |high tomb in it.
| | | | |Road about 2
| | | | |miles from
| | | | |river. After
| | | | |this it enters
| | | | |some low
| | | | |sandhills with
| | | | |large clump of
| | | | |trees on river
| | | | |side about ½
| | | | |mile off. The
| | | | |first open scrub
| | | | |begins, which
| | | | |thickens as it
| | | | |approaches the
| | | | |river.
| | | | |
Gemmueiya |6 | 17 |Gemmueiya | |
district | | |district.—A | |
| | |long, | |
| | |straggling | |
| | |village of | |
| | |that name and | |
| | |tribe; track | |
| | |passes on | |
| | |desert side of| |
| | |it some 3 | |
| | |miles from | |
| | |river; bank of| |
| | |river | |
| | |difficult of | |
| | |access for | |
| | |watering owing| |
| | |to mud; some | |
| | |bush and | |
| | |trees; low | |
| | |volcanic range| |
| | |to W. Well | |
| | |passed on | |
| | |right just | |
| | |before | |
| | |reaching | |
| | |village 30 | |
| | |feet deep, 7 | |
| | |feet diameter | |
| | |water good. A | |
| | |small tukl | |
| | |village just | |
| | |E. of hill and| |
| | |same name. | |
| | |Track as | |
| | |before. | |
| | | | |
Um Arda |3 | 20 | | |Scrub gets
| | | | |thicker on R.
| | | | |bank.
| | | | |
| | | |Low flat |
| | | |island. About 9|
| | | |miles long, |
| | | |trees S. end. |
| | | |Island banks |
| | | |inhabited by |
| | | |Jaalin and |
| | | |Hassania. |
| | | | |
Haneik |7 | 27 | |S. end of El |
| | | |Arda island. |
| | | | |
Jebel Auli|1 |28 _45_ |Track | |Road runs round
| | |unchanged, | |E. of Jebel
| | |sparse bush on| |Auli, a steep
| | |either flank; | |bare volcanic
| | |good camping | |rock about 100
| | |ground (at low| |feet high. Good
| | |Nile) and | |camping ground
| | |watering place| |for a brigade or
| | | | |less under the
| | | | |mountain.
| | | | |Another track
| | | | |leads S.E. from
| | | | |here.
| | | | |
Gar El |2 | 30 | | |Road runs ½ to ¾
Nabi | | | | |mile from river
| | | | |through open
| | | | |bush to Gar El
| | | | |Nabi; village
| | | | |mostly
| | | | |destroyed.
| | | | |
Jebel |2 | 32 |Jebel Mendera | |Bank sandy.
Mandara | | |or Mandara. | |
| | |Well defined | |
| | |table hill 2 | |
| | |miles from L. | |
| | |bank, road | |
| | |passes spur of| |
| | |it. Bank | |
| | |swampy | |
| | | | |
Wad El |2 | 34 |Village to |Water channel 3|Road crossed by
Kereil | | |west of track |miles broad at |small khors and
| | | |high Nile; keep|in places by
| | | |to right bank |cultivation in
| | | | |zeribas. River
| | | | |invisible from
| | | | |it.
| | | | |
Mohammedia|1 | 35 | |Many small |Village; also
| | | |islands |called Wad El
| | | | |Kereil.
| | | | |
Jebel |5 | 40 |Low hill. |Sand and swamp |Road runs
Barima or | | |Watering place|alternate on |through sand
Breima | | |1½ miles from |both banks with|hills ½ mile
(Wad | | |track. Latter |trees growing |from river and
Belal) | | |crosses khors |into the water.|then closes to
| | |at intervals |Rocks appear at|river at Wad
| | |along route; |low Nile to W. |Belal; good
| | |good, some |of channel just|watering place
| | |bush and |before reaching|and wood station
| | |trees, and |the Jebel |for steamers.
| | |sand dunes | |
| | | | |
Abu Hagar |12|52 _82_ |Dense scrub |Water channel |
| | |just before |1¾ miles. |
| | |reaching El | |
| | |Hagar or Abu | |
| | |Hagar. Good | |
| | |camping ground| |
| | |¼ mile to W. | |
| | |in desert. | |
| | |Watering place| |
| | |somewhat | |
| | |difficult of | |
| | |access at | |
| | |river; pools | |
| | |near desert | |
| | |after high | |
| | |Nile. For 2 | |
| | |miles track | |
| | |continues | |
| | |good, then | |
| | |becomes a | |
| | |single camel | |
| | |track, | |
| | |necessitating | |
| | |marching in | |
| | |file through | |
| | |very thick | |
| | |bush. The | |
| | |track to Homra| |
| | |(80 miles) and| |
| | |El Obeid | |
| | |gradually | |
| | |branches off | |
| | |S.W. from the | |
| | |river track | |
| | | | |
El Geteina|3 |55 _88_ | | |Large village
| | | | |divided into 2
| | | | |parts, clean,
| | | | |good market,
| | | | |some “Shaduf”
| | | | |cultivation.
| | | | |Headquarters of
| | | | |the Geteina
| | | | |district. P.T.O.
| | | | |Country flat;
| | | | |Danagla Arabs.
| | | | |Road runs
| | | | |through village
| | | | |here about 200
| | | | |yards from
| | | | |river. Good
| | | | |going, chiefly
| | | | |through sand
| | | | |dunes and
| | | | |scattered bush.
| | | | |
Salahia |4 | 59 |El Salahia |South of this |E. bank open,
| | |district. |thick thorn |high, and sandy.
| | |Swamp or |bush commences.|Sand hills come
| | |cracked mud |From here to El|down to the
| | |near river |Dueim (66 |water’s edge.
| | |bank. Much |miles) the same|
| | |dura in Wadi |scenery |
| | |Sadik |continues. |
| | | |Cultivation is |
| | | |limited to the |
| | | |islands and |
| | | |foreshores. As |
| | | |the water |
| | | |falls, large |
| | | |mud flats in |
| | | |the centre of |
| | | |the river |
| | | |appear. To |
| | | |these the |
| | | |people transfer|
| | | |their cattle |
| | | |and belongings,|
| | | |build “tukls” |
| | | |and set up |
| | | |shadufs. The |
| | | |soil on these |
| | | |flats is good, |
| | | |and rich crops |
| | | |are produced. |
| | | |As the majority|
| | | |of these |
| | | |islands are not|
| | | |exposed before |
| | | |the month of |
| | | |February, |
| | | |artificial |
| | | |irrigation for |
| | | |the crops is |
| | | |necessary. |
| | | |These quickly |
| | | |ripen under the|
| | | |hot sun, and |
| | | |are, as a rule,|
| | | |harvested in |
| | | |May. The river |
| | | |varies in width|
| | | |from 700 to |
| | | |2,000 yards. |
| | | |The west bank |
| | | |throughout this|
| | | |reach is |
| | | |fringed with |
| | | |acacias, and, |
| | | |at high Nile, |
| | | |is flooded for |
| | | |a long distance|
| | | |as the left |
| | | |bank is very |
| | | |low and |
| | | |shelving |
| | | | |
Dazira and|4 | 63 |Old salt | |
El | | |works, a mile | |
Debeiker | | |E. of track. | |
| | | | |
El Alaga |7 | 70 |Good camping |El Alaga |
| | |ground and |district both |
| | |watering |banks. |
| | |place. For 3 | |
| | |miles track | |
| | |leads through | |
| | |dura | |
| | |cultivation, | |
| | |then good road| |
| | |near river | |
| | |bank | |
| | | | |
El Gerazi |6 | 76 | |Water channel 2|Low sand hills
or Garrasa| | | |to 3 miles |with Danagla
| | | |broad for next |village of
| | | |40 miles. Vast |Gerazi to S. of
| | | |quantities of |them. People
| | | |water birds of |poor, no market.
| | | |all sorts |Good meshra.
| | | |inhabit the |Road runs from
| | | |Nile almost |here through 3
| | | |from Khartoum |or 4 miles of
| | | |upwards, and |dura land ½ to ¼
| | | |large numbers |mile from river,
| | | |of crocodiles |then along sand
| | | |are visible, |hills near river
| | | |one or more on |to Wad Shalai.
| | | |nearly every |
| | | |mud bank |
| | | | |
Wad Shalai|6 |82 _132_| | |Village of
| | | | |conical thatched
| | | | |houses; banks
| | | | |become drier;
| | | | |series of
| | | | |villages from
| | | | |here along right
| | | | |bank at 2 to 5
| | | | |miles interval.
| | | | |Road runs for
| | | | |about 3½ miles
| | | | |through sand
| | | | |dunes close to
| | | | |river, then
| | | | |gradually leaves
| | | | |river, and
| | | | |passes through
| | | | |dura ground
| | | | |about 1½ miles
| | | | |from it.
| | | | |
Wad Nimr |2 | 84 |A long | |
| | |straggling | |
| | |village and | |
| | |name of the | |
| | |district. Good| |
| | |watering place| |
| | |5 miles S., | |
| | |the desert | |
| | |road joins the| |
| | |river road. | |
| | |Track runs | |
| | |some way from | |
| | |the river | |
| | |skirting the | |
| | |edge of the | |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | | | |
Wad El |5 | 89 | | |Large village on
Zaki | | | | |top of some sand
| | | | |hills, pop. 400
| | | | |to 500. From
| | | | |here 3 miles
| | | | |takes one to a
| | | | |few houses about
| | | | |2 miles from the
| | | | |river on some
| | | | |sand hills
| | | | |called Sayif,
| | | | |one of three
| | | | |villages of that
| | | | |name. Road goes
| | | | |on over cotton
| | | | |soil for 4
| | | | |miles, then
| | | | |crosses sand
| | | | |hill ridge for
| | | | |about 1 mile and
| | | | |descends to a
| | | | |plain close to
| | | | |river where
| | | | |another village,
| | | | |also called
| | | | |Sayif, is seen 2
| | | | |miles inland.
| | | | |
El Rahawat|1 | 90 |On left bank |Commencement of|
| | |nearly |Tura El Khadra |
| | |opposite Wad |(Green Canal) |
| | |El Zaki is El |district. |
| | |Rahawat | |
| | |watering | |
| | |place, good | |
| | |camping | |
| | |ground. | |
| | |Leaving this | |
| | |village the | |
| | |track on | |
| | |desert side of| |
| | |the | |
| | |cultivation | |
| | |should be | |
| | |followed. | |
| | |Three miles on| |
| | |sand dunes are| |
| | |passed on R., | |
| | |and behind | |
| | |them is the | |
| | |canal, some 20| |
| | |miles long, | |
| | |500 yards | |
| | |broad and 6 | |
| | |feet deep. | |
| | |(Feb’y.) | |
| | | | |
Sayif |5 | 95 | | |Good meshra and
| | | | |ferry to other
| | | | |bank; good
| | | | |building and
| | | | |cultivation. The
| | | | |road from here
| | | | |to Dabasi Meshra
| | | | |is over cotton
| | | | |soil with low
| | | | |scrub on river
| | | | |side.
| | | | |
Tura El |5 | 100 |Four miles | |Zif village.
Suk and | | |from river | |Hashaba a mile
Zif | | | | |to the E.
| | | | |
Dabasi |6 | 106 | | |Khalifa had big
Meshra, or| | | | |grain depôt
Dobasi | | | | |here, ruins of
| | | | |which can still
| | | | |be seen. Ferry.
| | | | |Road runs
| | | | |through sand
| | | | |hills ½ mile
| | | | |from river to
| | | | |Dabasi.
| | | | |
Dabasi |1½| 107½ |Telegraph line| |Fair-sized
| | _173_ |to El Obeid | |village, 400 to
| | |branches off | |500 inhabitants
| | |here from | |on road. From
| | |Dueim line at | |Dabasi to
| | |Minedrib | |Shabasha road
| | | | |remains close to
| | | | |bank, thence for
| | | | |next 10 miles 1
| | | | |to 1½ miles
| | | | |distant.
| | | | |
Amara and |1½| 109 |About 10 miles|Island Manir |Amara village
Jebel | | _175_ |west of left | |(or Um Arda).
Arashkol | | |bank is the |Long, flat, |
| | |high rugged |well-wooded |
| | |mass of Jebel |island opposite|
| | |Arashkol, with|Amara. |
| | |several | |
| | |distinct | |
| | |peaks. | |
| | |Volcanic. | |
| | |Chief peak | |
| | |named J. Abd | |
| | |el Daim | |
| | | | |
Shabasha |3 | 112 |Good camping |A ferry |
| | |ground and |connects |
| | |excellent |Shabasha El |
| | |watering |Gharb with |
| | |place. Village|Shabasha El |
| | |under spur |Sharg (on the |
| | |from main mass|east of the |
| | |of Jebel |river). |
| | |Arashkol. | |
| | |Track | |
| | |continues | |
| | |through | |
| | |cultivation. | |
| | |Good going | |
| | | | |
Ghobeisha |9 | 121 | | |The road closes
| | | | |to river at
| | | | |Meshra.
| | | | |Ghobeisha
| | | | |village. Good
| | | | |place for camp
| | | | |and watering.
| | | | |Road crosses
| | | | |open plain with
| | | | |high grass;
| | | | |cotton soil;
| | | | |probably under
| | | | |water at high
| | | | |Nile (?)
| | | | |
El Dueim |4 | 125 |Town of |Channel narrows|Road opposite
| | _201_ |fluctuating |to 1 mile or |Dueim leads to
| | |population of |less |Maatuk, Managil,
| | |about 7,000 | |and Wad Medani.
| | |inhabitants; | |
| | |disembarking | |
| | |place for El | |
| | |Obeid. Head | |
| | |Quarters of | |
| | |the White Nile| |
| | |Province and | |
| | |residence of | |
| | |the Governor. | |
| | |El Dueim is | |
| | |developing | |
| | |into an | |
| | |important | |
| | |trade centre; | |
| | |large market; | |
| | |principal mart| |
| | |for export | |
| | |Kordofan gum. | |
| | |Substantial | |
| | |Government | |
| | |offices. | |
| | |Starting point| |
| | |of Sudan | |
| | |transport | |
| | |service for El| |
| | |Obeid. The | |
| | |plain all | |
| | |round is open | |
| | |and the | |
| | |locality is | |
| | |fairly | |
| | |healthy. Up- | |
| | |stream from El| |
| | |Dueim some | |
| | |fine strips of| |
| | |cultivation | |
| | |occur along | |
| | |the foreshore.| |
| | |Behind this | |
| | |belt grows a | |
| | |fringe of | |
| | |acacias, and | |
| | |beyond lies a | |The east bank is
| | |rolling | |covered with low
| | |steppe. Action| |bush and a
| | |here 23.8.83; | |little
| | |small Egyptian| |cultivation.
| | |garrison | |Track leads N.E.
| | |repulsed | |(20 miles) to
| | |Mahdists. | |Maatuk.
| | | | |
Hassania |5 | 130 | |Island |Half a mile on
Island (N.| | | |(sometimes |Meshra Ghayafa.
end) | | | |under water) |Good camping
| | | | |ground and
| | | | |watering place;
| | | | |sandhill near
| | | | |Meshra. Sand
| | | | |fairly thick;
| | | | |cotton soil.
| | | | |
Denegila |5 | 135 | | |Village west of
| | | | |road opposite
| | | | |island of same
| | | | |name, chief
| | | | |village of which
| | | | |is Mahbale. 1½
| | | | |miles further is
| | | | |village of Abu
| | | | |Gurun, north of
| | | | |road where it
| | | | |crosses track to
| | | | |Um Saneita. Dura
| | | | |crops in this
| | | | |district.
| | | | |
Um Gar |3 | 138 |Um Gar |Um Gar Island. |
| | |village. Good | |
| | |watering place| |
| | |and camping | |
| | |ground. Track | |
| | |leads 5 miles | |
| | |to opposite | |
| | |Kawa, through | |
| | |bush and trees| |
| | | | |
Meshra El |5 | 143 | |Small floating |Thick bush close
Hella | | | |pieces of |to river to
| | | |_sudd_ begin to|Meshra El Hella.
| | | |appear |Road runs close
| | | | |to river to
| | | | |Kawa.
| | | | |
Kawa |3 | 146 |Wad Abu Rul, | |Large village,
| | _236_ |opposite Kawa.| |500 inhabitants.
| | |Thick bush and| |
| | |trees on | |Residence of
| | |banks. Gum | |British
| | |depôt | |Inspector and
| | |belonging to | |Mamur. Wooding
| | |Kordofan | |station for
| | |province. | |steamers. Post
| | | | |and Telegraph
Lakadawia |— | — | |Wooded island |Office. Road
| | | |close by, with |hence to Sennar.
| | | |north end |Kawa is built on
| | | |opposite, Kawa;|high land and
| | | |about 4 miles |bush is open all
| | | |long; richly |round it.
| | | |cultivated with|Inhabitants
| | | |a variety of |mixture Jaalin,
| | | |crops, |Hassania, and
| | | |comprising |Danagla. The
| | | |wheat, barley, |houses are
| | | |onions, lubia, |mostly round
| | | |bamia, and |with thatched
| | | |dukhn. Above |conical roofs.
| | | |this the forest|Large market,
| | | |belt covers |neat Government
| | | |both banks of |offices. Boat
| | | |the river, and |building has
| | | |is often |been started;
| | | |flooded for a |ferry. Track
| | | |great distance |from here
| | | |on either side |northwards (31
| | | | |miles) to
| | | | |Ma’atuk.
| | | | |
| | | | |The road runs ½
| | | | |mile from river
| | | | |through dura
| | | | |cultivation, and
| | | | |then over grassy
| | | | |plains past
| | | | |villages of Abu
| | | | |Hindi and Fum
| | | | |Omer to
| | | | |Shaggara.
| | | | |
Meshra |8 | 154 | | |Meshra and
Shaggara, | | | | |village close to
Kenuz | | | | |river, thence
| | | | |past Kenuz with
| | | | |island opposite.
| | | | |The road runs ¼
| | | | |to ½ mile from
| | | | |river. Hassan
| | | | |Allob on banks
| | | | |with village
| | | | |called Dabus
| | | | |opposite, still
| | | | |through dura
| | | | |country to Nur
| | | | |El Daim.
| | | | |
Hassan |2 | 156 |Village. | |
Alob and | | | | |
Dabus | | | | |
| | | | |
Nur El |3 | 159 | | |Large village
Daeim | | | | |and police
| | | | |station; 1 mile
| | | | |distant from
| | | | |river.
| | | | |
Khor Gusab|1 | 160 |Watering | |
(?) | | |place. Road | |
| | |now leads | |
| | |through dense | |
| | |bush; river | |
| | |unapproachable| |
| | |till Um Turan.| |
| | | | |
Sheikh’s |2 | 162 | | |Tomb of Sheikh
Tomb | | | | |Nur El Taib;
| | | | |three large
| | | | |trees, ruined
| | | | |mud and brick
| | | | |buildings and
| | | | |some flags mark
| | | | |it. Road bends
| | | | |due south to
| | | | |Shawal.
| | | | |
Shawal, |1 | 163 |Abu Lahm at |North end of |Village right.
Abu Lahm, | | _262_ |point of curve|Aba Island. |Three
and Aba | | | |Take western |conspicuous
Island (N.| | | |channel. Island|single hills
end) | | | |cultivated in |(Jebel Tuema?)
| | | |places, some 27|about 20 miles
| | | |miles in |south-east and a
| | | |length, belt of|fourth peaked
| | | |trees along |hill rather
| | | |river’s edge, |south of these
| | | |but interior |(Jebel Buyut?).
| | | |only thinly |Country on right
| | | |wooded. Higher |open bush,
| | | |at south than |slightly
| | | |at north end. |undulating, good
| | | |Inhabited by a |sandy watering
| | | |few Shilluks. |places on river.
| | | |From this point|
| | | |the character |
| | | |of both banks |
| | | |changes. The |
| | | |sand dunes seen|
| | | |lower down the |
| | | |river have been|
| | | |gradually |
| | | |disappearing, |
| | | |and black |
| | | |cotton soil now|
| | | |comes down to |
| | | |the water’s |
| | | |edge, which is |
| | | |fringed at low |
| | | |Nile by reeds, |
| | | |and by bunches |
| | | |of sudd which |
| | | |have floated |
| | | |down from the |
| | | |Bahr El Jebel. |
| | | |Beyond the |
| | | |fringe of are |
| | | |what are at |
| | | |high Nile |
| | | |grassy swamps, |
| | | |but at low Nile|
| | | |are dry and |
| | | |excellent |
| | | |grazing |
| | | |grounds. Behind|
| | | |this swampy |
| | | |ground is a |
| | | |belt of fine |
| | | |sant and other |
| | | |acacias. From |
| | | |here to |
| | | |Jebelein at low|
| | | |Nile thousands |
| | | |of sheep and |
| | | |goats and herds|
| | | |of cattle are |
| | | |seen grazing on|
| | | |either bank. |
| | | |These belong to|
| | | |the tribes |
| | | |living inland, |
| | | |where at this |
| | | |time of year |
| | | |water and |
| | | |grazing is |
| | | |scarce. |
| | | | |
Um Turan |2 | 165 |Watering | |
(?) | | |place. Road | |
| | |improves; good| |
| | |going along | |
| | |bank till | |
| | |Fachi Shoya. | |
| | | | |
Malaha |1 | 166 | | |Meshra Malaha
| | | | |and village
| | | | |Malaha; salt
| | | | |works. Road
| | | | |enters scrub;
| | | | |bush country to
| | | | |Marabia.
| | | | |
Marabia |8 | 174 | | |Action 29.4.83;
| | | | |Hicks Pasha
| | | | |defeated
| | | | |Dervishes. Good
| | | | |camping place on
| | | | |high ground,
| | | | |where there are
| | | | |ruins of an old
| | | | |fort and brick
| | | | |buildings. Road
| | | | |leaves river,
| | | | |crosses a grassy
| | | | |plain, probably
| | | | |under water at
| | | | |high Nile, past
| | | | |village Torba
| | | | |(186) east of
| | | | |road, and turns
| | | | |towards river.
| | | | |
Mahdi’s |1 | 175 | |Large tree on |
Place | | | |river bank; |
| | | |ruins of mud |
| | | |houses. |
| | | | |
Fachi |1 | 176 |Starting point|The banks on |
Shoya | | _283_ |for Sherkeila |both sides now |
| | |and South |begin to be |
| | |Kordofan. |fringed with |
| | |Country open. |reeds, the |
| | |Good camping |strip extending|
| | |and watering |gradually in |
| | |place. Village|width from a |
| | |deserted. Base|few yards to |
| | |of two |400 or 500 |
| | |expeditions in|yards. Behind |
| | |1899. |this are fine |
| | | |sant trees, |
| | | |etc. |
| | | | |
Hesai |2 | 178 |Thick trees |Between Aba |
Island | | |and bush, up |Island and |
| | |to 1½ miles in|right bank. |
| | |width, |Mangara village|
| | |commence |on Aba Island. |
| | | | |
El Alob |7 | 185 |Village; track| |
| | |leads S.W. to | |
| | |Gedid (33 | |
| | |miles). | |
| | | | |
Zeinuba |6 | 191 | |El Khema |“Manjera” (boat
and Aba | | | |district both |yard) of Zeinuba
Island (S.| | | |banks. Shilluk |under clump of
end) | | | |village at |large trees.
| | | |south end of |
| | | |Aba Island. |
| | | | |
Goz Abu |1 | 192 |Track leads |Wurelat Island,|Headquarters of
Guma and | | _309_ |S.W. (32 |opposite Goz |district of that
Wurelat | | |miles) to |Abu Guma. Large|name. Telegraph
Island | | |Gedid |grass islands |and Post Office.
| | | |make their |The telegraph
| | |Gum collecting|appearance in |line from Sennar
| | |station on |the river |(Blue Nile)
| | |L.B. |(January). The |across the
| | | |eastern channel|Gezira reaches
| | | |opposite Goz |the White Nile
| | | |Abu Guma is |here and
| | | |shallow, and |continues
| | | |dries up at low|southwards. East
| | | |Nile, when a |bank heavy grass
| | | |landing has to |with a few
| | | |be effected |acacias. The
| | | |either 2 miles |east channel
| | | |above the town |here is some 500
| | | |or on the west |yards wide. The
| | | |bank of the |north and south
| | | |island opposite|road runs ½ to 1
| | | |the town. |mile from river.
| | | | |Line of villages
| | | | |on high ground
| | | | |4½ miles from
| | | | |river. Good
| | | | |grazing; 400
| | | | |inhabitants;
| | | | |Tukls. Little
| | | | |trade. Greek
| | | | |merchants have
| | | | |collecting
| | | | |station during
| | | | |the gum season
| | | | |on the left
| | | | |bank, which
| | | | |belongs to
| | | | |Kordofan.
| | | | |
El Khema |7 | 199 | | |Road joins river
| | | | |at El Khema
| | | | |Police Post.
| | | | |Many birds and
| | | | |monkeys.
| | | | |
Abbassia |1 | 200 | | |Colony of old
Gedida | | _322_ | | |Sudanese
(Black | | | | |soldiers. East
Colony) | | | | |bank reed strip
| | | | |thinner than
| | | | |west.
| | | | |
Abu Zeid |8 | 208 |Abu Zeid |Passage only |Police Post,
| | _333_ |village. Bank |practicable at |east bank.
| | |continues |low water. The |Scattered trees
| | |fringed by |Abu Zeid ford |and bush, 1 to
| | |several |is a most |1½ miles in
| | |hundred yards |serious |width, commence
| | |of reeds. |obstacle to |again.
| | |Baggara Selim |navigation. At |
| | |country |this point, for|
| | |begins; |a length of |
| | |sparsely |some 4 miles, |
| | |inhabited, |the river |
| | |with thick |spreads out in |
| | |bush and trees|a broad and |
| | |behind. Good |extremely |
| | |game country |shallow sheet, |
| | |begins |at low Nile |
| | | |about 1,200 |
| | | |yards in width.|
| | | |Upon the bed, |
| | | |masses of what |
| | | |are called |
| | | |“fresh-water |
| | | |oysters” |
| | | |collect. The |
| | | |broken shells |
| | | |form, with a |
| | | |shingle, a kind|
| | | |of |
| | | |“conglomerate,”|
| | | |almost as hard |
| | | |as rock, and |
| | | |which nothing |
| | | |but a specially|
| | | |adapted dredger|
| | | |could remove. |
| | | |In March and |
| | | |April, in very |
| | | |low years, the |
| | | |depth of water |
| | | |here is in |
| | | |places not more|
| | | |than 1 foot 5 |
| | | |inches to 1 |
| | | |foot 8 inches. |
| | | |The forest is |
| | | |very thick on |
| | | |both shores, |
| | | |and on the west|
| | | |a wide belt of |
| | | |swamp and grass|
| | | |renders landing|
| | | |very difficult.|
| | | |The papyrus |
| | | |reed is first |
| | | |seen at this |
| | | |place, and |
| | | |occasional |
| | | |ambach. |
| | | |Floating |
| | | |patches of |
| | | |_sudd_ are met |
| | | |with in the |
| | | |channel, as |
| | | |well as many |
| | | |permanent large|
| | | |grass islands, |
| | | |the largest |
| | | |being those of |
| | | |Nuago and |
| | | |Musran. |
| | | |Hippopotami |
| | | |begin to appear|
| | | |in considerable|
| | | |numbers |
| | | | |
Masran |1 | 209 | |North end of |Road keeps close
Island (N.| | | |island. East |to river bank.
end) | | | |channel often |
| | | |much blocked |
| | | |with _sudd_; |
| | | |only a narrow |
| | | |passage of 50 |
| | | |yards being |
| | | |visible at |
| | | |times. Island |
| | | |thickly wooded |
| | | | |
Danko |4 | 213 | | |Shilluk village.
Shush | | | | |
| | | | |
Azalet |9 | 221 | |Rocks across |
Rocks | | | |main western |
| | | |channel. |
| | | |Dangerous at |
| | | |low Nile. |
| | | | |
Danko |6 | 227 | |Shilluk village|
Selim | | | |on Masran |
| | | |Island. Rocks |
| | | |in middle of |
| | | |stream; |
| | | |dangerous to |
| | | |navigation, |
| | | |especially at |
| | | |night. Here the|
| | | |reef runs right|
| | | |across the |
| | | |river channel, |
| | | |and the only |
| | | |method of |
| | | |passing safely |
| | | |at low water is|
| | | |to steer a |
| | | |course like the|
| | | |letter S. Many |
| | | |of the rocks |
| | | |are below the |
| | | |water surface, |
| | | |and their |
| | | |presence is |
| | | |only indicated |
| | | |by the ripples |
| | | |which they |
| | | |cause. |
| | | | |
Meshra |4 | 231 | | |Meshra to Masran
Zubeid | | | | |Island. Hence
| | | | |road winds
| | | | |through thick
| | | | |scrub, with
| | | | |patches of open
| | | | |country, to the
| | | | |ford at
| | | | |Jebelein.
| | | | |
Masran |5 | 236 | |Shilluk village|
Island (S.| | | |at southern |
end) | | | |point. Careful |
| | | |navigation |
| | | |necessary |
| | | | |
Jebelein |2 | 238 |Two roads lead|River about 500|The boundary
| | _383_ |north- |yards wide; |between the
| | |westwards from|rocks showing |White Nile and
| | |opposite |in places. Up- |Upper Nile
| | |Jebelein to |stream of |Provinces
| | |Gedid, etc. |Jebelein, for |belonging itself
| | |Baggara Selim |many miles, the|to the Upper
| | |live on left |country is most|Nile (Kodok)
| | |bank |dreary and |Province.
| | | |monotonous. A |Jebelein is
| | | |fringe of |easily
| | | |forest on |recognisable by
| | | |either bank |the five
| | | |marks the |peculiarly-
| | | |higher land. |shaped granite
| | | |Between this |peaks which rise
| | | |the river winds|abruptly from
| | | |through reedy |the plain on the
| | | |islands, masses|eastern shore.
| | | |of swamp grass |The highest of
| | | |and floating |these peaks is
| | | |weed. A series |perhaps 600
| | | |of islands now |feet. The
| | | |begins. Dinka |nearest is 1
| | | |country right. |mile from the
| | | | |river, and the
| | | | |farthest 3
| | | | |miles. They form
| | | | |an amphitheatre
| | | | |of rocky hills;
| | | | |two distinct
| | | | |masses, with a
| | | | |third hill to
| | | | |the east of the
| | | | |northern mass.
| | | | |Grassy plain
| | | | |between north
| | | | |and south
| | | | |ridges. Village
| | | | |on east of south
| | | | |ridge. The
| | | | |forest on the
| | | | |east bank is
| | | | |about a quarter
| | | | |of a mile in
| | | | |width, and
| | | | |extremely thick.
| | | | |Behind it
| | | | |stretches an
| | | | |endless expanse
| | | | |of prickly
| | | | |grass, some 3
| | | | |feet high,
| | | | |interspersed
| | | | |with clumps of
| | | | |mimosas. Lions
| | | | |and Tiang fairly
| | | | |plentiful. The
| | | | |soil is light
| | | | |and friable, and
| | | | |much of it must
| | | | |be flooded
| | | | |during the rainy
| | | | |season. One or
| | | | |two ravines
| | | | |serve as drains
| | | | |to this area.
| | | | |The ruins of
| | | | |Ahmed Fedil’s
| | | | |“Deim” are still
| | | | |visible here.
| | | | |This tract once
| | | | |formed part of
| | | | |the Dinka
| | | | |country, but is
| | | | |now quite
| | | | |uninhabited,
| | | | |most of the
| | | | |Dinkas having
| | | | |migrated to the
| | | | |south to escape
| | | | |the raids of the
| | | | |slave-traders.
| | | | |At this point
| | | | |the “serut” fly
| | | | |makes its first
| | | | |appearance, and
| | | | |remains an
| | | | |unwelcome guest
| | | | |throughout the
| | | | |journey to
| | | | |Kodok. This
| | | | |brown fly, which
| | | | |is about the
| | | | |size of a small
| | | | |wasp, has a
| | | | |sharp stab, and
| | | | |if allowed to
| | | | |settle speedily
| | | | |draws blood. Not
| | | | |poisonous. Road
| | | | |200 to 400 yards
| | | | |from river.
| | | | |Massacre of
| | | | |Egyptian troops
| | | | |by Mahdists in
| | | | |1882.
| | | | |
Meshra |3 | 241 | | |Meshra and
Sherif | | | | |camping ground
| | | | |good; name
| | | | |applies to
| | | | |country for next
| | | | |2 miles. Road
| | | | |runs through
| | | | |thickish thorn
| | | | |jungle; path
| | | | |good.
| | | | |
Bulli |6 | 247 | |North end of |Path keeps close
Island | | | |Bulli Island. |to east channel,
| | | |Western channel|which is nearly
| | | |100 yards |dry in April and
| | | |broad; eastern |May.
| | | |one bad. Narrow|
| | | |island 100 to |
| | | |200 yards wide,|
| | | |covered with |
| | | |grass and |
| | | |rushes |
| | | | |
Debba[33] |12| 259 | |Western channel|Sheikh’s tomb.
El Goda | | | |bad |Large range of
| | | | |hills west.
| | | | |Pointed peak
| | | | |about 30 miles
| | | | |east. Perhaps
| | | | |Abu Gurud (?).
| | | | |
Gamus |17| 276 | |South end of |
| | | |Bulli Island. |
| | | |Western channel|
| | | |about 80 yards |
| | | |broad. |
| | | | |
Karshawal |2 | 278 | | |Small Selim
| | | | |village, with
| | | | |old camp inland
| | | | |2 miles to
| | | | |south-east.
| | | | |Selim and Dinka
| | | | |Meshra.
| | | | |
Agang |18| 296 | | |Selim and Dinka
| | | | |villages about 3
| | | | |miles inland.
| | | | |
Renk |2 | 298 | |Thick forest on|Road closes to
| | _479_ | |both banks. |river.
| | | |From Renk to |Headquarters of
| | | |Ahmed Agha |Renk District.
| | | |there is no |Government
| | | |change in the |offices and
| | | |monotony of the|residence of
| | | |scenery. The |British
| | | |west bank is |Inspector. Good
| | | |very flat and |sandy meshra,
| | | |low, and the |open ground for
| | | |east bank is |camping large
| | | |covered with |force. Telegraph
| | | |thorn jungle, |and Post Office.
| | | |plenty of trees|Inhabitants,
| | | |and heavy grass|Dinkas and Selim
| | | | |Arabs, who own
| | | | |sheep, goats,
| | | | |and the former
| | | | |cattle. Thick
| | | | |forest.
| | | | |Mosquitoes very
| | | | |troublesome here
| | | | |after sunset.
| | | | |Action here
| | | | |15.9.98. Dervish
| | | | |“deim” bombarded
| | | | |and taken, and a
| | | | |steamer
| | | | |captured. Track
| | | | |to Gule and
| | | | |Roseires
| | | | |branches off
| | | | |here (_vide_
| | | | |Vol. 2).
| | | | |
Khor |2 | 300 | |The river is |Road leads
Deleib | | | |fringed with a |south-east to
| | | |belt of reeds |Khor Deleib and
| | | |on either bank,|runs along an
| | | |varying from 10|eastern branch
| | | |to 200 yards |of the Nile
| | | |broad. Thick |named Gaza El
| | | |forest both |Abiad. Village
Warrit, or|10| 310 | |sides. Much |of Sheikh Bakhit
Loingwin, | | | |bird life. |Niok (released
and Dabba | | | |There is a ford|slave from
Dungit | | | |across both |Cairo). South of
| | | |channels here |here people
| | | |(Ahmed Fedil |mostly Selim
| | | |crossed in |Baggara, living
| | | |1898), but it |in temporary
| | | |is rarely |encampments:
| | | |practicable |about 1 mile
| | | |except at low |inland for
| | | |Nile, and not |grazing.
| | | |always even |
| | | |then. Northern |
| | | |end of Wad |
| | | |Dakona Island; |
| | | |take western |
| | | |channel. A few |
| | | |Shilluk |
| | | |villages on |
| | | |this island |
| | | |formed by White|
| | | |Nile and Khor |
| | | |Gaza El Abiad. |
| | | |This khor at |
| | | |high Nile is |
| | | |probably 300 to|
| | | |600 yards wide,|
| | | |but at low Nile|
| | | |nowhere more |
| | | |than 300 yards;|
| | | |fordable nearly|
| | | |everywhere. |
| | | |Many wildfowl |
| | | |on it |
| | | | |
Um Hedeida|10| 320 | |Khor decreases |Track follows
| | | |till at Um |eastern bank of
| | | |Hedeida water |khor. Country
| | | |stagnant and in|covered with 3
| | | |small quantity |feet high grass
| | | |(February). |where not burnt.
| | | |Elephants drink|Scattered bush
| | | |here regularly,|“Heglig” and
| | | |but only at |“Hashab”; no
| | | |night. They |cultivation.
| | | |pass the day |
| | | |about 20 miles |Water reappears
| | | |inland in a |in khor. Selim
| | | |forest of dense|encampments east
| | | |kittr bush |of track.
| | | |which the Arabs|
| | | |call their |
| | | |“beit” or |
| | | |house. |
| | | | |
Leungtom |6 | 326 | |South of Wad |Meshra. Road
(D), or | | | |Dakona Island |approaches Nile
Domaia (or| | | | |for first time
El Wat | | | | |since Renk.
(A)) | | | | |About 1½ miles
| | | | |inland are
| | | | |villages of
| | | | |Kolang El Wat
| | | | |under Sheikh
| | | | |Salem Banga
| | | | |(also released
| | | | |slave from
| | | | |Cairo). Country
| | | | |fairly open.
| | | | |Track follows
| | | | |east bank of a
| | | | |khor. On west of
| | | | |track is a
| | | | |fringe of thick
| | | | |“talh.” To the
| | | | |east country is
| | | | |fairly open.
| | | | |
Debba El |5 | 331 |Dom Palms on |Two islands, |Commencement of
Zawia or | | |left bank as |western channel|Nabagaia
Zawa | | |well as on |80 yards; |District.
| | |right |shallow at low |Island. Swamp
| | | |Nile |grass and trees.
| | | | |First “dom”
| | | | |palms are met
| | | | |here.
| | | | |
Anok |4 | 335 | | |Village of
| | | | |Agweim Dinkas
| | | | |passed about ¾
| | | | |mile to east on
| | | | |slight
| | | | |elevation. Thick
| | | | |“talh” bush on
| | | | |either side of
| | | | |track. Village
| | | | |depends on river
| | | | |for water.
| | | | |
| | | | |Tereiba or Allal
| | | | |(D) district
| | | | |commences.
| | | | |
Debba |9 | 344 | | |Shade and good
Ibrahim | | | | |water in khor.
Sharak | | | | |Good midday
| | | | |camping ground.
| | | | |Jebel Ahmed Agha
| | | | |visible. From
| | | | |here on bush
| | | | |unpleasantly
| | | | |thick. Elephants
| | | | |and much game.
| | | | |
El Ragal |1 | 345 | | |Track branches
(A) | | | | |off east to
| | | | |Dinka village or
Senagul |4 | 349 | | |district of Kash
(D) | | | | |Kash (10 to 20
| | | | |miles from
| | | | |river?). Bush
| | | | |ceases to annoy.
| | | | |Elephants drink
| | | | |here.
| | | | |
Debba Abu |1 | 350 | | |Two main khors,
Teiba | | | | |Sangeir (or Ran
| | | | |(D)) and
| | | | |Mesangeir (or
| | | | |Balantega (D)),
| | | | |from the
| | | | |Abyssinian hills
| | | | |near Kirin (?),
| | | | |join the river
| | | | |here. Difficult
| | | | |to cross July to
| | | | |November.
| | | | |
Meshra |2 | 352 |Meshra on left| |
Meteima | | |bank. | |
(Selim) | | | | |
| | | | |
Jebel |1 | 353 |Western | |A solitary hill,
Ahmed Agha| | _568_ |channel best; | |250 feet high
(or Biba | | |70 yards. | |and 250 yards
(D)) | | |Matmar | |from east to
| | |district | |west along its
| | |commences; | |crest; great
| | |then Mohadan | |landmark;
| | |Zeraf | |volcanic; a few
| | | | |small trees to
| | | | |summit; stands 2
| | | | |miles from the
| | | | |bank. From its
| | | | |summit is seen a
| | | | |vast tract of
| | | | |trees and grass
| | | | |broken by khors
| | | | |and swamps. J.
| | | | |Ulu and Gerauit
| | | | |visible 60-70
| | | | |miles to the
| | | | |east. No break
| | | | |in the level.
| | | | |Much game.
| | | | |Several Dinka
| | | | |and Selim
| | | | |villages in
| | | | |neighbourhood,
| | | | |but in rains the
| | | | |Dinkas retire
| | | | |inland, and the
| | | | |Arabs to
| | | | |districts north
| | | | |of fly limit.
| | | | |Dinka Sheikh
| | | | |Jok. Many “dom”
| | | | |palms around the
| | | | |Jebel. Water is
| | | | |obtainable from
| | | | |Khor Biba. It is
| | | | |1 mile east of
| | | | |river, which
| | | | |here bends
| | | | |south-west.
| | | | |About 22 miles
| | | | |south-south-east
| | | | |of the Jebel, on
| | | | |the Khor
| | | | |Mesangeir, lies
| | | | |the village of
| | | | |Akorwen in a
| | | | |large grassy
| | | | |plain. There is
| | | | |a track up K.
| | | | |Rau to Awitong
| | | | |and several
| | | | |other Dinka rain
| | | | |villages. Thence
| | | | |track goes to J.
| | | | |Ulu and Gerauit,
| | | | |thence to Kirin
| | | | |or J. Jerok.
| | | | |
Edor |4 | 357 |Much game: |Shilluk village|Opposite this
Gamoia. | | |buffalo, etc. |on north end of|island, for
| | | |Gezira Wad |about 6 miles,
| | | |Beiker |extends the
| | | | |district of
| | | | |Heglig or Tau.
| | | | |
Gamus |6 | 363 | |Shilluk village|
| | | |on the island. |
| | | |The sheikh, |
| | | |after whom the |
| | | |village is |
| | | |named, is a |
| | | |refugee from |
| | | |Cairo. |
| | | | |
Dabba |1 | 364 | | |Opposite south
Marbeit or| | | | |end of Wad
Shakab | | | | |Beiker. A grand
| | | | |game country.
| | | | |
Kwe |2 | 366 | | |A Dinka Farik.
| | | | |
Alumbal |1 | 367 | | |Sheikh Ajak’s
| | | | |village. Country
| | | | |round is fairly
| | | | |open, scattered
| | | | |“kittr” and
| | | | |“naal” grass.
| | | | |Both these
| | | | |villages are
| | | | |under Sheikh
| | | | |Salem Banga of
| | | | |El Wat. Track
| | | | |south-east to
| | | | |Akorwen, 22
| | | | |miles.
| | | | |
Meshra |1 | 368 |Meshra on left| |The meshra
Zeraf | | |bank also | |extends for
| | | | |about 2 miles,
| | | | |the road skirts
| | | | |the river and
| | | | |crosses a wide
| | | | |shallow khor
| | | | |called a
| | | | |“farlegh” or
| | | | |“rigl” by the
| | | | |Arabs. It is
| | | | |said to come
| | | | |from near
| | | | |Aturuk.
| | | | |
Rom or Um |4 | 372 | | |Dinka village
Gursan | | | | |named Rom, under
| | | | |Sheikh Jok. The
| | | | |district for the
| | | | |next 8 miles is
| | | | |known by the
| | | | |Arabs as Um
| | | | |Gursan. The
| | | | |track from Renk
| | | | |to here is, as a
| | | | |rule, excellent,
| | | | |but from here to
| | | | |Kaka bad;
| | | | |passing over
| | | | |hard-baked,
| | | | |badly cracked
| | | | |cotton soil.
| | | | |Splendid game
| | | | |district on both
| | | | |banks.
| | | | |
Ardeib El |6 | 378 |Ardeib El | |District of
Miriam | | |Miriam | |Tereiti begins.
| | |district on | |
| | |west bank | |
| | | | |
Meshra Rom|2 | 380 | | |Telegraph line
or Tereiti| | | | |passes here.
| | | | |Ageir district.
| | | | |
Fil and |3 | 383 | | |Ageir Dinka
Ajak Kwa | | | | |villages. Track
El Mango. | | | | |about 1 mile
| | | | |from river.
| | | | |Country open
| | | | |with patches of
| | | | |bush here and
| | | | |there. Track
| | | | |goes further
| | | | |from river; at
| | | | |knoll called
| | | | |Debba Shagerab
| | | | |road bends
| | | | |westwards and
| | | | |crosses a marshy
| | | | |(in rains) plain
| | | | |to Debeik,
| | | | |Sheikh Akol’s
| | | | |village, about 1
| | | | |mile from river
| | | | |opposite Kaka.
| | | | |
Kaka and |11| 391 |Kaka is one of|Many grass |On the eastern
Debeik | | _634_ |a collection |islands block |bank the swamp
| | |of Shilluk |the river |is perhaps 500
| | |villages |channel, which |yards wide
| | |spread along |averages from |behind it the
| | |several miles |300 to 400 |eternal belt of
| | |on the left |yards in width.|forest. Outside
| | |bank, 400 |Near Kodok |of this again
| | |yards from the|these grass |stretches an
| | |river. From |islands occur |endless plain of
| | |this point |in constant |high grass
| | |southward, the|succession, and|dotted with
| | |villages on |on the west |clumps of trees.
| | |the western |bank a double |This side of the
| | |bank of the |line of Shilluk|river is quite
| | |river are |villages is to |uninhabited,
| | |continuous. |be seen—the one|except by a few
| | |They cluster |on the edge of |Shilluks who
| | |along the |the swamp, and |cross the river
| | |ridge and |the other |for the purpose
| | |behind the |further inland.|of hunting or
| | |forest. In |Landing can |fishing.
| | |front of them |only |Occasional big
| | |extends a |occasionally be|khors run into
| | |broad belt of |effected on |the Nile on the
| | |swamp, mostly |either bank of |eastern bank.
| | |dry at low |the river |These
| | |Nile, varying | |depressions run
| | |in width from | |for many miles
| | |a few hundred | |inland, and
| | |yards to over | |their banks are
| | |a mile. | |covered with a
| | |Landing at any| |thick growth of
| | |point along | |thorny trees.
| | |this reach is | |
| | |impossible | |
| | |except at low | |
| | |Nile. The | |
| | |marsh is very | |
| | |deep, and | |
| | |covered with | |
| | |thick grass | |
| | |and reeds, | |
| | |through which | |
| | |nothing but | |
| | |hippopotami | |
| | |can force | |
| | |their way | |
| | | | |
Ajok |8 | 397 | | |Skirting an open
| | | | |marshy (in
| | | | |rains) plain on
| | | | |right and
| | | | |following line
| | | | |of trees on left
| | | | |Ajok (Dinka
| | | | |village) is
| | | | |reached. Tracks
| | | | |now become
| | | | |numerous and
| | | | |ill-defined; the
| | | | |one followed led
| | | | |across an open
| | | | |marshy (in
| | | | |rains) plain to
| | | | |the Nile, 2
| | | | |miles north of
| | | | |Kaka Wood
| | | | |station.
| | | | |
Kurwa |5 | 402 |Road starts | |
district | | |from here to | |
| | |Fungor (Mek | |
| | |Bosh-Nubawi) | |
| | |(41), and J. | |
| | |Gedir (71 | |
| | |miles). No | |
| | |landing place.| |
| | | | |
Kaka Old |2 | 404 | |The river now |Known as Hellet
Wood | | | |curves to the |El Nyam-Nyam,
Station | | | |west and then |close to river
(1902) | | | |to the east |bank; wood
| | | | |station. Much
| | | | |game
| | | | |here—waterbuck,
| | | | |lion, cobus
| | | | |leucotis, &c.
| | | | |
El Gerab |7 | 411 |Village. | |The country in
| | |Marshy banks; | |the bend the
| | |a few trees | |river forms is
| | | | |called Gerab El
| | | | |Aish (bread-
| | | | |bag?).
| | | | |
Melut |2 | 413 | | |Telegraph
| | | | |station,
| | | | |Government
| | | | |buildings, and
| | | | |residence of
| | | | |police officer.
| | | | |Line crosses
| | | | |river to west
| | | | |bank. Track
| | | | |leads from here
| | | | |to Kirin, on the
| | | | |Abyssinian
| | | | |frontier.
| | | | |
Demtemma |3 | 416 |Shilluk | |Demtemma. Small
| | |village left. | |village 700
| | |Sheikhs Kodak | |yards from bank.
| | |and Tak | |Headquarters of
| | | | |district
| | | | |officer.
| | | | |
Sheikh |2 | 418 |Unapproachable| |Sheikh Lowir (D)
Delal | | |by steamers at| |village two
| | |high Nile; a | |hours inland
| | |string of | |east.
| | |villages now | |
| | |extends, 1 to | |
| | |2 miles | |
| | |inland, along | |
| | |the west bank | |
| | |for many | |
| | |miles. | |
| | | | |
Sheikh |31| 449 |His villages |Floating |Dinka villages
Nyekeia | | |extend for the|islands |right bank; but
| | |next 10 miles.|frequent. |not so numerous
| | | |Western channel|as Shilluks on
| | | |200 yards |left bank.
| | | | |
Kodok[34] |10| _669_ |Up narrow |Country on each|A track leads
| | 459 |backwater on |bank open |south from
| | _738_ |left bank. |grassy plain, |opposite Kodok
| | |Position 9° |with bunches of|to Uryong on the
| | |53′ longitude,|big trees, |Sobat, about 40
| | |32° 8′ |resembling a |miles. Three
| | |latitude. |park |wells at Dunjol,
| | |Height, | |13 miles south.
| | |according to | |Open grassy
| | |Austin, 1,360 | |country most of
| | |feet. Date | |the way, up to
| | |palms. At low | |within 7 miles
| | |Nile a steamer| |of Uryong, when
| | |cannot get up | |thick thorn bush
| | |the backwater,| |continues to the
| | |and has to | |river.
| | |discharge on | |
| | |the east bank | |Scattered Dinka
| | |of the | |villages at
| | |peninsula | |intervals.
| | |forming the | |
| | |backwater. The| |
| | |latter has | |
| | |then to be | |
| | |crossed in | |
| | |boats. | |
| | |Headquarters | |
| | |of the | |
| | |Province. | |
| | |Telegraph | |
| | |station and | |
| | |post office. | |
| | |Government | |
| | |buildings, | |
| | |brick stores, | |
| | |zinc roofed. | |
| | |Native village| |
| | |600 yards to | |
| | |west, with a | |
| | |few shops, | |
| | |where small | |
| | |requirements, | |
| | |such as | |
| | |sardines, | |
| | |cigarettes, | |
| | |etc., can be | |
| | |purchased. | |
| | |Trade goods | |
| | |popular in | |
| | |these parts | |
| | |can be | |
| | |procured here.| |
| | |Garrison of | |
| | |two companies.| |
| | |Marchand’s | |
| | |garden, etc., | |
| | |kept up. His | |
| | |expedition | |
| | |arrived here | |
| | |June, 1898; | |
| | |attacked twice| |
| | |by Dervishes. | |
| | |Anglo- | |
| | |Egyptian | |
| | |expedition | |
| | |arrived | |
| | |10.9.98. | |
| | |French | |
| | |evacuated | |
| | |December, | |
| | |1898. Was in | |
| | |the old days a| |
| | |considerable | |
| | |trading | |
| | |station. | |
| | |Climate | |
| | |unhealthy July| |
| | |to October. | |
| | |Millions of | |
| | |mosquitos. | |
| | | | |
Lul |18| 477 |Austrian Roman| |
| | |Catholic | |
| | |Mission | |
| | |Station. | |
| | |Flourishing | |
| | |garden on | |
| | |bank. Station | |
| | |600 yards | |
| | |inland. Staff | |
| | |of about five | |
| | |fathers and | |
| | |three sisters.| |
| | | | |
Taufikia |34| 511 | | |Station second
| | _822_ | | |in importance in
| | | | |U.N. Province.
| | | | |Headquarters of
| | | | |a Sudanese
| | | | |battalion; 300
| | | | |inhabitants;
| | | | |Mamur; deleib
| | | | |and dom palms,
| | | | |also acacias;
| | | | |Old Government
| | | | |post under
| | | | |Ismail. Sir S.
| | | | |Baker’s
| | | | |headquarters in
| | | | |1865, etc.;
| | | | |“Baker’s Tree”
| | | | |still remains.
| | | | |Fairly healthy
| | | | |site, but little
| | | | |trade. Country
| | | | |in rear marshy,
| | | | |but never
| | | | |flooded. White
| | | | |ants bad. Good
| | | | |landing place.
| | | | |Proposed site
| | | | |for a dockyard
| | | | |(1904).
| | | | |
Sobat |5 | 516 |Village left |River channel |Mouth of River
River | | _830_ |opposite |bends gradually|Sobat or Bahr El
[_The | | |junction. |due west. |Asfar. Yellow
river | | |Sheikh Luong |Average breadth|river, 80 to 150
between | | | |at Low Nile 150|yards wide; well
the Sobat | | | |to 300 yards. |defined banks;
mouth and | | | |Numerous |current of
Lake No | | | |islands and |cream-coloured
has not | | | |backwaters in |water three
yet been | | | |places |miles per hour.
accurately| | | | |Almost at the
surveyed. | | | | |junction, on the
The | | | | |left bank of the
figures | | | | |Sobat, is the
given in | | | | |(deserted) fort
this | | | | |built in 1898.
portion | | | | |This point was
must, | | | | |reached from
therefore,| | | | |Abyssinia by
be | | | | |Colonel
accepted | | | | |Artomonoff and
with | | | | |Messrs. Faivre
caution._]| | | | |and Potter ten
| | | | |days before the
Finidawi |— | — |The left bank | |Marchand mission
| | |is still | |passed (vide p.
| | |studded with a| |141). Seven
| | |chain of | |miles up the
| | |Shilluk | |Sobat on its
| | |villages | |north bank, and
| | |standing about| |six miles across
| | |a mile from | |southwards from
| | |the river. The| |Taufikia, is the
| | |intervening | |American
| | |space is | |Protestant
| | |covered with | |Mission Station
| | |long grass, | |of Tatûg or
| | |but open in | |Deleib (amid a
| | |places, with | |grove of deleib
| | |stunted | |palms “tuga”).
| | |solitary | |Flourishing.
| | |trees. Much | |Shilluk
| | |game. | |neighbourhood.
| | | | |
Khor Attar|1 | 517 | | |Wooding station;
| | | | |good landing
| | | | |place; swampy
| | | | |inland. Khor
| | | | |running in from
| | | | |due south. Trees
| | | | |and grass,
| | | | |ambach, &c.
| | | | |
Tonga |4 | 521 | |East end of |
| | | |Tonga Island |
| | | |begins. Very |
| | | |low; annually |
| | | |covered by the |
| | | |flood. Width |
| | | |from one to two|
| | | |and a-half |
| | | |miles. At low |
| | | |Nile the |
| | | |channel |
| | | |separating it |
| | | |from the |
| | | |mainland is dry|
| | | |at the western |
| | | |end. The |
| | | |eastern part of|
| | | |this channel is|
| | | |termed the |
| | | |River Lolle or |
| | | |Fanakama. At |
| | | |its eastern end|
| | | |it is 80 yards |
| | | |broad and about|
| | | |three feet deep|
| | | |(in April); it |
| | | |is doubtful |
| | | |whether it is a|
| | | |river at all; |
| | | |but it has been|
| | | |reported to |
| | | |come from the |
| | | |Nuba hills. It |
| | | |was explored by|
| | | |Marno in 1880 |
| | | |for about 32 |
| | | |miles, and by |
| | | |Colonel Sparkes|
| | | |in 1899 for |
| | | |about 28 miles |
| | | |(stopped by |
| | | |sudd). A branch|
| | | |from the Lolle |
| | | |forms the |
| | | |western part of|
| | | |the channel |
| | | |referred to. |
| | | | |
Gabt El |5 | 526 | | |Formerly a base
Megahid | | | | |camp for sudd
| | | | |cutting parties.
| | | | |
Shakwa El |5 | 531 | | |Shilluk
Shilkawi | | | | |villages—group.
| | | | |
Bahr El |16| 547 | |Western end of |Mouth of the
Zeraf | | _880_ | |Tonga Island |Bahr El Zeraf;
| | | | |38 yards broad;
| | | | |little or no
| | | | |current; 19 feet
| | | | |deep (low Nile).
| | | | |
Maya |53| 600 | | |A large lagoon
Signora | | | | |(explored by
| | | | |M’lle. Tinné
| | | | |(Dutch) in
| | | | |1863), over 500
| | | | |yards wide,
| | | | |extending for
| | | | |some distance
| | | | |alongside the
| | | | |river. Likely
| | | | |place for sudd
| | | | |to collect.
| | | | |Connects with
| | | | |Bahr El Jebel,
| | | | |13 miles up
| | | | |stream of Lake
| | | | |No.
| | | | |
Lake No |12| 612 | |Entrance to |
| | _985_ | |Lake No. Mouth |
| | | |of the Bahr El |
| | | |Jebel. For |
| | | |description of |
| | | |Lake No _vide_ |
| | | |p. 165. |
----------+--+--------+--------------+---------------+----------------
RECAPITULATORY TABLE OF DISTANCES.
--------------+------------------+------------------
| Intermediate. | From Omdurman.
+------+-----------+------+-----------
|Miles.|Kilometres.|Miles.|Kilometres.
--------------+------+-----------+------+-----------
J. Auli | 28 | 45 | 28 | 45
| | | |
Geteina | 55 | 88 | 55 | 88
| | | |
J. Arashkol | 54 | 86 | 109 | 175
| | | |
Dueim | 16 | 26 | 125 | 201
| | | |
Aba Island | 38 | 61 | 163 | 262
| | | |
Fachi Shoya | 13 | 21 | 176 | 283
| | | |
Goz Abu Guma | 16 | 26 | 192 | 309
| | | |
Abu Zeid | 16 | 26 | 208 | 333
| | | |
Jebelein | 30 | 48 | 238 | 383
| | | |
Renk | 60 | 96 | 298 | 479
| | | |
J. Ahmed Agha | 55 | 89 | 353 | 568
| | | |
Kaka | 41 | 66 | 394 | 634
| | | |
Demtemma | 22 | 35 | 416 | 669
| | | |
Kodok | 43 | 69 | 459 | 738
| | | |
Taufikia | 52 | 84 | 511 | 822
| | | |
Sobat River | 5 | 8 | 516 | 830
| | | |
Bahr El Zeraf | 31 | 50 | 547 | 880
| | | |
Lake No | 65 | 105 | 612 | 985
--------------+------+-----------+------+-----------
[Illustration: JEBELEIN.]
[Illustration: WOODING STATION NEAR GOZ ABU GUMA.]
[Illustration: JEBEL AHMED AGHA.]
[Illustration: AKUNERE, SHILLUK VILLAGE.]
[Illustration: SHILLUK MAIDEN WITH HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS.]
[Illustration: KODOK.]
[Illustration: ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSION STATION, LUL.]
[Illustration: TAUFIKIA.]
[Illustration: LAKE NO.]
[Illustration: SHAMBE.]
SECTION 4.—LAKE NO TO GONDOKORO.
----------------+---------------------+-------------------------------
| Miles. |
| _Kilometres._ |
+-------------+-------+
Place. |Intermediate.| From | Description.
| | Lake |
| |No.[32]|
----------------+-------------+-------+-------------------------------
| | |For description of Lake No,
| | |_see_ page 165. For the Sudd,
| | |_see_ Appendix B.
| | |
Bahr El Jebel | — | — |For detailed description and
| | |maps of the Bahr El Jebel
| | |between Lake No and Gondokoro,
| | |_see_ Sir W. Garstin’s Report
| | |(Blue Book, Egypt, No. 2,
| | |1901, price 3 _s._ 6 _d._),
| | |from which much of the
| | |following is taken; also _see_
| | |his Report of 1904 (price 17
| | |_s._).
| | |
Ex block[35] | 1 | 1 |The entrance to the Bahr El
No. 1 | | |Jebel is about 150 yards broad
| | |at the extreme east end of
„ „ 2| 8 |9 _14_ |Lake No. The channel, turning
| | |suddenly to the south, is
Discharge | 1 |10 _16_|bounded on either side by a
(14.4.00) | | |dense perpendicular growth of
218·95 | | |rich green papyrus swamp, in
c.m. per sec. | | |which ambach trees, and _um
| | |suf_ and convolvulus
Ex block No. 3| 6 |16 _26_|occasionally appear. The
| | |papyrus reaches from 10 feet
„ „ 4| 21 |37 _59_|to 15 feet above the surface
| | |of the water (Jan.). As the
„ „ 5| 14 |51 _82_|steamer proceeds in its
| | |winding course, the channel
„ „ 6| 4 |55 _88_|varies from 70 to 100 yards,
| | |whilst the breadth of the
„ „ 7| 3 |58 _93_|papyrus strip varies from a
| | |few hundred yards to several
„ „ 8| 6 | 63 |miles. The solid ground (at
| | _101_ |its best only a few feet above
| | |the level of the water) on the
„ „ 9| 3 | 66 |far side of the papyrus
| | _106_ |gradually recedes, and the
| | |trees in the distance become
„ „ 10| 1 | 67 |more and more sparse, till at
| | _108_ |last they vanish altogether.
| | |Except in occasional
| | |instances, no dry land is to
| | |be seen throughout these
| | |swamps. Their extent is
| | |unknown, but, more especially
| | |to the west of the river, it
| | |must be enormous. In all
| | |probability the greater
| | |portion of the region lying
| | |between the Bahr El Jebel and
| | |Bahr El Ghazal and its
| | |tributaries is, in the rainy
| | |season, a vast marsh. To the
| | |east their area is more
| | |limited, as the country beyond
| | |the Bahr El Zeraf gradually
| | |rises into alluvial plains,
| | |covered with dense grass, and
| | |intersected by numerous swamp
| | |lines. These plains, as a
| | |whole, are above the level of
| | |the Nile when in flood. In the
| | |long island, lying within the
| | |loop formed by the Bahr El
| | |Zeraf with the main stream,
| | |there undoubtedly exists a
| | |ridge of comparatively high
| | |land. Upon this a Nuer
| | |population has settled. Except
| | |by occasional glimpses of
| | |trees, and, more rarely, of a
| | |village, it is impossible to
| | |trace this ridge. Its limits
| | |are undetermined. It is
| | |surrounded on every side by a
| | |belt of almost impassable
| | |morass. The only evidence of
| | |human beings are the grass
| | |fires on the horizon, and,
| | |except for an occasional
| | |elephant, buck, or giraffe,
| | |visible in the far distance
| | |from the top of the steamer,
| | |and a few water-birds, bee-
| | |eaters, wagtails, &c., animal
| | |life appears to have suddenly
| | |become extinct. At sunset,
| | |however, thousands of insects
| | |make their appearance, but,
| | |with the exception of the
| | |mosquito, who is always _en
| | |évidence_ to a greater or
| | |lesser extent (worst from
| | |April to November (during the
| | |rains) and least from December
| | |to March—dry season—grass
| | |fires), they vanish after an
| | |hour or two.
| | |
Ex block No. | 5 | 72 |The water of the Bahr El Jebel
11 | | _116_ |is dark-coloured, but contains
| | |little or no sediment. The
„ „ 12| 3 | 75 |depth of the main channel
| | _120_ |varies from 20 to 24 feet at
| | |low Nile. As far as mile 40,
„ „ 13| 4 | 79 |the ridge lying between the
| | _127_ |Zeraf and the Jebel is visible
| | |on the eastern bank, at a
„ „ 14| 3 | 82 |distance varying from 500 to
| | _132_ |3,000 yards. Trees and a few
| | |palms appear to indicate the
| | |presence of villages. From
| | |this point the ridge
| | |disappears and the swamps
| | |stretch to the horizon upon
| | |both sides of the river. The
| | |first four of the sudd blocks,
| | |cleared by Major Peake’s
| | |party, occurred within this
| | |distance. The fifth, sixth,
| | |seventh, and eighth blocks
| | |were met with between miles 50
| | |and 63. Upstream of mile 63,
| | |the character of the marsh
| | |changes. North of this point
| | |comparatively few open lagoons
| | |are to be seen, but from here,
| | |until Hellet-el-Nuer (mile
| | |139) is reached, these shallow
| | |lakes border the Bahr El Jebel
| | |in continuous lines. Some of
| | |them are of considerable area,
| | |as a reference to the map will
| | |show. They form nurseries for
| | |the growth of water plants,
| | |and are the chief cause of the
| | |blocks which form in the
| | |channel. Their depth rarely
| | |exceeds 3 feet. As the river
| | |is ascended, these lagoons
| | |increase in number and size.
| | |The channel often passes
| | |between two of these lakes,
| | |only separated from them by a
| | |belt of papyrus. In winter
| | |these lagoons are open spaces
| | |of water, but, with the advent
| | |of the rainy season (in the
| | |month of April), their
| | |surfaces become covered with
| | |detached masses of floating
| | |vegetation. Many of them are
| | |connected by a series of
| | |openings with the river, and
| | |their water level rises and
| | |falls with that of the latter.
| | |The loss of water, by
| | |evaporation, upon these
| | |shallow ponds, must be
| | |extremely great. It is
| | |difficult to say whether these
| | |lagoons are old courses of the
| | |Bahr El Jebel and long since
| | |filled up, or whether they are
| | |traces of the vast lake which,
| | |it is imagined, once covered
| | |this area. The latter
| | |supposition appears to be the
| | |more probable, as the channel
| | |of the river is so deep and so
| | |sharply defined that it
| | |appears hardly possible that
| | |it should have utterly
| | |disappeared. On the other
| | |hand, there is at least one
| | |instance where the river is
| | |actually in process of
| | |vanishing, _i.e._, between
| | |miles 143 and 165. In this
| | |reach the channel is filled
| | |with decomposed sudd to such
| | |an extent that it is difficult
| | |to trace it. It is reasonable
| | |to suppose that, unless
| | |cleared, it will, in course of
| | |time, disappear and be
| | |transformed into a series of
| | |“mayas” or lagoons. These
| | |“mayas” are constantly
| | |changing their shape. New
| | |channels burst into the river
| | |and others fill up and
| | |disappear.
| | |
Discharge | 10 | 92 |The average level of the
(1.4.01) 362 | | _148_ |marshes, in March and April,
c.m. per sec. | | |1901, was from 7 inches to 1
| | |foot above the river water
| | |surface. Between mile 65 and
| | |Hellet-el-Nuer, the width of
| | |the river is very variable; in
| | |many places it is only 60
| | |yards and in others as much as
| | |150 yards. The general average
| | |may be taken as from 75 to 80
| | |yards, and the mean velocity
| | |of the stream at 2 miles an
| | |hour, at low water. The depth
| | |ranges from 15 to 22 feet, but
| | |in places is as much as 28
| | |feet. The sudd blocks 9 to 14
| | |were met with between miles 65
| | |and 82. At block 14, what may
| | |be termed the first series of
| | |sudd obstruction ended, and
| | |with its removal, in April,
| | |1900, through navigation
| | |between Khartoum and Gondokoro
| | |was restored. The worst place
| | |in the river, in the way of
| | |giving trouble, was block No.
| | |10, at mile 67.
| | |
2 deleib | 16 | 108 |From this point land
palms. (W.) | | |approaches the river on both
| | |banks, that to the east being
3 deleib | 5 | 113 |less extensive.
palms. (E.) | | |
| | |
Trees | 12 | 125 |Trees 5 miles to east.
| | |
Hellet El Nuer | 14 | 139 |At mile 139 from Lake No,
| | _223_ |Hellet El Nuer (or Aliab Dok)
| | |is reached. It is rather a
| | |pretty landing-place with
| | |stretches of short turf; no
| | |huts or inhabitants. The
| | |latitude at this place is 8°
| | |4′ 36″ North, and at this
| | |point the high land touches
| | |the west bank of the Jebel and
| | |stretches in a broad expanse
| | |to the horizon. The bank here
| | |is 3 feet above the water, but
| | |the land rises at a short
| | |distance from the river. This
| | |plain is evidently never
| | |swamped, even in flood. It is
| | |covered with a growth of
| | |deleib palms, Euphorbia, and
| | |bush. It commences at mile
| | |131, and continues along the
| | |river as far as mile 144, with
| | |swampy intervals at the loops.
| | |
Captain Gage’s | — | — |At Hellet El Nuer itself, a
channel | | |branch of some size takes off
| | |the Bahr El Jebel. This
| | |channel is not shown upon any
| | |existing maps, and was first
| | |mentioned by Captain Gage, of
| | |the 7th Dragoon Guards, in his
| | |report upon his journey
| | |through the sudd in the winter
| | |of 1899-1900. It has a width
| | |of 70 yards, of which 10 yards
| | |on either side are filled by
| | |the swamp grasses. Its average
| | |depth, at low water, is 3
| | |feet, and its mean velocity is
| | |2 feet per second. Its
| | |discharge, as measured in
| | |March, 1901, was 21·74 cubic
| | |metres per second. Captain
| | |Gage’s channel leaves the Bahr
| | |El Jebel at a right angle, but
| | |some 500 yards down-stream it
| | |turns in a north-westerly
| | |direction. Captain Gage
| | |followed its course for some
| | |40 miles, but was then stopped
| | |by sudd. It seems not
| | |improbable that this channel
| | |forms a junction between the
| | |waters of the Bahr El Jebel
| | |and those of the River Naam,
| | |which discharges into the Bahr
| | |El Ghazal, through the Khor
| | |Deleib. A few miles down-
| | |stream its banks are lined by
| | |a succession of Nuer villages,
| | |and its width increases to 200
| | |yards. It must carry a large
| | |quantity of water when in
| | |flood. At other periods of the
| | |year (January) it appears to
| | |flow into, not out of, the
| | |Bahr El Jebel.
| | |
North end[36] of| 4 | 143 |Four miles further on the
false and true | | _230_ |channel widens into a small
channels and | | |lake, and from here[36] the
block 15 | | |true river is blocked by sudd
| | |for some 20 miles. This is
| | |termed block 15, and repeated
| | |efforts to clear it out
| | |(1901-02), owing to the total
| | |absence of current, resulted
| | |in failure. The expedition
| | |under Lieutenant Drury,
| | |1903-04, very nearly succeeded
| | |in clearing the whole of the
| | |true channel. Both Lieutenant
| | |Drury and Sir W. Garstin later
| | |passed right through this
| | |block in 1904, the only
| | |remaining piece near the
| | |southern end of the block
| | |being fairly easily navigable.
| | |The true channel is from 16 to
| | |20 feet deep, whilst the false
| | |channel to the west is only 4
| | |feet to 6 feet in depth. One
| | |of the Dervish steamers, with
| | |boats containing ivory, was
| | |sunk in this part of the
| | |river, and was discovered by
| | |the 1903-04 expedition. At
| | |present navigation of the
| | |false channel is attended with
| | |considerable difficulty, and
| | |the services of a competent
| | |pilot are indispensable. The
| | |river is separated into many
| | |branches, and these cross and
| | |recross one another, forming a
| | |bewildering labyrinth of
| | |islands. At the south end of
| | |the small lake before
| | |mentioned, channels converge
| | |from all points of the
| | |compass. These are separated
| | |by low flats, covered with
| | |dense growth of papyrus.
| | |
Series of lakes | 7 | 150 |After steaming for some 7 or 8
| | |miles through a wilderness of
South end of | 15 | 165 |papyrus, a series of lakes is
true and false | | _265_ |reached, at mile 150 from Lake
channels and of | | |No. Stiff current here. These
block 15 | | |lakes have a depth of about 4
| | |feet at the deepest point, but
Land approaches | 1 | 166 |shoal rapidly towards the
east edge of | | |shore. A feeble but distinct
channel | | |current passes through them to
| | |the north. Their breadth
North channel to| 21 | 187 |varies largely. Their shores
Bahr El Zeraf | | _301_ |are surrounded by high papyrus
| | |and their surfaces are dotted
Mouth of Yei (?)| 33 | 220 |by countless small sudd
| | |islands. There are, however,
North end old | 5 | 225 |indications on both sides that
false channel | | _362_ |the high land is not very far
| | |distant. It has already been
Ex block No. 16 | 18 | 243 |explained that the true
| | _391_ |channel, which lies to the
| | |east of these lakes, is said
„ „ 17 | 2 | 245 |to skirt the dry land. On the
| | _394_ |west a line of fair-sized
| | |trees at a distance of,
„ „ 18 | ½ | 245½ |perhaps, 2 miles, shows that
| | _395_ |the swamps in that direction
| | |also have a limit. A very
| | |noticeable feature of these
| | |expanses of water is their
| | |lifelessness. No birds are to
| | |be seen, and hippopotami
| | |appear to avoid them
| | |altogether. At mile 163 the
| | |lakes end, and a fresh network
| | |of branching streams confront
| | |the navigator. Here, again,
| | |very careful steering and
| | |knowledge of the passage to be
| | |followed is required. Each
| | |year these channels change.
| | |What is, in one season, the
| | |deepest channel, is, perhaps,
| | |the next year impassable. For
| | |some 5 miles the river is
| | |split up into many different
| | |branches, all winding through
| | |papyrus swamp. At mile 165 the
| | |true channel of the river is
| | |reached. The change is
| | |startlingly sudden, as the
| | |depth suddenly increases from
| | |4 to 21 feet. Instead of a
| | |twisting stream, the Bahr El
| | |Jebel again becomes a fine
| | |open river, some 80 to 90
| | |yards in width, bounded by a
| | |high fringe of papyrus on
| | |either side. The false channel
| | |leaves the river at an angle
| | |of nearly 90 degrees. In
| | |April, 1900, the junction was
| | |blocked by sudd, but this was
| | |light and easily removed.
| | |Large shallow lagoons extend
| | |on either bank, separated from
| | |the river by a belt of
| | |papyrus. The high land to the
| | |west ends about a mile from
| | |the river, and the swamp
| | |recommences. To the east a
| | |line of palms, perhaps, 6 or 7
| | |miles distant, not improbably
| | |indicates the banks of the
| | |Bahr El Zeraf. Above this
| | |point the Bahr El Jebel widens
| | |out for some distance. In
| | |places its breadth is as much
| | |as 200 yards, and its depth
| | |from 15 to 18 feet. The swamps
| | |continue as before. At mile
| | |166 the high land approaches
| | |the river on the east, and
| | |runs parallel to it for some 2
| | |miles. It is covered with bush
| | |and an occasional Euphorbia.
| | |At this point a khor joins the
| | |Nile on the west bank,
| | |bringing in a strong stream of
| | |water. Two villages (Nuer) are
| | |to be seen in the distance;
| | |these are probably Favor and
| | |Fatooah of the German map
| | |(Julius Perthes). The mean
| | |velocity now averages 1½ miles
| | |per hour. Between miles 175
| | |and 200 the high land and bush
| | |before mentioned touches the
| | |eastern bank at intervals. At
| | |mile 187 there is a break in
| | |this ridge, and two or three
| | |channels leave the Nile to the
| | |east. These are said by the
| | |natives to be the most
| | |northerly outlets of the Bahr
| | |El Zeraf. In 1900 a fine
| | |deleib palm stood on the
| | |water’s edge at this point.
| | |This formed a landmark that
| | |could be seen for miles. It
| | |has now, unfortunately, fallen
| | |into the river. At mile 220,
| | |and again at mile 223,
| | |channels come in from the west
| | |bringing water to the Jebel.
| | |These streams may possibly be
| | |the mouths of the River Rodi,
| | |or Yei, which is supposed to
| | |join the Nile somewhere in
| | |this locality. At mile 225 the
| | |false channel, which, previous
| | |to the clearance of blocks 16
| | |to 19, was the only navigable
| | |line, joins the river. This
| | |was the route followed by
| | |Major Peake and Lieut. Drury
| | |in 1900, in making the journey
| | |to the upper Nile. They found
| | |the passage very difficult.
| | |During the transit they bent
| | |their rudder twice, and went
| | |aground four times. From this
| | |point numerous channels join
| | |the Bahr El Jebel on both
| | |sides. Many islands, covered
| | |with ambach and papyrus,
| | |separate the stream into
| | |numerous branches, and the
| | |whole country is once more a
| | |waste of swamp. The Bahr El
| | |Jebel here is extremely narrow
| | |(25 to 30 yards), but is from
| | |18 to 22 feet deep. The false
| | |channel in appearance far more
| | |resembles the main river than
| | |does the true one.
| | |
South end of | 3½ | 249 |It is hard to imagine that
block No. 18 | | _401_ |this narrow, twisting stream
| | |can be the Nile. Its windings
| | |are worse than ever. A tree or
| | |a boat may be visible at a
| | |comparatively short distance
| | |ahead, and yet many miles of
| | |channel must be traversed
| | |before it is reached. The
| | |river here runs nearly due
| | |west, while the false channel
| | |follows an easterly course,
| | |passing through numerous
| | |shallow lakes, until it joins
| | |the main river again at mile
| | |249. At mile 240 the Jebel
| | |widens out again, and more
| | |resembles a river in
| | |appearance than it did. Its
| | |average breadth is from 50 to
| | |60 yards, and its depth is
| | |some 15 feet. Between this
| | |point and mile 248 occurred
| | |the four sudd obstructions,
| | |removed in February, 1901, by
| | |Lieut. Drury, R.N., and which
| | |were known as blocks Nos. 16,
| | |17, 18, and 19. At mile 249
Bahr El Zeraf | — | 249 |the Bahr El Zeraf takes off
| | _401_ |from the Nile, following the
| | |false channel for some
| | |distance, before branching off
| | |to the east. The width of this
| | |river at the head is about 30
| | |yards, and the outlet is
| | |surrounded by a sea of marsh.
| | |Just up-stream of this point
| | |there is a severe bend in the
| | |Nile, which might one day give
| | |trouble. As the steamer
| | |passes, decomposed sudd rises
| | |to the surface.
| | |
Shambe | 7 | 256 |The general character of the
| | _412_ |landscape now changes, as land
| | |and forest are visible to the
| | |west, and at mile 253 from
| | |Lake No, the Shambe lagoon or
| | |khor is reached. This is a
| | |large lake, some 3 to 5 miles
| | |in length, and more than 1½
| | |miles in breadth. Its depth
| | |averages 4½ feet. The post of
| | |Ghaba Shambe is situated in
| | |north latitude 7° 6′ 30″, on
| | |the west bank of its lagoon,
| | |at a distance of 1½ miles from
| | |the river. The land here is
| | |about 2 feet over the water,
| | |but rises as the forest is
| | |reached. It is a dreary-
| | |looking spot, consisting of a
| | |mud-brick house inside a mud
| | |parapet, and a nuzl, and a few
| | |“tukls” erected on the flat
| | |shore of the lake; garrison of
| | |25 men; a Dinka village lies
| | |not far off. Shambe is now the
| | |chief Nile post of the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal province, and from here
| | |proceeds the road inland to
| | |Rumbek (116 miles), &c. The
| | |river winds round the lake for
| | |some 8 miles, separated from
| | |it by a band of marsh, about
| | |600 yards broad. Large
| | |quantities of hippopotami. To
| | |the east the swamp stretches
| | |for a long way; at miles 255
| | |and 256 are two other outlets
| | |of the Zeraf River. The aspect
| | |of the landscape is extremely
| | |desolate, with papyrus-covered
| | |marshes stretching in all
| | |directions. The river itself
| | |alternates between long
| | |straight reaches or easy
| | |curves, and a series of sharp
| | |twists and bends, which form a
| | |regular maze through the
| | |swamps. The water surface is
| | |covered with masses of
| | |detached plants of the
| | |_Pistia_ (or sword grass)
| | |_stratiotes_. The mean
| | |velocity is 2 miles per hour;
| | |the average depth is 15 feet;
| | |and the average width from 50
| | |to 60 yards. For many miles
| | |the same dreary scenery
| | |prevails. The river recedes a
| | |long way from the western
| | |forest, and on both sides an
| | |expanse of reeds and water
| | |extends. The width of the
| | |swamped area here cannot be
| | |less than 30 miles.
| | |
Abu Kuka | 37 | 293 |At mile 293 Abu Kuka, north
| | _471_ |latitude 6° 54′, is reached.
| | |The papyrus swamp ceases just
| | |north of this point. Here the
| | |forest approaches the river,
| | |and the bank is dry. The thick
| | |bush comes down to the water
| | |edge, the trees being about
| | |1,500 yards away. The village
| | |of this name is inland, and is
| | |not visible from the river.
| | |
Kanisa | 11 | 304 |At miles 300 and 304, the old
| | _489_ |and new wooding stations of
| | |Kanisa are respectively
| | |situated on the west bank.
| | |Kanisa or “Heiligen Kreuz,”
| | |north latitude 6° 46′, is the
| | |site of the Austrian Mission
| | |which was located here for
| | |many years. The church and
| | |buildings were situated on the
| | |eastern bank, only a foot or
| | |two above the water, but their
| | |traces are no longer visible.
| | |A large fruit garden formerly
| | |existed on the west bank, but
| | |only two large shady trees are
| | |still alive. This Mission was
| | |abandoned in 1864 or 1865, on
| | |account of the deadly effects
| | |of the climate. The only
| | |inhabitants now are a few
| | |Dinka. The forest is very
| | |thick and consists of Sidr,
| | |other acacias, and a few
| | |Euphorbia. This forest is
| | |continuous as far as the banks
| | |of the Rohl, some 60 miles to
| | |the west.
| | |
| | |Immediately up-stream of
| | |Kanisa, the river wanders away
| | |into the swamps as before.
| | |From this point, to mile 343,
| | |there is little to describe.
| | |The banks on both sides are
| | |very flat and rarely more than
| | |2 feet above low water level.
| | |The papyrus now practically
| | |ends. Occasional clumps are to
| | |be seen, but nowhere in
| | |continuous masses. Tamarisk is
| | |common. The spills from the
| | |river into the marshes are
| | |very numerous, more
| | |particularly on the east bank.
| | |A line of trees on the eastern
| | |horizon, some 7 to 10 miles
| | |away, appears to mark the
| | |limits of the swamp. It is
| | |easy to see how the Bahr El
| | |Zeraf marshes are formed. At
| | |every few hundred yards the
| | |river spills into them. These
| | |spill channels are deeply cut,
| | |with vertical sides, as if dug
| | |by hand, and the amount of
| | |water discharged by them in
| | |flood must be very great. In
| | |size they vary considerably.
| | |Their average breadth is from
| | |3 to 5 yards, but some are as
| | |much as 16 yards wide. Between
| | |miles 303 and 379, 129 spills
| | |were counted, of which 97 were
| | |on the east bank. Probably
| | |many more escaped
| | |observation.[37]
| | |
Lake Powendael | 40 | 344 |At mile 344 the large lagoon,
| | _553_ |known as Lake Powendael,
| | |commences on the west. The
| | |river circuits this lake for 4
| | |or 5 miles, separated from it
| | |by a belt of swamp, varying in
| | |width from a few hundred to
| | |2,000 yards. Lake Powendael is
| | |in many places as much as
| | |3,000 yards in breadth, but is
| | |very shallow. Its surface is
| | |dotted with many small
| | |islands, and it is connected
| | |with the river by several
| | |inlets. Hippopotami are
| | |abundant in these parts. Both
| | |banks are now very low and
| | |flat, about 10 inches over the
| | |water. The reach of the river
| | |between Bor and Kanisa is
| | |unendurably desolate and
| | |monotonous, wandering through
| | |continual swamp for some 100
| | |miles. At mile 360 another
| | |large lake is met with, also
| | |on the west. This sheet of
| | |water must be quite 4 miles in
| | |breadth, and the river winds
| | |round it for a long distance
| | |in a series of very sharp
| | |curves. Many natives are to be
| | |seen fishing here.
| | |
| | |At mile 374 a welcome change
| | |appears, as a limit is at last
| | |visible to the eastern swamps,
| | |which are practically
| | |continuous from Lake No to
| | |this point. A line of villages
| | |(Dinka) stands 2 miles from
| | |the river, and behind them
| | |lies the forest. A little
| | |further up-stream these
| | |villages approach nearer,
| | |until at last, at mile 380
| | |from Lake No, the high land on
| | |the east comes down to the
| | |river.
| | |
Bor[38] | 40 | 384 |Bor, north latitude 6° 12′
| | _617_ |46″, is a collection of Dinka
| | |villages which stretch
| | |northwards (outside the swamp)
| | |almost to the Bahr El Zeraf.
| | |The forest here stands back
| | |from the river on the east
| | |bank, but the high bank comes
| | |close to the water, except
| | |where a large backwater or
| | |lagoon passes through it for
| | |some 2,000 yards. Gordon
| | |mentioned this place as an
| | |inconvenient wooding station,
| | |but it is very handy now. A
| | |few tall deleib palms stand
| | |out as land marks. The houses
| | |of Bor are neither large nor
| | |important, but like in all
| | |Dinka villages they are well-
| | |kept, neat, and clean. The
| | |huts are circular in shape.
| | |They are plastered with mud
| | |and have conical thatched
| | |roofs. Each has a small door
| | |through which the inmates
| | |crawl. The people show no
| | |signs of shyness and appear
| | |comfortable and contented.
| | |They possess large herds of
| | |cattle. At mile 384 the river
| | |runs close under the high
| | |bank, hugging it for some
| | |distance. The land here is
| | |from 6 to 8 feet over the
| | |water, and is, of course,
| | |never flooded. The forest
| | |consists of thick bush, with a
| | |few large trees; a distinctive
| | |feature is the thicket of
| | |small deleib palms which cover
| | |the ground. Not one in 500 of
| | |these young palms appears to
| | |develop into a tree, but they
| | |form an extremely dense
| | |undergrowth. The Bahr El Jebel
| | |is now a fine stream, 80 to 90
| | |yards wide, with a strong
| | |current. On the west the
| | |marshes stretch into space.
| | |The valley here must be quite
| | |20 miles across.
| | |
| | |South of Bor, the sudd,
| | |properly so-called,
| | |disappears. The marshes are
| | |formed of a deeper layer of
| | |sand, covered with a thin
| | |surface of clay, and with
| | |streaks of clay running
| | |through them. These swamps,
| | |except in the centre of the
| | |valley, are, as a rule, well
| | |over summer water-level, and
| | |the loss of water can be as
| | |nothing compared with that
| | |north of Bor. The vegetation,
| | |too, is of a different kind,
| | |being chiefly grass, and
| | |though dense enough, is not
| | |composed of those reeds which
| | |require to have their roots
| | |under water for a great
| | |portion of the year. At mile
Dervish Deim | 6 | 390 |390 the Dervish “Deim” is
| | _626_ |visible, situated on the east
| | |bank. This is the place held
| | |for so long by the Emir Arabi
| | |Dafaalla. The spot is well
| | |chosen for defence, as the
| | |river sweeps round it on two
| | |sides. The bank all round has
| | |been cleared of bush for a
| | |long way. The “Deim” is
| | |surrounded by a mud wall
| | |forming a rectangle, of which
| | |the river forms one side. The
| | |inclosure is some 400 yards
| | |deep by 700 yards in length.
| | |The mud bank, fast
| | |disappearing, is about 4 feet
| | |6 inches high, with an outer
| | |ditch 3 feet deep by 4 feet
| | |wide. At the corners are small
| | |watch towers, and in other
| | |places remains of loopholed
| | |houses. The Bahr El Jebel now,
| | |for many miles runs close to
| | |the east bank. It winds
| | |continually, and there are
| | |occasional loops of swamp, but
| | |as a whole it follows the high
| | |land closely.
| | |
Bor (military | 8 | 398 |Small military post, furnished
post) | | |from Mongalla. Formerly a wood
| | |station, now much cut up.
| | |Large numbers of elephants.
| | |This is to be the site of the
| | |Headquarters of the new
| | |Administrative District of
| | |Bor.
| | |
| | |In places the bank is
| | |perpendicular down to the
| | |water’s edge, and from 6 to 8
| | |feet high. At such points
| | |there is always great erosion.
| | |The scenery more resembles
| | |that of the Blue Nile than the
| | |White. The forest close to the
| | |river, the high banks, the
| | |profusion of creepers and
| | |undergrowth, the boils and
| | |eddies of the river along
| | |these curves, combine to form
| | |a picturesque scene, utterly
| | |different from that usually
| | |met with on the White Nile.
| | |About 22 miles south of the
| | |Deim the Dinka inhabitants are
| | |replaced by those of the Bari
| | |tribe. The difference is at
| | |once apparent. The “tukls” are
| | |untidy, crowded together, and
| | |badly built. The people seem
| | |poor and possess few cattle.
| | |They live chiefly by fishing;
| | |in April the whole population
| | |is engaged in preparing the
| | |land for cultivation, if the
| | |river allows, chiefly on the
| | |west bank. At mile 404 the
| | |river bifurcates, one channel
| | |branching off to the west,
| | |while the other, and the
| | |deeper, follows the eastern
| | |bank. These two channels
| | |reunite at mile 422. The width
| | |of the island between them is
| | |not very great, being rarely
| | |more than 800 to 1,000 yards.
| | |The west bank is now a flat
| | |grass plain, marked by swampy
| | |depressions. The river must
| | |top this in flood, but not to
| | |any depth, as the marks show
| | |that the total rise cannot
| | |exceed 4 feet. The west bank
| | |is inhabited by the Aliab
| | |tribe, a sort of cross between
| | |Baris and Dinkas, but they
| | |consider themselves quite
| | |distinct. The solitary mass
| | |known as Jebel Lado is now
| | |first visible on the south-
| | |west horizon. The river above
| | |the junction of the two
| | |channels averages 80 yards in
| | |width and 11 feet in depth.
| | |The bends and twists are
| | |never-ending, and there is
| | |hardly a straight reach in its
| | |whole length. The banks are
| | |very sandy, as are the flats
| | |which show up above the water.
| | |Occasional small islands
| | |separate the channel into two
| | |or more branches.
| | |
| | |There is now a decided ridge
| | |on either side of the main
| | |channel resembling that
| | |described in the White Nile.
| | |East and west of this ridge
| | |the level of the flats is
| | |lower, and in the depressions
| | |lagoons are formed and winding
| | |channels wander. The average
| | |width of the valley here
| | |cannot be more than from 5 to
| | |7 miles. On either bank the
| | |forest line marks the high
| | |ground. On the narrow ridges
| | |above described are located a
| | |few groups of Bari huts
| | |surrounded by fields of dura.
| | |The high ground does not
| | |average more than 100 to 200
| | |yards in width. At mile 431 a
Tree | 33 | 431 |magnificent tree used to be
disappeared[39] | | _694_ |situated on the eastern shore.
| | |It made a striking landmark,
| | |but disappeared in
| | |1902.[39] The forest rises
| | |rapidly from the water, and at
| | |its highest point is quite 20
| | |feet above summer level. One-
| | |and-a-half miles up stream,
| | |the river, which has followed
| | |the eastern bank for so long,
| | |now winds across in a westerly
| | |direction. In thus crossing
| | |the swamps, an excellent idea
| | |of the general section of the
| | |valley is obtained. In the
| | |centre the flats are, perhaps,
| | |2 feet above the water;
| | |towards the sides they rise to
| | |a height of 4 feet and
| | |sometimes 4 feet 6 inches. The
| | |lower portions are marked by a
| | |series of lagoons. These
| | |marshes are only, however,
| | |swamped when the river is in
| | |flood, and even then not to
| | |any great depth, as the total
| | |flood rise is not more than 4
| | |to 5 feet over summer level.
| | |The valley averages 8 to 10
| | |miles in width. The forest and
| | |thick bush extend to a long
| | |distance away from the river.
| | |Progress through this forest
| | |is only possible by means of
| | |the elephant tracks, which are
| | |very numerous. At mile 438 the
| | |channel again bifurcates, the
| | |two branches reuniting 5 miles
Pole west bank | 17 | 448 |up-stream. There are so many
(April, 1903) to| | _721_ |islands and so many side
mark 5° 30′. | | |channels, that it is almost,
| | |if not quite, impossible to
| | |find the whole stream
| | |contained in one single
| | |channel, and this is the case
| | |the whole way between Bor and
| | |Gondokoro. The river varies
| | |immensely in width. In places
| | |it is from 200 to 300 yards
| | |broad, and in others only 80
| | |to 90 yards. As the Bahr El
| | |Jebel is ascended the average
| | |depth decreases, and
| | |throughout the reach between
| | |Kiro and Lado is rarely more
| | |than from 6 to 9 feet. At mile
Western forest | 3 | 451 |451 the river touches the
| | _726_ |western forest edge, having
| | |traversed the marshes. The
| | |trees on this side are, as a
| | |rule, finer than those in the
| | |eastern forest. The bank, at
| | |the water’s edge, is from 3 to
| | |4 feet high, but rises rapidly
| | |to a height of 12 to 16 feet
Old Anglo- | 5 | 456 |above the water. At mile 456
Egyptian station| | _734_ |used to be an Anglo-Egyptian
of Kiro. | | |station, 1901 (west bank), now
| | |abandoned. The scenery here is
| | |very fine, and luxuriant
| | |tropical vegetation abounds.
| | |Giant Euphorbia are a marked
| | |feature of the landscape. The
| | |whole of the banks and most of
| | |the trees are covered with a
| | |velvety-looking mass of
| | |creepers. A bluff, 10 to 12
| | |feet high, juts out into the
| | |stream, but the action of the
| | |current is so strong that the
| | |friable soil is being rapidly
| | |eaten away. The face of this
| | |cliff is perforated by myriads
| | |of holes, made by a very
| | |beautiful and tiny species of
| | |bee-eater. These birds have
| | |rose-coloured wings with
| | |bronze-coloured bodies. They
| | |add much to the beauty of a
| | |lovely scene.
| | |
Kiro (Congo | 4 | 460 |At mile 400 from Lake No, the
F.S.) | | _740_ |station of Kiro, the most
| | |northerly in the Lado Enclave,
| | |is situated on the western
| | |bank. The latitude of Kiro is
| | |apparently between 5° 12′ and
| | |5° 13′ north. The erosion
| | |caused by the river here is
| | |very great, large masses of
| | |the sheer cliff, which is 15
| | |to 20 feet over the summer
| | |water-level, are constantly
| | |falling into the Nile. It
| | |seems probable that unless
| | |they take protective measures
| | |the Belgians will be forced to
| | |retire their houses some
| | |distance back from the water.
| | |Kiro is a picturesque-looking
| | |place. The huts are well laid
| | |out and neatly built. The
| | |cantonment is surrounded by a
| | |brick wall, with places for
| | |guns, parapet, and ditch. The
| | |Commandant’s house is a
| | |comfortable-looking structure,
| | |with a good thatched roof and
| | |a deep verandah. The forest
| | |surrounds the station. The
| | |garrison consisted in January,
| | |1903, of some sixty-five men.
| | |It possessed a small steamer
| | |(the “Van Kerckhoven,” called
| | |after the leader of the first
| | |Congo Expedition to the Nile,
| | |1889; the boat is clumsy and
| | |draws 4 feet of water; but
| | |having been brought in
| | |sections overland from the
| | |west coast she is entitled to
| | |respect), and several steel
| | |sailing boats. The negro
| | |soldiers differ largely in
| | |type from the inhabitants of
| | |the Nile valley. In figure
| | |they are short and squat, and
| | |some of them are much
| | |tattooed. They are recruited
| | |from the West Coast, and from
| | |the tribes in the Congo valley
| | |generally, and make excellent
| | |and very mobile soldiers. Upon
| | |an island opposite the station
| | |vegetables and paw-paw trees
| | |are grown. Beyond this there
| | |appears to be little
| | |cultivation. Kiro is extremely
| | |unhealthy in the rainy season.
| | |In two years the Belgians lost
| | |9 Europeans and 300 natives
| | |from fever. Black-water fever
| | |is not uncommon here, and
| | |guinea-worm is a prevalent
| | |complaint. One-and-a-half
| | |miles up-stream of Kiro two
| | |fair-sized lakes are enclosed
| | |by the western forest. These
| | |evidently receive the drainage
| | |of the high land from a
| | |considerable distance. On the
| | |east bank a khor, passable for
| | |small steamers, runs north-
| | |north-east, rejoining the
| | |river just north of Kiro. From
| | |here to mile 467 the river
| | |skirts the western bank.
| | |Everywhere severe action is
| | |taking place, and many trees
| | |have fallen into the water.
| | |Three miles on another large
| | |lake opens out in the forest.
| | |At one end of it the Lado
| | |mountain forms a background,
| | |making an imposing picture. At
| | |mile 468 another bifurcation
| | |occurs. The western branch
| | |follows the forest as far as
| | |Lado, but navigation in summer
| | |by this channel is difficult.
| | |The eastern branch crosses the
| | |marshes. There are several
| | |connections between the two
| | |channels. The river now
| | |averages from 250 to 300 yards
| | |in breadth. At mile 472 the
| | |eastern forest is again
| | |reached. Here there is a good
| | |wooding station, as the trees
| | |and high land come down close
| | |to the water’s edge.
| | |
Mongalla[40] | 14 | 474 |Most southerly post on the
| | _763_ |Nile of Sudan Government
| | |(occupied 1901), situated on
| | |east bank. Garrison two
| | |companies. A gunboat is always
| | |stationed here, in addition to
| | |which there is usually a
| | |steamer at the disposal of the
| | |Commandant for administrative
| | |purposes. About 200 tukls.
| | |Open grassy, sandy spot;
| | |fairly healthy; 5 to 8 feet
| | |above water. Plenty of trees
| | |and bush. The Bari are the
| | |inhabitants of the district,
| | |but are few in number; few
| | |supplies. Brick houses.
| | |Proceeding up-stream, the
| | |river divides, the main
| | |channel running through
| | |swamps, and the east channel
| | |skirting the villages of
Sheikh Lado’s | 2 | 476 |Sheikh Lado, Lowala, and
village, east | | _766_ |Yemba. The depth is rarely
bank | | |more than 9 feet, though there
| | |are occasional pools of 12 to
| | |16 feet in depth. Hippopotami
| | |used to be extremely numerous
| | |and particularly obtrusive,
| | |but seem lately to have
| | |disappeared. A few huts are to
| | |be seen, chiefly on the
| | |eastern shore. Most of these
| | |have been recently
| | |constructed, as many of the
| | |Bari have migrated from the
| | |west to the east bank of the
| | |river, and have settled on
| | |Sudan territory. At mile 477
| | |the river again leaves the
| | |east bank and crosses the
| | |swamps. The width of the
| | |valley now contracts to some 4
| | |miles. Such a labyrinth of
| | |streams winds through these
| | |grassy flats that, without an
| | |experienced pilot, navigation
| | |would be extremely difficult,
| | |more especially as the depth
| | |of water rapidly decreases. As
| | |it is, there are so many sand
| | |banks that it is difficult to
| | |proceed at night. At mile 494
| | |the west channel, mentioned as
| | |branching off at mile 468,
| | |rejoins the east branch, and
| | |half a mile up-stream the
| | |station of Lado is reached. At
| | |this point, with the exception
| | |of a moderate-sized inlet some
| | |3 miles down-stream of Lado,
| | |the river is confined in one
| | |single channel.
| | |
Lado | 19 | 495 |Capital of the Lado Enclave,
| | _796_ |taken on and rebuilt in 1898.
| | |Formerly an Egyptian post, and
| | |at one time head-quarters of
| | |Emin Pasha. Situated on the
| | |bank 10 to 14 feet above
| | |river. Very well selected
| | |position, protected on the
| | |north by a broad swift running
| | |khor and 2 forts, and on the
| | |south by an impassable morass;
| | |only land approach from the
| | |west commanded by a fort.
| | |Surrounded on three sides by a
| | |rectangular parapetted
| | |enclosure, about 400 by 200
| | |yards, one long face being
| | |open to the river. Garrison,
| | |about 15 white officers and
| | |500 men (1904). Enclosure
| | |contains about 20 good brick
| | |straw-thatched houses, and
| | |good tukls for the men. Road
| | |leads to Rejaf (broad) and
| | |thence to Yei, Ibembo and
| | |Mbima. Native track also to
| | |Kiro. Good bamboo and some gum
| | |about Jebel Lado. Forest close
| | |by. Few or no supplies. The
| | |neighbourhood of Lado is a
| | |desolate-looking spot, not
| | |nearly so picturesque as Kiro,
| | |but, on the other hand,
| | |healthier. A flat plain with
| | |bushes stretches from the
| | |river for about 2 miles. From
| | |here the forest commences, and
| | |gradually rises to the spurs
| | |of Jebel Lado, which is some
| | |12 miles from the station. The
| | |food for the troops has to be
| | |brought from a very long
| | |distance. In front of Lado is
| | |a low island, upon which
| | |vegetables, bananas, and
| | |castor-oil plants are grown.
| | |This island is 4 feet over
| | |low-water level at the south
| | |end, and was topped by the
| | |1903 flood. According to the
| | |Belgian officers, the flood
| | |water contains but little
| | |sediment beyond sand, and this
| | |statement is borne out by the
| | |deposit on the flats and
| | |banks. They further state that
| | |in flood the colour of the
| | |water scarcely changes at all.
| | |There appears to be no trade
| | |whatever, but a good deal of
| | |cultivation. The ivory
| | |collected here is small.
| | |India-rubber is apparently not
| | |found within any reasonable
| | |distance of the Nile. Owing to
| | |the two years’ drought and one
| | |year’s flood, the natives on
| | |the west bank of the river had
| | |no supplies. Lado possesses a
| | |fine herd of long-horned
| | |cattle for the use of the
| | |garrison. Fever is very
| | |prevalent during the rainy
| | |months, but does not appear to
| | |be of such a deadly type as at
| | |Kiro. In April, 1901, the
| | |rains had already commenced.
| | |According to M. Renier, the
| | |month of May in this region is
| | |one of abundant daily
| | |rainfall, but this is not
| | |always the case.
| | |
| | |Proceeding up-stream from
| | |Lado, the scenery improves.
| | |Eleven ranges of irregularly-
| | |shaped peaks are visible to
| | |the east and south-east. Most
| | |of them are covered with
| | |scrub, and round the bases the
| | |bamboo is said to grow in
| | |luxuriance. From the river
| | |bank up to these ranges
| | |extends a broad expanse of
| | |reeds and grass, bounded by a
| | |dark forest line. To the west
| | |the country rises rapidly in a
| | |series of ridges clothed with
| | |forest. The Bahr El Jebel now
| | |averages from 250 to 300 yards
| | |in width, and the depth ranges
| | |from 6 to 8 feet. Islands and
| | |side channels abound, and in
| | |flood time it must be
| | |difficult to say which is the
| | |main stream. The loss of water
| | |is comparatively small, as the
| | |grass flats are high. Numerous
| | |Bari villages on the east bank
| | |and on the islands, but few on
| | |the west bank. Further south,
| | |range upon range of hills show
| | |up in the distance, one beyond
| | |the other. These are not very
| | |high, but are of striking
| | |outline and form an agreeable
| | |change to the eye, after days
| | |passed in the dreary flatness
| | |of the Jebel marshes. The
| | |width of the valley is here
| | |about 5 miles from bank to
| | |bank. The Bari villages
| | |increase in number on the east
| | |bank as the river is ascended.
| | |Jebel Lado still dominates the
| | |western landscape, and Jebel
| | |Rejaf, a pyramidal and
| | |solitary peak, marks the point
| | |where the reefs and rapids
| | |begin. On approaching
| | |Gondokoro, navigation becomes
| | |more and more difficult as the
| | |water shoals rapidly, and the
| | |maze of channels and islands
| | |are perplexing and intricate;
| | |half a mile from Gondokoro are
| | |some bad shallows.
| | |
Gondokoro | 9 | 504 |At mile 504 from Lake No, the
| | _810_ |station of Gondokoro is
| | |reached. This place, on the
| | |east bank of the Bahr El
| | |Jebel, is the north frontier
| | |post of the Uganda
| | |Protectorate. Gordon gives the
| | |latitude of Gondokoro as 4°
| | |54′ 29″ north, and the
| | |longitude as 31° 43′ 46″ east.
| | |The altitudes given by
| | |different authorities vary so
| | |much that they are not worth
| | |recording. Gondokoro, although
| | |a healthy-looking station, has
| | |a deserted and scattered
| | |appearance. The buildings,
| | |mostly of bamboo and straw
| | |with brick houses for the
| | |European staff, contrast but
| | |poorly with those of the
| | |Belgians at Lado and Kiro; the
| | |station was occupied in 1899.
| | |The Collector’s house, or
| | |Residency, is situated about
| | |300 yards to the north of the
| | |garrison lines, and 130 yards
| | |from the river. It is built of
| | |burnt bricks, with a high
| | |thatched roof, on ground 16
| | |feet, or more, above the
| | |river, and surrounded by a
| | |thorn zeriba. This and the
| | |M.O.’s house are raised on
| | |brick arches from the ground
| | |and surrounded by gardens and
| | |cultivation. The thorn scrub
| | |approaches to within 1000
| | |yards of the houses. The
| | |station is situated on a high
| | |cliff, from 18 to 39 feet
| | |above the water. Much of this
| | |cliff has fallen in, and the
| | |foundations of the Austrian
| | |Mission Buildings, abandoned
| | |in 1858, are now on the
| | |extreme edge of the high bank.
| | |A few deleib palms and lime
| | |trees mark this bluff. The
| | |station extends over an area
| | |of about 1 by ½ mile. The new
| | |lines are built some 400 yards
| | |back from the river. The
| | |present huts which accommodate
| | |the small garrison are
| | |circular huts of mud and
| | |grass. There is also a police
| | |barracks containing about 25
| | |men. The remains of Baker’s
| | |old lines are still existing.
| | |He had here a garrison of
| | |1,500 men, but in his time the
| | |Bari was a powerful and
| | |warlike tribe. Gondokoro was,
| | |moreover, an important centre
| | |for the slave trade. Baker’s
| | |old lines consist of three
| | |rectangles, one within the
| | |other. The inner one is about
| | |300 by 400 yards; the second,
| | |500 by 800 yards; while the
| | |outer is, perhaps, 1,000 to
| | |1,200 yards square. Each of
| | |these rectangles is surrounded
| | |by a mud bank about 4 feet
| | |high, with an outer ditch 4
| | |feet deep by 6 feet broad at
| | |the top. There used to be
| | |plenty of trees, bananas, paw-
| | |paws, etc., and the station
| | |was, on the whole, a pretty
| | |one, but floods and white ants
| | |have now destroyed many of the
| | |trees. To the south and north
| | |of the station, and also 1¼
| | |miles to the east, are large
| | |marshes, which must tend to
| | |make the place unhealthy. At
| | |times wild elephants come
| | |close to the lines. Many Bari
| | |villages are located on the
| | |river near Gondokoro. All
| | |these are on the east side.
| | |The Bari appear to be better
| | |agriculturists than are either
| | |the Dinka, Nuer, or Shilluk.
| | |They cultivate dura, ground
| | |nuts, beans, and a little
| | |tobacco; also sweet potatoes,
| | |and manioc. A small market for
| | |local produce has been
| | |established, and Bari and
| | |Luluba keep it fairly well
| | |supplied; time, it is hoped,
| | |will bring an increase in
| | |population and cultivation.
| | |The castor-oil plant grows
| | |like a weed in this locality.
| | |The average maximum flood rise
| | |of the river here over summer
| | |level is not more than 4 feet.
| | |In the flood of 1878 it rose
| | |to a height of 7·2 feet on the
| | |gauge (Chelu). The general
| | |direction of the river here is
| | |north and south, so that
| | |Gondokoro is well situated
| | |with regard to the prevailing
| | |winds. The main channel,
| | |opposite the station, is about
| | |400 yards across, but is
| | |separated from the main land
| | |by a large island.
| | |
| | |(For description of the river
| | |to the Albert Nyanza, _vide_
| | |Appendix, Vol. II.)
----------------+-------------+-------+-------------------------------
[Illustration: KIRO.]
[Illustration: LADO.]
[Illustration: GONDOKORO.]
RECAPITULATORY TABLE OF DISTANCES.
--------------------------+------------------+------------------
| Intermediate. | From Lake No.
+------+-----------+------+-----------
|Miles.|Kilometres.|Miles.|Kilometres.
--------------------------+------+-----------+------+-----------
Hellet el Nuer | 139 | 223 | 139 | 223
| | | |
False channel (22 miles) | 4 | 6 | 143 | 230
| | | |
Bahr el Zeraf (south end) | 106 | 170 | 249 | 401
| | | |
Shambe | 7 | 11 | 256 | 412
| | | |
Abu Kuka | 37 | 59 | 293 | 471
| | | |
Kanisa | 11 | 18 | 304 | 489
| | | |
Bor | 80 | 129 | 384 | 617
| | | |
Latitude 5° 30′ | 64 | 103 | 448 | 721
| | | |
Kiro | 12 | 19 | 460 | 740
| | | |
Mongalla | 14 | 22 | 474 | 763
| | | |
Lado | 21 | 34 | 495 | 796
| | | |
Gondokoro | 9 | 14 | 504 | 810
--------------------------+------+-----------+------+-----------
[Illustration: MONGALLA.]
[Footnote 17: The flood discharge at Berber is 14,000 metres cube
per second.]
[Footnote 18: For full record of the history of the exploration of
the Nile _vide_ “The Nile Quest” by Sir H. Johnston.]
[Footnote 19: An endeavour is to be made during the winter of 1904-5
to explore the Bahr El Arab from its mouth.]
[Footnote 20: _I.e._, Meeting of the Rivers.]
[Footnote 21: According to some the change takes place at Lake No.]
[Footnote 22: The dates of its maximum levels upstream of the Sobat
coincide with those of the Bahr El Jebel.]
[Footnote 23: The maximum is never reached until the late autumn,
when the Blue Nile flood has passed away.]
[Footnote 24: Korti is 825 ft. above the level of the Mediterranean.]
[Footnote 25: A reconnaissance for a railway connecting Merowe with
Abu Hamed was carried out in April and May, 1904, by Lieut. Newcombe,
R.E. The amount of rock cutting necessary to lay the line near the
river on the R.B. is said to be prohibitive, and the most feasible
scheme seems to be to lay the line some distance inland and approach
the river perhaps twice only between Abu Hamed and Merowe. The length
of line would be roughly about 150 miles. It has been definitely
decided to commence the construction of this line at an early date.]
[Footnote 26: Nowadays (1904) nuggers never make this journey.]
[Footnote 27: For practical purposes reference should be made to
Capt. E. A. Stanton’s large scale sketches (I.D. Nubia District,
132) of 23rd August, 1897 (El Bana and Halfia), and 25th August,
1897 (Geridu Rapid). Letters refer to points thus marked on these
sketches.]
[Footnote 28: A broad road or clearing has been made along both
banks from Shendi to Berber. This is to be extended to Abu Hamed.]
[Footnote 29: For further details of this cataract see N.O. (1st
edition, pp. 74-80; 2nd edition, pp. 78-83).]
[Footnote 30: The rainfall in 1903 was 67·9 mm. or 2·7 inches,
of which 24·1 mm. fell in May and the remainder in July, August,
and September. In 1904 the rainfall amounted to 21·4 mm. or about
¾ of an inch. _Vide_ also p. 12.]
[Footnote 31: The steps taken to exterminate mosquitoes here have
proved so effectual that they are now practically extinct. The few
stray ones imported by the steamers from the Upper Nile are soon
marked down and their larvæ destroyed. For methods of destruction
_vide_ “Report of Wellcome Research Laboratories—Gordon
College—1904.”]
[Footnote 32: _i.e._, the point of junction of the Blue and White
Niles opposite the South part of Omdurman. The distances are measured
up the centre of the navigable channel, so they are not absolutely
correct for the tracks on either bank. The (banks) itinerary given
here does not always correspond accurately with the latest map,
being sometimes based on road reports of previous dates.]
[Footnote 33: A Debba is a low mound, generally the site of an old
or existing village.]
[Footnote 34: The native name for the late Fashoda.]
[Footnote 35: _I.e._, where the block formerly existed.]
[Footnote 36: At this point was the “Box” or “Sanduk,” on
a pole, erected as a landmark and for letters.]
[Footnote 37: _Vide_ also page 144.]
[Footnote 38: For fuller description of Bor and its people _vide_
page 144.]
[Footnote 39: There is a large Gemmeiza tree, sheltering a rest house,
with a wooding station, in this neighbourhood. Opinions are divided
as to whether it is the original tree.]
[Footnote 40: For further description _vide_ p. 146.]
CHAPTER III.
NORTH-EASTERN SUDAN.
* * * * *
(Country bounded on the north by the Sudan-Egyptian frontier, on
the west by the Nile from that frontier to the mouth of the Atbara,
on the south by the Atbara and Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers,
and on the east by the Red Sea.)
SECTION 1.—COUNTRY BETWEEN HALFA AND THE ATBARA MOUTH ALONG THE
NILE BANKS.
[Sidenote: General.]
Along the Nile from Faras to Halfa the east bank is fairly well
cultivated. From Halfa to near Kosha, with the exception of Sarras,
there is little cultivation and practically no inhabitants. Most
of this stretch is rocky and desert-like, and is known as “Batn
El Hagar.” South of Kosha cultivation and villages become more
general, and continue almost uninterruptedly to Abu Hamed (_see_
Chap. II, Sections 1 and 2. For the left bank, Dongola town, etc.,
_see_ Chap. IX.)
Between Abu Hamed and the Atbara junction there is little cultivation
on the east bank, except south of Genenetti. From here to the Atbara
there are about 500 sagias. The cultivated land, as a rule, extends
about 500 yards back from the river, and in a few places as much as
3 miles.
The country enclosed by the river and the mainline Sudan Government
Railways between Halfa and Abu Hamed is waterless, sandy, or gravelly
desert, broken here and there by rocky hills and ridges. It is
practically uninhabited, but is believed to contain minerals and
workings of old mines near Kuror, etc. These are now being explored.
The soil on the banks of the river in the Dongola Province is
rich and alluvial almost throughout, and well adapted for cotton
cultivation. This province is in fact the richest and most prosperous
in the Sudan.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
Health is excellent all the year round. Very little fever, only simple
cases. Little rain; showers may be expected in September. The wind
is almost constantly from the north. Ophthalmia, common in Egypt,
is rare in Dongola Province. During months June to end of September,
the weather is very hot and enervating, but air dry.
[Sidenote: Communications. Roads.]
Good roads, 5 metres in width, have been made on both banks of the
Nile throughout the Province; bends can be cut off frequently, notably
between Kosha and Abu Sari, a distance of 35 miles across the desert
with no water (_see_ Chap. II). There is a desert track on the right
bank from Dongola (Naui) to Merowe, a distance of about 100 miles
without water, and there are other desert tracks which have never been
traversed by a white man; of these latter little or nothing is known.
[Sidenote: Boats.]
Heavy goods, such as merchandise, grain, dates, etc., are mostly
carried by boat, and there is no lack of transport for the needs
of the natives in this respect; boats are constantly being built,
and every encouragement is given them to do so.
A fortnightly post boat runs between Kerma and Merowe. From February
to June, however, the low state of the river renders navigation for
steamers dangerous through the rapids between Kerma and Dongola;
during these months, therefore, the mail is carried by camels over
this reach of 40 miles, transport requirements being conveyed by
Government gayasas, of which there are 9 in the Province. There are
two steamers (1903).
[Sidenote: Population, riverain, and desert.]
From Halfa to Debba the inhabitants are Berabra.[41] The Mahasi
dialect is spoken from Halfa to Kerma. Here the Gararish[42]
and then the Danagla (Berabra), commence and continue to Debba;
from there on to Berti are the Shaigia. From Berti to Khulla the
Monasir are found, and then come the Robatab, who extend as far
as Kerraba. From here on to the Atbara junction are the Angariab,
Hagab, Merifab, and Fadlab. The few inhabitants of the desert are
mostly wandering Bisharin.
The total riverain population of Dongola Province numbered (December,
1902) 105,026, and is rapidly increasing.
This is exclusive of nomad Arabs, whose numbers may be put down at
2,000 Gararish (along the river), besides Bisharin, and other Nomads
(_vide_ Appendix F.) on the left bank.
The occupation of the people is that of cultivating the ground,
which they do very imperfectly except in Dar Shaigia; it could be
made to produce double the amount.
The natives of Mahas and Sukkot lag behind, the fault being entirely
their own; they are of an extremely indolent nature, perpetually
quarrelling amongst themselves over questions as to ownership of land
and date trees, and do little or nothing towards bettering themselves.
There is naturally a certain proportion of poor in the province,
but agricultural labour being in demand, employment is always to be
obtained by persons not too lazy to work.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
The cereals mostly cultivated on the river bank are dura, barley and
wheat. Cotton has hitherto been grown to a limited extent for local
use only. On the completion of the Nile-Red Sea Railway a great
increase in cotton culture is expected. A large amount of land,
admirably suited to the cultivation of this valuable commodity,
is available, and very large issues of Egyptian cotton seed have
this year (1904) been made by the Government.
In the Berber Province the wheat and barley grown are of good quality,
but both are expensive to cultivate.
Average yield per average price
feddan (Berber), barley 5 ardebs, per ardeb, PT.45 to PT.55.
„ „ wheat, 3 „ „ „ PT.75.
„ „ dura, 5 „ „ „ PT.35 to PT.80.
In the Dongola Province the crops are as follows:
-----------+-------------+------------+---------+-------------------
| Months when |Months when | No. of |Average yield per
Crop. | planted. | cut. | crops |crop per feddan of
| | | yearly. | PT. 40 land.
-----------+-------------+------------+---------+-------------------
Dura |June and |August and | 2 } |
|September |December | } |3 to 4 ardebs.
| | | } |
Dura Shami |June |August | 1 } |
| | | |
Wheat |December |March | 1 } |
| | | } |2½ to 3 ardebs.
Barley |December |February, | 1 } |
| |end of | |
| | | |
Simsim |September |October, | 1 |
| |end of, or | |
| |November, | |
| |beginning of| |
-----------+-------------+------------+---------+-------------------
N.B.—The majority of the land will give three crops yearly, viz.,
twice dura and once wheat or barley.
The number of sagias in the Dongola Province in December, 1902,
was 3,462, besides 77 shadufs and two pumps. There are now (1904),
nearly 4,000.
Iron sagias, though tried, have been pronounced unsuitable as they
are difficult to repair. Iron fittings for the old wooden sagias
have, however, proved a decided success. European ploughs are not
popular on account of their weight.
The chief requirement of all the riverain Provinces is agricultural
labour, men of the fellahin type, who would teach the inhabitants
how to till and tend the soil, and thus produce crops in proportion
to the value of the land.
The local breed of cattle is fair, and moderately numerous, but
might be improved in both respects.
[Sidenote: Dates.]
The date tax (PT.2 per tree) is one of the principal items of revenue
in Dongola. There are also a considerable number of trees in the
Berber Province. It is hoped that the new railway will enable dates
to be much more largely exported,[43] and thus materially increase
the revenue of these Provinces. At present the freights are almost
prohibitive. Date harvest, October and November. Quality in Dongola
excellent, and ripen before those from Egypt, Tunis or Tripoli. In
Berber the dates are not so good.
[Sidenote: Dom palms.]
The dom palm furnishes a means of livelihood to many of the riverain
inhabitants in the Berber Province. The leaf is made into mats,
sandals, and baskets. Coir (lif) is largely exported to Omdurman,
where it is made into rope.
[Sidenote: Other trees.]
Besides the above, there are sunt trees mostly used for sagia
building, and selem, talh, samr, and heglig mostly on the back lands,
with haraz and the dwarf tarfa on the river bank. Tamarind trees
are being introduced and are doing well.
[Sidenote: Senna.]
A certain amount of senna grows wild in the Berber and Dongola
Provinces. It is gathered by the Arabs, who transport it to Kordofan,
and Aswan, where it fetches about £E.2½ per camel load.
[Sidenote: Fruit.]
Melons and lemons are plentiful in the spring and autumn. People
are commencing to cultivate the vine.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
The import trade of the Dongola Province consists chiefly of cotton
goods and such luxuries as sugar, tea, coffee, perfumery, etc.,
and of the export of cereals and dates. Business, however, is not
brisk. The chief obstacle to the development of the import trade is
the want of enterprise on the part of traders. There are excellent
openings for merchants. The people are well off and willing to buy,
especially such goods as cutlery, crockery, soap, agricultural
implements, hardware, and such sundry merchandise, but at present
(1904) there is not a single well-to-do trader in the Province.
Native cotton cloth, called “damur,” is worked throughout the
Province, and forms the chief clothing of the men, who dress in
shirt and drawers, with ferda (or toga) of this material.
[Sidenote: Administrative.]
Crime is small in proportion to number of population. Inhabitants
most peaceably inclined, and all (men, women, and children) work at
their crops.
[Sidenote: Housing.]
Villages are mostly composed of well-built houses straggling along
the borders of cultivation. The houses are built of galus (mud and
stones), with good court yards, whitewashed and clean. Very superior
to those of fellahin in Egypt.
[Sidenote: Miscellaneous insects.]
The “Nimetta” fly, a small midge, appears in countless myriads
from November to April, both months inclusive, between Dalgo and
Korti. The bite causes slight fever through irritation. At times
they are absolutely unbearable, and cause temporary migrations of
both white men and natives. Natives wear bunches of smouldering
grass twisted round the head to keep off the fly.
White ants also are both numerous and most destructive between Dalgo
and Korti.
[Sidenote: Chief towns. HALFA.]
HALFA (Wadi Halfa), comprising “The Camp” and “Halfa town”
is the capital of the Province of Halfa,[44] which extends along
the Nile from Faras Island (N. lat. 22° 10′ approximately)
to Abu Fatma. It is also the present headquarters and terminus of
the main line (Sudan Government Railways) to Khartoum, as well as
of the branch to Kerma. There are extensive railway workshops at
the Camp. The latter includes barracks, prison, officers’ mess,
native quarter, and the old fortifications. Also post and telegraph
office. Population about 400, of which one-quarter are white. No
garrison at present. Halfa was for years (1885-96) the headquarters
of the Frontier Field Force which defended the southern frontier of
Egypt against the Dervish invasion.
The civil quarter of Halfa lies 1½ miles to the north of the
Camp. Here there is an excellent hotel, also railway station, post
and telegraph offices, some good stores, and native bazaar. The
population, which is composed chiefly of Egyptians and Sudanese,
with a large sprinkling of Greeks, is about 2,900.
[Sidenote: BERBER.]
BERBER is a long straggling mud-built town containing about 5,000
inhabitants. It was captured by the Mahdists after a certain
resistance on the 26th May, 1884, and was re-occupied by the
Anglo-Egyptian forces under Lord Kitchener on 6th September, 1897. It
is now the capital of the Berber Province, but this will be moved to
El Damer in 1905 (_vide_ Chapter IV). There are at present two railway
stations, Berber Camp and Town. Post and telegraph office. There
are no good stores in the town, and there is little trade here at
present. The present town lies 2 miles to the north of old Berber,
and is the headquarters of an Egyptian battalion.
The desert road to Suakin starts from here (242 miles). Behind the
town an immense flat plain stretches to the horizon. This is fertile
soil, and only awaits proper irrigation to be reproductive. Berber
is 1,140 feet above the Mediterranean or 95 feet below the level
of Khartoum.
SECTION 2.—COUNTRY BETWEEN HALFA, BERBER, SUAKIN AND THE
INTERSECTION OF THE 22ND PARALLEL WITH THE RED SEA.
(_a_) BETWEEN THE RAILWAY AND THE NILE.
[Sidenote: General.]
For purposes of description this area is conveniently divided into
two portions by the Halfa-Abu Hamed Railway. The portion west of the
railway comprises some of the most arid country in the Sudan. The
general formation is that of a plain covered with sand or gravel,
dotted here and there with steep and even precipitous hills of
from 100 to 800 feet elevation above the plain, which falls gently
and uniformly to within a few miles of the Nile. In places these
detached hills are so numerous and so close together as to resemble
connected ranges. As a rule the sand is coarse and heavy enough to
afford excellent going for camels; but strips of soft deep sand are
occasionally met with, especially where the wind has banked it up
against or between the hills.
The crest of this gently sloping spur projecting into the bend of
the Nile, is some 2,000 feet above sea level, where the railway
crosses it, that is some 1,550 feet above Halfa and 1,080 feet above
Abu Hamed.
The country midway between the river and the railway has been little
visited, and the only known place of any importance is J. Kuror,
the highest hill west of the railway and some 4,070 feet above the
sea. After heavy rains its “Makhzans,” or rocky reservoirs, hold
water for many months, and are occasionally visited by nomad Arabs.
Immediately south of Halfa the plain terminates in a belt of low
hummocky hills, some 8 to 10 miles wide. After Sarras, the belt
becomes wider and the hills bolder, till they culminate in J. Ago,
east of Akasha, at the southern end of the Batn El Hagar.
Between Akasha and the latitude of Kosha the country becomes less
confined, but contains several high and precipitous hills. South of
Kosha it becomes more and more open, and the hills lower and more
scattered until they appear to die away south of Kerma.
From Kerma, as far as Old Dongola, practically no hills are visible
from the river, and the sand hills are piled up on the very edge of
the water. At Old Dongola the ground rises, and from there, as far
as J. Barkal, near Merowe, rocky elevations approach the river here
and there, or are seen in the distance, without, however, always
encroaching on the fertile belt on the right bank.
From J. Barkal to Abu Hamed there is a rough and rocky belt of hills
a few miles from the river, though the elevations are inconsiderable.
[Sidenote: Drainage.]
Rain falls at long intervals in very heavy and local showers. From
the upper part of the country it is carried off by a number of wide
shallow wadis, whose beds are hardly distinguishable when crossed,
though the slight remains of grass they sometimes contain show them
up clearly when looked down on from the top of a hill.
As these wadis reach the rocky belt along the river, their beds
contract so much that after heavy rain regular torrents descend them,
sweeping away anything they find in their path. Much damage occurred
in this way to the camp at Akasha in 1896, though no rain fell in
the vicinity.
South of the crest of the spur the chief drainage lines are the two
Wadis Keheli, one of which rises near J. Kuror and joins the Nile,
about 40 miles below Abu Hamed; the other rises near No. 5 Station
and is followed by the railway under the name of Wadi Gaud, and
eventually reaches the Nile a little west of Mograt Island.
[Sidenote: Vegetation.]
Some of the wadis contain a little grass and a few stunted selem
bushes, but there is no grazing for flocks except within a few miles
of the Nile. Firewood also is very rarely met with.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The riverain inhabitants graze their flocks a few miles into the
desert. Besides these shepherds there are no inhabitants.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
There is none.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
Except in the hilly belt along the river, camels can go anywhere.
The only track at all well-known is that from Dongola (Naui) to
Merowe, cutting off the great bend of the Nile to the south.
(_b_) COUNTRY EAST OF HALFA-ABU HAMED RAILWAY, OR “THE ATBAI.”
[Sidenote: Limits.]
The Atbai is roughly the name applied to the country bounded on the
north by the Kena-Kosseir road, on the south by the Berber-Suakin
road, on the east by the Red Sea, and on the west by the Nile
from Kena to Halfa, and thence by the Sudan Government Railway to
Berber. It lies, therefore, approximately, between N. lat. 26°
and 20°.
The northern half, which is inhabited by the Ababda, belongs to Egypt;
the southern portion, inhabited by the Bisharin and the Amarar,
etc., near Suakin, belongs to the Sudan. Although on many maps this
country is generally labelled “Nubian Desert,” much of it is by
no means desert in the true sense of the word. Comparatively little
is known even now of the more southern districts[45] of the Atbai,
and the following descriptive notes must be taken to apply chiefly
to the country between north lat. 21° and 22° 30′.
[Sidenote: Bisharin country.]
The country of the Bisharin, which is bounded on the north by an
irregular line rather north of lat. 22°, and to the south extends as
far as Mitateb on the Atbara, contains wide stretches of gravelly,
sandy, or stony desert, intersected by frequent bare sandstone and
granite ranges, but, at the same time, on the eastern side especially,
it contains many more or less fertile and quite luxuriantly wooded
wadis, in which water is sometimes found within 2 or 3 feet of
the surface.
[Sidenote: Drainage.]
East of the railway the hills become more frequent and larger,
and the drainage lines more conspicuous.
Generally speaking, the watershed between the Nile and the Red Sea,
which lies between 35° and 35° 30′ E. long., consists of a mass
of hills from 30 to 40 miles in width. These hills, which consist of
agglomerations of rather small features, out of which a bolder peak,
such as J. Eigat, occasionally rises, are intersected by very numerous
rocky khors, which feed a few large and well-wooded wadis. West of
the watershed, from as far south as 20° 30′, all the drainage
escapes north by the wadis Alagi and Gabgaba, which unite to the
east of Korosko and join the Nile near Sayala.
Of these the Gabgaba has the longest course, as its head waters rise
much further south than those of the Alagi. Much of its basin is
still unexplored, in fact, the only well known portion is the plain
south-east of Murrat wells, which is painfully arid and deficient
in vegetation.
Many of the wadis, however, that descend to it on the east are well
wooded as long as they are in the hills, and even for a few miles
after they have emerged from them.
The scheme of drainage here is exactly the reverse of that west of
the railway.
Instead of water-courses beginning broad and ending narrow and deep,
here they commence with narrow defined rocky channels, gradually
becoming broader, sandier, of more gentle slope, and in many places
with fine trees and much “tabas” grass. When the hills are left,
however, the trees die away, the grass disappears, and the bed becomes
ill-defined or completely lost. South of the parallel of Murrat the
country appears to become more open, and probably very wide plains
exist with little to offer to even a desert Arab.
South of the Gabgaba Basin, the drainage from the watershed descends
nearly due west by several large wadis, which have at various times
given trouble to the railway. Owing to the outcrop of rocks near the
river between Abu Hamed and Berber, the beds of these wadis become
restricted as they approach the river, with the usual result as
regards spates and floods.
[Sidenote: Drainage east of watershed.]
On the east of the watershed the wadis, after leaving the hills on
which they rise, traverse a range of granite hills, and thence flow,
generally in a north-east direction, to the maritime plain of the
Red Sea.
The principal wadis, from north to south, are Hasium, Di-ib,
and Haieit.
The Wadi Hasium, after emerging from the hills of Abu Hodeid, skirts
the Kajoj and Musa ranges, which it leaves some distance to the south,
and flows through open country to the sea. It contains the wells of
Kajoj and Shalatein.
The Wadi Di-ib, perhaps the most important wadi of the Eastern Atbai,
rises in the Amarar country, probably as far south as the 20th
parallel, and flows generally northwards. About 20 miles before it
turns eastwards to traverse the open maritime plain, it opens out
into a wide basin, a mile in breadth and 8 to 10 miles in length,
containing a bed of rich alluvial soil. This basin forms the principal
cultivable land in the Um Ali Bisharin country. It is the property
of the Shantirab, but portions are allotted both to the Amrab and
Belgab in good years. An important tributary on the left bank of
the Di-ib is the Wadi Hufra, which, rising in the Amrab country in
the hills to the north-east of Onib, joins it at the north end of
the J. Elba range. It receives all the drainage from the hills of
the southern Belgab country by the Wadis Is and Legia. At several
places in its bed, the Arabs cultivate and obtain good crops of dura.
Wadi Haieit, in the southern Atbai, is also said to be cultivated.
The ranges of Elba and Asotriba are composed of red granite,
whilst at the foot of the latter are small hills of very beautiful
hornblende porphyrite.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The climate of the Atbai is probably the best in the Sudan. The air
is of absolute purity, and the elevation, 1,500 to 3,000 feet above
sea level, very considerably mitigates the shade temperature. The
heat of the sun, however, is intensely fierce in warm weather,
owing to the glare from the sand and rocks. During the summer,
waves of superheated air are occasionally known, such as that which
destroyed a convoy on the march from Korosko to Abu Hamed in 1897.
In winter, the cold is quite severe, and anyone proposing to travel
there in December or January should make sure he has plenty of
bedding and warm clothes.
Though it is essentially a very dry climate, dew falls at Deraheib
on the west of the watershed in December, and a misty haze, which
seems to be connected with moisture in the air, frequently covers the
whole country. The climate of the littoral is, as may be supposed,
much warmer than that of the interior.
[Sidenote: Rainfall.]
The rain falls in violent local showers during the months of July
and August, called the “Shuti” rains. In exceptional years,
showers occur in May and June.
Many places go without rain for several years in succession, but
during the above-mentioned months it is always risky to camp in the
bed of a wadi, as a spate may come down, though no rain nor clouds
have been visible to the traveller.
The dew is very heavy on the littoral, and suffices to keep the bush
grazing in good condition, though it is insufficient to raise the
short grass, which sprouts after rain, and which forms the principal
pasture for sheep.
[Sidenote: Towns or Villages.]
There are nowadays no towns or villages in the Atbai. The Arabs
live by families in groups of tents made of dom-palm matting. These,
of course, move according as it suits them.
[Sidenote: Deraheib.]
There are, however, throughout this district, the remains of quite
large stone-built villages, formerly inhabited by the miners of
the ancients. Those at Deraheib are particularly striking. Deraheib
(Der — castle, aheib — beautiful) was evidently at one time the
seat of a colony of miners. On the right bank of the wadi are the
broken walls of 500 or more houses, arranged in streets. The castle,
a large square building, stands under the hills on the left bank. The
pointed arches of the castle and portions of some of the houses are
set in lime. The majority of buildings, however, are constructed of
stone and mud.
[Sidenote: Vegetation.]
The vegetation, generally, is rare and scanty, though in some of
the large wadis, even west of the watershed, it is surprisingly
luxuriant. Perhaps the Wadi Alagi, with its fine sayal and heglig
and abundant marakh, arak and other green trees, is the most striking
instance. West of the Gabgaba, and immediately east of it, selem is
chiefly met with, but as one ascends the wadis one comes on sayal
and the rare palm, “_Medemia argun_.”
The latter is especially numerous in the Wadis Abaraga and Terfaui,
and is found in many other khors in the neighbourhood, especially
in those descending from J. Rafit to the Gabgaba.
No adult specimens were noticed east of the Wadi Abaraga, though
there are many young plants trying to sprout at Abu Tabag.
This palm is largely used for mat-making, and the Arabs are fully
alive to the advantage of preserving it, as well as other trees.
The grazing is not confined to the actual beds of the wadis. There
are many flat or depressed places where, for some months after good
rain, excellent grazing is found for camels, sheep, and goats.
The rainfall, however, is so uncertain that it is impossible to rely
on finding grazing at any particular place even if it has been found
there in previous years.
[Sidenote: Vegetation east of watershed.]
The vegetation along the wadis flowing towards the sea varies
considerably from that found along those emptying into the Nile. Large
trees, such as sayal, selem, heglig and tundub are found along
the former, as well as a bush called “adlib,” which camels are
extremely fond of, “arad,” an acacia, growing on the tops of
the granite hills that border the littoral, is used by the Arabs to
produce the red dye for the leather of sword scabbards, etc. The
medicinal qualities of the small undergrowth and grasses of the
eastern Atbai are considered by the Arabs far more efficacious than
those of the west. A species of gum tree, similar to the “_Ficus
elastica_,” but with a smaller leaf, exists on the hills of the
eastern Atbai; it is known by the Arabs as “gemmeiza.”
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
Water is scarce throughout the whole district and, where found,
is in many places more or less brackish.
The only wells that have been sunk by the present Government are
at Nos. 4 and 6 stations, at both of which a plentiful supply is
obtained at less than 100 feet depth.
The ordinary water supply consists of regular wells, stone lined
for part or all of their depth, rough excavations in the beds of
wadis, and accumulations of rain water in cracks or hollows in the
rocks. These latter, which are called “makhzans,” if large, and
“gammam,” if small, contain the best water. Those on J. Rafit
are particularly well known, and were drawn on for the supply of
the garrison of Murrat before the re-conquest of the Sudan.
The largest supply of water is perhaps found in the Wadi Murrat close
under the old fort. This, in the pre-Dervish days, was the midway
halting place of caravans proceeding from Korosko to Abu Hamed, and
very large numbers of camels used to be supplied from the wells at
this place. The water is brackish and disagreeable, but drinkable.
Like the Murrat Wells, most of the wells in the Atbai are situated
in the beds of wadis and khors, and are consequently filled in every
time a flood descends, entailing great labour on the inhabitants,
who have to clear them out. This is especially the case with those
which are not stone lined. (A list of wells is given on page 92.)
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
As may be supposed, the Atbai is not a great agricultural district. In
years of good rainfall, however, there is a considerable amount of
dura cultivated in the Wadis Alagi, Gabgaba, and Di-ib, etc., but
the Arabs rely chiefly on Aswan, and to a lesser extent on Halaib
and Suakin for their grain supply. At the former town they find a
ready sale for their sheep, which command good prices. The price of
a sheep at Aswan is about PT.75, at Suakin PT.25, whilst dura at
Aswan only costs from PT.40 to PT.70 per ardeb, whereas at Suakin
it is oftener nearer PT.150. Aswan is, therefore, the most popular
market with the Arabs of the Atbai.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
The one main road through this country, that from Korosko to Abu
Hamed _viâ_ Murrat, which used to be the artery through which the
commerce of the Sudan flowed to Egypt, has fallen into disuse since
the construction of the railway, and there are now no other tracks
except those made by the Nomad Arabs.
The nature of the country, consisting as it does of masses of very
small features intersected by numerous khors, and often separated
by plains of considerable extent, lends itself to great freedom of
movement in almost all directions. The absence of regular trade,
too, has militated against the formation of stereotyped routes, and
the result is, that between any two places you can find at least
one and very often several more or less different routes, none of
which, unless lately passed over by a large party, would appear to
the traveller more frequented than the others.
The hilly mass forming the watershed is so far an exception that camel
transport from one side to the other is restricted to a few passes.
The tracks, as a rule, are bad and stony; camels, even those bred in
the country, soon suffer from sore feet. The tracks usually follow
the wadis.
[Sidenote: Minerals.]
That this country was once, to a certain extent at any rate, rich
in gold, is evident from the numerous shafts and traces of former
workings that are seen.
[Sidenote: Game.]
The following species of game are found in the Atbai:—
Ariel: scarce on Wadi Di-ib, but south of Darur, plentiful.
Gazelle (_Isabella_ and _Dorcas_).
Ibex: on hills adjoining littoral.
Cony (native Halidob): hills Red Sea to Murrat.
Wild ass: Onib to Di-ib.
Wild sheep: rare, in hills from Aswan to Abu Hamed, and along
the Nile from Murrat to Akasha. Well known to exist at J. Rafit and
East of Gabgaba.
Klipspringer and Dig-Dig: hills adjoining littoral south of
Bowarti.
Cheetah and leopard: rare in hills near littoral.
Hyena and wild dog „ „ „
Also bluerock pigeon and sand, rock, and night-grouse on all hills.
ATBAI—SOUTH OF LATITUDE 20° 0′.
[Sidenote: Drainage.]
From the northern portion of the Atbai the general line of the
watershed between the Nile and the Red Sea is south-eastward as far
as the hills enclosing the upper part of the Wadi Amur.
The hills lying to the north of the Wadi Amur in its upper part form
a portion of the watershed.
North of these hills are a series of large khors which drain
first north and north-east. Lower down these khors are practically
unknown, but are said to curve eastward and reach the sea north
of Cape Elba. The largest of these khors are Mahaleit, Dirab,
and Haieit. In their upper portions they are broad level valleys
covered with a considerable amount of coarse grass. The scrub in
them is low and scattered.
South of Wadi Amur the watershed lies north and south in about
E. long. 37° 20′, until the great Khor Arab basin is reached.
Of the wadis draining westward, south of lat. 20°, Khor Arab has
by far the largest drainage area. It includes in its lower portion
not only Khor Arab proper, but also Khors Erheib and Thamiam and
Barameyu. It may be said to drain the whole triangle of country,
whose angular points are Kokreb, Erkowit, and Oi.
Between Khor Arab and Wadi Amur the drainage is taken by Khors Habob
and Laiameb, while Khors Misrar and Aderot drain the country between
Khor Arab and the Tobrar range.
On the east side of the hills the valleys are narrower and have a
steeper fall, and possess well-defined and clean-swept watercourses,
which, in the narrower valleys, cover the whole bed of the valley.
The most important of the khors draining west are Khors Garar, Arbat,
Okwat, and Adit.
The general course of Khors Garar and Okwat is at right angles to the
watershed, and the upper parts of these khors are therefore steep
and stony. Khors Arbat and Adit lie parallel to the watershed for
a considerable part of their length.
Khor Arbat is the largest of these khors, and, from its watershed,
opens out almost immediately into the broad Odrus plain, which the
Berber-Suakin caravan road crosses.
Entering the Akareirirba hills, it narrows in, and in the lower part
of its course it becomes a defile shut in by steep hills, which rise
directly from the sandy and stony bed of the watercourse.
Khor Adit also has its maximum width in its upper part between
Sinkat and Jebel Erba, and, narrowing as it descends, joins Khor
Okwat through Khor Totali, a winding defile shut in by steep hills,
and in places only 200 yards wide.
The minor khors which drain eastward from the hills bounding Khors
Adit and Arbat, are steep stony valleys, ending in agabas, strewn
with boulders and difficult of passage by loaded camels.
Such are Khors Adaia and Bengar, leading from Khors Arbat and Khors
Teiutelri and Abent from Khor Adit.
The khors become ill-defined on leaving the hills, and what vegetation
they possess gives place to the low scrub and coarse grass of the
maritime plain.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The higher parts of the watershed on the eastern side have a perfect
winter climate, and the extreme ranges of the temperature are less
than those of the higher plains of the northern Atbai.
On clear nights in the late autumn and winter a very heavy dew falls,
quite sufficient to saturate any bedding or kit left exposed to it.
On the west side of the watershed little or no dew falls.
To the west of the hills the rainy season coincides with that in the
Nile Valley, while in the east rain may be expected between November
and March, although local thunderstorms may occur at other times of
the year.
The winter rain in the western hills is sometimes heavy thunder rain,
and at other times a heavy downpour or thick mist, unaccompanied by
electrical disturbances.
[Sidenote: Vegetation.]
In the lower parts of the khors, where they merge into open desert,
the vegetation is very scanty. It is confined to a thin line of
scattered scrub which marks the lowest part of the valley.
As the valleys become narrower and more marked the trees are larger.
Selem, samr, and tundub, form the chief part of the vegetation, with
gamob in Wadi Amur and a thick belt of “eitil” in Khor Arab,
near its junction with Khor Oi.
In the valleys east of the watershed the trees are larger and more
numerous. Khor Adit is especially noticeable in this respect, with its
large gemmeiza trees near Sinkat well, its thick covering of arak bush
along the bed of the valley, and sunt and other trees of considerable
size near the watercourse. The steep and stony khors, however, such
as Khor Garar and the upper part of Khor Okwat, are in most places
swept too bare of earth to allow of the growth of trees of any size.
The grazing on both sides of the watershed is confined to the
actual valleys.
The watersheds dividing the westward-flowing khors are low rough
ridges of black rock and gravel, and are practically destitute
of vegetation.
After rain, there is frequently grazing in the depressions in the
atmurs, such as El Gura, near Tendera.
In the khors on the east of the watersheds there is little or no
grass until the lower levels are reached, except in the Odrus plain
and in the upper part of Khor Adit, near Sinkat.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
Throughout the whole stretch of desert, between the hills and the
railway, water is scarce.
Besides those at the well-known halting places on the Berber-Suakin
caravan road—Obak and Ariab—the following wells may be noted:—
GARAFAB.—50 miles N.N.E. of Abidia, has several shallow wells
among sand dunes.
SARARAT WELL.—In Wadi Amur, is 96 miles from Garafab. The well
is 50 feet deep, and is lined with stone, but only gives a small
supply. This well is probably the same as that marked on the older
maps as the “Oasis of Amur.” South of the Suakin-Berber road
the chief wells are as follows:—
TENDERA, MIB, and OI.—There are several good wells at each of
these places.
The Mib wells are specially good, and lie in a hollow of the hills,
reached by a narrow defile about ¾ of a mile long. The water supply
at Thamiam is very good, but the wells are dug in the bed of the khor
and are liable to fill up. There is sometimes water in the rocks at
Rauai, but it was stated not to be sufficient to water a hamla of
80 camels in November, 1902.
Talgwarab is only a water hole 18 feet deep, and cannot be counted
on as a supply at present. The natives state that attempts to dig
down deeper are prevented by the light soil falling in.
Near the watershed the wells are more numerous. There are four
wells in the upper part of Khor Haieit, and several others in the
deep valleys through which the larger khors drain into the Haieit,
Amur, and Arab basins. In the upper part of Wadi Amur, above Sararat,
wells are reported to be about 11 miles apart. On the eastern side,
besides the existing wells, water could probably be found at a depth
of a few feet anywhere in Khor Arbat. The wells in the lower parts
of the khors are frequently brackish. Hoshiri at the foot of Khor
Okwat is an example of this.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
In years when the rainfall is good there is a considerable area under
dura cultivation in Khor Arab near Talgwarab and between there and
Thamiam wells. The natives build numbers of horse-shoe shaped dams
to retain the water and keep it standing on the ground. There are
also signs of the main khor channel having been dammed to divert
the water over the flat earthy soil of the valley.
The upper stretches of Khors Barameyu and Erheib and Hareitri are
also used for dura growing.
There is also cultivation near Abu Goloda, on the eastern side in
the head of Khor Haieit, in Khor Adit above Sinkat, and especially
in the Odrus Plain, dura is grown.
Near the Atbara River there is a considerable area under cultivation
in Khor Abadar.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
Besides the main Berber-Suakin caravan road there are well-marked
roads leading to Rauai well.
The Tendera-Mib-Oi road is also a good track and the surface is
fairly smooth, except at the approaches to Mib and Oi wells.
The going on the main Suakin-Berber road is distinctly bad in several
places, notably at the head of the Kokreb valley, in Wadi Hareitri
and in Khor Hadasana.
Near the hills, communications parallel to the watershed are
difficult, as for instance between Haieit and Kokreb. Such a line is
very hard on camels, as there is a continued succession of deep-cut
khors of varying size divided by hills or ridges of loose shale and
black rock, steep and difficult to surmount.
The road leading from Khor Haieit to Khor Garar is a fairly easy
one for camels, but Khor Garar itself is very rough.
The chief routes across the watershed are:—
From Khor Barameyu to Sinkat—here the gradients are very easy and
the surface smooth.
A route westward from Sinkat towards Abu Goloda and Rauai has steep
stony “agabas.”
From Abu Goloda into the Odrus plain—easy slopes but rough underfoot
in the upper part of the Abu Goloda khor.
Wadi Hareitri on the Berber-Suakin road—very rough underfoot.
From Wadi Amur into Khor Yudib—many low rough watersheds have to
be crossed, and there is no beaten track.
From Khor Arbat the maritime plain can be reached either:—
(1) By the Tamabaf watershed into Khor Okwat.
(2) By Khor Dimm.
(3) By Khor Adaia or Khor Bengar.
Of these the Tamabaf and Khor Dimm routes are easy for camels,
but Khors Adaia and Bengar have steep and rough “agabas.”
(_c_) THE BISHARIN.
[Sidenote: Boundaries of Bisharin.]
The Bisharin inhabit the desert bounded on the north, roughly, by
the Alagi and its tributaries, on the south by the Atbara, on the
east by the Red Sea from Shalatein to J. Asotriba, and thence by a
line joining Mitateb or Umbeiba on the Atbara, and on the west by
the Nile from the mouth of the Atbara to Abu Hamed, and thence by
the old trade route from Abu Hamed to Korosko.
The Ababda and Bisharin formerly lived a good deal further south
in the districts now occupied by the Hadendoas; both tribes moved
northwards probably about 100 years ago.
The Ababda by their move north, came into a more civilised
country. Their Sheikhs, through the transport needed on the
Korosko—Abu Hamed road, came into touch with the Government and
acquired at this time great wealth, and with wealth, their numbers
increased, whilst the Bisharin of the hills, left far behind as
regards progressiveness, soon came to be despised by them.
The Bisharin claim descent from Bishar, the son of Kahl, who was
also the father of Abad and Amar, from whom the Ababda and Amarar
are said to have sprung.
[Sidenote: Origin.]
Kahl is said to have been descended from Zubeir Ibn El Awam,[46]
whose wife was a sister of Abbas, uncle of the Prophet. They maintain,
therefore, that they are descended from the noble Koreish Tribe. In
the genealogy of the tribe, the three principal ancestors are Kahl,
Bishar, and Ali Jalan; on this all accounts seem to agree. The
present generation of Sheikhs is generally said to be the ninth or
tenth from Ali Jalan.
The descendants of Kahl most likely originally inhabited part of the
district now occupied by the Hadendoas, the Bisharin, and Ababda,
as stated above, having latterly moved northwards.
[Sidenote: Sub-division.]
The Bisharin are divided into two great families, the Um Ali and
Um Naji. The former live in the north, the latter in the south, of
their country. Both sections are named after the wives of Ali Jalan,
the great grandson of Bishar, who had the following sons:—
By Um Ali. Tribe. By Um Naji. Tribe.
------- --- -------- ---
Ali Aliab. Hanr Hanr.
Shanatir Shantirab. Eira Eireiab.
Amer Amrab. Nafi Nafab.
Hamedor Hamedorab. Mansur Mansurab.
ALIAB.—The Aliab, who are far more numerous and wealthy than any
of the Um Ali or Um Naji tribes, are divided into the following
sub-tribes: Koatil, Mallak, Hamedomerab, Kurbeilab, and Balgab.
The first three named are sometimes classed together and known as
the Sararab, on account of their near common ancestry.
The Sheikh of the Koatil has for two generations been the
representative Sheikh of these three families; before this the
Sheikhship was with the Hamedomerab.
_Sub-tribes of the Aliab._
KOATIL.—The Koatil, under Sheikh Isa Abdalla, are a small tribe,
and poor. They live at Meshushenai and Terfaui.
HAMEDOMERAB.—Sheikh Mohammed Wad Kurab. This, again, is a small
tribe, owning few camels, but good flocks of sheep and goats.
Wadi Meisa, at the head of which is Bir Meisa, is where most of the
tribe are to be found during the summer. Their two wells are Meisa
and Didaut, close together in the small hills north of the Elba red
granite range.
MALLAK.—Sheikh Isa Shingeirab. The Mallak, the third Sararab
tribe, is by far the richest, and own many camels, and of a breed
which is famous among all the neighbouring tribes. The Mallak own
many wells.[47]
BALGAB.—The next of the Aliab tribes is the Balgab (Isa Abdalla),
who live in the hills about Is. They have never, since the time of
Abdalla, the father of Isa, had a representative Sheikh, but have
always been represented by the Sheikh of the Sararab.
They have good herds of camels, sheep, and goats. They do not
frequent the Aswan market as much as the other Aliab sub-tribes,
but they sell a great deal to merchants who come from there, and buy
much of their corn in good years from the Di-ib. They are a wilder
people than the other tribes and very rarely leave their hills. They
are shy and difficult of approach. Their wells are Is and Legia.
KURBEILAB.—Sheikh Mohammed Katul. This is a large tribe. They have
many wells, generally in the small tributaries of the upper Alagi.
Katul, Sheikh of the tribe, is by far the ablest man of the Aliab
Sheikhs, or, in fact, of any other of the Bisharin Sheikhs.
[Sidenote: Compensation for murder or wounds.]
The traditional “diia” or compensation for loss of life among
these Arabs is: for a man, 50 male and 50 female camels; for women or
children, or loss of legs, arms, eyes, 25 male and 25 female camels.
Wounds are assessed according to their gravity. The cause in which
murders are committed, or a wound is received, is always taken into
consideration.
The above amounts are the limit of compensation.
WELLS.
The following is a list of Bisharin wells in the northern Atbai,
showing the sub-tribe to which they belong:—
-------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
Sub-tribe. | Name of Well. | Remarks.
-------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
(i) UM ALI. | |
| |
Koatil |Terfaui |Water good—shared by Eireiab.
| |
|J. Mashushanai |Water in open basin, 12 feet
| |deep—sweet but scarce (December, 1902).
| |
|Umrasin |Not much water, and then only after
| |rain.
| |
Hamedomerab |Meisa |Not open 1903.
| |
|Didaut | —
| |
Mallak |Eigat |Water never more than a few feet below
| |surface—sometimes flowing.
| |
|Heilaigabeir |Well 10 feet deep—not much water,
| |rather salt.
| |
|Butna |Good water and plentiful.
| |
|El Eifein |Good water, but supply does not last.
| |
|Abu Dom |Slightly brackish—10 to 15 feet down,
| |according to season.
| |
|Um Gabrit |Good water—not visited.
| |
|Abu Tabag |Stone lined well, 24 feet deep—water
| |plentiful, but slightly brackish.
| |
Balgab |Legia |Good water and plentiful.
| |
|Is |Good water, 4 feet down.
| |
Kurbeilab |Neshd |Water good—camels cannot approach
| |owing to rocks.
| |
|Kamotit |Water good.
| |
|Homeitra |Water in tanks in mountain; also
| |obtainable by digging at base.
| |
|J. Abu Hodeid |Water plentiful—in spring and tanks.
| |
|Um Beshtit |Not always water.
| |
|Jugub |Rarely open, and not much water.
| |
|Derbieib |Hole in side of hill—much water on
| |surface.
| |
|Nasari |1 well, belongs to Amrab—good water,
| |not visited.
| |
|Feireida |Very small supply of good water.
| |
|Miaus |Small supply of good water.
| |
|Shinai |Much water, about 10 feet down.
| |
|El Faui |Good water, and plentiful supply.
| |
|Kajoj |Much water, near surface—salt.
| |
|Gidimib |?
| |
|Madi |?
| |
Adoloiab |Murrat |Best well is used by the Mining
| |Co.—water very brackish and very
| |aperient. If long stay to be made,
| |water should be obtained from J. Rafit
| |(10 miles).
| |
|Telat Abda |2 wells of 15 feet deep—one brackish.
| |In westerly well, water sweet but
| |scarce.
| |
|Abu Tabag |Stone lined well, 24 feet deep—water
| |plentiful but slightly brackish.
| |
|Naba |Also belongs to Eireiab—much water,
| |4 to 5 feet down, very salt. 3 wells
| |about 8 miles apart in bed of wadi.
| |
|Abaraga |Much water—slightly brackish, 10 feet
| |down.
| |
|Maietib |Much water, 15 feet down—brackish.
| |
|Gogaieb |Not much water—very brackish, 8 feet
| |down.
| |
|Girid |Brackish water—rarely open.
| |
Shantirab |Selala |Well, 35 feet deep—stone lined, 9 feet
| |of water, brackish (December, 1902).
| |
|Gunnub |Well, 25 feet deep—water sweet, but
| |much polluted by animals (December,
| |1902).
| |
|Murio |?
| |
|Hora |Well, 12 feet deep—good water and
| |plentiful.
| |
Amrab |Labasoi |Bad water—only fit for camels and
| |goats.
| |
|Sania |Bad water, but plentiful.
| |
|Sohanit |Bad water, but drinkable. Better water
| |from the tanks in neighbouring hills.
| |
|Oni |Water plentiful and good from well, if
| |open. Also from natural tank in rock.
| |
|Beshbesh |Not always open—water good, 10 feet
| |below the surface.
| |
|Eiweb |Good water, and plentiful—8 feet down.
| |
|Dilko |Rain water only—little.
| |
|Nufrium |Good water, and plentiful—6 to 8 feet
| |down.
| |
|Nasari |Good water?
| |
Hamedorab |Oyia |Water near the surface, but not always
| |in the same place (1903).
| |
|Meheiriga |Spring—water rather salt.
| |
|J. Elba |Water plentiful, in springs or wells
| |round its base.
| |
|Halaib |Well, 15 feet deep, near Government
| |Post—water brackish.
| |
|Shellal |Well, 14 ft. deep—very brackish,
| |better from natural tanks 300 feet?
| |deep.
| |
(ii) UM NAGI.| |
| |
Eireiab |Naba |Much water, 4 to 5 feet down—very
| |salt. 3 wells about 8 miles apart in
| |bottom of the wadi.
| |
Nafab |El Dueim |Good water and plentiful—about 10 feet
| |down.
| |
|Kamotit |Much water—brackish, 10 to 12 feet
| |down.
| |
|Kamoreib |Good water—plentiful, about 10 feet
| |down.
-------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
(_d_) ABABDA.
The following brief account of the Ababda Arabs, whose country
adjoins the Bisharin, is given here, as, although with the exception
of the Meleikab section, they are under the Egyptian Administration,
they are generally said to have sprung from the common ancestor Kahl
(_vide_ origin of Bisharin). Feuds, too, between these tribes, though
now less frequent, were, until recently, of constant occurrence.
[Sidenote: Limits. Three main-sub-tribes.]
The Ababda, who inhabit the Atbai from roughly north lat. 22° 30′,
where they adjoin the Bisharin, to as far north as the Kena-Kosseir
road, are divided into three main sections or sub-tribes, viz.,
Eshabab, Fogara, and Shanatir.
(1) ESHABAB.—The Eshabab, which is by far the largest and most
powerful section of the Ababda, range practically the whole way from
Kena to Ongwat, and share the Kosseir route with the Shanatir. The
Sheikhship of this sub-tribe rests with the Gubran family, of which
Beshir Bey is the representative. Beshir Bey’s residence is at
Aswan; he claims to be Nazir of the Ababda, and does not admit any
common ancestry with the Bisharin. This sub-tribe is divided into
many minor sub-tribes.
(2) FOGARA.—The most important sub-tribe of the Fogara is the
Meleikab, part of which sub-tribe belongs to Egypt and part to the
Sudan. The Meleikab in the Sudan, who are practically a colony of
those in Egypt, range from Korosko to Abu Hamed, but considerable
movement goes on between the two sections. The head Sheikh of the
Fogara is Abdul Azim Bey of the Khalifa family; his headquarters
are at Derau, in Egypt, on the Nile, north of Aswan.
(3) SHANATIR.—The Shanatir share the Kosseir route with the
Eshabab, and also live on the river between Aswan and Korosko. Their
headquarters are at Sayala. Their hereditary Sheikh is Bashari Bey,
who belongs to the Shanatir family. Their largest sub-tribe is
the Abudiin.
[Sidenote: Feuds with Bisharin.]
The feuds before-mentioned are, as a rule, in connection with the
wells. The Ababda having gradually moved north, base their claims to
wells, now occupied by Bisharin, on the fact that they originally
belonged to them, despite the fact that they themselves left them
perhaps half a century ago.
SECTION 3.—SUAKIN AND DISTRICT.
[Sidenote: SUAKIN.]
The town of Suakin is built partly on an island and partly on the
mainland, connected by a causeway, called after the famous General
himself: “Gordon’s Gate and Causeway.” The portion of the town
on the mainland is called El Kaf.
The Government offices, official, and most of the larger
civilian residences are situated on the island. Many of them are
imposing-looking buildings of coral, several stories high.
[Sidenote: Harbour.]
The khor or inlet of Suakin is bordered by a reef of rocks on either
side, its length being 2 miles, and its breadth at the narrowest part,
180 yards. At the entrance of the khor there is a depth of 25 fathoms,
which gradually decreases towards Quarantine Island to a depth of
from 6 to 8 fathoms. The bottom throughout the channel is mud.
The harbour will accommodate about 20 vessels without blocking the
channel, though as many as 34 vessels, men-of-war and transports,
were berthed at one time during the expedition in 1884.
Owing to the numerous coral reefs Suakin is a most difficult harbour
to enter and to beacon adequately, and would probably never be safe
to navigate at night.[48] For further details, _vide_ “The Red
Sea Pilot.”
[Sidenote: Population.]
The population at the present time may roughly be estimated at about
10,500 inhabitants.
[Sidenote: Water Supply.]
The water supply is from two sources, firstly, from Shaata Wells,
distant about ¾ mile from the walls of the town, and, secondly,
from the pulsometer, which pumps water at the rate of 12½ tons per
hour, from wells ½ mile beyond those of Shaata.
This latter water is brackish and is only used as a rule for cooking
and washing: it is sold in the town at 1 millieme per can of about
3½ gallons.
Shaata water, on the other hand, is fairly good: it is brought into
the town in skins and is sold at 1 PT. per skin in the summer months
and rather cheaper during the winter.
New condensers to take the place of the old sets which have not been
used since 1900 are now (1904) on their way to Suakin.
[Sidenote: Rains.]
In the neighbourhood of Suakin heavy rains occur at intervals from
October to February, with occasional rare storms up to the end of
March. In the desert, between Suakin and Berber, torrential rains
sometimes fall about July to September. No year passes without
rain unless in the extreme north of the Province, where very
occasionally there is a wholly dry season. In July, 1896, and in
1903, exceptionally heavy rains took place, filling all the wells,
including Obak, almost to overflowing. The total rainfall for the
12 months March (1903)—February (1904) was 114·5 m.m.,[49] of
which 12·4 m.m. fell in May.
[Sidenote: Defences.]
The part of the town built on the mainland, is entirely surrounded by
a high coral wall, built in the old days to resist the attacks of the
Dervishes. There is also a line of outer forts about a mile beyond,
but since the suppression of Mahdism these have not been garrisoned,
and there is now only half a battalion stationed at Suakin.
[Sidenote: Time.]
Time at Suakin is Cairo time, not local time.
[Sidenote: Telegraph cables.]
Suakin is connected by Eastern telegraph cable with Aden, Suez,
Perim and Obokh, and by Ottoman cable with Jedda. Communication by
land is by land lines to Berber and Kassala.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The heat at Suakin is very great during June, July, August and
September, and the climate is much damper than is usually the case
in most parts of the Sudan. The difference between the wet and dry
bulb thermometer is often 21°. Sand storms are experienced during
summer, when sand fills the air for 40 or 50 miles seaward, rendering
objects invisible at a distance of more than ½ mile.
In January the average daily temperature is about 77° and at night
about 73°.
[Sidenote: Erkowit.]
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
Erkowit, the summer headquarters of the Suakin district, is an
undulating plateau with low granite hills and easy khors, about 3,000
feet above sea level, and 35 miles from Suakin. The headquarters have
now (1904) moved to Erkowit for the third year in succession. The
station consists at present of seven houses, built of stone and
mud-brick, white washed, which are used as offices and quarters for
certain of the employés. A mess-house has been built on the slope of
a hill not far from these offices, also quarters or rest-houses, four
in number, for the Governor or inspectors or other officers. These
are all built of wood with corrugated iron roofing over felt and
raised about 1 foot from the ground on iron piping as a protection
against the white ant. This precaution has proved to be wholly
successful. There is an abundant supply of excellent water from two
wells situated in a khor in close proximity to the Government offices.
Erkowit is in telegraphic communication with Suakin during the
summer months.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The climate of Erkowit in the summer is dry and healthy, a striking
contrast to Suakin. In the winter, the hills are wrapped in clouds,
and a drizzling mist nearly always hangs over them. In March, the
plateau and the eastern hill slopes are still clothed with green,
the hill sides are covered with bush, ferns, flowers of various kinds,
and grass, and the plateau affords excellent grazing.
[Sidenote: Communications with Suakin.]
With regard to the road communications, there are four tracks in
use from Suakin:—
(1) _Viâ_ the Sinkat Agaba and Khor Gebet; three days for loaded
camels.
(2) Tamaneb and Khor Arab route, at present easier for lightly loaded
camels than the following, but longer, and crossing two agabas,
39 miles.
(3) The Masilli route, on which the very bad portion is fairly short,
but the route involves an unnecessary detour and is only practicable
for very lightly-loaded camels. Length, 36 miles.
(4) Kolkilai Route: A new road or track has been made this year (1904)
up this hillside, which rises over 2,000 feet above the plain below,
and it is now possible for hill camels carrying average loads to
reach Erkowit without difficulty by this route—length 33 miles. A
heavy hamla would still require to come by routes (1) or (2).
[Sidenote: TOKAR.]
[Sidenote: Population. Cultivation.]
Tokar, the next town of importance in the district, 56 miles by
road south of Suakin, consists of a fort (built after the defeat
of the Dervishes and capture of Tokar in 1891) in which are the
Government offices, Mamur’s house, post and telegraph offices,
etc. There is also a small market place, with a few merchants’
houses. It is situated at the mouth of the Khor Baraka, between Jebel
Shabba and Jebel Heina, two prominent landmarks. The population is
about 3,000. The soil of Tokar is rich, and there are very extensive
fields for cultivation—cotton,[50] dura, dukhn, etc.—but owing
to the uncertainty of the Baraka flood, and also to the fact that
the country yearly runs a great risk of being devastated by locusts,
it is impossible to foretell events or to form an estimate of what
the produce of the district will be. One year the harvest may be
an extraordinary rich one, the next may prove to be a blank. The
Baraka is in flood from the middle of July to the end of September,
reaching its maximum about the middle of August.
[Sidenote: Dust storms.]
During the months of June and July, _i.e._, prior to the Baraka flood,
blinding dust storms prevail daily from 9 in the morning till 4 or 5
in the afternoon, and it is impossible to see more than a few yards
in front of one. Travellers constantly lose their way and occasionally
die on the road between Tokar and Suakin. Formerly convoys and troops
moving at that time of year often suffered severe privations.
In the summer of 1891, a party of cavalry were caught in one of
these storms and had terrible experiences, losing many men and horses.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
In the winter the climate of Tokar is dry and healthy.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
There are many wells, but the water is not of very good quality.
[Sidenote: TRINKITAT.]
Ras Magdam forms the northern entrance point of the inlet forming the
harbour of Trinkitat, about 10 miles inland from which is the town
of Tokar. The entrance to Trinkitat is not easily distinguishable,
as the coast is low and sandy. Off the entrance lie extensive reefs
and shoals. There is good anchorage outside the harbour in about
6 fathoms, under shelter of the reef named Katat Kennasha. The
harbour opens to the north-east, is about ½ mile wide, extends ¾
mile to the southward, has a depth of 4 fathoms, and is capable of
accommodating 20 vessels drawing from 18 to 21 feet; the holding
ground is good. The shores of the harbour are sandy, with low bushes.
[Sidenote: Sheikh Barghut (Barud).]
About 14 miles south and ¾ miles west from Mersa Durur, and 36
miles north of Suakin, is the entrance to Mersa Barghut, useful as a
temporary anchorage, and which is to supersede Suakin as a harbour,
and the outlet for the trade of the Sudan. This Mersa is named
after a chief,[51] the ruins of whose tomb on the northern point
of the entrance is a good sea-mark. The khor is formed by a gap
in the coast reef, by which it is also bordered; its north-western
arm extends inland 2½ miles, with depths of from 14 to 18 fathoms,
mud for 1½ miles, and then irregular soundings. A small vessel can
go up in mid-channel, but could not turn without using warps.
The western arm extends about ½ mile, and shoals gradually; there
is a donga at its head trending more than a mile in a south-westerly
direction, in which, during the wet season, there is fresh water,
but, in the summer, only a shallow tidal drain.
[Sidenote: Directions.]
The tomb on the northern entrance point is more in the shape of a
cottage than of the ordinary Arab tombs, and its summit, being about
25 feet above the sea, can be seen from the masthead of a vessel
from a considerable distance.
There is good anchorage in 14 fathoms near the entrance of the
north-western arm with the tomb, bearing about south-east by
east. Here there is room for three vessels of moderate size at
single anchor.
[Sidenote: Supplies.]
No supplies of any kind can be procured, but there are some springs
of good water on the southern side of the khor, about a mile from
the beach. Fish may be obtained by the score in the western arm. Game
is plentiful, but somewhat wild.
[Sidenote: Police posts, &c.]
The remaining stations of importance in the district are merely
police posts, consisting of a fort, garrisoned by police, with a
small Arab community living in grass tukls close by. These are:
Halaib, Mohammed Gul, and Agik, all on the Red Sea, and Karora,
inland. Halaib is the most northern, and is near the frontier of
Egypt. Karora is the post on the Sudan-Eritrean frontier, about 28
miles from the Red Sea. There are about 1,000 feddans of cultivable
land between Karora and the sea on the northern side of the Sudan
boundary of which the natives take advantage, though not to any
great extent.
[Sidenote: Game.]
In different parts of the Suakin district the following species may
be found: Kudu, oryx (beisa), ibex, wild sheep, klipspringer, ariel,
gazelle (_Dorcas_ and _Isabella_), dig-dig, hare, bustard. Lion,
leopard and cheetah are rare. There is good sea fishing at Suakin,
which is famous for its so-called lobsters, which are really large
crayfish.
NOMAD ARABS AND TRIBES.
It is quite impossible to arrive at anything like an accurate number
of the population of the Arabs in this district, but 50,000 is a
fair estimate. _Vide_ Appendix F.
The majority of them live right in the interior of the hills and
are constantly on the move, here, there, and anywhere, wherever rain
happens to have fallen or grazing is plentiful.
A journey, no matter how far, is nothing to them; their houses,
consisting simply of straw mats stretched over curved sticks, can be
put up or pulled down in a very short time. Their families, wives,
children, and belongings, are put on what camels and donkeys they
possess; cattle, sheep, goats, etc., are driven on ahead, and so the
caravan proceeds, sometimes for a whole month and more, sometimes
for only a few days.
The chief tribes are the Amarar and the Hadendoa, both of which have
many sub-tribes. There are also the Beni Amer, Bisharin, Ashraf,
Shaiab, Habab, Komilab, Arteiga, and Rasheida, who came originally
from Arabia and now live partly on the Atbara in Berber Province
and partly near Agik. They were until recently much addicted to
slave running.
For detailed list of Nomads, _vide_ Appendix F.
RED SEA LITTORAL-SUAKIN DISTRICT.
The coast of the Suakin Province extends from Suakin to N. Parallel
22° on the north, and from Suakin to Ras Kasar on the south, _i.e._,
roughly about 500 miles in all. The coast from Sheikh Barghut to
Suakin is quite low, being composed entirely of raised coral reef,
furrowed by khors which contain water only in the rainy season.
There are several small inlets and creeks where dhows can anchor
all along the coast, but the chief harbours, in addition to those
already described, are as follows:—
On the North. On the South.
---------- ----------
Halaib. Heidob.
Rowaya. Ras Magdam.
Mohammed Gul. Agik.
Darur. Adobana.
Gezira Abdalla. Ras Kasar.
At all of the above harbours, except Gezira, Abdalla, Heidob, and
Ras Magdam, fresh water can be found a short way inland.
Most of the entrances to the harbours are narrow, and require careful
navigation; moreover, they are in every case guarded by coral reefs,
and as they are not at present (1904) lighted, they cannot be entered
at night.
SECTION 4.—COUNTRY BETWEEN THE BERBER-SUAKIN ROAD, THE ATBARA,
AND THE ABYSSINIAN AND ERITREAN FRONTIERS.
(_a_) COUNTRY BETWEEN BERBER-SUAKIN ROAD AND LATITUDE OF KASSALA.
[Sidenote: General description.]
Kassala and Adarama are, with the exception of a few small outlying
hamlets near the former and the one diminutive Hamran village on
the Setit, the only permanent towns or villages in Sudan territory
east of the Atbara. Nearly the whole of this country, except that
near Kassala and south of it, belongs to the Hadendoas, who range
from the Atbara to Suakin.
[Sidenote: Country north of Kassala.]
Adarama, on the Atbara, about 78 miles above its junction with
the Nile, once the headquarters of the redoubtable Osman Digna,
but now almost deserted, consists of little more than a few tukls,
and the walls of the mud houses of the Dervish town.
The following general description of the country between Adarama
and Kassala is taken from a report by Captain A. C. Parker, who
traversed this country in April and May, 1901.
“Lying to the north of Kassala, and bounded on the east by the range
of hills along which the frontier is delimited, and on the west by the
river Atbara, stretches a vast plain of almost unbroken continuity.
“From Goz Regeb to a point on the river west of Kassala the
country inland consists of, first, a broad strip of cotton soil,
sparsely sprinkled with small trees and bushes. To the east of
this there occurs a stretch of more or less sandy soil, supporting
a coarse grass and a few stunted isolated trees until the fertile
soil adjoining the Khor El Gash is reached.
“This khor, after passing the town of Kassala and receiving numerous
small khors from the east, conveys its flood water in a more or less
defined channel, or in some places channels, as far as Filik. Along
its banks, north of Kassala, dom palms are replaced by thick tamarisk
or tarfa trees, which continue most of the way to Filik, on nearing
which they in turn are replaced by talh and other thick thorn scrub.
“A short distance north of Filik, owing to the extreme flatness of
the country, the eastern channel disappears, and the water dissipates
itself through the soil to a distance varying according to the volume
of the flood water, its direction being roughly N.N.W.
“The opinion, still held by some, that the Gash water flows towards
the Langeb seems untenable.
“The Odi plain which receives numerous small khors from the eastern
hills is probably about the same level as the Gash plain, but there
certainly appears to be sufficiently rising ground between, though
hardly noticeable, to preclude the Gash reaching Odi.
“From Filik, following the direction of the Gash, the bushes which
define its course gradually decrease until they become as scattered
as in the rest of the plain, and all trace of its direction is lost.
“The plain still extends northwards, until at a point, said to be
not far from Jebel Safra, it receives the waters from the Angwatiri
and Godamaieb khors, which join here, and probably that of other khors
flowing in a south-westerly direction from the rocky hills to the
north-east. From these hills also many khors start in an easterly and
south-easterly direction, which finally reach the Odi or the Langeb.
“From J. Sanai northwards, for some distance the country consists
of large ranges of hills, separated by wide valleys, containing very
often stretches of cotton soil in the wider parts, but close to the
hills the ground becomes rocky and stony.
“From these valleys, the khors, some of which are lined with dom
palms, trend in a south-westerly direction, but in nearly every case
are hemmed in by sand hills, and are thus prevented from reaching
the Atbara. The valleys, or rather basins, where the final exit is
stopped, being usually selected by the Arabs to cultivate.
“Of these valleys the principal are Hegerib, Todabanob, and
Hambokeb.
“Wells, the locality of which depend largely on the rainy season
or local thunderstorms, are fairly plentiful throughout the whole of
the country traversed by these khors, and supply water for numerous
sheep and goats, and in some places a few cattle, grazed by Hadendoas
of the Gemilab, Haikolab, Amerab, Shebodinab, and other tribes.
“A small party mounted on camels may travel through this country
at any time of the year without fear of inconvenience from lack of
water. After the rains, pools of standing water will be met with in
many places.
“The Gash itself, according to native tradition, has an exit to
the Atbara near Adarama, and it is very possible that the waters
of the northern Gash plain, called by the Arabs Gash Dai, may have
a channel meandering through the hills formed by the rush of water
in exceptional years.”
(_b_) KASSALA.
Kassala is situated on the right bank of the Khor Gash, 1,735 feet
above the sea, and lies 15 miles west of the nearest point on the
Italian frontier, which is near Sabderat. The twin Jebels, Mokram
and Kassala, rise abruptly from the plain 3 miles to the east and
south-east. The highest of the peculiar dome-shaped protuberances
of the latter is 2,600 feet above the town, and is usually visible
at a distance of 60 or 70 miles. There are several perennial springs
in the mountain.
[Sidenote: Town.]
Beyond the fort built by the Italians, the barracks, and the various
other Government buildings, etc., there are few brick buildings in
Kassala, as the native part of the town is constructed chiefly of
grass tukls. There are two or three fair stores kept by Greeks, where
most tinned provisions and other small requirements are obtainable,
and at least one of these is licensed to sell liquor.
[Sidenote: Garrison.]
The normal garrison consists of one regular battalion, six (late
Italian) 9 cm. Krupp guns, four Nordenfeldt, and four Gardner machine
guns. In addition, there is a battalion of Arab irregulars, recruited
locally, chiefly from Beni Amers, Hadendoas, and Abyssinians. In
consists of 200 men, all of whom are mounted on either camels or
mules. This battalion rendered good service during the late campaign,
and, in peace time at any rate, are by far the most suitable troops
for this part of the country. They are natural scouts and exceedingly
mobile. A considerable number of irregulars could be raised here at
any time.
[Sidenote: Sheikh El Morghani.]
Said Ali El Morghani, the youthful head of the Morghani sect whose
home is the Khatmia under the north-west end of J. Kassala, has
now taken up his abode at Omdurman, where, however, he is by no
means so generally revered as in the Eastern Sudan. Said Ahmed,
an elder brother, who was a prisoner during the Mahdia, now acts as
his representative at Kassala. Said Ali’s ancestors were Ashraf
at Mecca, and settled at Kassala at the beginning of the last century.
[Sidenote: Population.]
The population of Kassala town in 1900 was 12,000; and the whole
of the Nomad Arabs in the district were then estimated to number
6,000. In 1904, the total population of the town and the Nomads was
computed to be 46,000. The townspeople are chiefly Halenga Arabs,
who are excellent cultivators, also a mixture of Beni Amer, Shukria,
Takruris, etc.
[Sidenote: Water supply. Cultivation.]
The water supply, which is from wells varying from 15 to 30 feet deep,
is good and plentiful.
The principal cultivation is the dura crop, raised on the land
flooded[52] by the Gash. This dura is a large white species called
“Taulib,” and is harvested about January; it ranks in quality
with the best “Mugad” dura of the Nile. At present the system of
irrigation on the Gash is very primitive and wasteful. An improved
scheme in accordance with modern ideas is under consideration.[53]
A subsidiary rain crop (Naggad), harvested at the end of October,
is also raised, but is not of much account. Crops are very liable to
the attacks of extraordinary flights of very voracious small birds and
also locusts. A very destructive species of “blight” occasionally
devastates the crops. It is known as “El Asal” (_Aphis Sorghi_,
_vide_ “Report of Wellcome Research Laboratories—Gordon
College—1904”). The rains are often barely sufficient to raise
those crops dependent on them. Gardens irrigated by sagias and wells
are numerous.
[Sidenote: Rains.]
The rainfall of an average year is very meagre.[54] During the Kharif,
the period from June to October, rain of any kind rarely falls on
more than 20 to 30 days. On perhaps half a dozen of these there may
be very heavy thunderstorms. Rain, which almost invariably comes from
the east, generally falls between 6 and 8 p.m., and is preceded by a
wind of hurricane force, which usually brings with it a phenomenal
wall of dust several thousand feet high and many miles in extent,
which often takes an hour or more to blow past, during which time
the obscurity and colour of the atmosphere reminds one strangely of
the thickest of London fogs.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The climate for eight months of the year, though hot in March,
April, and May, when the thermometer not infrequently registers
over 112° Fahr., is healthy. From July to October there is a good
deal of malaria, especially during a favourable rainy season. This
has been reduced a good deal recently by draining, and precautions
against mosquitoes.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
The trade at present is not to be compared with that before the
Mahdia, but is increasing; what export trade there is, comes
from Gedaref. The imports _viâ_ Suakin and Massawa are not of
much importance at present; they are sugar and Manchester goods
principally. By far the largest proportion of imports now comes
_viâ_ Suakin.
[Sidenote: Transport animals.]
The camel is the best animal for this district, both for riding and
transport purposes. A good camel costs from £E.7 to £E.10. They
are nearly always available for sale or hire, though in the rains
they are not to be found in the immediate vicinity of Kassala.
Horses or mules, which are imported in small numbers from Eritrea
or Abyssinia, cannot usually be hired or purchased. Horses are
liable to be attacked by a species of horse sickness, which often
ends fatally. The Abyssinian and Dongolawi breeds do best. A good
riding mule costs from £E.6 to £E.8.
[Sidenote: Posts and telegraphs.]
There is a weekly camel post for both letters and parcels to and
from Berber, also a weekly mail to and from Keren and Massawa, also a
fortnightly mail to and from Suakin, and a weekly mail to Gedaref and
Gallabat. Telegraph lines connect with Suakin, Gedaref, Gallabat,
Massaua, and Addis Ababa. Communication is liable to occasional
interruptions during the rains.
[Sidenote: Serut fly.]
During the “Kharif” the whole country south of the line
Kassala-Asubri swarms with a wasp-like “Serut” fly, which
bursts into life as soon as the young grass has sprouted and dies as
the vegetation dries up at the end of the rains. This fly is most
vehement in its attacks on all animals, including game, but camels
suffer the most, and if exposed for any length of time to their bites,
they rapidly lose condition, and will probably die from the effects.
[Sidenote: Game.]
In various parts of the districts, described in Section 4, the
following varieties are found:—Elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo,
giraffe, roan-antelope, kudu, waterbuck, tora hartebeeste,
ibex, wild sheep (?), bushbuck (two (?) varieties), reedbuck
(scarce); Abyssinian duiker, oribi, dig-dig, and the following
gazelles:—Sommering’s, Dorcas, Heuglin’s, Isabella, and
possibly Rufifrons; also hippopotamus, crocodile, turtle, warthog,
pig, wild ass, lion, leopard, hyena (two varieties), cheetah, serval;
also various civet and wild cats, hares, wild dogs, baboons, and
monkeys; ostrich, bustard, guinea fowl, francolin, sand grouse,
geese, snipe, wild fowl, and quail.
Both rhinoceros and buffalo are rare.
(_c_) THE KHOR GASH.[55]
For at least 70 miles above Kassala the Gash has a sandy bed, which
averages 100 to 300 yards in width, with strips of higher ground,
covered with grass, and liable to be flooded in a good year, bordering
it at intervals, especially at the bends. Outside these again, on what
may be called the real banks, is an almost continuous fringe of dom
palms and high grass, varying from 100 to 500 yards, and occasionally
nearly a mile, in width. There is no definite track parallel to the
khor on either bank, but the going on both banks outside the belt of
dom palms is good. If desired, the bed of the Gash may be followed,
though rather heavy-going, and corners may be cut off occasionally.
Year after year, in the dry season, water is found in certain
well-known localities, usually 2 or 3 miles apart. The depth of the
wells, which are revetted with brushwood, varies, according to the
season and the flood, from 5 to 20 feet. The cattle and sheep are
watered usually every alternate day from large mud basins (duruk),
two or three of which are constructed near each well. There are
nowadays no places between Kassala and Todluk where water stands
in pools for any considerable time after the flood has subsided,
as it is said to have done formerly at Saneit,[56] where, however,
water is still found very close to the surface.
The Gash flood usually reaches Kassala during the first week in July,
and brings down with it numerous fish, which are eagerly caught
by the natives. It ceases to flow about the end of September or
beginning of October. During the period when it is in flood it is
occasionally unfordable for several days together. The Gash, like
the Atbara, brings down a large amount of fertilising matter from
Abyssinia. The discharge of the Gash in flood is estimated at about
100 metres cube per sec.
There are no permanent inhabitants living on the Gash, but in the dry
season, thousands of Beni Amer cattle and sheep, and nearer Todluk,
those of the Baria, are brought to it south of Kassala for pasture
and water.
Many of the Beni Amer, Baria, and Baza in Italian territory, all
of whom are bitter enemies of the Abyssinians, may be met openly
carrying Remington rifles.
North of Kassala the people, watering from the Gash, are principally
Hadendoas. For description of Gash, north of Kassala, _vide_ p. 97.
(_d_) COUNTRY SOUTH OF KASSALA TO THE SETIT.
South of Kassala a flat and, except for the Gash, waterless plain,
bounded on the east and south-east by the Eritrean hills from
Sabderat to Sogada, extends to the river Setit. The whole of this
plain is more or less covered with kittr and other thorn bush,
which becomes particularly dense towards its southern and western
extremities. With the exception of the Nomads living during the dry
season on the banks of the Gash and Atbara and the few Hamrans on
the Setit, the entire country is uninhabited.
Though a good deal of the country south of Abu Gamal is drained
by several khors, chief of which are Gersat and Gullui which,
having their origin in the Sogada hills, or even further east,
join the Atbara at Khashm El Girba, nevertheless, the ground, being
cotton soil, becomes at intervals in the rainy season boggy, and
practically impassable, and water stands in ponds at several places,
notably Umsiteiba and Mellawiya, on the roads from Kassala to Asubri
and Fasher. At this season, too, most of the country is covered with
tall rank grass, and travelling even along the roads is a thing to
be avoided.
There is a perennial spring on Jebel Abu Gamal, 18 miles south of
Kassala, from where there used to be a road, now overgrown with
bush, _viâ_ this Jebel to Um Hagar on the Setit.[57] A scanty water
supply is sometimes obtainable from holes in the rock of Koraitib,
47 miles south of Abu Gamal.
(_e_) COUNTRY SOUTH OF R. SETIT.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
Sudan territory, south of the Setit, bounded on the west by the
Atbara, and on the east and south by the Abyssinian frontier,
running from the mouth of the Khor Royan (a tributary of the Setit)
to a point opposite the Khor Abnakheir (a tributary of the Atbara),
near Gallabat, is uninhabited, save for the one village of Gadabi,
about 25 miles north of Gallabat. The people living at this
village are Takruris. The village of Nogara, which lies 10 miles
S.S.E. from J. Lukdi, belongs to Abyssinia, and is under Dejaj Gasessa
(1904). Many of its inhabitants were formerly under Mek Nimr, and
are a mixture Jaalin, Takruris, and Sudanese, the majority of whom
are said to be robbers and runaway slaves.
The country bordering the Setit to as far south as J. Lukdi belongs
to the Hamrans, south of them the country, including the Bahr El
Salam, belongs to the Debania, and further south again the country,
including Gadabi, belongs to the Takruris, of Gallabat.
[Sidenote: Description of country.]
Between the Setit and the Bahr El Salam rivers the country is
flat and waterless, and its surface is badly cracked, cotton soil,
overgrown with high grass, and generally wooded, but with here and
there wide open spaces. South of the Bahr El Salam, though the trees,
grass, and soil continue much the same, the Abyssinian foot hills
approach nearer to the Atbara and the ground becomes more undulating
and intersected by khors, in some of which, though chiefly in the
extreme south, water stands throughout the year.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
As the inhabitants are few, roads are proportionately little used,
and consequently bad and overgrown. Off the track, the going is
execrable, and grass, bush, and cotton soil make the following of
game paths a necessity.
All roads lead to Nogara, the asylum for illegitimate hunters and
renegade blacks from the Sudan. They are: (1) Gedaref to Nogara
(70 miles, approximate), _viâ_ Sofi, Geif El Hamam (on Setit),
and J. Lukdi. About 25 miles without water between the two latter
places. At Lukdi, a large well, filled with sand, requires cleaning
out; now (1904) only contains rain water for a few months.
(2) Um Hagar (on Setit) to Nogara (38 miles). Water comparatively
plentiful up to December, after that only obtainable by digging in bed
of Khor Royan and Khor Bowal (17 miles interval). The Italians hope
this road will be a trade route from Abyssinia into Eritrea. With
this object in view a road has been cut by them from the Khor Gash
to Um Hagar.
(3) Abu Gulud to Nogara, _viâ_ Abu Siteib (50 miles). Water at
Tabarakalla (17 miles), also Atbara, Abu Siteib, Bahr El Salam.
(4) Nogara to Gallabat (83 miles), _viâ_ Abu Siteib, Khor El Dom,
Gadabi, and Um Sai. Water plentiful in December, probably scarce
between Abu Siteib and Gadabi (37 miles) later. Very little used
and much overgrown.
[Sidenote: Natural products.]
Honey and gum are practically the only products of this country. A
good deal of game still exists, but it has suffered both from the
depredations of cattle plague, as well as from professional game
dealers with their parties of armed natives who have hunted this
district for years: these are now rigidly excluded by the Sudan
Government. The inhabitants of Nogara are also mostly armed with
modern breechloading rifles.
[Sidenote: Abyssinian outlaws.]
Two Abyssinian outlaws have haunted this region both during and
since the Mahdia. One, whose name is Hakos,[58] reputed to have some
150 rifles, has lately (1902) been actively raiding villages along
our frontier. Kidana Miriam, the other brigand chief, has remained
comparatively inactive, and is now (March, 1903), reported to be on
the Upper Bahr El Salam or Angareb with 50 to 200 rifles.
(_f_) THE ATBARA[59] AND TRIBUTARIES.
THE ATBARA.—The Atbara rises near Chelga in Abyssinia, where it
is known as the R. Goang. Coal is found in the valley of the Goang
near its source. Both the Atbara and Setit in their course through
the Sudan flow for the most part through a flat alluvial plain,
and have cut for themselves a deep channel, which is, in the upper
reaches of the Atbara at any rate, over 150 feet below the level
of the plain. The banks, too, have been washed away by the drainage
from either side and are cut up into numerous ravines and khors for
several miles on either side of the actual bed.
Thus it is that the banks of the Atbara from Gallabat, to a point
15 miles north of Goz Regeb, are so intersected with ravines and
watercourses, that it is seldom possible to march within 2 or 3 miles
of the river, which is only approached at intervals. At Gallabat the
width of the bed, which is generally shingle, and in which during
the dry season the water stands in pools as it does throughout its
course from here to the Nile, varies from a minimum of twenty yards
at a spot where the river passes through perpendicular cliffs of
rock to an average width of 100 to 150 yards.
At Asubri the width between the banks, which are some 15 to 30 feet
high, is about 350 yards.
At Gallabat (1899) the spate commenced to come down on 17th May,
and the river was still just fordable at Fasher in the same year
on the 15th June; after about that date it does not again become
fordable until the beginning or middle of November. The flood water
reaches the Nile about the end of June.
There are usually ferries at Sofi, Fasher, Suweihil (near Asubri),
and Goz Regeb during the flood season.
South of Sofi a road leads up the left bank to Gallabat.
North of Sofi, which is on the left bank near the junction of the
Setit, roads run parallel with the river on both banks, that most
generally used being from Sofi to Asubri by the left bank, thence
to the Nile by the right bank. The country from the Setit to Fasher
(right bank) belonged formerly to the Hamrans; it is now practically
uninhabited except by Nomads during the dry season. Fasher to Mitateb
(right bank) belongs to the Hadendoas, who go there in large numbers
for grazing during the dry season. Their country practically extends
from the Atbara to Suakin. From Mitateb (right bank) and Goz Regeb
(left bank) to the Nile the country belongs to the Bisharin. From
a point about 50 miles south of Adarama northwards to the Nile the
banks are fringed with dom palms. Few people live along the river
during the rains, and though the alluvial soil brought down by this
river is one of the chief fertilizing agents of Egypt, there is at
no season any system of irrigation in use along it. Here and there
where nature causes the river to overflow its banks a certain amount
of cultivation may be met.
TRIBUTARIES OF THE ATBARA.—These nearly all emanate from the hilly
country of Abyssinia or Eritrea. There are none of importance on
the left bank in the Sudan.
(1) THE BAHR EL SALAM AND ANGAREB.—The Bahr El Salam is a flowing
stream during most of the year. Its bed is very rocky, and in places
the bends are extremely sharp as it cuts its way through high cliffs
of rock. It has many deep pools with hippopotamus and crocodiles,
and appears to often overflow its banks in flood time in places
where it passes through these narrow gorges. It has generally a
north-westerly direction. The River Angareb appears to be only
another name for the upper Bahr El Salam. The Bahr El Salam joins
the Atbara on the R.B. about 28 miles south of Sofi.
(2) THE SETIT[60] AND ROYAN.—The lower Setit, _i.e._, that portion
of it which flows through Sudan territory, much resembles the upper
Atbara in general character. Its banks are similarly intersected by
ravines and small khors which carry the drainage from the plateau
along which on either bank there is a track at some distance from
the river, and which only descends to it occasionally. The river
is generally about 300 yards wide, and during the dry season it is
fordable at frequent intervals, and here and there almost ceases
to flow.[61]
The only inhabitants of the Setit, west of the junction of K. Royan
are the survivors of the once famous Hamran sword-hunters, who live
in a small village on the right bank about 15 miles from its junction
with the Atbara. Although now very poor and with their hunting to
a certain extent restricted by the Game Laws, they have nearly all
acquired horses and are as bold and keen Nimrods as ever. Latterly,
many of the Beni Amer Arabs from Eritrea have brought their flocks
for pasturage to the banks of the Setit during the dry season.
Above Umbrega there was no track on the right bank in March 1900, as
the Abyssinian Baza, living east of Maietib, were said to terrorise
the country. There is now (1904) a fairly good track made by the
Italians who have a small post at Um Hagar.
In Abyssinia the Setit is known as the Takazze.
The junction of the Royan and Setit is about 4 miles east of
Khor Umbrega. The Royan appears to be merely a khor which is dry,
except for occasional pools, a few months after the cessation of
the rains. Its junction marks the boundary on the Setit between the
Sudan and Eritrea on the north bank, and Abyssinia on the south bank.
[Footnote 41: There are 4 Berberine dialects, viz.:—
(1) “Kensi” from Shellal to Korosko.
(2) “Feiadija” spoken near Korosko and South.
(3) “Mahasi” spoken at Halfa, Sukkot, Mahas and up to Hannek
Cataract and Badin Island.
(4) “Dongolawi” from Kerma to Ambugol.
(2) and (3) are nearly the same, and (1) and (4) are somewhat
similar; but a Dongolawi cannot understand a Mahasi.]
[Footnote 42: The Gararish are Nomad Arabs and their northern limit
may be said to be Halfa.]
[Footnote 43: In 1904 about 30,000 kantars of dates were exported from
Dongola, the average price per kantar being about 22 P.T. The cost
of freight per kantar from, say, Merowe to Omdurman is about 75 P.T.]
[Footnote 44: The population of Halfa Province in 1904 was 30,800.]
[Footnote 45: _Vide_ p. 89.]
[Footnote 46: In spite of their claim to be of Semitic origin,
the Bisharin are not true Arabs and are of Hamitic descent.]
[Footnote 47: _Vide_ list of wells, p. 92.]
[Footnote 48: Chiefly on this account it has been decided to abandon
Suakin and construct a harbour and town, etc., at Sheikh Barghut,
_vide_ p. 95.]
[Footnote 49: About 4·5 inches.]
[Footnote 50: In 1903-04, 7,425 feddans were under cotton cultivation
and yielded 29,039 kantars which realised £E.25,873, or an average
of 89·1 P.T. per kantar.]
[Footnote 51: Barghut = fleas. The new name for Sheikh Barghut is
“New Suakin.”]
[Footnote 52: In 1903, under 2,000 feddans of cultivation were
irrigated by the Gash flood.]
[Footnote 53: _Vide_ Sir W. Garstin’s “Report on the Basin of
the Upper Nile.” Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No. 2, 1904.]
[Footnote 54: 12·4 inches (1904).]
[Footnote 55: _Vide_ Sir W. Garstin’s “Report on the Basin of
the Upper Nile.” Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No 2, 1904.]
[Footnote 56: _Vide_ “Wild Tribes of the Sudan”—James.]
[Footnote 57: A road is now (1904) being cut from Kassala _viâ_
Abu Gamal to Umbrega on the R. Setit.]
[Footnote 58: Hakos is reported to have been killed on the Abyssinian
side of the frontier, December, 1903, whilst Kidana Miriam appears
to have settled down in Abyssinian territory.]
[Footnote 59: _Vide_ Sir W. Garstin’s “Report on the Basin of
the Upper Nile.” Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No. 2, 1904.]
[Footnote 60: _Vide_ “Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia” (Baker),
and “Wild Tribes of the Sudan” (James).]
[Footnote 61: Mr. P. C. Waite (Scottish Geographical Magazine)
gives the length of the Setit as 800 miles, and its flood discharge
(at mouth?) as more than 4,500 metres cube per second. Sir W. Garstin
estimates the maximum discharge of the Atbara at its mouth to be about
3,000-4,000 metres cube per second. The discharge of the Setit is,
therefore, evidently considerably over-estimated.]
CHAPTER IV.
* * * * *
CENTRAL EASTERN SUDAN.
(Country between the Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the Atbara
and the Blue Nile.)
SECTION 1.—COUNTRY BETWEEN THE ATBARA AND THE NILES—FROM EL
DAMER SOUTHWARDS TO ABU HARAZ-SOFI LINE.
[Sidenote: General description.]
The vast tract of country from the junction of the Atbara with the
Nile southwards to about the line Abu Haraz-Sofi, bounded on the
east and west by these rivers, and on the south-west by the Blue
Nile, has been generally called by cartographers “the Island of
Meroe”; this name in reality, however, has long ceased to be
applied to it locally, and is quite unknown to the Arabs of the
present day. By the latter it is divided into four districts. The
northern one, forming the triangle El Damer, Adarama, Shendi, is
called _El Daheira_ (the high stony ground). The western district,
including Shendi, Halfaya, Geili, and Abu Deleig, is known as _El
Karaba_; south and south-east of this the country north of the Blue
Nile from Khartoum North to Abu Haraz is called _Sharg El Adeik_;
whilst the whole of the eastern portion from Adarama southwards,
bounded on the west by Um Hatab, El Hawad, Geili, and Galaat Arang,
forms the well-known _El Butana_ grazing district.
[Sidenote: El Daheira.]
[Sidenote: El Karaba and Sharg El Adeik.]
The northern or El Daheira district is, as its name denotes, a
sandstone plateau generally bare, level, and desert-like. On the
west, there are considerable ranges of sandstone hills. The soil,
which is more sandy than further south, is, as a rule, poor and
unfertile, except in the wadis, a few of which are usually cultivated
in favourable years, and are generally marked by stunted selem
and kittr bush. Further south, in the El Karaba and Sharg El Adeik
districts, there is much more land suitable for cultivation, though
even here it is generally seen in the wadis only, notwithstanding
that the rainfall is markedly heavier. Selem, kittr, samr, sayal, and
tundub trees grow plentifully, though they are rarely thick enough
to obstruct free passage through them, and homra and maheirib grass
are everywhere to be met. In the two last-named districts wells are
comparatively numerous, though often excessively deep, occasionally
as much as 250 feet, and the water rather salt.
In El Karaba, saltworks are frequently seen. Hafirs or tanks for
holding up rain water, many of which are said to have been made
by the ancients, are here particularly numerous compared to other
parts of the Sudan, and are quite a distinctive characteristic of
this part of the country.
[Sidenote: El Butana.]
The region known as “El Butana” is wonderfully open and flat,
indeed, so much so, that, as a rule, not a single tree or bush is
visible for miles, except along an occasional wadi. These, as a rule,
drain northwards, and, as elsewhere in this part of the country,
are usually the localities selected for cultivation, though the soil,
generally speaking, is here richer than in the other districts.
The great product of El Butana is, however, Hantut grass and Siha
plant, both particularly good for camels, and thus during the rains it
was, and is still to a lesser extent, customary for camel-owning Arabs
from all parts of the Sudan to visit this district for grazing. Water
at this time of year, being comparatively plentiful, the Arabs
are not tied down to the very limited number of wells existing in
the dry season, and are thus free to wander far and wide wherever
it suits them. A month or two after the cessation of the rains the
grass becomes dry, weather-beaten, and broken, and the greater part
of this region is then bare and desolate.
Though the Shukria are probably the rightful owners of this district,
yet the Debania (Gedaref), Abu Rof, Kenana, Kawahla (Blue Nile), and
other tribes were always accustomed to graze here gratuitously, though
without, it seems, the permission of the owners, who apparently were
not strong enough to effectively resist this invasion. An arrangement
has now been made by the Government assigning specified areas to
the various tribes for grazing purposes.
[Sidenote: Wells.]
The principal localities, and, in fact, the only known wells where the
Nomad Arabs congregate during the dry season, are given below. At
all these places the Arabs live by families in small groups of
dom-mat tents.
I. UM HATAB.—About 30 miles east of Kabushia, 10 wells, 36 feet
deep, less in the rains. Arabs here are Fadnia, Kawahla, and Jaalin,
under Sheikh Mohammed Suleiman. Belongs to Shendi District of Berber
Province. Last wells on road from Gedaref to El Damer. It is just
outside the north-west limits of El Butana.
II. UM SHEDIDA.—Some 30 miles east of Um Hatab. 30 wells, 36
feet deep. Arabs and Sheikh same as Um Hatab, belong to Berber
province. Situate in north of El Butana.
III. BIR AMBASA.—Between Abu Deleig and Um Hatab, is said to be 300
feet deep, water plentiful. However, no Arabs live here, presumably on
account of the great depth of well and consequent labour in drawing
water. It is said to have been dug by the Ancients (infidels),
and to have inscriptions on it, though this appears open to doubt.
Bir Geheid about 20 miles east of Ambasa and on the eastern side
of El Hawad—a very large well, 30 feet in diameter and 330 feet
deep. No water at present and well partially filled in. Said also
to have been built by the Ancients.
IV. DEBBAGHAT.—16 wells, 60 feet deep, in Khor Jegjegi. Lies about
6 miles E.N.E. from Abu Deleig. Arabs, Jaalin, Ahamda, Batahin,
under Hassan Nimr, a sub-Sheikh under Mohammed Suleiman. It belongs
to Berber Province.
V. ISNABIR.—23 miles east of Abu Deleig, on road from Goz Regeb to
that place. Arabs, Batahin, under Sheikh Mohammed Talha, belonging
to Gezira Province. Wells contained little water in April, 1900.
VI. ABU DELEIG.—84 miles by road E.N.E. from Khartoum. 50
wells, 30 to 70 feet deep, extending for some miles in the Wadi
Jegjegi. Headquarters of the Batahin and residence of Sheikh Mohammed
Talha. Other tribes here are Mogharba, Hassania, Jaalin, etc.
Abu Deleig belongs to Gezira Province, and there is a Mamur, Police
Officer, and Police Post here.
Up to February, 1898, Abu Deleig was always held by a Dervish force,
latterly under the command of Abd El Rahim Wad Abu Dugal. This
post was surprised by Irregulars from Kassala in February, 1898,
who in turn, however, were themselves surprised on their way back
to Kassala and suffered severely.
VII. GEILI.—About 25 miles due south of Abu Deleig. About 30 wells,
100 to 150 feet deep, situated around a flat topped granite hill about
250 feet high, on the summit of which is the tomb of Bint El Mek,
a daughter of one of the Fung kings and wife of one of the early
Shukria sheikhs. Arabs, Batahin and Mogharba, belonging to Gezira
Province. There are ancient carvings here on the south side of the
hill. (_Vide_ also “Route Report Khartoum North to Kassala”
Vol. II, Chap. IV).
VIII. UM RUEISHID.—50 miles south-east of Abu Deleig on the road
from Kassala to Khartoum, three wells, 100 feet deep in the dry
season. They are the westernmost wells in the Kassala Province. Arabs
Shukria, Mogharba, and Awaida, under Shiekh Ali Wad El Had.
IX. EL GELEITA.—12 miles north of Um Rueishid, on Goz Regeb-Abu
Deleig road. Eight wells, 70 feet deep, water plentiful, Arabs mostly
Shukria. Belongs to Kassala Province.
X. SHAG (EL WALIA).—12 miles east of El Geleita, first water after
leaving Goz Regeb, on Abu Deleig road. Four wells, 70 to 100 feet
deep. Inhabitants chiefly Shukria, few Mogharba, etc. Belongs to
Kassala Province.
XI. EL SOFEIYA.—72 miles rather north of west from Asubri. 20
wells, 100 feet deep, water plentiful. Arabs same as at Um
Rueishid. Residence of Ahmed Mohammed Abu Sin, wakil of Head Sheikh
of Shukria in the Kassala Province.
XII. RERA.—About 10 miles south of El Sofeiya, 10 wells, 100 feet
deep. In the eastern and highest ridge, of which there are several
close by, there are two or three rock tanks containing water. Arabs,
Shukria, Mogharba, Awaida, etc., under Ali Wad El Had, of Kassala
Province. 48 miles south of Rera is the well of El Adeid a few miles
south of J. Tawal. Water is scarce in the dry season, and only a
few Shukria are found here.
XIII. EL SADDA.—22 miles south-east of Rera, 20 wells, 90 feet deep,
¼ mile west of south end of J. El Sadda, a low ridge running north
and south; Arabs and sheikh same as at Rera. From here a road leads
to Gedaref, which lies about 90 miles S.S.E. No water on the road
except during rains at Hafir El Igl.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
The Arabs cultivate considerably in favourable years, when dura can
be purchased at PT.25, or even less per ardeb. As before stated,
the wadis known locally as “Atmurs” are the localities selected
for cultivation; the chief of these being El Hawad (12 miles east
of Abu Deleig), which extends probably some distance to the south,
and northwards it trends towards the Nile at Kabushia. It receives
the water of Khor Jegjegi. “Hemeisi” and “Feterita” dura
are the crops most generally grown.
[Sidenote: Herds, etc.]
All these Arabs own large numbers of sheep and goats, but cattle
and camels are now comparatively scarce, owing to the depredations
of the Dervishes. The Shukria camels are remarkable for their size
and carrying capacity, but are not, as a rule, suitable for fast work.
[Sidenote: Riverain population.]
Along the left bank of the Atbara, from El Damer to Goz Regeb, the
Arabs are chiefly Nomad Bisharin and Jaalin. There are few permanent
villages south of Adarama.
[Sidenote: Atbara.]
Amid the ruins of Goz Regeb live the few survivors of the former
inhabitants under Sheikh Gaffa Ageil. South of Goz Regeb are Shukria,
under Amara Abu Sin, who has a permanent village at Gandaua, a few
miles north of Asubri.
In the neighbourhood of Fasher are the Lahawin, a tribe which formerly
belonged to the White Nile.
[Sidenote: Nile.]
Along the Nile (right bank), from El Damer to Khartoum North, there
is a considerable and much mixed riverain population, for the most
part living in mud-built villages, and cultivating with both sagias
and shadufs. The chief tribes are Jaalin, Ababda, Shaigia, Hassania,
Mogharba, Aonia, etc.
[Sidenote: Villages on the Nile. (R.B.)]
EL DAMER.—Population about 700; Jaalin, etc. This town was formerly
famous for its University and learning. It suffered much during the
Mahdia, but its population and prosperity is now rapidly increasing,
and there is quite a good market; principal trade, dom-mats, baskets,
etc., and salt. A few caravans come here direct from Gedaref. There
is a railway station here. It will be the capital of the Berber
Province in 1905.
KABUSHIA.—26 miles down the river from Shendi. Population about
250, Shaigia and Jaalin; Awaida, Aliab, and Fadnia Nomads come here
for grazing and cultivation. There is a comparatively large market.
The ruins of the ancient Meroe are situated about 4 miles to the
north, and there are traces of an old temple at El Bagarawia. There
are 25 pyramids (Tarabil) about 5 miles north-east. Some of
these pyramids were examined in 1903, but little of interest was
discovered. (_Vide_ Appendix D.)
SHENDI.—Population about 500, majority Shaigia and a few Jaalin also
Nafiab, Awaida, and Ababda. Headquarters of the Egyptian Cavalry: four
squadrons, also one field artillery battery. Railway workshops and
good railway station. Headquarters of Shendi District and residence of
a British Inspector, Mamur, etc. Post and telegraph offices. Excellent
climate. Houses of mud. There is a good market, but not to be compared
with that of former days, when Shendi was an important place and
had 7,000 inhabitants. The town was once the capital of the ancient
kingdom of Meroe, and is said by some to have been the residence
of the Queen of Sheba. Bruce says the women of Shendi were noted as
being the most beautiful in the Sudan. It was here that Ismail Pasha,
son of Mohammed Ali, Khedive of Egypt, was burnt in his hut by Mek
Nimr, in 1822, in revenge for his barbarities. To avenge Ismail’s
death the town and inhabitants were destroyed in 1823 by order of
Mohammed Ali. The Nimr family are now in poor circumstances.
There is excellent grazing along the banks of the river at almost
all seasons of the year.
Shendi was occupied by Major T. Hickman with the 15th Egyptian
Battalion on 26th March, 1898, after a short fight.
Government steam engines have been erected here with a view to
cultivation by the Supply Department of the Army. The natives here
have learnt to appreciate such agricultural implements as iron sagias
and ploughs of English pattern, and are anxious to acquire them.
WAD BAN NAGA.—There is a railway station here about 24 miles
from Shendi. Sauarab and Aonia Arabs, and others, such as Deshiab
Batahin, Ababda, and Hassania, come here for grazing. It belongs to
the Shendi District, of the Berber Province. For the antiquities in
the neighbourhood _vide_ Appendix D.
GEILI.—Situated on right bank of Nile, 28 miles north of Khartoum
North, is the residence of Zubeir Pasha and his following, who belong
mostly to the Gemaab tribe, a branch of the Jaalin. There are also
Batahin and Hassania here. There is a railway station at Wad Ramla,
1½ miles to the north.
[Sidenote: Villages on the Blue Nile. (R.B.)]
KHARTOUM NORTH.—On the right bank of the Blue Nile immediately
opposite Khartoum. The name applies to several small detached
villages, such as Gubbat Khojali, Hellet Hamad, etc. The inhabitants
consists of Jaalin, Shaigia, Mahas, Mogharba, Khojalab, etc., under
Omda Mohammed Osman Ibrahim. (For description _see_ Chap. II, p. 49.)
EILAFUN.—On right bank Blue Nile, 19½ miles by road from
Khartoum. A very neatly-kept village of Mahas and Shaigia, under
Omda Mohammed Abd El Kader. It belongs to Kamlin district of Gezira
Province. There is a mosque here, as to the Khalifaship of which
there are frequent squabbles.
About 7 miles east of Eilafun is the village of Um Dibban, the abode
of the three brothers, sons of the famous religious Sheikh El Obeid,
the powerful and fanatical Mahdist leader who defeated Mohammed Ali
Pasha at Um Dibban in September, 1884, and who was the first Dervish
Commander to besiege Khartoum. They have a private mosque here,
and though primarily a religious family, they aspire to considerable
temporal power.
RUFAA.—Situated on the right bank of Blue Nile, 95 miles by land,
by river 104 miles, from Khartoum. The population of the town
and surrounding district numbers 30,000, and is mainly composed
of Shukria Arabs. Others are Batahin, Sherafa, Jaalin, Mogharba,
etc. There is one Greek trader here who carried on business here
throughout the Mahdia. The houses are mostly grass tukls. No post
or telegraph office. Nearest is at Kamlin.
_Routes._
Route reports referring to the principal caravan routes are given in
Vol. II, Chap. IV. There is also a caravan route from Gedaref, _viâ_
El Sadda, Rera, Abu Deleig, and Um Hatab to El Damer. Caravans,
however, usually strike the Nile at Kabushia after leaving Um
Hatab. From Kabushia a track leads due east to Adarama.
SECTION 2.—GEDAREF AND DISTRICT.
Practically the whole of the region enclosed between the Rivers
Rahad and Atbara from a point some miles north of the town of
Gedaref, southwards to Khor Seraf Said on the Gallabat road, an area
containing more than 11,000 square miles, is comprised in the Gedaref
District. This large tract of country, like other parts of the Sudan,
is now greatly under populated. The inhabitants of the district are
estimated at about 25,000 (1904).
The whole of the northern portion of this area is generally flat
and open and devoid of bush, but here and there, particularly to
north-east and south of the town of Gedaref, it is undulating and
rather hilly. As these hills extend further south, the whole country
becomes gradually enveloped in forest, which, though it yields a
good deal of gum, is practically uninhabited, waterless, and for
the most part unexplored, and bears few signs of former inhabitants.
In the rains, the surface of the ground, whether open or forest,
is covered with grass 3 to 5 feet, and in places 15 feet, in height,
which, until burnt, is exceedingly annoying to the traveller, should
he be on foot or riding a mule or a donkey.
Generally speaking, the whole country is fertile, and only needs
inhabitants and a minimum of labour to render it reproductive; water,
though now scarce, would probably not prove to be an insuperable
difficulty.
[Sidenote: Historical.]
In pre-Mahdist days, Gedaref and district, including the old Gedaref
or Suk Abu Sin, was a fertile and populous spot. Its cornfields
supplied a large portion of the Sudan, both to the north and west,
and it was, in short, prosperous. It was devastated by the Dervishes
in 1885, and the garrison captured. Abu Anga and later Ahmed Fedil
were appointed Emir of the district. In 1898, it was seized by a
small column from Kassala under Colonel Parsons, after a hazardous
and successful fight, a few miles outside the town, and though
subsequently twice attacked by Ahmed Fedil, held its own until
relieved by a force from the Nile. (_Vide_ p. 267.)
_Gedaref Town._
The town of Gedaref is situated partly on an under-feature emanating
from some low hills, rather more than 100 feet high, half-a-mile
to the east, and partly on the plain which lies below the general
level of the surrounding country on three sides, and on the fourth,
slopes away very gradually westwards.
This plain, which extends for some miles in all directions, especially
to the west and north-west, is devoid of trees of any description,
and being practically all rich black cotton soil, there is really
an almost unlimited extent of land available for cultivation during
the rains.
The quasi-European quarter of the town consists of one street of
shops, built of brick, about 200 yards long, and, with the exception
of a few other brick houses and the Government buildings, the whole
of the remainder of the town consists of grass tukls.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
The principal traders are Greeks, but these are few, and so far
trade has not reached the expectations formed of it, owing chiefly
to want of railway communication with this part of the Sudan.
There is a fair gum trade, but the quality of Hashab is hardly
equal to that of Kordofan. Otherwise, besides the usual imports,
consisting of cotton goods, sugar, etc., and the export of a certain
amount of dura, dukhn, and simsim, and coffee from Gallabat, into
other districts of the Sudan, trade at present has not reached large
proportions, but is improving.
It is a notable fact that in the Eastern Sudan a well-to-do native
never travels without his coffee, after imbibing which he professes
to be ready for anything; in the Gezira and Kordofan, coffee does
not seem to be nearly so generally drunk.
There is a little trade with Walkait, _viâ_ the Setit, but this at
present is insignificant.
[Sidenote: Population.]
The inhabitants of Gedaref, estimated in 1904 at 5,500 souls, are
a heterogeneous collection of Shukria, Debania, Takruris, and every
kind of black. The Baggaras sent here to colonise after their defeat
at Omdurman have now mostly been disseminated in the district, and
what Abyssinians were originally found here have for the most part
returned to their homes.
The old name of the town, “Suk Abu Sin,” is now inapplicable,
as the Shukria have so decreased in numbers and wealth during the
Mahdia as to be comparatively insignificant. Abu Sin is the family
name of the leading Shukria family.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
The water supply is from wells partly cut through rock; it is good
but not plentiful. Efforts are being made to improve the supply.
[Sidenote: Garrison.]
The garrison usually consists of one company of the Sudanese battalion
at Kassala, which also furnishes a detachment at Gallabat. There is
always an Egyptian Mamur present, and usually a British Inspector
for at least six months in the year. In addition, there is generally
a small detachment of the Arab battalion here.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
There are many excellent gardens, growing the usual Sudan vegetables,
and in addition, figs, limes, custard apples, and dates; the latter
are remarkable in that the trees bear two separate crops during
the year.
As above-mentioned, a rain-crop of dura, dukhn, simsim, etc.,
is very extensively cultivated on the surrounding fertile plain;
a certain amount of cotton is also grown for local use; this, and
the cereals, are capable of considerable development; but this must
await the advent of a railway. It should, however, be borne in mind
that rain-watered cotton does not produce so fine a staple as that
grown on irrigated land. All cotton grown here finds a ready sale
at Gallabat to the Abyssinians.
The characteristic dura of Gedaref is a red species called
“Kurgi,” which produces a very white flour. There is very
little “Naggad” or early dura sown; its place is taken by dukhn,
which, with simsim, is harvested at the end of October, whereas the
“Kurgi” is not ripe until February. Simsim, or Sesame, as a rule
does particularly well in this district. As all crops are dependent
on the rainfall, they naturally vary considerably and in direct
accordance with it. In 1899 they were almost a complete failure. The
crops were attacked in 1902-03 by a disease called “Asal,” a
species of blight, so called as it produces a formation strongly
resembling honey (Arabic “Asal”).[62]
[Sidenote: Rains.]
The rains begin in June and last on till October.[63] As the
surrounding country is cotton soil, dust does not precede the
storms as at Kassala, but judging from the dilapidated appearance
of the town, when revisited on their cessation, the rainfall must
be considerable in a favourable year.
Unless actually seen, it is difficult to picture the difference
between Gedaref before and Gedaref immediately after the rains. By
May, the surface of the ground surrounding the houses and environs
of the town has become clean and bare, and many of the grass tukls
have been rebuilt and appear almost toy-like, so spick and span are
they. However, in October the whole place has the appearance of a
wreck, houses are tumbling down, the neat new tukls are discoloured
and distorted, and every square foot of ground, right up to the
houses, not already planted with dura, at this time fully 12 feet
high, is overgrown with the rankest of tall Aada grass, which is
even higher, and through which the by-streets of the town are mere
tunnels little more than 2 feet wide, and along which it is difficult
to find one’s way about without a guide.[64]
[Sidenote: Climate.]
At this season (September and early October) there is a good deal of
malarial fever in a year of good rainfall. The natives of the place
seem to some extent inoculated with it, though those from the more
northern districts are readily affected.
From December to May the climate is perfectly healthy.
[Sidenote: Wood.]
There is no building wood, and little fire wood within 15 to 20 miles.
[Sidenote: Posts and telegraphs.]
There is a post and telegraph office, and a weekly camel post to
Kassala, Gallabat, and Wad Medani. Telegraph also connects with
these places.
[Sidenote: Serut fly.]
As the serut fly is present at Gedaref during the rains, all camels
are removed about the end of May, and other animals are kept in
tukls as far as possible.
[Sidenote: Transport animals.]
In the dry weather camels are the best transport, both for travelling
along the roads or going across country over the cotton soil, should
it be necessary, but, in the latter case, they will sooner or later
suffer from sore feet.
Limited numbers of camels are obtainable for hire or purchase during
the winter months. Mules are only occasionally brought here. As many
as 50 donkeys can usually be bought without much difficulty, price
£E.2 to £E.3. The little Abyssinian donkey, price about £E.2,
which is the best for that country, is also generally procurable.
[Sidenote: Game.]
Ariel, gazelle, bustard, quail, and a few snipe and teal are to be
found in the neighbourhood at certain seasons. For game in other
parts of this district, _vide_ under Gallabat.
[Sidenote: Villages.]
Beyond Gedaref itself and the villages in its neighbourhood there
are few others worth mentioning. Sofi, on the Atbara, is a largish
Jaalin village under Sheikh Taib El Nimr. It was here that Sir Samuel
and Lady Baker spent the rains of 1869 (_vide_ “Nile Tributaries
of Abyssinia”).
At Abu Gulud, between Sofi and Doka, and other villages in this
neighbourhood a large quantity of grain is usually grown. Asar is
the headquarters of the Debania tribe, now much reduced in numbers,
and the residence of their Nazir Sheikh Wad Zaid.
On the Rahad the principal villages are Mafasa and Hawata. The former
is the headquarters of the Mamur of this (Radah) district. Upstream
of Hawata there are few inhabitants at present.
SECTION 3.—GALLABAT AND DISTRICT.
[Sidenote: General.]
The comparatively small area (about 1,200 square miles) bounded
on the west by the River Rahad, on the north by Khor Seraf Said,
the southern boundary of Gedaref Province, and on the east
and south by the Abyssinian frontier, comprises the district of
Gallabat. Practically the whole of this region is thickly wooded with
talh, soffar, ebony, silag, ardeib, hashab, baobab, bamboo, and other
trees, of which some attain considerable size; the central and south
eastern portions are hilly, as is Gadabi and some of the country to
the east of the Atbara.[65] In the vicinity of the town of Gallabat
there are perennial streams of running water, but the greater part
of the province is dependent on wells for its water supply.
[Sidenote: Town.]
Gallabat town, called by the Abyssinians Matemma, is situated at
the foot of a steep slope on the left bank of the Khor Abnaheir,
which here constitutes the boundary with Abyssinia, and is about 5
miles from the Atbara which flows to the north and north-east.
[Sidenote: Historical.]
The town has for a very long time been considered as forming an
important trade centre on the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier, and the
latter people used to lay claim to it. It was in consequence an
almost constant source of feuds and fighting during the greater part
of the last century between the Abyssinians and the Turks, and later
with the Dervishes. It was formerly celebrated for its slave mart,
and drove a prosperous trade. (_Vide_ “Cradle of the Blue Nile,”
vol. 2, p. 168.)
It was attacked by the Dervishes under Zeki Tumal in 1886, and
sacked. Three years later King John of Abyssinia, burning with fury at
the sack of Gondar by the Mahdists, collected his warriors and fought
a tremendous battle here, with, it is asserted, 80,000 to 100,000
on either side, on 9th March, 1889. The Abyssinians, who outnumbered
the Dervishes, at first were successful, but just as the Dervishes,
on the following day, were giving way on all sides a stray shot
wounded and subsequently killed King John. This completely reversed
the situation, and the Abyssinians turned and fled (_vide_ p. 258.)
Its occupation by the Dervishes naturally resulted in the ruin of
its trade, and this is only now beginning to revive. Robbers are,
however, rife inside the Abyssinian frontier, and owing to that and
other reasons, the revival is slow. The Anglo-Egyptian flags were
hoisted at Gallabat on 7th December, 1898, by Colonel Collinson,
C.B. The Abyssinian flag was then already flying on the fort.
Gallabat is said, before the Mahdia, to have been a comparatively
large and busy trade centre. Looking at it now, it is difficult
to believe that it can ever regain its pristine wealth and
importance. The town, such as it is, with the exception of the
Zabtia, etc., is built entirely of grass tukls. On the top of the
slope overlooking the town there still remains the old Dervish fort
built by Zeki Tumal. From here a very fine view is obtained away
to the hills beyond the Atbara, and on a clear day one can see the
mountains surrounding Lake Tsana. The hill pointed out as that on
which King John was wounded lies 3 miles south-east, and that near
which his body was captured is visible 10 miles further off.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants. Takruri.]
The inhabitants are almost entirely Takruris,[66] originally from
Darfur. The ancestors of these people, on arrival at Gallabat on
their way back to Darfur after visiting Mecca in the 18th century,
realised they had found a better land and settled here, where they
have remained ever since. They possess curious jagged throwing-knives,
which their ancestors are said to have brought from the Upper Congo.
In 1899 the population of the province, which was carefully assessed,
numbered 2,200 souls, of which about 700 were living in the town
itself. In 1901, it was estimated to be 2,670, and it has since
increased to 3,800 in 1904.
These Takruris are as a rule poor, but industrious and fairly good
cultivators. They also collect a good deal of honey. This they
find with great dexterity by means of a bird, whose note they are
exceedingly quick at detecting. Honey and water is always proffered to
the thirsty traveller, though a liquor called “Asalia,” a kind of
“Um Bilbil” or “Merissa,” is the drink they prefer themselves.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
Neither the import nor export trade with Abyssinia has as yet attained
much importance. Coffee is one of the chief imports; this is about
PT.70 per 100 lbs., and is of very good quality. The remainder are
mostly unimportant native requirements, such as bees-wax, shatta (red
pepper), tobacco, etc., which are brought in in small quantities;
also a good many cattle, horses, mules and donkeys. This import of
live-stock constitutes the bulk of the trade.
There is a growing export trade both in raw locally-grown cotton as
well as in Manchester goods.
Half the customs receipts go to Abyssinia. In 1902 the total amounted
to £E.720 and in 1903 to £E.805.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
Most of this district is fertile, but there is little land cultivated
around the town of Gallabat, as the natives have discovered other
spots in the forest where, owing to the particular kind of grass
that grows, less labour is necessary to prepare the land for sowing.
Most of the cultivation lies about 15 miles north-west of Gallabat,
where there are a good many villages, chief of which are Wallak and
Basunda. Though, as a rule, the grass is almost everywhere burnt
as soon as dry (November and December), yet the grass on a piece of
land which it is intended to cultivate is most carefully preserved
until the arrival of the ensuing rains. Then, and not till then,
when the young grass has sprouted, the dry grass is fired, and
the old and new are destroyed together; the ground is now clear
and ready for sowing without further trouble, and thus cultivation
is carried on with a minimum of labour. As the country is mostly
forest, of course clearings have occasionally to be made. Two
crops of dura are raised—“Naggad” and “Kurgi”—also a
good deal of dukhn, which is ready for harvesting by the middle of
October. Cotton is said to grow well, and in 1901 there were 800
acres of it under cultivation; this was four times as much as in the
preceding year. It is expected that several thousand acres will be
under cotton cultivation in 1905-6.
A few lime trees are now all that remain of the beautiful gardens
which existed formerly on the banks of the Khor Abnaheir. The
Dervishes are said to have ruthlessly cut down the fruit trees for
building wood.
[Sidenote: Garrison.]
The garrison is usually a detachment furnished by the company of
the Sudanese or Arab Battalion at Kassala. There are also the usual
civil police.
[Sidenote: Rains.]
The rains begin here earlier and are much heavier[67] than at either
Gedaref or Kassala. After the end of April heavy rain storms become
pretty frequent and last till September or October. During this
season the roads are very bad for travelling. The serut fly appears
when the new vegetation has sprung up.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The same as Gedaref. Healthy, December to June; unhealthy, during
the remainder of the year.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
The main water supply is from the Khor Abnaheir, which averages 5
yards wide and 2 feet deep, but varies considerably according to
the time of year, and becomes stagnant and foul towards the end of
the dry season. There are also some small springs near the fort,
the water from which, at this season, is more wholesome.
[Sidenote: Trade routes]
Roads lead from here to Chelga and Gondar, Kwara, Dunkur, Roseires,
Rahad, and Gadabi. (_Vide_ Vol. 2).
[Sidenote: Telegraph offices.]
There is a telegraph and post office at Gallabat.
[Sidenote: Transport animals.]
Camels are the most suitable transport animals, unless the Abyssinian
frontier is crossed, when mules or donkeys become desirable; for
the journey to either Gondar or Kwara they are indeed indispensable.
When the Dervishes sacked Gondar, their transport consisted chiefly
of camels, but very few are said to have survived or even to have
reached there.
Camels are hardly ever procurable at Gallabat. No number of mules,
donkeys and horses can be relied on unless plenty of notice is given,
when the Abyssinians would probably readily supply a limited number.
[Sidenote: Currency.]
British, Egyptian, or Turkish money is not as a rule accepted by
the Abyssinians, who require to be paid in Maria Theresa dollars,
which they value at PT.10½, but the Sudan Government at not more
than PT.9½.
[Sidenote: Game.]
From El Damer to the line Roseires-Gallabat all the game mentioned
under “Kassala” is found, with the exception of ibex, oryx,
wild sheep, and klipspringer, and in addition rhinoceros and tiang
(_Damaliscus Senegalensis_); bohor, or reedbuck, and _Gazella
rufifrons_ are common in places.
SECTION 4.—COUNTRY BETWEEN BLUE NILE, DINDER, AND RAHAD, WITH
DESCRIPTION OF THESE RIVERS.
[Sidenote: General description.]
The country between the Blue Nile and the Rahad and Dinder Rivers
is at present (1904) practically uninhabited south of the village
of Durraba on the Dinder, which is about the same latitude as Karkoj
on the Blue Nile.
Before the Mahdia, villages extended along both the Rahad and Dinder
to nearly as far south as the Abyssinian frontier. Now, however,
though inhabitants are slowly returning, there are but few villages
even north of the Karkoj-Durraba line.
[Sidenote: Tribes.]
The country lying south of the latitude of Sennar being infested
with the serut fly during the rainy season, the inhabitants, who
are principally Kenana, Kawahla, Rufaa El Sharg, and Agaliin, are
semi-nomadic; that is to say shortly before the commencement of the
rains many of them trek with their camels, cattle, horses, etc.,
northwards across the Rahad to the well-known El Butana grazing
district (_see_ p. 103), in order to escape the fly, whilst only a
few remain behind to cultivate their dura, simsim, and cotton.
The whole of this country as far south as the Abyssinian frontier,
in the vicinity of which the hills commence, is perfectly flat and
covered with bush or forest of varying density, with here and there
open spaces, often many miles in extent. The bush is thickest in
the vicinity of the river banks and thickest of all along the Rahad.
The trees and bush most usually seen are talh, hashab, kittr, sayal,
kurmut, heglig, laot, sunt, sidr, etc.
[Sidenote: El Agab Abu Gin.]
El Agab Abu Gin, Nazir of the Rufaa El Sharg Arabs, is in charge
of all the country bordering the Dinder and Rahad (left bank) from
the latitude of Sennar southwards. His residence is at Abu Hashim
on the Dinder (left bank). Of the other villages occupied by his
people the principal are Durraba, Bandana, Gileidat, and Lueisa.
[Sidenote: Communications.]
From the villages of Wad El Abbas and Sheikh Talha, both on the Blue
Nile, roads lead to Gileidat and thence southwards along the Dinder
to Durraba, beyond which point there is no regular road. From Senga
and Karkoj, roads lead, _viâ_ Abu Hashim and Deberki on the Dinder,
to Hawata on the Rahad. South of this, as far as the Roseires-Abu
Ramla track, the country may be said to be roadless and, owing to
the cotton soil and bush, travelling across country is a trying
operation for man or beast. There is a good road up the right bank
of the Blue Nile from Wad Medani to Famaka.
Khor Um Degul, or Agaliin, or Mehara, which lies between the Blue Nile
and Dinder, and joins the latter near Deberki, was formerly thickly
populated and cultivated by the Agaliin; it was, however, until 1902,
quite deserted. A few villages are now said to be springing up along
it, and wells are being opened. There are many talh and hashab gum
trees in its vicinity.
North of Sennar-Gileidat villages are more numerous along the Rahad,
Dinder and Blue Nile, though there is no great extent of cultivation.
[Sidenote: Game.]
In this district, or rather in the southern portion of it, the
following species are found:—Elephant (Abyssinian variety, with
small tusks), buffalo, rhinoceros, giraffe, roan, kudu, waterbuck,
tora hartebeeste, tiang, reedbuck, ariel, gazelle, oribi, bushbuck,
warthog, bush pig, lion, leopard, hippopotamus, crocodile, etc.
[Illustration: ON THE BLUE NILE.]
THE BLUE NILE.[68]
[Sidenote: General description.]
The Blue Nile rises in the Abyssinian mountains about 60 miles south
of Lake Tsana (altitude of Lake Tsana, 4,800 feet). Its source was
discovered by Bruce in the year 1760. After flowing northwards into
the lake at its south-west corner, it finds an exit[69] again to
the south-east, and, after making a big bend to the east, it curls
round to the south and flows in a north-westerly direction towards
the Sudan, which it enters near Famaka, after a course of some 500
miles. Altitude at Famaka, 1,700 feet (approx.).
Throughout the whole of this upper portion of its course, which has
never been explored, it is believed to flow in a series of rapids
over a rocky bed and often between high cliffs, and for the most part
through the most precipitous and rugged country. Here it is known
as the Abai, whereas, as soon as it reaches the plains of the Sudan,
its name at once becomes “Bahr Azrak” or Blue Nile.
Until comparatively recently the Blue Nile was considered by the
Abyssinians to be the main stream of the Nile, and they, several
centuries ago, fully realised the value of attempting, or threatening,
to deprive Egypt of her water supply by the construction of a dam at
the outlet of lake Tsana or possibly elsewhere. A mission to study
the possibilities of this lake was recently sent from Egypt, and
the investigation showed that it is by far the most suitable site
on the Blue Nile for the construction of a storage reservoir which,
though its benefit to Egypt would be slight, would be of the greatest
value to the Sudan.[70]
[Sidenote: Length, width, &c.]
The length of the Blue Nile, from the point near Famaka, where it
enters the Sudan, to its junction with the White Nile at Khartoum,
is estimated at approximately 460 miles, which makes its total length
about 1,000 miles.
The average width of channel throughout its course in the Sudan is
550 yards.
Although in the northern reaches the width increases, it is rarely
more than 800 yards wide at any point.
[Sidenote: Banks.]
The average height of the banks over low-water level is from 26 to
30 feet for the first 150 miles up-stream from Khartoum. Further
south they are higher, and average over 33 to 39 feet above low-water
level. The difference in level between flood and low-water is 20 to
23 feet. In the first quarter of the year, the river is reduced to
a succession of deep pools, connected by very shallow reaches. Even
native boats can with difficulty navigate the distance between Sennar
and Khartoum during this season. The Blue Nile is at its lowest in
April, but during the latter half of May the first or false rise
begins. The real rise begins in June, and the maximum height is
attained in August. In the latter half of September it begins to
fall rapidly.
[Sidenote: Navigability. Cataract.]
Navigation is simple enough at high Nile. As far up-stream as
Roseires, 405 miles above Khartoum, the river is navigable by the
ordinary Nile steamers from the middle of June till the end of
November. Just above Roseires, however, there is a cataract about
6 miles long. This cataract has never been navigated by steamer,
but it is said that previous to 1881, sailing boats passed regularly
up and down it. Rafts occasionally navigate it successfully on their
way down stream. During the last two years a small launch and a few
sailing boats have been passed up and down, but there is a dangerous
reach for sailing boats above the cataract.
During November and December the water falls rapidly, and sandbanks
appear in quantities, the rush of water through the narrow channels
being very great. The worst part of the river is near Abdin and
Sennar, but there is little rock anywhere. The water for 5 miles
below Roseires is bad, and in places dangerous from rock. Steamers
with barges lashed alongside, at the end of December in most years,
can get through, except at one point some 20 miles south of Sennar,
near Abdin, where a reef of rocks extends almost entirely across
the river. Steamers have to be steadied over this place by ropes in
December, and the barges passed up and down by ropes.
[Sidenote: Discharges.[71]]
Sir W. Garstin calculates the average discharge of the river at
Khartoum to be:—
At low-water (May) 200 metres cube per second.
In flood (August) 11,000 „ „ „
[Sidenote: Velocity.]
The velocity of the stream is very great: even in February it is not
less than 3 miles an hour, while in full flood it must be considerably
over 6 miles an hour. In winter the water is very clear, and of a
beautiful limpid blue. In flood, being charged with the scourings
of the Abyssinian mountains and forests, it is heavily charged with
deposit, and the water is of a deep chocolate colour. The Blue Nile
is considered the chief fertilizing agent of Egypt.
[Illustration: ON THE BLUE NILE.]
[Illustration: FOREST SCENERY, WEST BANK, UPPER BLUE NILE.]
[Sidenote: Country along the banks.]
From Khartoum to Sennar the country is uninteresting; banks flat,
vegetation and population considerable, here and there cultivation
by sagias, crops mostly dura.
South of Sennar the thorn jungle along the banks becomes very dense,
and at high Nile dips into the water; often the only way to get
through it is by hippopotamus paths, though the roads on both banks
have been cleared and there are meshras at frequent intervals.
Speaking generally, the further south one goes the steeper and higher
the banks become, the channel of the river being worn away by the
rush of water. The country on the right bank is mostly jungle,
with little cultivation and few villages.
Between Wad Medani and Sennar the jungle on the left bank runs in
a strip of one or two miles in breadth; west of this strip are the
cultivation and villages, which extend right across to the White
Nile. Near Wad Medani the cultivation is continuous, and one marches
for miles through dura fields.
As one proceeds south, the cultivation becomes less general, until
south of Senga, where it is mostly confined to strips along the river
bank, and a certain amount round villages a few miles inland. South
of Senga the jungle is replaced by forest, large tamarind trees,
etc., with thick undergrowth, and open marshes extend along the
banks, which, in the dry season, afford excellent grazing. The
grass, which grows to a height of 8 to 10 feet in the rains, dies
rapidly as the rain ceases, and throughout November and December the
natives burn enormous tracts of the dry grass. These grass fires,
intended to improve the grazing as well as to enable people to get
about the country, are, as may be imagined, exceedingly detrimental
to the forest trees, which become distorted and stunted. The forest
on both banks of the Blue Nile south of Senga is chiefly composed of
acacias of several varieties, laot, tamarisk, kittr, hashab, talh,
soffar, and sidr. A few kakamut, tebeldi, dom palms, and sycamores
are also to be seen in these forests.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The months of December, January, and February are cool and
healthy. March, April and May are hot. The rainy season begins in May
and lasts till the end of October.[72] August, September, and October
are very hot and damp. The drenching rains cool the air temporarily,
but the subsequent heat is moist and enervating. On the upper reaches
at Sennar, Karkoj, and further south, as the vegetation and foliage
increase in density, so does malarial fever abound in proportion for
at least a month after the rains have ceased. September and October
are probably the worst months.
[Sidenote: Serut fly.]
In October, frequent heavy thunderstorms occur with torrential rain;
they are, however, very local. Heavy dew at night. The storms get
less frequent as the month goes on, and are over before November,
after which the climate gradually improves. The north wind blows
fitfully during November and December, and the nights are cold,
but the temperature by day is very high until late in December,
particularly south of Karkoj. The “serut fly” practically appears
and disappears with the rains, and is scarce in October, except in
certain places. Its northern limit is Sennar. Mosquitoes are bad at
all stations at night during August, September, and October.
[Sidenote: Cotton.]
Cotton is cultivated by the natives on the Blue Nile either on the
foreshore of the river or inland on ground found by experience to
be suitable in a good rainy season.
On the Dinder the only crop raised is the rain crop. This is sown in
July after the heavy rains have commenced at the same time as dura,
etc. The foreshore sowing takes place simultaneously with that of
other foreshore crops, _i.e._, about December, after the river has
fallen, according to the state of the Nile and the height of the
submerged banks thus cultivated.
Both rain and foreshore crops begin to be ready for picking 4 months
after sowing. There are usually three pickings, the last being the
worst, as by that time the plants, which during winter are neglected,
are invariably suffering from drought.
In a good year one feddan (acre) of rain-watered land will produce
400 to 1,000 lbs. of unginned cotton. The species of cotton generally
sown on the Blue Nile and Dinder are “Abu Hareira,” “Belwa,”
and “Mumtaz.” The two former, usually sown on the foreshore,
are the old native kinds, whilst the latter, sown as raincrop,
was introduced by Mumtaz Pasha from Egypt in the days of the Old
Government. The “Abu Hareira” and “Belwa” kinds last 3 years,
but the “Mumtaz” only one.
On the Blue Nile, the most favourable land for cotton cultivation
is said to be from Sennar southwards to Abu Naama; on the Dinder,
the land above Deberki and Abu Rakhis is considered best. Good cotton
(irrigated), however, was grown at Wad Medani last year (1903-1904)
on the Government experimental farm; 6¾ kantars[73] being actually
grown on 1,000 square metres, or a ¼ feddan, giving an average
yield of 27 kantars (2,700 lbs.) per feddan.
[Sidenote: Principal towns.]
ROSEIRES.—On the right bank; residence of a British Inspector and
Egyptian Mamur. Post and telegraph office; communication by ferry
with left bank. There is usually a garrison of one company, under a
British officer, furnished by the battalion at Wad Medani. A gunboat
is also stationed here. The population is increasing, chiefly Hameg
and Sudanese tribes. The market is kept open all the year round,
and most ordinary requirements can be obtained here. For rainfall,
_vide_ footnote on preceding page.
KARKOJ.—On the right bank is an unimportant village, formerly
residence of a British Inspector and Mamur, and the headquarters of
the District, which has, however, now been moved to Senga. Population
about 1,000, mostly Jaalin. The market, which is a poor one, is held
on Wednesdays and Saturdays. There is no post or telegraph office
here. Senga is the telegraph office.
SENGA.—Left bank. (_Vide_ Chap. V, p. 119.)
SENNAR.—Left bank. (_Vide_ Chap. V, p. 119.)
WAD EL ABBAS.—On the right bank; was founded about 50 years ago. The
population numbers about 1,200, and consists chiefly of Jaalin,
with a mixed lot of Gezira Arabs, as well as about 300 Sudanese.
There is a weekly market on Wednesdays.
WAD MEDANI.—Left bank. (_Vide_ Chap. V, p. 119.)
For principal towns between Wad Medani and Khartoum (_vide_ Chaps. IV
and V).
[Sidenote: Game.]
See under “Country between Blue Nile and Rahad,” p. 109.
[Sidenote: Tributaries of Blue Nile.]
With the exception of the Dinder and the Rahad, there are in the Sudan
no other important affluents of the Blue Nile, with the exception of
perhaps the Khor Tomat, which joins the main stream near Famaka. This
is dry, except during and shortly after the rainy season. Water,
however, is easily obtained by digging in its bed.
[Sidenote: Dinder. General.]
The River DINDER rises in the Abyssinian mountains to the south-west
of Dunkur, and after flowing for about 50 miles through very
mountainous country it enters the plains of the Sudan and flows for
about 200 miles in a north-westerly direction until it joins the
Blue Nile (right bank) about 40 miles above the town of Wad Medani.
[Sidenote: Bed.]
Its bed near Dunkur, where it leaves the mountains, is rocky and
stony, and about 100 yards wide. It was here found (June, 1901)
to be 3 feet deep, with a rapid current, and for several months in
the rainy season it must be difficult to ford.
Throughout its course in the Sudan its bed, which is sandy and free
from rocks a few miles below where it crosses the frontier, is much
less winding than that of the Rahad and rarely exceeds 200 yards
in width. Its tendency is to become narrower in its lower reaches,
and at its mouth it is not more than 120 yards wide.
Upstream of the old site of El Haj the river is wider and shallower
and banks lower than in the inhabited area. Even in the old days
there were few or no permanent villages above El Haj, but only
temporary grazing encampments.
[Sidenote: Banks.]
Its banks are steep and generally about 15 feet high. They are,
as a rule, rather higher than the adjacent country, which, when
the river is full, becomes flooded and marshy. These marshes were
formerly extensively planted with cotton, which is said to have been
of good quality; its cultivation is now being encouraged as far as
the limited population admits.
[Sidenote: Forests.]
The forests along the banks of the Dinder are of better quality
and less dense than those of the Rahad; sunt, kakamut, haraz, sidr,
hashab, talh, babanus, etc., are plentiful.
[Sidenote: Navigability.]
The Dinder has been navigated by steamer as far up-stream as Deberki,
about 120 miles from its mouth. Large sailing boats ascend it as
far as El Safra. Of course, this is only possible whilst the river
is in flood during, perhaps, three months in the year, and owing
to the wooded banks and southerly wind it is very difficult for
sailing boats. In the dry season water stands in pools. There is
little doubt, however, that like the Rahad it is navigable in flood
to the Abyssinian border.
[Sidenote: Flood.]
The flood arrives at the junction with the Blue Nile about the last
week in June. This is rather earlier than the Rahad flood, owing
to the later commencement of the rains in Northern Abyssinia, and
possibly partly due to the Dinder not being so excessively tortuous
as the Rahad. Both Dinder and Rahad bring down large quantities of
fertilising matter.
[Sidenote: Tributaries.]
None of much importance.
[Sidenote: Rahad. General.]
The RAHAD rises in Abyssinia in the mountainous region between
Lake Tsana on the East and Kwara to the west. It takes, at first, a
northerly direction, but after entering the Sudan it flows generally
north-west in an extraordinarily winding bed to its junction with
the Blue Nile, almost opposite the town of Wad Medani.
[Sidenote: Width.]
Its width probably nowhere exceeds 100 yards, and is frequently not
more than 60; in places it is only 30 yards wide. It loses much of
its water by “spills” known as “Maya,” and is a much more
imposing-looking river above than below Hawata.
[Sidenote: Banks.]
The banks, especially the right, are steep and high, sometimes as
much as 40 feet above the bed at low water. They differ from those of
the Dinder in that only the left bank is liable to be flooded, and
that only at a few places, and consequently do not lend themselves
to cultivation to the same extent.
[Sidenote: Forest.]
Belts of dense kittr bush and other jungle grow along its banks. In
the lower reaches there are many fine sunt trees, and further inland
talh, heglig, etc. Bordering its upper reaches are heglig, silag,
khashkhash, ardeib, tebeldis, gemmeiz, etc.
[Sidenote: Villages.]
There are few villages at present above Hawata (right bank), and
consequently there is no regular path, though the bush has been to
a certain extent cleared. Travelling along the river above Shammam,
though practicable, is a difficult operation, more especially before
the grass is burnt.
[Sidenote: Flood.]
The flood reaches the Blue Nile about the first week in July, and
water ceases to flow at the mouth by the end of November. High water
is said to last 90 days from about mid-July.
[Sidenote: Navigability.]
The river, when in flood, is navigable for small steamers throughout,
but its comparatively narrow bed, combined with very sharp and
frequent bends, militate against successful navigation by sailing
boats.
Mr. Armbruster navigated the river in the stern-wheeler Amara from
its mouth to Meshra Abid (420 miles) in August, 1904. On the way down
stream navigation was only effected with considerable difficulty and
serious damage to the steamer, owing to the rate of the current—6
miles per hour at Abid and 3 miles per hour at Sherif Yagub—as
well as to the extreme sharpness of the bends, at which there were
often rocks and large overhanging trees.
TABLE OF DISTANCES ON THE BLUE NILE.
------------------+------------------+--------------------------
| Intermediate. | Total from Khartoum.
Place. +------+-----------+------------+-------------
|Miles.|Kilometres.| Miles. | Kilometres.
------------------+------+-----------+------------+-------------
Khartoum (Palace) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0
| | | |
Soba | 14 | 22½ | 14 | 22½
| | | |
Eilafun | 4 | 6½ | 18 | 29
| | | |
El Masid | 20 | 32 | 38 | 61
| | | |
Kamlin | 23 | 37 | 61 | 98
| | | |
Rufaa | 33½ | 53 | 94½ | 151
| | | |
Abu Haraz | 23 | 37 | 117½ | 188½
| | | |
Mouth of Rahad | 5 | 8 | 122½ | 197
| | | |
Wad Medani | ½ | 1 | 123 | 198
| | | |
Mouth of Dinder | 40 | 64 | 163 | 262
| | | |
Wad El Abbas | 30 | 48 | 193 | 310½
| | | |
Sennar | 20 | 32 | 213 | 342½
| | | |
Senga | 53 | 85 | 266 | 428
| | | |
Karkoj | 21 | 34 | 287 | 462
| | | |
Abu Naama | 22 | 35½ | 309 | 497½
| | | |
Roseires | 73 | 117½ | 382 | 615
| | | |
Famaka | 52 | 83½ | 434 | 698½
------------------+------+-----------+------------+-------------
[Footnote 62: _Vide_ p. 98.]
[Footnote 63: _Vide_ p. 98. t Total rainfall, January—October,
1904, 23·1 inches.]
[Footnote 64: This description refers to the state of Gedaref up to
the end of 1899. Conditions have now improved.]
[Footnote 65: For description of country east of Atbara, _vide_
pp. 99-101.]
[Footnote 66: The Takruris speak of the Abyssinians as
“Makada”—this is a name generally used for them throughout the
Sudan and means “slaves.” The Abyssinians naturally resent the
appellation and have complained officially about it. They retaliate
by calling the Takruris, who originally came from Darfur, “Far,”
_i.e._ Rats, the real name of people of Darfur being, of course, For.]
[Footnote 67: Total rainfall, January to October, 1904, 34·6 inches.]
[Footnote 68: _Vide_ also p. 19, and “Itinerary of the Blue
Nile,” Vol. II.; also Sir W. Garstin’s “Report on the Basin
of the Upper Nile,” Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No. 2, 1904]
[Footnote 69: Its course through the lake is said to be plainly
discernible.]
[Footnote 70: _Vide_ Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No. 2, 1904.]
[Footnote 71: The following table of discharges (Sir W. Garstin’s)
shows to a certain degree the relative importance of other rivers
in the Sudan:—
Discharge per second.
----------------------
Maximum. Minimum.
Bahr El Jebel (Mouth) 300 m.c. 300 m.c.
Bahr El Zeraf (Mouth) 140 m.c. 50 m.c.
Bahr El Ghazal (Mouth) 30 m.c. 15 m.c.
Sobat (Mouth) 900 m.c. 50 m.c.
White Nile (Khartoum) 1,600 m.c. 300 m.c.
Atbara (Mouth) 3,000 m.c. nil.
Gash (Kassala) 100 m.c. (?) nil.
Nile (Berber) 14,000 m.c. (?)
]
[Footnote 72: Total rainfall at Roseires, April to October, 1904,
27·8 inches.]
[Footnote 73: 1 Kantar = 100 lbs.]
[Illustration: VILLAGE IN THE SOUTHERN GEZIRA.]
[Illustration: LANDSCAPE, SOUTHERN GEZIRA.]
CHAPTER V.
* * * * *
CENTRAL SUDAN.
(Country between the White Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the Blue
Nile and Sobat.)
SECTION 1.—GEZIRA; KHARTOUM TO SENNAR—GOZ ABU GUMA LINE.
[Sidenote: General description (topographical).]
The area of about 7,500 square miles enclosed by the Blue and White
Niles, from their junction at Khartoum to as far south as the line
Sennar-Goz Abu Guma, forms the northern portion of that generally
known as the “Gezira” or “El Hoi,” and contains some of the
most fertile and most thickly populated districts in the Sudan. Though
rather sandy in the neighbourhood of Khartoum, the soil of this flat
alluvial plain gradually becomes richer and richer as one proceeds
southwards, until between Mesellemia and Managil or Abud the acme
of fertility is attained. The eastern half of this district is much
more fertile and cultivated than the western half, a fact perhaps
attributable to the fertilizing properties of the Blue compared to
the White Nile. The whole of this region is so flat and free from
khors, or other indications as to the direction of the drainage,
that, except perhaps just south of Managil, it is impossible, without
careful levelling, to define the watershed between the two rivers.
Bush of any extent and the granite hills, so common in most parts
of the Sudan, are only found along its more southern, eastern, and
western limits, whilst where not cultivated, the surface of the ground
is usually covered with maheirib, homra, hantut, or naal grass. The
entire area is definitely owned by tribes, families, or individuals,
and strangers desiring to cultivate any portion can only do so on
payment of rent, which is usually taken in kind.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
Many of the tribes, and their name is legion[74], inhabiting the
interior of this district are of a semi-nomadic nature, that is
to say, they cultivate and graze in the interior during the rains,
and in the dry weather repair to the rivers, where not only is the
watering of their flocks an easier matter and the grazing better
than inland, but much ground is left by the receding Niles available
for cultivation.
On both the Blue and White Niles, however, there is, in addition,
a large and heterogeneous sedentary population.
[Sidenote: Cultivation (dura).]
The principal cereal cultivated is, of course, dura, and a species
known as “feterita” is sown as soon as sufficient rain has fallen,
after which it merely requires to be kept weeded, and in two months’
time is ready for harvesting. The only drawback is that this crop
is entirely dependent on the rainfall, which is often insufficient,
and small banks, 1 to 2 feet high, called “taras,” are generally
necessary to hold up the water in order to thoroughly flood any
particular piece of land which it is desired to cultivate.
Three ardebs[75] per feddan (acre approximately) is an exceptionally
good crop, but one ardeb per feddan is the ordinary yield of
rain-watered land. The natives reckon a yield of 15 ardebs per
ruba[75] of seed sown a very good crop for very good land in a
favourable year, but 4 ardebs per ruba is about the average.
[Sidenote: Dura shami.]
Shaduf or sagia-watered land on the Blue Nile yields 5 ardebs of
dura shami (Indian corn) per feddan, whilst on the White Nile 3½ to
4 is an average crop. Irrigation on the former is usually by sagia,
and on the latter by shaduf.
[Sidenote: Wheat.]
Wheat is cultivated to a limited extent on shaduf or sagia lands, but
it is too expensive to be popular with the natives. An average crop
is 5 ardebs per feddan. It is sown late in November, and harvested
three months later.
[Sidenote: Cotton.]
Much has yet to be learnt as to the suitability of the Gezira for
growing cotton. Cotton sown on the foreshore of the White Nile near
Khartoum in July is irrigated by the flood, and three pickings can be
made before the river becomes too low in February. Experiments so far
show “Mit Afifi” to be the species best adapted to the country,
but the paucity of the rainfall has so far precluded the possibility
of obtaining reliable results from the experiments made. Sufficient
cotton, of a quality suitable for local requirements, has, however,
been grown for many years.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
The water supply during the dry season of other than the riverain
population is from wells. In the rains these are supplemented by
hafirs or tanks. The depth of the wells varies from 60 feet on the
east of the watershed near the Blue Nile to 100 feet in the centre,
where they gradually become deeper the further south one travels,
until a few miles south of Managil they are as much as 200 feet deep,
whilst in the pans or hollows of the west of the watershed they
are often not more than 15 feet. These latter wells are peculiar,
in that if used for long they become salt and thus new wells have
to be constantly dug.
Many of the wells also in the north of the Gezira are salt. Nearly
all villages have their own well, though occasionally water is
carried for a distance of several miles.
[Sidenote: Grazing.]
There is often very little grazing a few months after the rains
have terminated; during the dry season, therefore, the flocks are
pastured along the banks of the Niles, and in bad seasons they even
cross the river into Kordofan.
During the Kharif, as the serut fly is not present north of
Sennar-Shawal, many camels and flocks are brought from the south to
graze north of this line.
[Sidenote: Chief towns.]
EL GETEINA.—54½ miles by road south of Khartoum on right bank
White Nile. Headquarters of Geteina District and residence of
Mamur, police officer, etc. The inhabitants are chiefly Danagla and
Jaalin. The Omda’s name is Sheikh Mohammed Osman Abd El Rahman,
a Dongolaui. Most of the houses are built of mud. Post and Telegraph
office. (_Vide_ p. 53.)
KAWA.—132 miles by road south of Khartoum on White Nile (right
bank). It is the same as El Eis of the old travellers. It has rather a
large population of Danagla, Jaalin, Shaigia, and various blacks. The
Omda’s name is Ismail Musa. The houses are both mud and flat-roofed,
and grass “tukls.” It is the headquarters of Kawa District and
residence of Mamur. Post and Telegraph office. (_Vide_ p. 57.)
GOZ ABU GUMA (or ZEINOBA).—Quite a newly built town of grass tukls
on the White Nile, about 180 miles by road south of Khartoum. A
steamer from Khartoum runs up as far as this with mails weekly. There
is a post office and telegraph office. Residence of a Mamur and police
officer. Inhabitants, Danagla, Jaalin, Gowama, and blacks. Omda
Ahmed Mohammed El Zein, a Jaali. Practically no transport animals
obtainable here. A good deal of gum is collected here from the
interior of Kordofan. (_Vide_ p. 59.)
MAATUK.—A collection of tukl villages, 22 miles north-east of
Dueim and 29 miles west of Managil. The population, a large one,
consists chiefly of Arakin, also Hassania and Tawal. The Omda’s
name is Ibrahim Wad El Netef, an Araki.
The water supply is plentiful and good from many wells 15 to 30 feet
deep. In the rains the inhabitants, to a great extent, leave the wells
and live on their cultivation, drinking from hafirs or rain-water
tanks. There is much rain cultivation about here in good years. Where
not cultivated, the land is usually covered with scattered laot and
kittr bush. Maatuk belongs to Kawa District of the Gezira Province.
MANAGIL.—A collection of some half-dozen or more tukl villages in
the centre of the most fertile part of the Gezira. It is 38 miles
from Wad Medani, 50 from Dueim and 107 from Khartoum. Residence of
Mamur and police officer of Managil District belonging to Gezira
Province. Fair “Suk”: market days, Sundays and Wednesdays. The
wells, three in number, are about 150 feet deep. There is a large
mixed population here and throughout the District, which contains
43,000 inhabitants. The land just south of Managil is the most
suitable in the Gezira for the cultivation of cotton. This district
was handed over to his fellow Taaisha by the Khalifa Abdalla, and
some of the Tagale blacks imported by them to cultivate have settled
in the neighbourhood.
SEGADI.—A large tukl village situated at the foot of the southern
slopes of two low granite hills 50 miles south of Managil. It belongs
to the Sennar Province. The Omda’s name is Torin Ahmed, of the
Rufaa tribe. The population, numbering about 1,500 (?), is composed
of many different tribes. Water supply is fairly good. It is about
40 miles from Goz Abu Guma and 36 from Shawal, on the White Nile.
MOYA.—Another large village belonging to and 21 miles west from
Sennar and about 14 miles south-east of Segadi. There are several
hills in the neighbourhood, chief of which is J. Moya, about 500
feet high, from the summit of which Jebel Dali, on the road to Gule,
is visible bearing 177° mag. There is a road from here to Gule and
another to Wad Medani. Water supply is very bad, and, in fact, almost
nil towards the end of the dry season, when the inhabitants disperse
in different directions. The Omda’s name is El Imam Hadibai,
and the population, which, however, varies, numbers about 1,200,
chiefly Amarna, also Hameg and Gowama.
KAMLIN.—58½ miles by road and 64½ miles by river from Khartoum,
on left bank of Blue Nile. Present (1904) Headquarters[76] of
Gezira Province and residence of Mudir. There is a large population,
consisting of Danagla (several sections, but chiefly El Jeberked),
Mawalads (Mogharba and Egyptian), Jaalin, and Shaigia. Houses
mostly built of mud. Post and Telegraph office. The Omda’s name
is Abbas Musa.
HELLET AMARA (or ARBAGI).—On left bank, Blue Nile, 84½ miles by
road and 95 by river from Khartoum. Opposite Rufaa. There are several
villages in the angle of the river which, however, are so close to
one another that they may be considered as one. Houses mostly built
of mud. Population chiefly Jaalin, Danagla and Batahin, under Omda
El Sheikh Ali El Haj Taha, a Jaali. Amara is the headquarters of the
Mesellemia District of Gezira Province and residence of a British
inspector, Mamur, police officer, etc. Population of District 32,300,
chiefly Halawin, who are the best cultivators in the Sudan.
ARBAGI.—Arbagi, which is close to Amara, is one of the oldest
sites in the Sudan, and is mentioned by the learned Ludolphus in
his history of Abyssinia. It was destroyed by the Shukria early in
the 19th or at the end of 18th century.
MESELLEMIA.—Mesellemia, from which an administrative district takes
its name, is about 11 miles nearly due south of Arbagi, and about 6
miles inland from the Blue Nile (L.B.). Prior to the Mahdia it was a
very large town and a great centre of trade. People are now returning
and are rebuilding it. Surrounding it is some of the most fertile land
in the Sudan. Residence of a Mamur and headquarters of the district.
WAD MEDANI.—Population about 14,000; on left bank Blue Nile, just
above its junction with Rahad; about 1 mile long by ½ mile broad;
large market daily, also bi-weekly, Monday and Thursday, the largest
in the Sudan next to Omdurman. Founded by El Fiki Medani about
1800 A.D. Post and telegraph office. Inhabitants: Gezira sedentary
tribes, principally Khawalda, Arakin, Kawahla, Jaalin, Bussalia,
and Medaniim. Headquarters of Gezira Province (1905). Garrison,
one battalion. Rainfall here for 12 months—March 1903 to February
1904—was 313·5 m.m. or about 12½ inches.
SENGA.—Headquarters of Senga District: will probably be headquarters
of Sennar Province in 1905. A large and increasing village, and
next in importance to Wad Medani; left bank Blue Nile about half
mile long and some distance inland; all built of straw huts except
the Government buildings, which are of brick. Soil fertile, and
district much wooded. Population about 1,600. Yearly increasing trade
and daily market. Founded by Abdalla Wad El Hassan about 19 years
ago. Inhabitants mostly Jaalin and Kenana. Post and telegraph offices.
SENNAR.—Almost in ruins owing to Dervish occupation. Has lost
all its former importance. Extends about ¾ mile along the river,
surrounded by an old trench and embankments. There is a large mosque
of red burnt bricks, in a very bad state of repair. At the time of
its re-occupation in 1898, Sennar town was in ruins and uninhabited;
it was made headquarters of the province till, in April, 1900,
it was superseded by Wad Medani, Sennar remaining headquarters of
a District. In March, 1903, the headquarters of the District were
removed about 3 miles south of Sennar to Kabush on the river bank,
where new buildings have been erected; people are now moving and
settling between old Sennar and Kabush. Bi-weekly market Monday
and Thursday. In surrounding district soil very fertile, all land
cultivated by rains, except in Sennar town, which is irrigated by
five sagias. Near Kabush there is thick forest along the river, known
as the forest of Kabush, extending nearly up to Ereidiba. Population
350. Inhabitants: Kenana, Gawazma, Rufaa, Jaalin, Kawahla, etc.
WAD EL ABBAS.—Population about 1,200; right bank Blue Nile;
founded about 50 years ago. Inhabitants, Jaalin and Gezira tribes,
with some 300 blacks. Weekly market on Wednesdays.
SECTION 2.—COUNTRY SOUTH OF SENNAR-GOZ ABU GUMA LINE TO THE SOBAT.
(a) _General Description._
[Sidenote: Topography.]
The country between the Niles south of north lat. 13° 30′
(approximately) forms the southern portion of that known as “the
Gezira” or “El Hoi,” and is, save for the riverain population
of the Blue Nile and the few villages on the White Nile between Goz
Abu Guma and Jebelein, practically uninhabited as far south as north
parallel 12°, which is the northern limit of Dar Fung.
[Sidenote: Dar Fung.]
With the exception of the water in natural tanks at Jebels Mazmum[77]
and Gerebin (which are however apt to run dry) this level plain is
waterless in the driest season, though the soil is of the richest
description, and beyond here and there a few isolated granite
hills, the highest of which is Abu Gurud, its surface is devoid
of all inequalities and undulations. Not a single khor or wadi
is discernible, and except for fairly wide belts of kittr bush,
especially near the two rivers and round the bases of the hills,
the country is on the whole fairly open until nearing Dar Fung,
when dense forest commences and stretches, apparently continuously,
east and west from Nile to Nile.
Owing to the scanty water supply during the dry season and the spongy
nature of the soil, it is almost impossible for caravans to travel
otherwise than on the few existing tracks.
South of Gule this forest of talh, hashab, soffar, etc., extends
uninterruptedly to the hills of Tabi on the south-east, and to Surkum
and Keili to the south. About 30 miles south of Gule khors draining
the Tabi hills become frequent, and the surface of the ground becomes
stony, making the going along the already narrow and much overgrown
paths exceedingly bad.
[Sidenote: Fazogli and Keili.]
The districts of Fazogli, Keili, and the greater part of Dul and
Kirin are undulating and much cut up by watercourses, and boast
far more hills than the country further west towards the White
Nile. The hills in these districts are scattered promiscuously,
and rise steeply from the surrounding country. They are generally
covered with detached boulders and stunted trees. The plain itself
is for the most part gravelly or stony, and is intersected with dry
rocky khors. It is covered near the foot of the hills with a thick
low growing forest, but away from the hills the bush is generally
thinner. Before it has dried up, the grass among the bush would make
it very difficult to leave the paths, but in the dry season there
is generally no difficulty in getting through the bush, excepting
at the khors. The whole of this country suffers greatly from want
of water, and even where there is water in the streams near their
sources, it soon disappears into the ground. Water can, however,
often be found in many of the stream beds by digging.
[Sidenote: South and south-west of Gule.]
South and south-west of Gule stretches an almost uninterrupted plain
to the Baro and Sobat, bounded on the west by the White Nile and on
the east by the hills on the Abyssinian frontier. In the central
and eastern portions of this district there are a few scattered
hills, such as Abuldugu, Melkan, Ulu, etc., belonging to the Burun,
at each of which there is water, but in the Dinka country from
Jebelein southwards along the Nile, these are conspicuous by their
absence. Between north parallels 12° 30′ and 10° 30′ forest is
almost continuous, however, south of 10° 30′ the country becomes
gradually more open and grassy and continues so, as far as is known,
up to the fringe of forest bordering the Baro and Sobat. Water,
south of 10° 30′, seems comparatively plentiful, both in hafirs
made by the Burun or standing in pools in khors.
The width of marsh bordering the Baro and Sobat is often much
exaggerated; it seems generally not to exceed 4 to 5 miles in
width along the former, and is more often much less along the
latter. Fringing the marsh is a narrow belt of forest, and behind
that steppe-like country, which becomes practically treeless in the
region of the lower Sobat (_vide_ Chap. VI).
[Sidenote: Drainage.]
Khor Tomat, draining Beni Shangul and Fazogli is the principal khor
emptying into the Blue Nile.
The more important ones emptying into the White Nile are:—
Khor Deleib, source in Jebel Tabi and mouth at Renk; Khors Rau and
Balantega, mouths at Jebel Ahmed Agha, but source conjectural, and
Khor Adar or Yal, which empties into the White Nile about 30 miles
north of Fashoda, and possibly forms the mouth of both the Yabus
and Sonka. Another theory is that the Sonka and Yabus drain into a
marsh, from which a certain amount of water is believed to find its
way into the Sobat near Nasser. Khor Garre drains into the Baro.
[Sidenote: Rainfall.]
The rainfall over the whole of this area is heavy, especially in
the more southern districts, where the rainy season may be said to
extend from the end of April till the beginning of November.
[Sidenote: Transport animals.]
Camels, mules, or donkeys do well throughout the whole of this
district, except during the rains, when mules are probably the
best. At this season the serut fly is present everywhere, and in
the dry season along the Nile there is a small black fly, similar
in general appearance to the common house-fly, which is excessively
annoying and somewhat injurious to camels. Abyssinian horses are
useful, and the ordinary Arab does well, though more delicate.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
The only roads[78] known to exist, with the exception of those from
Senga to Moya, and Senga to Jebelein, _viâ_ Teigo and Jebel Dali,
are described in the route reports in Vol. 2, Chap. V.
[Sidenote: Currency.]
In the more northern parts of this region the ordinary Sudan currency
is _de rigueur_, but in dealings with natives along the Abyssinian
frontier Maria Theresa dollars or gold rings, obtainable at Abu
Shaneina (36 Maria Theresa dollars = 1 oz. gold, approximately),
are generally required, though in Fazogli, Keili, or in fact in
any Arabic-speaking district, Egyptian money is as a rule readily
accepted.[79] Menelek’s dollar is only very rarely seen, and
his smaller coins never. The Maria Theresa dollar is not, as a
rule, accepted unless the brooch on the shoulder is pretty clearly
distinguishable. Amongst the Gallas salt bars form the small change
(3½ bars = 1 Maria Theresa dollar).
In the Dinka country on the White Nile, giraffe or buffalo hides
are the best trade goods; “gianotta”[80] and other large beads,
as well as Egyptian money are also acceptable. Along the Sobat,
beads (large amber, opaque white, small white, “gianotta,”[80]
etc.), spear heads, axes, and fasses are all much in request. Money
is becoming daily more readily taken.
[Sidenote: Mosquitos.]
Mosquitos, or “Ba-uda” as they are called by the Dinkas and by
many Sudanese Arabs, are very numerous in places even in the dry
season along the White Nile, though here and there there are none
even quite close to the water. The natives themselves, though not
professing belief in the Anopheles theory, say that if one is bitten
much by them they cause fever. The fact of there being a village at
any spot may be accepted as sufficient guarantee that there are no,
or at any rate, very few, mosquitos there. Most of the villages even
in the dry season are a mile or more from the river.
[Sidenote: Game.]
The following species are represented:—Elephant, buffalo,
giraffe, hippopotamus, hartebeeste (_Jacksonii_ and _tora_), tiang,
roan-antelope, kudu, waterbuck, reedbuck, bushbuck, cobus leucotis,
gazelle, oribi, lion, leopard, cheetah, etc. Specimens of Neumann’s
hartebeeste are also believed to have been shot near Ahmed Agha.
[Illustration: IN THE DAR EL FUNG.]
[Illustration: VILLAGE SCENE—BURUN COUNTRY.]
(b) _Dar Fung_ (_South of North Lat._ 12°).
[Sidenote: Boundaries.]
Dar Fung is now, compared to its palmy days, an unimportant
district. Its boundaries are: on the north, Jebels Gereiwa and Rera;
on the east, Jebel Agadi and the Fazogli district. Southwards, it
extends to the Abyssinian frontier, and, including the district of
Keili and the northern Burun country, extends westwards towards the
Dinkas of the White Nile.
In the days when the Fung were at their best, it included Dul and
Assosa etc., which now belong to Abyssinia.
[Sidenote: J. Tabi and Ingassana.]
Jebel Tabi and district is included in Dar Fung. The Ingassana, now
under Mek Agoda, who inhabit it, remained independent and refused
to pay tribute to Idris Wad Regab or the Government until February,
1903, when the Mudir visited this district and established the
headquarters of the Dar Fung District at Soda instead of Gule, without
opposition. The Ingassana are seldom met without their peculiar
sickle-shaped swords. They also possess curious boomerang-like
throwing-sticks. They keep apparently a good deal to themselves,
as complaints against them are rare. They expressed delight at
coming under the ægis of the Government, and at the assurance of
their future immunity from slave raids. The district of Tabi is
hilly and well watered, and appears to be much more healthy than
the surrounding plains. It is said to much resemble Erkowit in the
Suakin district. Pigs are not uncommon in this district, and the menu
of the chiefs is a varied one, dogs, horses, camels, leopards, etc.,
are all eaten, especially the former, with great relish. The skulls
of all animals consumed are arranged in order round the enclosures
of the houses.
[Sidenote: Idris Wad Regab.]
Idris Wad Regab, a direct descendant of the old Fung dynasty, is now
Mek or head Sheikh of Dar Fung. He is a loyal man, and is now very
badly off, having suffered greatly at the hands of the Dervishes, by
whom he was not recognised. Sheikh Abd El Kader is his Wakil. Adlan
Wad Surur was Mek during the Mahdia; he now lives near Karkoj.
Gule used to be the chief town of Dar Fung, it is now only second
in importance to Keili. It consists of three small villages situated
at the foot of Jebel Idris or Gule, a granite mass about 1,000 feet
high, and contains but a few hundred inhabitants, mostly Hameg,
or a mixture of Hameg and the aboriginal Fung. There are generally
some encampments of Dar Ageil or Selim Arabs in the vicinity.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
There is a little trade with Abyssinia, but practically nothing in
the shape of supplies, animals etc., are procurable here. Most of
the merchants trading with Abyssinia pass through Keili.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
There is the usual dura and simsim cultivation, but little more is
grown than is required for the wants of the inhabitants.
[Sidenote: Raids.]
As, prior to the demarcation of the Abyssinian frontier, the Burun
were so decimated by raiding parties from Abyssinian territory,
Idris Wad Regab was, in March, 1902, given rifles by the Government
to protect his people. In addition to these he had a good many of
his own, with which he inflicted some loss on Ahmed Fedil’s force
when it marched from Dakhila to the White Nile after the battle of
Roseires, December, 1898. These raids have ceased for the present
owing to the capture of the principal raider, Ibrahim Wad Mahmud,
in February, 1904. _Vide_ Chap. VII, Part II, page 278.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
Water, which is obtained from several holes at the foot of the Jebel,
is fairly plentiful but bad. It is said to be impregnated with lime.
_Burun._
[Sidenote: Boundaries, etc.]
The Burun inhabit the country between the Dinkas of the White Nile
and the Abyssinian frontier from about 11° 30′ north latitude
southwards to the Dinkas and Nuers of the Sobat and Baro. Those among
the hills north of K. Yabus are under Mek Idris Wad Regab, of Gule,
and appear to have acknowledged the suzerainty of his predecessors
for probably a century before the advent of the Turks. On the
K. Yabus and south of it nothing can be definitely stated as to
their organisation, but they appear to be divided into a number of
independent communities.
The Burun are said to be related to the Berta, but they are lighter
in colour than the Berta generally are and speak a different language.
[Sidenote: Burun near K. Yabus.]
Major Gwynn gives the following description of the Burun near
Khor Yabus: The men, who are physically very finely built, are
stark naked, and smear their heads with wet and clammy red mud.[81]
They all carry long bows, wooden pointed featherless arrows, and in
addition, generally a spear. Arrows are poisoned by being stuck into
a certain species of tree,[82] and are pointed with notched charred
wood or ebony. They have a range of 150 yards. The women are also
naked, save for a small loin cloth of skin. They are good looking
and attractive. The Burun dialect spoken by Idris Wad Regab’s men,
but no Arabic, is understood by the Burun of the Yabus. Their word
of greeting is “Moka.”
The Burun north of K. Yabus live as a rule on the scattered hills
during the rains, and drink from the rainwater which collects
in natural rock tanks. During the dry season, when this water is
exhausted, they either descend to the plain and live on the khors,
in many of which water stands in pools, or else have to carry their
water for a considerable distance. Some of the hills inhabited by
them are Abuldugu, Surkum, Melkan, Gum Gum, and Wadaga. K. Gemmeiza,
flowing from near J. Abuldugu towards Melut, furnishes their principal
water supply. They also obtain water from “Hafirs,” or ponds,
which are roofed with thatch to lessen evaporation. Wells seem to
be very rarely sunk. These northern Burun are now very poor, and
women and children are very scarce.
The Burun, in the Garre Valley, seem more prosperous, having plenty of
water and grain in their country, but both sections, especially the
northern, have been most deplorably reduced by slave raids from the
east. The principal raider, however, Ibrahim Wad Mahmud, as before
stated, was captured by Lieutenant-Colonel Gorringe in February,
1904. The southern Burun country is still almost entirely unexplored.
[Sidenote: Communications.]
The Burun seem to have little intercourse with the tribes living
on the White Nile, and no regular roads to it, except perhaps from
J. Gerawid to J. Ahmed Agha, seem to exist. It is intended, however,
to open up roads between the western frontier of Abyssinia and the
Nile, and to improve the present primitive system of water supply in
this district. For report on routes, _vide_ Chapter V. and Appendix,
Vol. II.
_Keili._
[Sidenote: Boundaries.]
Keili, which is part of Dar Fung, is bounded on the east and
south-east by the Abyssinian frontier, which divides it from Beni
Shangul, Gomasha, and Dul, and on the north-east by Fazogli. Keili
claims to share with Fazogli the mountains of Agaru, Kashangaru,
and Ragreig, though practically the whole of Agaru belongs to the
latter, and the whole of Ragreig to the former, as also does Jebel
Gainshur. Jebels Kurmuk and Maiak are within the southern limits
of this district, and Jebels Surkum and Abuldugu to the west also
belong to it. On the north the boundary is Jebel Tabi.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The Jebelawin inhabit the eastern portions of the district, and the
Burun the western. For administrative purposes, this district is in
the Dar Fung District.
The acting Mek of Keili is a youth of about 15 years of age. His
father, Beshir Hamdan, who was much addicted to slave dealing,
was arrested and deposed by Government, February, 1903.
The valley between Ragreig and Jebel Keili forms as it were an oasis,
and must have a population of several thousand. It is a very pleasant
spot in the dry season, but in the rains becomes more or less swampy.
Sheikh Bilburka, of the Fung inhabitants of Dul, now lives at Keili in
order to avoid the exactions of the Watawit, under Abyssinian rule,
similarly Sheikh Jela Abdalla, a Jaali refugee, fled from Beshir
and Shanji villages in 1897, and now lives in the Arab settlement
at Keili.
[Sidenote: Language.]
The Jebelawin language is used at Jebel Keili. The Burun use a
dialect of the Burun language similar to that of Jebel Maiak.
[Sidenote: Cultivation, etc.]
In the valley between Jebels Kurmuk and Keili a great deal of dura
is grown, both for local consumption and for the supply of the
mountaineers in the hills near Dul. There are plenty of cattle,
sheep and pigs.
[Sidenote: Gold.]
Some alluvial gold is found in the khor east of Jebel Ragreig.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
Water is obtained from wells and from pools in khors, whilst on
the face of Jebel Keili itself there are several springs. At Jebel
Surkum there is a perennial supply of muddy water from four holes
on the south side of the Jebel.
At Jebel Abuldugu there is water in the pass through which the
road from Gule leads. This, however, does not last all the year
round. Natives then water in the Khor Ganna, about 2 miles to
the east.
Keili is the chief town of Dar Fung and is rapidly growing. It
is situated at the foot and to the south of J. Keili, and is the
residence of the Mek. There is also a small garrison of Sudanese
regulars here from Wad Medani, as well as some mounted irregulars.
(c) _Fazogli._
[Sidenote: Boundaries.]
Fazogli is not included in Dar Fung, but belongs to the Roseires
District; it is bounded for administrative purposes as follows:—On
the north-west and west by the Hameg (Abu Gemai to Jebel El Geri),
on the north by the Jebel Geri-Abu Ramla line, and from Abu Ramla
its boundary runs southwards along the Abyssinian frontier to Jebel
Kashangaru, thence northwards towards Jebel Agadi, Dar Fung being
to the west of this line.
[Illustration: INGASSANA VILLAGE.]
[Illustration: HILL SCENERY IN DAR EL FUNG.]
[Sidenote: Mek.]
The Mek’s name is Regab Hassan, who is surnamed Abadaro, and is
a middle-aged man who appears to have a good deal of influence,
but is said to be addicted to drink. He claims descent from Jaber,
the first Fung conqueror of Fazogli.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants. Jebelawin.]
The principal inhabitants are Jebelawin, an aboriginal race merged
into the ruling Fung living at Fazogli, Kuturu, Kiri, Abu Shaneina
on both banks, and Adarsi. Their villages on the Tumat and at Abu
Shaneina are under Mek Khamis, a Jebelawi, but the Arabs at the
latter place are under an Arab named Ali Wad Rowaa.
Elias Khamis, the former Fung ruler of the Jebelawin of Beni Shangul
lives on the Tomat with a following of Sudanese refugees from Beni
Shangul. Sheikh Fakir is similarly in charge of Arab refugees from
the south.
[Sidenote: Language.]
Arabic is understood by the Sheikhs of the district, but the rotana
in use on the left bank of the Nile is that used by the Hameg of
the Blue Nile, and by the Jebelawin and Berta. On the right bank,
in the Fazogli district, the Gumz language is totally different.
[Sidenote: Religion.]
The Sheikhs alone profess Mohammedanism; the majority of the Jebelawin
are heathen.
[Sidenote: Berta.]
In the hills the inhabitants are nearly all Berta; very few can talk
Arabic. They are as a rule finely developed and healthy looking,
but are dull and lazy to a degree. Their villages are built in
the most inaccessible places; the tukls being wedged amongst great
boulders. They only grow small patches of dura, and depend entirely
on the rains to irrigate it. During the dry season, even for drinking,
water has to be carried immense distances. A great many fowls are kept
in the villages. The men in some places wash for gold in the khors.
The Berta of Jebel Falabut are under Mek Abadalla, those of Jebel
Faronge are under Mek Amaka. On the latter mountain are separate
villages for the Faronge sub-tribe, part of the Fadoko sub-tribe,
and the Goamili, who were driven from Jebel Abdanab of late years
by the rulers of Beni Shangul. The head-quarters of the Fadoko
sub-tribe remain at Sarankchau, near Abdanab on the Yabus river,
subject to the Sultan of Beni Shangul. Falabut and Faronge are in
charge of Mek Abu Ras of Kiri.
The Berta extend westwards from the Blue Nile through Gezan to Mudeli
village (Sheikh El Nur) to Jebel Sude sub-district (Sheikh Hambalha),
and Khor Gasa (Mek Jibara), south and west of which the Berta have
lost their independence.
[Sidenote: Religion.]
The Berta, though heathen, are not averse to Mohammedanism.
[Sidenote: Gezan.]
Bakurig Bugul, the successor of Gormaz, the last aboriginal Mek of
Gezan sub-district, lives at Fazogli. Hassan Wad El Gharbi is the
Sheikh of the Watawit at Gezan and Amora, Mek Abulang being resident
chief of the Berta.
[Sidenote: Gumz.]
The word “Gumz” signifies “people” in the aboriginal language,
of which the various sub-tribes use distinct dialects. The Gumz,
of which the Bazaroda and Kadalo are sub-tribes, are heathen, God
and sun being synonymous.
[Sidenote: Bazaroda.]
The Bazaroda sub-tribe is under Mek Ya Karda, grandson of Ab
Zaroda. The boundaries are the Blue Nile on the south and Khor Bombode
on the east. Headquarters, Hoburra. Other villages are Kambal, Yagor,
Agabar, and Yarada. Though subject to Abadaro, the Mek of Gubba
demanded as tribute, in 1900 and 1901, 50 ardebs of dura and 30_l._
worth of gold dust. Products include cotton, dura, simsim, “zaf”
or dom fibre, and Adansonia bark rope, honey, gungeleis or Adansonia
fruit, and gold dust from the Nile, near the mouth of the Khor Zuar.
[Sidenote: Kadalo.]
El Kadalo sub-tribe, formerly peopled Jebel Dimr and Jebel Mulki,
but Mek Adam, owing to a blood feud with the Fung ruler of Gubba, is
now living on the Nile with his following from those hills. The rest
of the Kadalo are under him, and subject to Abadaro of Fazogli. In
the Samina Hills there are Kadalo at Beletamaru and Masambaga, under
Mek Ahmed Wad Mohammed, surnamed El Wishari, also at Jabranza under
his son Beshir Ahmed.
At Jebel Metongwe the local Mek is Mansur, and at Jebel Menze,
Mek Idris.
[Sidenote: Principal villages. Fazogli.]
FAZOGLI the residence of the Mek, is a straggling village of tukls,
extending about 2 miles along a ridge of high ground running parallel
to the river. This ridge is about 800 yards from the river, and the
low intervening ground is given over entirely to cultivation. The
ground behind Fazogli rises to the height of 1,750 feet at a distance
of 2 miles, and is covered with trees.
The water supply is from the river.
[Sidenote: Famaka.]
The old mudiria of FAMAKA is an enclosure about 120 yards square,
surrounded by a stone wall, which is still in good condition. It is
situated on the river bank on a solid rock, which stands in a bend
of the river facing E.S.E., and about 60 feet above it, and holds
a commanding view of the country to the south for miles.
It is itself, however, commanded at a distance of 800 yards by the
very high ground rising behind Fazogli.
[Sidenote: Abu Shaneina.]
ABU SHANEINA is the most important village or town in Fazogli. It is
here that the trade route from Beni Shangul strikes the Blue Nile,
and it is chiefly from that quarter that any considerable increase
of trade with Abyssinia can be expected. It is the headquarters of
a small frontier force furnishing outlying detachments north and
south of the Blue Nile. Mek Khamis is Sheikh of the Jebelawin here
and Ali Wad Rowaa of the Arabs.
[Sidenote: Kiri.]
KIRI is the most prosperous (1900) looking village in Fazogli, and
is built on what should be a very healthy site near the river. The
Sheikh’s name is Abu Ras Wad Sogheir.
[Sidenote: Masurkum.]
MASURKUM is on the Beni Shangul Abu Shaneina road. The Sheikh,
named Bikori, is an old and infirm man, but has evidently been a
strong man in his time. He suffered considerably from Dervish raids,
and has lost all his cattle.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
Dura, simsim, lubia, and tobacco are the principal crops cultivated,
the former is of good quality, both Naggad and Kurgi being sown. In
Gezan there is a considerable area under cultivation, but with this
exception there is practically none south of a line drawn from Kiri
through Jebel Kukura to Masurkum and thence up Khor Masurkum.
In the Tomat villages, west of Jebel Fazogli, the dura crop is very
fine, but simsim is chiefly grown between Kiri and Fazogli.
Ground close to Tomat would undoubtedly repay cultivation, but
at present the more easily cleared areas near the Nile are amply
sufficient for the population.
[Sidenote: Cattle, etc.]
There are comparatively few cattle and sheep in the district, the
people having suffered so much from raids.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
A good deal of trade is carried on with Beni Shangul and this is
bound to develop.
Fazogli produces a little gold, which is found in all the khors coming
from Jebel Faronge: Khor El Dahab, near Gezan, being the richest.
A good deal of coffee is imported from Abyssinia, as well as horses,
mules, cattle, donkeys, and sheep.
The idea of ever tapping the trade of the Abyssinian province
of Gojjam is said to be out of the question owing to the apparent
impossibility of finding a trade route free from physical difficulties
of an insuperable kind.
[Sidenote: Transport.]
Donkeys or mules are the best transport animals all round, though
camels do very well as long as their feet do not get sore. All the
transport animals available for purchase, or otherwise, are those
that come in from Abyssinia, and the supply is a very fluctuating one.
(d) _Dinkas on the White Nile._
The Dinka country on the White Nile, extends from Jebelein southwards
to about 10 miles south of Kodok, along the right bank; it is
uninhabited, however, except by Nomad Selim, north of Karshawal.
The Dinkas, or Jange, as they are called by the Arabs, have no Mek
like the Shilluks, but each section is separate and independent
under its own sheikh, consequently, they were never able to unite to
defend themselves against the depredations of slave traders and the
Dervishes, who found them an easy prey. Many of their sheikhs at the
present time are men who have been slaves in Cairo, and who have been
repatriated either by Gordon or the present Sudan Government. Thus
it is that, whilst the majority of the men are stark naked, one here
and there meets a respectably dressed old man carrying a sunshade.
The women ordinarily wear a goatskin apron in front and another
behind, but the unmarried girls are usually content with a string
of beads.
The men mould their hair, mixed with red mud, into fantastic shapes,
and sleep on a bed of cow-dung ash, with which their bodies are
covered. The women do not usually thus disfigure themselves, and
sleep on hide mats.
The Dinkas are remarkable for their height and slender limbs and
figures. They are not, however, of such fine physique as their
neighbours the Shilluks.
They are unenterprising and ignorant to a degree, and so unprogressive
and rigidly conservative that any such up-to-date innovation as the
introduction of donkeys[83] for transport purposes, an innovation
admitted by themselves to be most desirable, is not adopted simply
on the pretext that it was not the custom of their fathers and
forefathers.
They consequently always walk, the men carrying long narrow bladed
spears and a knob-kerry, and the women a large basket on their heads
containing their food, etc.
During the dry season the Dinkas desert the hinterland of the river,
and descend with their flocks and herds to live near its banks,
where the now dry marshes afford excellent grazing.
The localities which they frequent mostly are Renk, El Wat, Jebel
Ahmed Agha, Meshra Zeraf, Kaka (right bank), Khor Adar. There are
police posts at Renk and Melut; Renk being the headquarters of the
District and residence of a British Inspector.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
On the arrival of the rains they, for the most part, retire inland,
sometimes 20 or 30 miles, to their cultivation, which however, is
little more than sufficient for their own requirements. The grain
is stored in these cultivation villages, and is only brought to the
river in the dry season in small quantities from time to time on
the women’s heads.
Donkeys, and indeed any means of transport but their women’s heads
are unknown. If, therefore, it is desired to purchase any dura from
the Dinkas in the dry season, the would-be purchaser must be prepared
to provide transport and to send it a day or so inland.
[Illustration: DINKA.]
[Illustration: DINKA GIRL.]
[Sidenote: Herds, etc.]
The Dinkas of the White Nile, who number about 8,000, own a good many
cattle and sheep, and pay tribute on them to the Government partly in
kind and partly in money (1904). According to a census made in 1903,
the following were the estimated numbers of their herds and flocks:
cattle, 8,000; sheep, 16,000; goats, 13,000.
Though living in a grand game country they have no sporting instincts
whatever, and rely on the Baggara Arabs to provide them with skins
in exchange for dura. They fish to a certain extent, but are not
nearly so expert as their neighbours the Shilluks, unlike whom they
have no aquatic proclivities.
[Sidenote: Religion.]
A certain number, owing to their having travelled to Khartoum
and even Cairo as slaves, profess the Mohammedan faith, but their
number is few. The remainder believe in the existence of a being
who rules their destiny, and whom they call Deng. He has many forms
and shapes, from the spirit of a great departed Sheikh to the more
familiar personality of a favourite cow. They also believe in the
possibility of transferring their spirits to a particular animal
for a particular purpose and for a stated time; for instance, if
an unwelcome individual is present, they annoy him in the guise of
hyænas at night until he departs. (_Vide_ also Chap. VI, Section 2
(_d_), and Chap. VII.)
[Sidenote: Marriage customs.]
(_a_) _Arranging Marriage._—The intending bridegroom must obtain
the consent of the girl’s father or guardian, as the case may be,
and settle the “maal” (purchase price). He does not necessarily
pay the whole at the time, but later, if he finds the girl suits him,
and does not have any dealings with other men, he pays the difference;
also sometimes after paying the full “maal” he may be ordered by
a village council to pay an additional “maal” if he is a rich man.
As a rule the “maal” is paid to the girl’s father or guardians
a year or so before the man marries her; she remaining meanwhile
in her father’s house. If during this period of “engagement”
the man comes to the conclusion that the girl is not suited to him,
he can terminate the engagement, and receives back his cattle. No
inter-marriage of blood relations is allowed under any circumstances,
on the other hand, a man may marry all or any of his late father’s
widows (except of course his own mother). In this connection it is
interesting to note that, if a girl is tampered with and subsequently
becomes ill, it is held to be conclusive proof that she was tampered
with by a blood relation, and the blood relations who could possibly
have been responsible for the offence are ordered to pay a heavy
fine to the girl’s father.
(_b_) _Misconduct of a Fiancée._—If a fiancée misconducts herself,
the bridegroom elect receives back all the cattle that he may have
paid to the girl’s relations, but, if, on the other hand, he still
chooses to marry her, he will not receive his cattle back, but will
exact a “fine maal” from the man with whom the girl misconducted
herself. If he does not choose to marry the girl he receives back
his cattle, and the father of the girl receives the “fine maal”
from the delinquent. If the man still marries the girl under these
circumstances, he slaughters one of the cattle paid as “fine maal”
and invites the whole village to dinner; but if he does not marry her,
the girl’s father does not follow this custom of slaying the bull.
The father or guardian who receives the marriage portion of the girl
does not retain the whole to himself, but it is divided according to
certain rules among the relations. A man having received a marriage
portion on behalf of his daughter or ward, and the girl being still
only “engaged,” may not dispose of any of it, until the girl is
actually married, and has entered her husband’s house.
(_c_) _Misconduct after Marriage._—If a man has dealings with
a married woman, her husband shall take a “fine maal” from the
adulterer, two or three head of cattle according to the adulterer’s
wealth. If the wife go wrong, the husband may cast her off, and send
her back to her people, and receive back from them the “maal”
he originally paid, plus the issue of the said cattle since they
left his hands. If the husband go wrong, the father or guardian
of the girl he has wronged will take a fine “maal” from him;
his wife cannot divorce him.
(_d_) _Divorce._—If a man maltreats his wife she may complain
to her father, who may free her by paying the husband back the
original “maal,” plus its issue. If the father has no cattle,
he will receive his daughter into his house, and when she marries,
recompense the late husband.
If a man wishes to divorce his wife, and has good grounds for wishing
to do so, he will return her to her father or guardian and receive
back his original “maal,” plus the issue or not, according to
the circumstances of the case.
If a man divorce his wife for misconduct, and there are children of
the marriage, they will remain with him.
[Sidenote: Misconduct.]
(_a_) If a man misconduct himself with a girl he will pay to her
father or relations a “maal” such as he would have paid had he
wished to marry the girl in the usual way, and he must marry her. If,
however, the father of the girl is not willing to marry his daughter
to the man, he will not exact a full “maal” from him, but only a
“fine maal” according to the man’s wealth. If a girl misconduct
herself, and dies from the effects, the man responsible will pay
her father eight head of cattle.
If a man misconduct himself with an engaged girl, and marries her
in the place of the original fiancée he shall pay to her father the
same “maal” as was paid in the first instance by the other man,
and if the girl die in his house, he shall have no claim to receive
back all or any of his “maal” from her father or whoever received
his “maal,” but in most cases the father will pay him a proportion
as a favour.
(_b_) _Misconduct with a Blood Relation._—The man who is convicted
of misconducting himself with a blood relation will pay to the
girl’s father one bull and one cow-calf. The bull will be cut into
two halves, and afterwards devoured at a village feast; the couple
will not, of course, be allowed to marry.
[Sidenote: Blood maal.]
If a man has an adopted daughter, who has been paid to him as “blood
maal,” she is not allowed to marry out of her adopted father’s
family, except in rare cases in which she happens to be a blood
relation of her adopted family. A man thus possessing an adopted
daughter, paid originally as a “blood maal,” can terminate the
blood feud by paying to her father or relations a small “maal”
of cattle.
_Violating a “blood maal girl.”_—If a man has dealings with a
girl who has been paid as a “blood maal,” he shall be ordered to
pay one head of cattle, which, however, can never be returned. If a
man has connection with a girl who does not come under this category,
he pays, as stated before, a certain “maal,” which, however,
is returned to him when the girl eventually marries, together with
the issue of the “maal.”
[Sidenote: Death of a wife.]
If a wife die before she has been received into her husband’s house,
he receives back the “maal” he has paid in advance for her. If she
die after being received into her husband’s house, he does not, as
a matter of course, receive his “maal” back, but the father will
almost invariably pay him back half as a favour. If there are children
of the marriage, the widower will not receive any cattle back.
[Sidenote: Death of a husband.]
If a husband die his widow will remain with her late husband’s
relations unless her own relations choose to pay back the “maal”
originally received for her, in which latter case the custody of
the children is generally given to her late husband’s people.
[Sidenote: Disposal of property.]
If a man die and leave property, it goes to his sons, failing a son,
if he leave a married daughter who has a son it goes to him. Failing
any issue, his property goes to his male relations. The widow of a
man will never receive his property.
HISTORY OF THE DINKAS OF THE WHITE NILE.
This section of the Dinkas migrated from the Bahr-el-Ghazal about 130
or 150 years ago, as nearly as can be judged from various sources
of information, and most of their customs, their character, and
habits of daily life, are identical with the corresponding traits
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal Dinkas as recorded by Schweinfurth. Some of
the older Dinkas of the “Ibrahim” section, especially those
whose wits have been sharpened by a visit to Cairo or Khartoum,
appear to take a considerable interest in tracing back their history.
At the time of the migration, the head of the Bahr-el-Ghazal Dinkas
was one Akwai Chakab. He descended into the country on the right
bank of the White Nile north of the Sobat, and drove out the Arab
inhabitants; these were chiefly Fung, Abu Rof, and Jaalin, the latter
being also partly on the left (west) bank. No mention is made of the
presence of any Baggara Arabs on the west bank. Akwai Chakab was
accompanied by one Kur Deng Achuk wad Agweir, and by his own son,
Deng Karuma wad Akwai. Having seized the country and installed
his own people, Akwai Chakab returned to his own country in the
Bahr-el-Ghazal, and left the Government of his new country in the
hands of his son, Deng Karuma and Kur Deng Achuk wad Agweir. Another
son of Akwai Chakab accompanied his father in the seizure of the new
territories; this was Kolong wad Akwai, and to him was entrusted the
command of the advance guard of the army. His orders were to push
on ahead, spy out the country, and eventually attack Sennar and the
El Ahamda, etc., and reinforcements would be supplied from the rear
if necessary.
On the conquest of the Sudan by Mohammed Ali Pasha, the invading
“Turks” did not penetrate the east bank beyond Jebel Ahmed Agha;
how far south they went on the west bank is not stated. On the east
bank, however, they had to fight the powerful Dinka forces from Muli
(now called Renk) and did not always come off victors (Muli was at
that time called by the Arabs “Hasoia”). The Dinkas, however,
being forced to fall back, retreated up Khor Rau, east of Ahmed
Agha, followed by the “Turks,” who came up with them, and fell
on them at the Debba Mabiu. The “Turks” completely routed them,
and seized and carried off their cattle, but none of their women
or children. Mention is made of the “Turks” fighting with the
Shilluks near Kaka. The invading army then appears to have retired
from the country, leaving the Dinkas to their own devices; and they
do not seem to have been troubled again for a considerable time. They
were, however making mischief, and they admit that the evil days
that befel them at a later date was the inevitable consequence of
their own misdeeds. Strong enough to hold their own against other
neighbouring tribes, they appear to have turned their attention to
annoying the Government, and amongst other exploits, penetrated to
Karkoj, killed Sheikh Abdallahi and some of his people, and robbed
the remainder. The Governor-General of the Sudan at, or about the time
of these occurrences, 1863, was Musa Pasha Hamdi, and he detailed an
army under the command of Mohammed Kheir, to go into the Dinka country
and wipe out the Dinkas. This was the commencement of their troubles
which did not end till 1898. The first descent upon the Dinkas was
in the Abialang district, otherwise known as the Dinka Ibrahim. The
inhabitants fled to Jebel Gule and threw themselves under the
protection of Sheikh Regab wad Idris, and paid him heavy tribute on
the understanding that he would arrange matters between themselves and
the Government. Regab wad Idris appears to have accepted the tribute,
and then to have sent word to Sennar that the fugitive Dinkas were
in his power. Thereupon a force of Egyptian soldiery was despatched
from Sennar, and captured the fugitive Dinkas, whom they led off
as slaves. The men were enrolled in the Nubian regiments, and the
women and children sold. Orders subsequently came to release them,
but a considerable number of the men were, nevertheless, kidnapped,
and many remained in the regiments; of the latter, there are now
several still serving in the army as more or less senior officers. On
those occasions when the Dinka forces defeated the Government troops,
the locality of the battle has generally been called by the Dinkas by
the name of the commander of the Government troops, such as the Island
of Wad Ab Kona, of which the original Dinka name, also still used,
was Gasa-el-Abiad. Other instances are Wad Ab Sheiba and (Jebel)
Ahmed Agha.
The result of these depredations was that the Dinkas were
practically driven to exist as outlaws, living in the woods or in
the inaccessible Nuer country. They never, however, lost their hold
over their own country, and whenever the Government forces withdrew,
they would return to the vicinity of their villages, ready to fly
at a moment’s notice.
In later days, in the time of the Dervish regime, those Dinka
districts which, on demand, paid up the whole of their cattle,
were not further molested; on the other hand, the people south of
Jebel Ahmed Agha declined to fall in with this proposal, and were
consequently perpetually harried and raided, and had many of their
women and children carried off, the Dinka’s first care being always
to drive his cattle off to a place of safety. Since the establishment
of a settled Government, the Dinkas have been returning in increasing
numbers to their country, but the general complaint now is, that at
the present time, hundreds, and even thousands of Dinkas are still in
the service of those who seized them, or bought them in the old days,
and who would, if they had an opportunity, return to their country.
(e) _Selim Baggara._
The Selim Baggara, though really belonging to the left bank from
opposite to Jebelein southwards nearly to Kaka, cross over to the
right bank in considerable numbers during the dry season. They
prefer to live amongst the Dinkas, as they rely on them principally
for their grain supply, not being cultivators to any extent
themselves. A good many of them are mounted on Abyssinian ponies
(price 30 to 40 sheep, _i.e._, 3_l._ to 4_l._) on which they hunt
elephant, buffalo, and giraffe in the most fearless manner, armed
only with their long broad-headed Baggara spears. The skins of these
animals are readily accepted by the Dinkas in exchange for dura. The
Selim are divided into two sections, Um Tarif and Walad Mahbub; the
Sheikh of the former is Amin Musa,[84] and of the latter El Hag
Suleiman, both live on the left bank opposite Jebelein. The tribe
owns a considerable number of sheep, but little or no cattle. They
cultivate to a small extent on the borders of the Gimma country,
about 20 miles north-west from Jebelein.
The Arab names for places are, as a rule, quite unknown to the Dinkas,
and _vice versâ_.
(f) _Shilluks._
From Kodok south, on the right bank, to the Sobat the inhabitants
are mostly Shilluks (for description of whom _vide_ Chap. VIII.)
[Footnote 74: _Vide_ list, Appendix F.]
[Footnote 75: 1 ardeb = 300 lbs. = 24 ruba.]
[Footnote 76: Wad Medani is to become the headquarters of Gezira
(Blue Nile) Province in 1905.]
[Footnote 77: There is now a well at J. Soga, a few hundred yards
west of the village at the northern end of J. Mazmum; there is also
a well at J. Dali, which cannot, however, be relied on.]
[Footnote 78: A new road is being cut (1904) from Senga to Goz Abu
Guma, and from Roseires direct to Gule and Renk.]
[Footnote 79: Egyptian money is accepted in Beni Shangul except by
the Abyssinians.]
[Footnote 80: Black bead with white spots.]
[Footnote 81: Their appearance is said to be rendered still more
grotesque by the wearing of a cow-hide belt about 3 inches wide to
which is affixed, at the back, the tail of some animal; this gives
the wearer the strange appearance of possessing a tail.]
[Footnote 82: _Euphorbia candelabrum_.]
[Footnote 83: Since writing this, Bakhit Niok, a more progressive
sheikh than his fellows, has provided himself with both a horse
and donkey, other sheikhs are following his lead, and donkeys are
becoming comparatively common in Northern Dinkaland.]
[Footnote 84: El Hag Suleiman is now (1904) Head-Sheikh of all
Selim.]
CHAPTER VI.
* * * * *
SOUTH-EASTERN SUDAN.
(The Sobat and tributaries, and country south of the Sobat and north
of N. Lat. 5° between the Bahr El Jebel and Abyssinian frontier.)
SECTION 1.—DESCRIPTION OF THE SOBAT AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.
[Sidenote: River Sobat.]
The Sobat rises on the Abyssinian plateau somewhere about east
long. 36° and north lat. 7° 15′, though its source has probably
never been accurately determined, and flows generally from east
to west.
For the first 260 miles (approximately), as far west as the junction
of the Pibor[85], it is known by the Abyssinians as the Baro, by the
Nuers as the Kir, and by the Anuaks as the Upeno; from this point
to its junction with the White Nile, at a point some 55 miles by
river south of Kodok and 460 miles (approximately) from its source,
it is called the Sobat.
In its descent from the plateau to Gambela, for the first 150
miles, it flows in a series of rapids through wooded, mountainous,
and hilly country, in a rocky bed often not more than 40 yards
wide. From Gambela to Finkio (15 miles) it increases in width to
about 200 yards, but in the dry season is full of rocks, especially
at the bends. Throughout the remainder of its journey to the Nile it
meanders across an immense dead-flat alluvial grassy plain, varied
here and there by extensive woods reaching down to the water’s
edge, but often nothing is visible for miles save swamp and grass
with numerous termite hills, and but an occasional tree. During this
part of its course its width varies as a rule from 150 to 300 yards,
though occasionally it narrows to 30 or 40 yards in the marshy region
between Balamkun and the Pibor.
[Sidenote: Banks.[86]]
Working up stream,[87] the banks are, as a rule, firm and dry for the
first 150 miles from Sobat mouth, and numerous villages are seen built
actually on them. The left bank is usually higher than the right, and
both banks are higher than the country in their immediate vicinity,
and thus narrow swamps running parallel to the river exist well on
into the dry season. These marshes are often drained by the natives
through cuts in the banks in order to capture the fish in them. Above
the village of Shwai the banks are alternately marshy and firm.
[Sidenote: Navigability.]
Both the Sobat and Baro, probably as far up-stream as Finkio, are
navigable for steamers drawing 4½ feet of water, from the middle of
May till the end of December. About the middle of the latter month
the appearance of sandbanks makes navigation difficult, though it
is probable a channel for small boats exists throughout the year.
[Sidenote: Fords.]
Both the Sobat and Baro are fordable at fairly frequent intervals
in the dry season eastwards of the Dinka country.
[Sidenote: Current.]
The current is generally estimated at from 2½ to 3 miles per hour
in flood; in the dry season (February to May) it is not more than
1 mile per hour.
The current of the Baro in flood combined with the sharp bends
and occasional narrowness of the river render navigation difficult
in places.
[Sidenote: Water.]
The water of the Sobat in flood is of a reddish-yellow colour, whilst
that of the Baro is similar to the colour of the Blue Nile or Atbara,
being like them derived from the Abyssinian hills.
The sources of supply of the Sobat are:—
(i) The southern Abyssinian hills and the rains which drain westward
from them.
(ii) The vast marshes which lie between the White Nile and the
Abyssinian hills, which keep the Pibor bank-full till the middle or
end of January.
[Sidenote: Rise.]
The Sobat reaches its lowest level about the end of January and
commences to rise about the end of April or beginning of May.
[Sidenote: Discharge.]
Petherick in April (low water), 1862, estimated the discharge of the
Sobat at 120 cubic metres per second. The same authority on 5th June
(after the rise had begun), 1863, reckoned the discharge at 233 cubic
metres per second. For later calculations, _vide_ footnote p. 111.
[Sidenote: Adura (loop of the Baro).]
A large loop of the Baro takes off from the main stream near the
village of Gadjak[88] on the south bank, and enters the Baro again
some 14 miles to the east of the Sobat-Pibor junction. This river
is known by the natives as the Adura. Although seemingly a large
and important loop, it was found to be quite unnavigable in July,
when the river was nearly full, owing to the existence of a large
number of sand-banks and islands. Another loop south of the Adura
is said to be formed by a stream known as the Mokwai. This has a
very insignificant exit from the Baro, only some 5 or 6 miles to
the east of the Adura exit, but is reported in its lower reaches to
be an important stream in flood time, possibly after it is joined
(as it is said to be) by the Bela river. The combined stream enters
the Pibor, by native report, and, in that case, the river, followed
by Major Capper for some 20 miles of its course, is probably this one.
[Sidenote: Tribes — Shilluks.]
From the junction of the river Sobat with the White Nile, for the
first 30 or 40 miles up-stream, both banks of the Sobat are occupied
by the Shilluks. For full description of this tribe, _see_ Chap. VIII.
[Sidenote: Dinkas.]
The Dinka tribe thence occupy both banks of the river Sobat to about
32° 16′ east, villages of first Shilluks and then Dinkas being
very numerous from the Sobat mouth up to this point, which is near
the village of Lajak. They are shy and suspicious, but amenable to
kindness and trade.
The Dinkas of the Sobat have been worsted in the frequent forays of
the more powerful Nuers into their district. They complain bitterly
of the spoliation of their herds by the Nuers, and state that many
of their children, now growing into manhood as Nuers, were torn from
them in the constant raids of the Nuer tribe. The Dinkas, in spite of
this alleged oppression, own large numbers of sheep, goats, and cattle
(_vide_ details Appendix F, p. 330). The Dinkas on the Sobat are far
more intelligent and energetic than their kinsmen on the White Nile,
and cultivate sufficient grain and tobacco for their own needs.
For the most part the Dinka territory along the Sobat consists of
open, treeless, grass plains. Fifteen to 20 miles east of Lajak
the river banks are uninhabited until the small village of Ashel
is reached, which is the commencement of a small tract of Anuak
country, sandwiched in between the Dinkas in the west and the large
and powerful Nuer tribe to the east.
[Sidenote: Anuaks (west of Nasser).]
The small section of Anuaks referred to here only occupy some
25 to 30 miles of the river bank as far as the village of Wegin,
which is the boundary between them and the Nuer tribe. The different
tribes hereabouts are considerably intermingled, as they appear to
intermarry[89] to a large extent, and Anuaks may be found living
amongst the Nuers even as far east as Nasser. Their position would
not, however, appear to be a very enviable one, as the men are more
or less slaves of the Nuers, and are called upon to perform many
household and menial duties for their more powerful neighbours;
at the same time the Anuaks appear to have no fear of entering
Nuer territory.
The chief villages of the Anuaks, between Ashel and Wegin on the left
bank of the river, are Yakwoik, Fatiwanyang and Shwai. A friendly
Sheikh, Aiwel Wad Agwot, lives at Fatiwanyang. He is constantly to
be seen at Nasser Post, and also occasionally even at Kodok.
This section of the Anuaks is a small and unimportant one; in general
appearance they closely resemble the Nuers. They appear to grow very
little food, barely more than sufficient for their own requirements,
but at the same time have flocks of sheep and goats and a few herds
of cattle.
Their country is well wooded for the most part, and, from native
accounts, numerous herds of elephants constitute a very real source
of danger to travelling, more especially at night time. Game is
plentiful on both banks of the river in December, 1899. Very little
trade has been carried on with these natives, but a few goats and
sheep can be purchased for brass wire; the price being about a 6-foot
length of wire for a sheep. Latterly, however, since more intimate
communication with Nasser Post has been established, the demand for
cloth has increased.
[Sidenote: Nuers (Sobat and baro).]
The Nuers are by far the most powerful and numerous tribe living along
the Sobat river. Originally they appear, from native accounts, to have
occupied tracts of country south of the Sobat in the neighbourhood
of Bor and the Bahr El Ghazal, but these sections trekked north, and
ousted the more weakly tribes living on the Sobat, and occupied their
country. The Falangs and Bonjaks no longer exist, their territory
being occupied by the Nuers. There appear to be three separate
factions of Nuers at the present day occupying the Sobat valley,
who, if native accounts are to be believed, are more or less at
enmity with each other, owing to family disagreements. It is often
difficult in consequence to get guides from one part of the country
to enter that occupied by a rival section. For instance, Sheikh
Jok’s people will not readily enter the territory of the Nuers in
the neighbourhood of Nasser Post; whilst these again will refuse to
proceed further east along the Baro than the village of Barrakwik.
The Nuer territory along the Sobat and Baro rivers extends from
about east 32° 33′ to about 34° 10′. Their territory on the
right bank of the Baro as far east as the Khor Garre[90] (33° 48′
approximately) belongs to the Sudan, whilst east of this khor and the
whole of the left bank of the Baro belongs to Abyssinia. From Wegin
village to Nasser Post the country is probably the finest occupied
by the Nuers, as it is for the most part well wooded, and in places
one passes through really beautiful park-like country. Villages are
numerous, and several of the districts, such as Fauwel and Jurwel,
are well cultivated. East of the Pibor their country bordering the
Baro is a desolate marsh.
Although the huts and villages of the Nuers hereabouts are well and
substantially built, the natives themselves are shy, suspicious,
indolent and altogether a very low type of humanity. They appear to
cultivate only such small plots of ground in the immediate vicinity
of their villages as will suffice for their own requirements for
perhaps six months in the year, whilst during the remainder of the
year they live chiefly on fish, which, existing in great quantities,
are easily speared during the dry season of the year. They do not
appear to hunt at all.
[Illustration: TATUG OR DELEIB—AMERICAN PROTESTANT MISSION STATION
ON THE SOBAT.]
Physically, the men are tall and well-built, but show little signs
of muscular development, being generally long-limbed and wiry. They
are all stark naked, and cover themselves from head to foot with
cow dung ash, which gives them a particularly filthy appearance
and renders their skin extremely rough and coarse. They make no
attempt to adorn themselves, but are extremely anxious to procure
brass wire with which to make for themselves bracelets extending
from the wrist to near the elbow. This seems to be about their only
vanity. They are all armed with spears, of which every man carries
two or three. Their weapon of defence consists of an oval-shaped
buffalo-hide shield. Bows and arrows they do not appear to possess.
The elder married women are as filthy as the men in appearance. They
all, however, wear a leather apron or skin fastened round their
waists. The younger girls and unmarried women wear no such covering,
and, like the men, are quite naked.
The right bank of the Sobat near Nasser Post is densely populated
as far as the junction of the Sobat and Pibor rivers, there being
several large and important villages such as Kwoinlualtong, Taufot,
and Ajungmir in addition to smaller ones. The left bank of the Sobat
is not inhabited, as from Nasser to the Pibor a considerable portion
of the country is inundated when the rivers are full.
East of the Sobat-Pibor junction, the country through which the
Baro flows may be described, until Anuak territory is reached,
as worthless. For the most part it consists of open treeless grass
plains, which, in the vicinity of the river, are inundated for months
at a time. The population is small, and confined to villages some
distance apart, and absolutely no signs of cultivation are seen,
except on a large island near the border of Anuak territory.
This perhaps may be explained by the fact that the Nuers in the
dry season of the year occupy villages near the river banks,
which are merely used as large fishing villages during the time
the rivers are low; they subsist almost entirely then on the fish
speared in the many pools which are formed by the receding waters
of the rivers. When the rivers become full again, and the country is
inundated, they withdraw to their permanent quarters further inland,
where they probably merely cultivate during the rainy season of the
year, between the months of May and November.
Several of the large villages to the east of the Pibor-Sobat junction,
such as Taiyau, Gunjang, Gadjak and others which were teeming with
life in the month of January, were deserted in July when a visit
was paid by steamer to Itang.
With the Nuers of the Sobat and Baro rivers very little trade
can be done, as they possess little or no grain, living chiefly on
fish. They possess, however, numerous flocks of goats and sheep in the
vicinity of Nasser Post, and also some magnificent herds of cattle
at Ajungmir. Thirty-five goats and sheep were obtained in exchange
for a cow. Large opaque white beads, about the size of a pea, are
in request as articles of barter, but brass wire “No. 8” is most
in demand, and a desire for cloth is beginning to rise.
[Sidenote: Anuaks or Yambos (E. of Nasser).]
The eastern Anuaks of the Baro (or Ufeno, as they call it) inhabit
that portion of the river bank extending east of 34° 10′ to the
mouth of the Baro river gorge at the foot of the Abyssinian hills,
and the whole of their territory, with the exception of a small
enclave round Itang,[91] which is leased to the Sudan Government,
belongs to Abyssinia.
This tract of country is probably the most fertile anywhere along
the river after it enters the plains. It is well wooded, and to a
great extent free of those large expanses of swamp found lower down
the river in Nuer territory. The numerous huts and hamlets, with
which the river banks are dotted, are generally built close to the
edge of the bank overlooking the river, usually on mounds slightly
raised above the normal level of the bank. These huts are neatly
built of mud and wattle with grass roofs, and are scrupulously clean
and well kept. They are, as a rule, surrounded by a fence of tall
reeds and grass, giving absolute privacy to the occupants. Within the
enclosure so formed, in addition to several huts for the family, are
the granaries, and also other enclosures for the herding of goats and
sheep at night time. The interior is most carefully plastered over
with mud and free of dust and dirt. The natives of this region are
more advanced in ideas of civilisation than any others living along
the Sobat and Baro in the plains. This is possibly due to their being
in closer touch with the Gallas, with whom they trade considerably,
than any of the more western tribes are.
They are a most peaceful, friendly and industrious race, and are great
agriculturists. Miles and miles along the river banks are diligently
cultivated by them twice a year, and splendid crops spring up from
the generous soil.
Physically the Anuaks are not such a tall race as the Nuers, but
their muscular development is perhaps finer. This is probably due to
their more nourishing grain food all the year round, but they also
supplement their grain largely with fish during the dry seasons of
the year. Although they rarely seem to kill their goats and sheep
for food, like the Nuers, they are extremely fond of meat, and will
constantly beg a white man to come and shoot a hippopotamus for them,
so that they may indulge in a real gorge.
As a rule the men are more decently clad than the Nuers, as many
of them wear beautifully cured skins, as soft as chamois leather,
round the loins. They are far cleaner, better groomed, and smarter
looking in every way than the Nuers. A large number of the Anuaks,
especially in the neighbourhood of Pokum and Finkio, wear splendid
ivory bracelets on the arms. Some of these are as much as 4 to 5
inches in depth, and it is by no means uncommon to see a man with
one such bracelet on the upper arm, and two somewhat smaller ones
on the fore-arm.
One very curious weapon, to be seen nowhere else, is found among the
Anuaks. This consists of a spear, the head of which is manufactured
from a legbone of a giraffe, polished down to about 1 inch or ¾
inch in diameter, and sharpened to a fine point. These curios are
obtainable for about five ½-piastre pieces.
The Anuaks would not appear to be either a courageous or warlike race
like the Nuers, and seem content to merely cultivate their fields and
remain at peace with their neighbours. Their spears are generally
small headed, with long handles, and it is by no means unusual to
see some men armed with nothing but sharp-pointed sticks hardened
at the ends. Knobkerries are carried by most men. The older married
women all wear skins, cured or otherwise, round the loins. Some of
these are daintily picked out with a border of vari-coloured small
beads. A large quantity of beads are also very commonly worn both
round the waist and neck. The attire of the younger women and girls
is really most attractive. In addition to a numerous accumulation of
beads round the neck, they wear a large number of strings of beads
round the waist of many different colours, whilst a small fringe,
as it were, of generally white opaque or light blue and white beads
depends in front and behind, some 2 to 3 inches in length round the
body. As the girls are often very beautifully formed, and possess
pleasant, laughing and occasionally really pretty faces, a group of
them together forms a most charming picture of modest maidenhood.
The upper reaches of the Baro are not well cultivated, and beyond
the point where the _Faidherb_ was abandoned, the population is
very scanty, and little or no food is obtainable from the natives;
the river banks become very stony and thickly wooded, and what
little cultivation there is to be seen hereabouts is generally on
the islands.
[Sidenote: Principal villages. Nasser.]
NASSER, situated on the left bank of the Sobat, 160 miles above
its junction with the White Nile, is the residence of a police
officer and detachment of police. It is also garrisoned by half a
company of a Sudanese battalion under a British officer (January,
1904). Little trade is as yet carried on as the Nuers who live in
the vicinity have not yet got over their aversion to dealings with
a civilized Government.
[Sidenote: Itang (Finkio).]
By the treaty of May, 1902, the Emperor Menelek agreed to lease to
the Anglo-Egyptian Government an area of about 1,000 acres in the
neighbourhood of ITANG, for the purpose of forming a trading station
there. Itang is on the right bank of the Baro, roughly 100 miles above
Nasser, and is in the Anuak country; a station was established here
in January, 1904. As, however, the site is not a very suitable one
a more convenient one at Finkio further east has been adopted. The
Sheikh of Finkio is named Ojilo.
Although it is not practicable for probably five or six months in
the year to maintain direct steamer communication with Nasser, the
post should be absolutely self supporting. Shallow draught steamers
drawing say 15 inches could, however, probably reach Finkio during
10 months of the year.
In addition to grain of various kinds, cotton is also grown by the
natives in small quantities, and tobacco is very commonly to be
obtained. Flocks of goats and sheep are numerous; but the natives
will not readily part with their live stock. Cattle are only to be
seen very rarely, as the natives fear to possess these lest they
should attract the cupidity of the Abyssinians.
The Anuaks are very ready to sell flour and grain in exchange for
beads, more especially in the Finkio district, which is very largely
populated. They also hire themselves readily as carriers.
The most popular bead is a small light blue opaque one, the only
opaque species of small bead obtainable in Cairo. A string of this
bead, sufficiently large to pass over the head on to the neck, will
purchase from 1 to 1½ pounds of flour, and perhaps 2 pounds of
grain. A fowl can also be obtained for about the same quantity of
beads. Possibly white or small green opaque beads would be equally
sought after, but a blue and white bead, known in East Africa as the
“punda malia” (zebra), would, everywhere in these regions, be
eagerly sought after by the natives. Many of the Anuaks wear these
beads, though how this species has got into the country, except,
perhaps, gradually from the north of Lake Rudolf, where they may
have been bartered in 1898, is difficult to understand.
The best trade goods would be white, green, pale blue (all must be
opaque and not glass) and “punda malia.” Beads would be the main
purchasing medium for grain, and perhaps brass wire and cloth for
goats and sheep.
In a short time money may be introduced—as at Kodok amongst the
Shilluks—as the Gallas, being neighbours of the Anuaks, and familiar
with the Maria Theresa dollar, would readily bring down goats and
sheep for sale, and the Anuaks would probably soon follow suit.
Besides tapping the fertile food-producing districts of the Anuaks,
trade in ivory, coffee, live stock, donkeys, and mules, and in
addition, perhaps gold and iron, in smaller quantities, will spring
up with the Gallas when they find a ready market for their goods.
[Sidenote: Tributaries of Sobat and Baro.]
Several more or less important streams and khors join the Baro in
its upper stony region on both banks. Chief of these are the Sako
on the right bank and the Bonga on left bank.
Lower down on the right bank, Khor Jokau or Garre joins the Baro by,
some say, two mouths, one at Jokau about 40 miles west of Itang,
the other at Machar[92] 15 miles further west, where the post to
mark the Sudan-Abyssinia frontier has been erected.
The Khor Garre, which forms the boundary between the Sudan and
Abyssinia in these regions, brings down a large quantity of water
in flood time from the Galla hills. In the dry season water stands
in pools in its bed.
For the first 20 miles from its mouth this khor is inhabited by or
belongs to the Nuers, then for a few miles by the Anuaks or Yambos,
whose district is called Chai, and higher up by Burun.
[Sidenote: Khor Makeir.]
About 8 miles east of the Pibor junction, Khor Makeir comes in on
the right bank. This, near its mouth, is deep, with a sandy bed 30
yards wide. It has not been explored, but is believed by some to be
the mouth of the Sonka, in which case it has its origin near Jebel
Sonka in the Galla hills south of Kirin. Others say it is only a
spill from the Baro.
[Sidenote: Tributaries on left bank. Nigol or Aluro.]
The River Nigol (Nuer) or Aluro (Anuak) enters the Baro about 17
miles below Itang. It appears to have its origin on the Abyssinian
plateau, and for some 25 miles before its junction with the Baro
it flows parallel to that river, at a distance often of little
more than a mile. In flood time it is a most formidable obstacle,
as it forms large areas of swamp. Its entry into the Baro, near the
border between Anuak and Nuer territory, is a very insignificant
one, and barely discernible, as it spills out into a large swamp,
near the village of Methok, before it reaches the actual river, and
apparently the water gradually finds its way into the river through
a thick forest-growth of trees by two small channels only a few
feet wide. From the point where the Adura takes off from the Baro,
the banks of the latter river are thickly wooded with sycamore and
other trees as far as the eastern boundary of Nuer territory.
[Sidenote: Pibor.]
The Pibor flows generally from south to north, and enters the Sobat
river at a point about 25 miles above Nasser and about 200 miles
from its (Sobat) mouth. It is by far the most important tributary
of the Sobat. The Pibor was found (June, 1903) to be blocked by
sudd immediately above the Akobo junction, and so its upper waters
remained unexplored until September, 1904.[93] The greenish colour
of its water would lead one to suppose that it receives its supply
from vast marshes in the plain between the Akobo and the Nile,
rather than from the Abyssinian plateau.[94]
The banks of the lower Pibor are, as a rule, swampy, especially at the
season when the river is fullest. The adjoining country is flat and
covered with grass, with but few trees, though, south of Koratong,
the banks are firm and dry, and trees become general, especially on
the right bank.
[Sidenote: Width.]
The waterway of the Pibor in its lower reaches is exceedingly
narrow, a steamer frequently touches the reeds of either bank
simultaneously. About 40 miles from its mouth, however, it widens
to from 40 to 100 yards.
[Sidenote: Navigability.]
The Pibor river has not (1903) been navigated by steamer in the
months of February, March, and April, during which period it appears
probable navigation would be difficult, if not impossible. During
the rest of the year the average depth of water is at least 10 feet.
[Sidenote: Discharge.]
The discharge at the mouth of the Pibor, calculated by Captain
H. H. Wilson in October, 1901, worked out at roughly 13,500 gallons
per second. The width of the river here being about 80 yards, of
which about 30 yards was blocked by sudd. The maximum depth was
nearly 30 feet, and the current rather more than 1 mile an hour.
[Sidenote: Route.]
There is a route over comparatively dry country from Nasser to
Waratong (45 miles approximately).
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The inhabitants of the lower Pibor are Nuers, whose principal villages
are a group at Koratong and another at Kur, both situated on the
left bank. These appear to be the permanent homes of this section
(Sheikh Jok’s) of Nuers, but in the dry season they occupy other
villages both north and south along the Pibor, the most important of
which is Bil (right bank) near the junction of the Gelo River; during
this season Nuers from other districts visit the Pibor for fishing.
The Nuers of the Pibor do not differ in any essential degree from
those of the Sobat and Baro, and are just as disinclined as their
kinsmen to recognise the advantages of civilisation.
[Sidenote: Trade goods.]
Dura was purchased from the late Sheikh Yowe’s (now Jok’s)
people for small white and dark blue beads, not much larger than a
pin’s head. A string sufficiently large to pass over the head on
to the neck purchased from 1 pound to 1½ pounds of unground grain. A
spear length of brass wire, about 9 feet in length, purchased a goat
of average size. Coloured fancy cloth will soon be in much request.
[Sidenote: Anuaks.]
A few Anuaks are found on the right bank, these are more or less
subject to the Nuers. Their Sheikh is Okwai.
[Sidenote: Tributaries of Pibor. The Agwei (Gwynn), or Neubari
(Austin), or Ruzi II (Wellby), or Adjouaro (Faivre).]
The “Agwei” River joins the Pibor about 17 miles south of the
Akobo junction. It was found by the Faivre Expedition (1898), by whom
it was named the Adjouaro, to rise in the Southern Boma hills and to
flow northwards to within a few miles of the left bank of the Akobo,
and then bending westwards to flow parallel with that river to the
Pibor, or, as they called it, the Adjouba (Agibba?). The Agwei was
also heard of by Major Austin when marching through Boma; it was
described as a big river and was named by him the Neubari. It is
also probably the same as Wellby’s Ruzi II.
In September, 1904, Major Gwynn explored this branch of the Pibor
in a steam-launch for 55 miles from its mouth, when further progress
was arrested by heavy sudd. He describes it as a fine stream flowing
between well-defined banks, averaging 3 feet above the level of
the river in flood and 60 to 80 yards apart. In places, however,
it had overflown its banks and flooded the adjoining country to
a considerable depth. The average width of waterway, which was
frequently obstructed by light sudd blocks, was 30 yards, depth 20
feet, and current 2 to 2½ miles per hour. The banks of the Agwei
were stated by Anuaks to be inhabited partly by people of their own
tribe and partly by Agibbas. Their description of its upper course
appears to agree with the theory that it is the Neubari, and that it
is connected with the Akobo, as Major Austin surmised, by the Oboth.
[Sidenote: The Akobo or Juba.]
The River Akobo or Juba, which rises in the Domme Hills (Abyssinia)
forming part of the watershed between the River Omo and the Nile,
about north lat. 6° 30′ east, long. 35° 45′, flows generally
in a north-easterly direction, and for the first 100 miles through
more or less hilly country; it then enters the plains and eventually
joins the Pibor about 70 miles from its mouth.
The ill-fated Bóttego struck this river (January, 1897) about 40
miles from its source, and found it to be about 25 yards wide and
about 18 inches deep, its banks being much overgrown with very high
grass which impeded travelling considerably. It was found to be
uninhabited for about 45 miles further west, when the first Anuak
village was reached. This was the most eastern point on this river
reached by Major Austin’s Expedition (1901).
The Akobo river forms the boundary between the Sudan and Abyssinia
in these regions. The following interesting account of the Akobo
and its inhabitants is taken from Major Austin’s Report:—
“On our journey south from Nasser, we retraced our footsteps of the
previous year along the River Pibor through Nuer territory until we
reached the junction of that river with the Akobo. Here we found a
small colony of Anuaks settled down for the coming dry season with
a view to carrying out fishing operations, and without difficulty
obtained the services of two guides. For our first two marches we
proceeded east along the river, the banks of which are somewhat
thickly wooded with thorn bush, amidst which, here and there, we
came upon small families of Anuaks enjoying a precarious kind of
existence on fish and the frugal products of the woods. These natives
were all without exception very timid, and generally had cleared
out of their cosy little arbours before the head of the caravan
had reached them. They are very poor and wretched in appearance,
the men being quite naked and possessing very few adornments.
“The elderly women merely content themselves with a small goatskin
worn round the waist, whilst the younger women, like the men, are
devoid of covering. They lack the prosperous and smart bearing of
the Ufeno (or Baro River Anuaks), and in general characteristics
closely resemble those of the Gelo.
“Some 30 miles to the east of its junction with the Pibor the
banks of the Akobo become generally very swampy, and the river was
unapproachable at the time we were travelling along it (February). No
villages were seen until we reached long. 33° 40′, where there
was a small one, Bor by name, situated at the base of a single tree,
surrounded on all sides by swamp. From near here a track runs in a
southerly direction to Bonjak, reported to be 30 to 40 miles distant,
and no water on the road.
“Settled villages become somewhat more frequent from that point
until the Tedo district is reached. This is fairly thickly populated
on both banks of the river, and for the first time we came across
a considerable amount of cultivation. A large khor enters the
Akobo from the east hereabouts, which probably has its origin
in the Abyssinian highlands, whilst, from the village of Neum, a
broad loop takes off from the Akobo and re-enters that river again
some 5 or 6 miles further north. Up to this point the country had
been chiefly open grass land, very sparsely wooded with trees, and
occasional small groves of lalob, but it now became well wooded, and
the swampy areas less frequent. Small villages were established at
closer intervals, but the natives remained very timid and suspicious,
and it was difficult in consequence to obtain the services of guides,
as the larger number of the inhabitants concealed themselves on the
approach of the caravan.
“The Anuak territory terminates at the junction of the Akobo
and Ajibur streams, after which comes a long stretch of uninhabited
country extending to the foot of the Boma hills. The district of Bula,
some distance to the east, is reported by the Anuaks to be inhabited
by men of a fair complexion—possibly Gallas. The Anuaks of the
Akobo possess but few flocks of goats and sheep, and apparently no
cattle. In addition to grain, they probably subsist to a large extent
in the dry season on fish, as fish weirs and traps are occasionally
met with in the river.
[Sidenote: Width, depth, and current.]
“The average width of the Akobo in its lower reaches is 20 yards,
and depth 7 feet, current 3 miles an hour (February); higher up above
Neum its width increases to 40 to 60 yards, and its depth diminishes
to 18 inches. Its banks are generally high and steep. In its upper
portions it flows over a lava bed.
[Sidenote: Navigability.]
“Small dug-out canoes are also used by the natives for travelling
along the river. Navigation in a small launch would probably be quite
possible as far as Neum for several months in the year. The larger
Nile steamers would most likely be unable to navigate this stream
owing to the extraordinary sharp curves and bends of the river,
the stream when in flood being very swift. It is quite possible,
however, that a powerful launch, drawing, say, 18 inches of water,
might, at full flood time, be able to proceed, perhaps, as far
as Melile, although extreme caution would have to be observed,
for in parts the river flows over a lava bed, whilst in others,
fallen trees in the river might prove dangerous.”
[Sidenote: Discharge.]
The discharge of the Akobo near its mouth was calculated by Captain
H. Wilson to be 2,185 gallons per second in October, 1901. There
was then a clear waterway 15 yards wide and 14 feet deep, on each
side of which were belts of sudd from 20 to 30 yards wide.
[Sidenote: Ajibur, or Ruzi I.]
The Ajibur (Austin) or Ruzi I (Wellby), a small stream rising on the
Boma hills, flows northwards to the Akobo and joins it on the left
bank about 80 miles from its (Akobo) source. Water was standing in
pools in its bed in February, 1901.
[Sidenote: Gelo River.]
The Gelo River rises in the Mocha hills (Abyssinian), situate about
east long. 36°, north lat. 7° 30′, and flows generally in a
westerly direction to the Pibor, which it enters on the right bank
26 miles above its junction with the Baro.
Mr. Oscar Neumann, who explored this river in 1901, considers it a
very important source of supply of the Sobat, and far more so than the
Akobo river, which he thinks comparatively insignificant. Mr. Neumann
is strongly of opinion that after traversing Lake Tata the river
divides, one branch flowing into the Pibor, as above stated, the
other or others flowing northwards towards the Baro. Though Bottégo
seems to have had the same opinion, Major Austin does not lend much
credence to this theory.
Neumann gives the following description of the upper regions adjoining
this river:—
“In Shekho I found a large river running westwards. I believed
this river to be the Gelo, discovered near its junction with
the Ajuba by the Italian Bóttego, an opinion which was confirmed
afterwards. Travelling became very difficult here. The western slopes
of the south Ethiopian plateau are cut by many deep ravines; the
roads, therefore, were narrow and bad, and many of my mules became
wounded and useless. As it flows westwards, the River Gelo is lined
on both sides by the densest forest. I could march only about 2 or 3
miles each day, and to cover that distance the men had mostly to cut
the way with axes and bush knives from morning to noon, after which
the caravan was able to proceed. The inhabitants of this forest are
the Mashango, who are very seldom seen, but we often found large traps
made for hippopotami and waterbucks, and loops made of creepers for
monkeys and other small animals going to the water. Already in Gimirra
I had seen, far away to the west, a long mountain chain running from
north to south, called by the Galla ‘Gurafarda’ that is to say,
‘horse’s ear,’ from a sharp double peak in the middle. It took
more than three weeks from Gimirra to reach the point where the Gelo
pierces the mountains, forming magnificent cascades. Some days after
passing this gap, I saw from a bamboo-covered hill in the west a
boundless bush and grass-covered dead flat plain, the plain of the
Sobat and the beginning of the Sudan. Only a few granite hills are
scattered over it. Ascending one of these I saw, far away, a large
lake—Lake Tata—through which the River Gelo runs. Here we found
the first villages of the Yambo or Anuak, who were the first true
Nilotic people I met. They are a division of the great Shilluk tribe,
which is spread over the whole Eastern Sudan, and extends southwards
to the east short of Lake Victoria. The few samples I obtained of
their language show that it is scarcely distinguishable from that
of the Kavirondo people on the east shores of Lake Victoria, whose
country I passed on my first African journey in 1894.
“The land now became more and more swampy. The Anuaks,
poverty-stricken through many Abyssinian ‘razzias,’ live hidden
away on small islands in these swamps. A large part of the people
have migrated westward, and live in a state of semi-slavery under
the protection of the more powerful Nuer, near the Egyptian fort of
Nasser on the Sobat.
“Approaching Lake Tata the swamps became so numerous and deep
that I turned south and marched to the village Neum, where I struck
Bottégo’s route. The attempt to march along the northern bank
of the Akobo failed, because we stuck fast in the swamps, where I
lost many of my mules; so, after two days, I marched back to Neum
and crossed the Akobo. The country on the left shore of the river,
which had here a north-westerly direction, was drier.”
Major Austin, gives an interesting description of the river and
country west of Lake Tata:—
“The Anuaks of the Gelo river district need very little description,
and, as practically little was seen of them except when passing
their villages, not much information was obtained regarding them. As
compared with their compatriots on the Ufeno river, they appear to be
a far less prosperous race, and, physically, might be described as
an anæmic-looking tribe, probably due to the fact that the tract
of country they inhabit is for months at a time one vast swamp,
and unhealthy in consequence. They are more suspicious and shy than
the northern section, but not really unfriendly in any way, as we
had no difficulty in obtaining guides from them. They do not take
the same pride in their personal appearance as those of the Upeno,
and few of the men wear skins. The women are less particular also,
and unhesitatingly entered the river at Patok devoid of all clothing,
and washed themselves on the bank before our men. The unmarried women,
like those of the Nuers, deem it unnecessary to provide themselves
with any covering. Beads are worn, but not in the same quantities
nor with the same taste as further north.
“The right bank of the Gelo, as far west as about east 33° 50′,
is generally well-wooded some little distance from the river, but
the left bank west of about east 33° 50′ is absolutely devoid
of a tree or even almost of a shrub. An open treeless grass plain
appears to extend south until the Akobo river is reached.
“Patok, the first village on the Gelo reached by the survey party,
is one of very considerable size, skilfully concealed in a thick
belt of wood, the interior of which has been cleared to a large
extent. The village is enclosed by a stockade of tree trunks and
branches for defensive purposes.
“Most of the large villages along the Gelo, such as the Otwol,
Chiro, Oran group, Goin, and Ungela are similarly concealed inside
belts of tall trees, and surrounded by stockades.
“These villages are situated some distance from the river, as the
expanse of swamp bordering the Gelo prevents villages being built
nearer to its banks. At the height of the rainy season it appears
probable that the whole country north of the Gelo and between
that river and the Baro is one vast swamp, quite impracticable for
transport animals.
[Sidenote: Width and current.]
“The width of the Gelo west of Lake Tata varies as a rule from 60
to 100 yards. At its junction with the Pibor its width is not more
than 30 to 40 yards, whilst its current is very swift.
“As the Gelo is followed along its banks, no other stream appears
to flow into it, although several swampy khors issuing from the river
are crossed, flowing in a northerly direction. These are reported
to join the Bela river and to flow into the Mokwai.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
“Along the Gelo, beyond a small patch of cultivation on the river
bank near the village of Patok, no other signs of civilization are
evident, except in a few diminutive cleared spaces in the woods;
no food is obtainable from these natives. That they must subsist
on grain to a large extent appears to stand to reason, so it is
possible their fields, like their villages, are concealed in the
midst of woods, with which the country abounds. Like the Nuers and
Anuaks of the Baro these natives possess small dug-out canoes for
crossing the Gelo, and employ them also in their fishing operations.
“To the west of Perbong two other villages, Ametha and Otwol,
are reported to exist in Anuak territory hereabouts, and these two
probably depend on wells for their water supply, as they must be
quite 3 to 4 miles distant from the river, and no signs of tracks
leading from or to the Gelo are visible. Goats and sheep are only
seen in very small numbers.
[Sidenote: Swampy nature of country.]
“In normal years it is doubtful if this tract of country can
be traversed much later than the middle of April with transport
animals,[95] as once the rains set in the whole country is rapidly
converted into bog, through which laden animals, especially donkeys,
are quite unable to travel. During the dry seasons of the year large
herds of elephants roam over these grassy plains and find both food
and shade in the forest growth on the north bank of the Gelo. It
is to these regions the Abyssinians descend in large numbers yearly
from the western edge of the plateau, on ivory hunting expeditions,
and traces of recent Abyssinian encampments were on several occasions
met with. Before the rains break, however, these parties return to
their homes, and we were warned at Gore by Fitorari Hili that we
would find the country impracticable for animals once the rains set
in, and this we certainly found to be the case.”
[Sidenote: River Mokwai.]
The River Mokwai or Bela appears to flow westwards to the Pibor
from the Gurafarda range of hills (Abyssinia) traversing _en route_
the marshy region between the Baro and Gelo; from the latter river
it probably receives a considerable overflow. Its mouth is supposed
to be about 8 miles south of the Pibor-Sobat junction, but owing
to swamp it has not been accurately determined. It is said to be an
important river in flood time.
[Sidenote: Khor Filus.]
The Khor Filus enters the Sobat on the left bank about 10 miles from
its junction with the White Nile, the following description of this
khor, the adjoining country and its inhabitants, is taken from a
report by Captain H. H. Wilson, Inspector, Upper Nile Province:—
“. . . Starting on April 15, 1902, the expedition marched from
the village of Gokjak (some 20 miles from the mouth of the Sobat),
and met the Khor Filus at Shol Ajik, some 8 miles inland, thus
saving an unnecessary long march along the khor from its mouth,
which is 10 miles from the Sobat mouth. The country here is flat and
uninteresting, nothing but a vast grass plain, with hardly a tree to
be seen. At Shol Ajik trees were met with, the banks of the khor being
thinly wooded with a small growth of red ‘talh,’ with a sprinkling
of the unwelcome ‘kittr’ thorn bush. The khor at this point is
some 50 to 80 yards in width, mostly, however, filled up with weeds,
the real water channel being clearly marked (though practically dry)
by a deep narrow bed, some 15 feet lower than the adjacent banks. On
to the village of M’Yolga the same country extends—grass, with
a few trees; in one place there were traces of elephants which had
been there in the rainy season. Other game seen was the bastard tiang
hartebeeste, which was really all the game seen in any quantity in the
country. M’Yolga is a long scattered village on the right bank of
the khor, and marks the limit of the Dinka tribe inland. From here
onwards for many miles is uninhabited country, from Bia to Nerol
being thickly wooded, in places densely, but only occasionally with
any undergrowth that makes travelling difficult. Tiang hartebeeste
were seen in considerable numbers along the whole route, and also
quantities of waterfowl, pelicans, duck, geese, teal, and many and
various kinds of crane and heron. In the vicinity of Fanyanglwel,
46 miles south of Sobat, the first signs of Nuer habitation were met
with in the shape of their cattle ‘feriks,’ which are the summer
residences (_i.e._, dry season, from January to May), built close to
water, and constructed lightly of grass only. No regular huts or tukls
were met with until reaching Riul, 7 miles further south, where the
banks became low and flat, and trees only at some distance on either
side. The khor is here in the rains evidently broad and shallow, and,
owing to mud, probably an impassable obstacle under such conditions.
“A noticeable feature in the Nuer tukls is the superiority of
their construction compared with the tukls of the Dinkas, Anuaks,
and other tribes of the Sobat, their cattle tukls being in many cases
marvels of constructive art, given only boughs of trees, grass, and
native tools for their building. The regular solidly-built villages
are placed at varying distances from the khor, probably dependent on
high ground and on the nature of the soil, if suitable for the dura
crops or otherwise, which are always grown in the vicinity of the
rainy season tukls. Another noticeable feature, differing from the
Shilluk and Dinka customs, was that the villages are not compactly
built. The Shilluks and Dinkas generally build their tukls in close
proximity, each village being a thick cluster of huts, the dura being
sown anywhere close by. In the Nuer case, the tukls are built in twos
and threes, at great intervals, probably each family being separate;
the land around each homestead being sown and tilled by the dwellers
therein. In the case of many Nuer villages, owing to the village
being built in the woods, and the groups of tukls at intervals of 200
to 600 yards, it was impossible to estimate the size of the village
without covering many square miles of country. Around the various
large pools of water near Meinom, Fading, and Shit, were thick fringes
of ‘Ambach’; these pools, being the chief source of supply for
men and cattle in the dry season, it is only natural to have found
the water so churned up and fouled by the cattle as to be nearly
undrinkable. In places near these pools, where the adjacent soil was
sandy, wells had been dug to obtain a cleaner supply of water. From
Shit the khor continues in a southerly direction, being broad and
shallow, and it is said, runs on to Bor. The expedition left the
khor at Shit, and, relying on native assurances that water would be
found in wells, pushed inland to the east, and marched through the
main Nuer villages, which were in places very thickly dotted about,
and well built. The country from Shit to the limit of the march was
well wooded, chiefly with the heglig tree. The ground rose slightly,
and as one got inland it became sandy and covered with fine grass,
standing 2 to 4 feet high. The country also, here, struck one as
being presumably fairly healthy in the rainy season, there being a
complete absence of any rank vegetation. The dura crops in April
were just appearing, the young shoots being about 6 inches high,
and a very considerable extent of ground around each village was
under cultivation.
“At Amwot-el-Sogheir, another fairly large khor was crossed; it was,
however, quite dry, and the expedition camped on the further side,
alongside some wells, which it was learned were the only ones to be
found in this part of the district. These wells were worth noticing:
dug on the sandy banks of the khor, their depth varied from 20 to 30
feet, with a diameter of about 2 feet 6 inches. Owing to the solidity
of the ground, the walls of the well stood without need of revetting,
and great labour must have been expended in their construction. Steps
were cut in the wells on opposite sides, to enable a man to descend
and ascend. In one of the wells a calf was seen, standing in the
water at the bottom, having evidently fallen in. It was rescued by
one of the Dinka guides, who descended the well without difficulty,
and brought up the animal unhurt.
[Sidenote: Denkur.]
“From the camp an expedition was made on the 22nd to the Nuer
villages in this vicinity, which were stated to be the headquarters
of the chief sheikh of the Nuers of the whole country under notice,
by name of Denkur. Marching through a fairly thick forest of ‘Abu
Homera’ trees for an hour, and afterwards over an open grass
plain for another hour-and-a-half, brought us up to the village,
Keik. Standing in the centre of the village, and seen for about 3
miles off, was a conical mound of earth, well and solidly constructed
by Denkur’s people as a token that Denkur was a very big man in that
part of the world. It was stated that the bones of innumerable oxen
were buried in the body of the mound; the cattle being slaughtered
for the occasion. This act was to give greater value to the cone in
the eyes of the surrounding tribes, as cattle are the most valued
possessions of the tribes of the White Nile, and are practically
all they live for; in fact, what religion they possess is centred in
the cow. The height of this conical mound was about 50 to 60 feet,
many large elephant tusks being firmly planted round the base and
on the summit. The largest tusk measured 7 feet 10 inches, but of
poor quality, as long exposure to rain and sun had ruined the ivory.
[Sidenote: Dress, hair, &c.]
[Sidenote: Weapons.]
“Having thus traversed as much of this country as was possible
on account of water, the party returned to the Sobat by the same
route, and arrived on the river bank on May 2. Owing to the extreme
shyness of the Nuers, it was difficult to collect much information of
their customs. Like all tribes of the Sobat, they are stark naked,
and owing to their living in their own country, unmolested and out
of all possibility of being in touch with civilization, it is only
natural that they are sunk in barbarism and retain to the full all
the inherited customs of their savage ancestors. Their hair is left
to grow to a length of about 10 inches, and is stained red with
the ammonia contained in the dung and water of their cattle. Their
bodies (of the men) are covered with the white ash of burnt cow-dung,
like the Dinka tribe. This results from the men always sleeping in
separate tukls, the floor of which is several inches deep with this
white ash, resulting from the perpetually burning or smouldering
fire of cow-dung inside the tukl; the men actually make their bed
in the ashes. The women do not thus cover themselves, but sleep on
mats made of dressed cow-hide, and keep their own skins oiled and
clean. The young unmarried girls, like the men, wear no covering,
but the married women wear a loin cloth of whatever material is
available, a leopard, gazelle, or sheep skin. The arms of the men
consist entirely of spears (throwing) and shields, with the universal
knob-kerry; bows and arrows are possessed by a very few—rifles they
have none. It was reported that one of the big sheikhs possessed
himself of a few at one time, but broke them up and made bracelets
for his ladies. As I have mentioned above, the main wealth of the
Nuers lies in their cattle and flocks of sheep. As the importance or
otherwise of a man is gauged entirely by the number of his cattle, it
follows that the quickest way to become powerful is for an individual
or a village to appropriate the cattle of another individual or a
village, or better still, of another tribe, and thus little raids
of this kind are not infrequent.
“At Nerol another khor joins Khor Filus, by name Khor Nerol,
or Chirol, which is said to connect with the village of Nyandeng,
on the Sobat. Owing to lack of water, it was found impracticable to
explore any distance up this khor.”
SECTION 2.—THE COUNTRY SOUTH OF THE SOBAT AND NORTH OF N. LAT. 5°
BETWEEN BAHR EL JEBEL AND ABYSSINIAN FRONTIER.
(a) _General Description._
The country included in the above limits comprises an area 300 miles
by 200, which, except along its eastern, northern, and western
margins, still remains practically virgin soil untrodden by a
white man.
Our only direct information regarding the interior of this region
is furnished by the Faivre Expedition (1898) which followed the
course of the Pibor for about 60 miles above the Akobo junction,
by the expedition (1902) led by Major A. Blewitt, which marched
nearly due south up the banks of the Khor Filus for about 70 miles,
and by Lieutenant Comyn[96] who explored the so-called Pibor for
170 miles beyond the Akobo junction in September, 1904.
[Illustration: THE BAHR EL ZERAF.]
Except perhaps in the extreme south the whole of this area seems to
be a flat alluvial grassy plain, during the rains, marshy and liable
to be inundated by the various canal-like watercourses traversing it
generally from south to north, but during the dry season probably
arid and waterless for considerable stretches. In the south the
forest is perhaps finer and more generally distributed than further
north, where thin belts of the ubiquitous heglig, kittr, and talh
occasionally vary the monotony of this vast grass-covered plain.
Though a flat and somewhat unattractive country to the explorer,
there is more than one interesting problem awaiting solution, chief
of which is the Pibor question.[96]
The course of the mysterious Oquelokur which drains the northern
slopes of the Latuka hills and the Kos, its supposed affluent after
entering the Sudan, also awaits investigation. When Captain Borton
visited the Beri at J. Lafol at the foot of which, according to
existing maps, the Kos should flow, he could see or hear nothing of
this stream. At Bor, too, nothing has been seen or heard of any large
khor for at least 15 miles inland, though the natives there say the
Beir tribe live on a large khor three or four days to the east. It
seems therefore probable that the so-called Oquelokur flows further
east than is shown on maps, and that it and possibly the Kos drain
into the Pibor and thence into the Sobat.
With regard to the source of the Khor Filus, the only information
that has been obtained emanates from natives living near its mouth,
who vaguely say it “comes from Bor,” the reputed starting point
of the other large khors Nifar, Diar, and Gaweir (perhaps different
names for the same khor), which are said to flow northwards between
the Filus and Bahr El Zeraf. Mr. E. Grogan certainly crossed several
wide lagoons or spills just north of Bor, so possibly what the natives
say regarding the origin of these khors is correct. For description
of the Khor Filus, _vide_ p. 139.
As regards the inhabitants of the interior, all we know is that the
Nuers live on the Khor Filus as far south as 8° north latitude,
that the Beri or Beir tribe live some 50 to 80 miles east of the
Nile between Bor and Uganda, and that the Agibba tribe live on the
so-called Upper Pibor, apparently only some 60 miles east of Bor.
(b) _Bahr El Zeraf._[97]
[Sidenote: General.]
Bahr El Zeraf is the name given to the eastern branch of the Bahr
El Jebel, which leaves that river somewhere in the neighbourhood of
Shambe, and flows into the Bahr El Abiad or White Nile near Tonga,
about 100 miles up-stream of Kodok. It has not been navigated in
recent years above a point about 180 miles from its junction with
the White Nile. Here it opens out into several channels and lagoons,
which are for the most part blocked with sudd, and it is difficult
to determine which is the main channel. According to native report
a through channel to the Bahr El Jebel, navigable for steamers at
high Nile, does exist. Whether such is the case has not yet been
ascertained.
The general direction of the river is from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The
current is much stronger at the head waters of the river than in its
lower reaches, except where it flows into the White Nile, which it
does through a narrow channel.
[Sidenote: Width. Depth.]
The river averages about 60 yards in width, and nowhere does
navigation present any difficulty until nearing the sudd region. Its
depth is generally 5 to 10 feet or more, even at low Nile.
[Sidenote: Banks.]
The rise and fall of the Bahr El Zeraf is considerable. In May the
banks, which are then hard and steep, are from 5 to 10 feet above
the level of the river, which at high Nile, in spite of the opening
of the Bahr El Jebel channel, appears still to overflow its banks
almost everywhere. This has, no doubt, killed the trees close to
the old channel, masses of dead stumps being a feature of the river.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
The country inland in May is dry and level, affording good going,
but the only path near the river and parallel to it passable at all
seasons of the year is said to be on the left bank. This runs from
opposite Tonga on the White Nile up the left bank and crosses to the
right bank near Ajiung thence up the right bank to the neighbourhood
of Bor. During the dry season water along this route is said to be
scarce. The right bank is said to be impassable owing to swamps and
elephants. Mr. Grogan, however, followed the right bank from Ajiung
to the White Nile, and in April, 1904, Captain J. S. Liddell marched
without difficulty with camels from Khor Attar to Twi, leaving the
Zeraf about 20 to 30 miles to the west. Much of the country traversed,
but at this season dry, had been flooded to a depth of 18 inches
by the overflow of a large khor to the east named Gaweir. The road
followed is chiefly used by the Dinkas in the rains, as in the dry
season water, which is stored in fulas, is scarce.
The banks of the Zeraf are almost invariably fringed with Um Suf,
a few yards wide.
[Sidenote: Sudd.]
Most of the sudd in the lakes at the head of the river appears to
be growing, though on the edges it is floating and liable to become
detached at any time; this is specially noticeable on the western
lake or head of the river. The water is strongly discoloured after
the 100th mile, and gets more so as the end of the navigable water
is reached. Hippopotami, though scarce on the lower reaches, are
very numerous on the higher ones, and in the many lagoons through
which the channel flows.
The sudd is of three kinds:—
(1) Sudd growing up from bottom and immovable.
(2) Small low floating sudd in large patches, but loosely hanging
together, and easily broken up or pushed away.
(3) Patches of high sudd floating and connected by very fibrous roots,
and very difficult to separate or clear; very liable to entangle in
the stern wheel of steamer.
The first and second can be steamed through with difficulty. The
latter has to be cut to pieces by hand and disintegrated.
[Sidenote: Wood.]
Between 30th and 148th miles there is no place where wood can be
cut, except by cutting it in water (October, 1898). Beyond that,
there is no wood at all.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The inhabitants of the island formed by the Zeraf, Jebel, and White
Nile are Nuers, who also occupy the right bank of the Zeraf from its
mouth to about opposite Shambe. The right bank appears to have been
originally inhabited by Dinkas, of whom a few are still to be found
living among the Nuers, whilst the hinterland of the right bank of
the Zeraf is still occupied by them. They, however, live in dread
of the Nuers, and many of them have left their villages and have
sought safety on the river Sobat.
The Nuers are very shy, but having got over their first timidity on
meeting strangers they are cheery and open-hearted, evincing none
of that suspicion and churlishness which is such an ever-present
characteristic of the Dinkas, even in the more northern districts,
nor that inexpressible laziness, a trait of both Dinkas and Shilluks.
The men, boys, and unmarried women are, of course, naked. The
married women wear loin cloths of skin, and a few of the men leopard
skins. They all affect the long red-dyed hair, the universal custom
of the Nuer tribes.
The following is a detailed description of the various Nuer districts
on both banks of the Bahr El Zeraf as far as is at present known
(taken from a report by Captain H. H. Wilson, 1903):—
[Sidenote: Lak.]
The first district on entering the Zeraf is Lak, of which the head
Sheikh is Fador Wad Koing (1903). His country is of great extent, and
split up into various sub-districts. This district extends between
the Zeraf, Bahr El Jebel, and White Nile, near Tonga, the majority
of the villages and people being nearer the Bahr El Jebel than the
Zeraf. Only a very small proportion of them winter on the latter
river, the majority do so on the White Nile, up-stream of the mouth
of the Zeraf. The chief village of Lak, and in which Fador himself
resides, is called Fulwal, and is close to the Bahr El Jebel.
The only sub-district of Lak which is on or near the Zeraf, is Warao,
of which the Sheikh is one Warao Wad Koing. This sub-district is
entirely on the right bank of the Zeraf, at about 50 miles from its
mouth, the winter hunting village being situated about 1 mile inland,
on the right bank of a big khor known as Bahn, which runs into the
Zeraf at this point. The inland village where the people reside during
the rains and grow their crops, is about two hours’ march inland,
and is called Fulfam; the sheikh himself resides in this village.
[Sidenote: Thiang.]
The district of Thiang is also a large one, being situated on both
the right and left banks of the Zeraf, at or about 80 miles from the
mouth. The head Sheikh is Toi Wad Thief[98], who has two big villages,
both on the left bank, called respectively, Fakoi and Fai-at. The
people living on the right bank spread themselves between the Zeraf
and Jebel rivers, and in the winter descend to the banks of either
or both of these rivers to graze their cattle. The people on the
right bank have their “rain” village at a place called Khandak,
about three hours inland on the right bank at 80 miles. The Sheikh
of this section is called Deng. These people are great hunters of
the elephant.
[Sidenote: Gaweir.]
The villages of this district are seen from the river at about 120
miles, standing about 1 to 2 miles back, with a thick belt of trees
behind them; just north of these trees are seen several clumps of
deleib palms, and a few solitary dom palms. This district is on
the left bank entirely, as far as could be ascertained. The Sheikh
of the district is one Nyal Wad Jek[98], a young man well disposed
to the Government, and who has only recently succeeded his father
as sheikh. He is very well supported by his uncle, Niar Wad Koing,
an elderly man. These people remain in the same place all the year
round; the ground being sufficiently high to admit of their building
their rain villages in proximity to the river. This was the furthest
point visited by Captain Wilson (1903). The information regarding
the remaining district is from hearsay.
[Sidenote: Fasheikh.]
This is the district ruled over by Sheikh Diu, who, being an
influential man in these parts, is known by this name only. He rules
his own district only, and has nothing to do with the other Nuer
districts above mentioned, each of which is independent, under its
own sheikh. This district lies in the upper region of the Zeraf on
the east bank, and the name Fasheikh applies to the inland district,
where Diu and his people reside in the rains, as opposed to the
village of Ajiung, which is the winter village.
The history of Diu’s occupation of this district is interesting,
and was supplied by several men, who may be quoted as local
authorities. In the days of the old Government it was a large Dinka
district, the chief sheikhs of which were two men well known to the
present Government, _i.e._, Aiung Yor and Agweir Owae, who are, at
the present time, settled on the left bank of the Sobat, at M’Yolga,
_vide_ p. 139. At that time, Diu was somewhere on the Bahr El Jebel,
and the Nuer sheikh on the Zeraf was one Bil Wad Teng, who lived
at the spot that is pointed out as the zeriba of Kuchuk Ali, the
Khartoum trader. The two lived together, the trader probably working
the country under the guidance of the sheikh. On the retirement of
the Government from these parts and the disappearance of Kuchuk Ali,
Diu came down and seized the Dinka country to the south of this
spot, turning out the Dinkas under the above-mentioned sheikhs, and
establishing himself as the paramount power in the district. He is
stated to consider himself a “fakir” in the same way as Denkur;
but that he is not hostile to the Government is clear from the fact
that he sent his representatives to Kodok last year.
Fasheikh is stated to be about three hours’ march inland from
Ajiung, but inaccessible owing to the intervening swampy ground.
(c) _R. Awai or Atem._
[Sidenote: River Atem.]
An important branch of the Bahr El Jebel appears to leave the main
stream through the swamp and sudd to the north of Bor, and to flow
north-west parallel to it and at a distance of perhaps 5 or 6 miles
to the east. For about 30 miles below Bor, this branch, known by
the Dinkas of Pabek as the river Atem, and by those at Tau as the
Awai—the “Gertrude Nile” of Grogan—is said to be blocked by
sudd. The Dinkas, however, say that Arabi Dafaalla sent a steamer down
it from Bor to the junction of the Mading. In May, 1904, Sir William
Garstin, G.C.M.G., and Captain J. S. Liddell explored this river by
steamer as far up-stream as the village of Tau within 40 miles of
Bor. At Tau the natives said it was blocked by sudd 10 miles further
south. Up to this point the river was never less than 4 feet deep,
though its breadth varied considerably, and to enable a steamer with
barges to pass through it would require a certain amount of clearing.
[Sidenote: River Mading.]
About 55 miles below Bor the Atem or Awai bifurcates. One branch known
as the R. Mading, flowing north, is at first a fine river 80 yards
wide and 5 or 6 feet deep but quickly narrows and looses its water
in the marshes, and after 7 miles becomes an insignificant stream. It
is said to be completely blocked by sudd a little lower down.
[Sidenote: River Awai.]
The main branch known only as the Awai bends westwards and flows as
an easily navigable stream, though difficult for a steamer with two
barges, through the usual reedy swamp to the lakes a little north of
Shambe. Between the Mading and Shambe the Awai has two main outlets
into the Bahr El Jebel. One from Fajak, navigable only for dugouts,
spills into the main river near Abu Kuka, but the principal channel,
only a few hundred yards long connecting with the Jebel, is about
8 miles up-stream of Shambe. This is easily navigable by steamers.
[Sidenote: Banks.]
The banks of the Awai and Mading are generally swamp, papyrus or
grass, but from the former, about 7 miles from the Mading junction,
ant hills on more or less dry ground are visible. On the eastern bank
of the Atem forest approaches the river and for 10 miles north of
Tau the right bank is high and firm, though liable to be flooded. The
western bank is everywhere swampy.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The Nuers do not appear to extend south of the latitude of
Shambe. Here the banks of the rivers are thinly populated by
Dinkas. From a few miles north of the Mading junction to Tau is the
Dinka district of Twi—it was with the people of this district
that Mr. Grogan had some trouble in 1900. Sheikh Gurung of Pabek
in the north of Twi seems, however, very friendly. South of Tau,
Bor district commences, the Dinkas of which are said to be not on
friendly terms with Twi.
(d) _Bor and South._[99]
[Sidenote: Bor.]
There are three sites on the right bank of the Bahr El Jebel known
as Bor—the most northern is the site of the Old Government Mudiria,
4 miles further south is Arabi Dafaalla’s deim, and about the same
distance still further south is the site of the present Military Post
and the proposed site of the Headquarters of the new administrative
district of Bor, _vide_ pp. 76, 77.
The bank at all three places is high and firm, but the most roomy
landing place is at the most southern site. Wood is everywhere
plentiful, as the forest comes down to the water’s edge.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The inhabitants in the neighbourhood of Bor are Dinkas who live mostly
10 to 15 miles inland. The principal sheikh (Being-Dit) is named Bor,
whose village is about 10 miles east of the Dervish deim. Sheikh Kur
living about 7 miles north-north-east of Bor is also an important man.
[Sidenote: Being Dit.]
The office of head sheikh (Being Dit) is said to have been from
time immemorial in the family of sheikh Bor. It is customary for the
Being Dit to nominate his successor from among his near relatives,
his selection depending on their individual ability. In the present
case, though the eldest son of the Being Dit usually succeeds,
sheikh Bor has disregarded the claim of his own two sons, and has
nominated Majam, son of his deceased brother, Matj.
If the Being Dit dies suddenly without nominating his successor,
an assembly is held to appoint one, a curious fact being that the
women, especially the wives of the late Being Dit, have a good deal
to say in the selection.
[Sidenote: Justice.]
Owing perhaps to the weakness of the central authority, sheikh Bor,
there seem to be practically no penalties for offences. The fine
of one cow appears to be considered sufficient for any crime from
murder downwards. Capital punishment is never awarded. In the case
of theft, the misdemeanant, if traced, is merely ordered to restore
the stolen property. This he sometimes does and sometimes does not.
[Sidenote: Villages.]
The houses of the villages are much scattered, which renders the
occupants very defenceless in case of raids by the dreaded Beir or
Beri tribe under sheikh Lom, who lives several days further inland
in a south-easterly or easterly direction.
The tukls are well and neatly built, the walls being made of mud
or dura stalks covered with daub. The doorway usually leads into
a sort of hall or porch about 3 to 4 feet high; this again has an
inner door. This is said to be for protection against hyenas.
The usual buildings of a family consist of one tukl (Ud) per wife,
one extra large tukl (Luak as cow stable, and the “Gu” or granary,
a kind of miniature tukl raised off the ground on wooden legs.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
In the rains water is stored in fulas, as the water in these gets
low, a series of circular holes, 2 or 3 feet deeper than the fula,
are dug round its circumference, and the remainder of the water is
drained into them. These holes are then thatched with dura stalks,
and water is economised by thus diminishing the loss by evaporation,
as well as by draining the wet mud at the bottom of the fula.
When these holes run dry water has to be carried by the women often
10 miles or more from the river.
[Sidenote: Communications.]
From Bor a dry road, though not yet explored, undoubtedly leads north
to Twi or Twich. A good path with rest-houses at frequent intervals
leads south up the right bank to Mongalla and Gondokoro.
Communication with the Aliab, a tribe rich in cattle and grain,
living on the west bank opposite to and south of Bor, is maintained by
dugouts to Uternau, thence by road to Sheikh Anok, Mek of the Aliab,
who lives about 25 miles west of Bor Military Post.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
A good deal of dura is grown by sheikhs Bor and Kur. It is of the
white variety and of excellent quality. The Dinkas are great smokers,
and cultivate sufficient tobacco for their requirements.
[Sidenote: Cattle and sheep.]
Large numbers of cattle (Wong) and a good many sheep (Amal) and goats
(Biu) are owned by these Dinkas. The grazing stables or cattle zeribas
are called “Mura.” The price (Tiek) of a wife used to be five cows
or forty goats. Cattle being now scarce, owing to Arabi Dafaalla’s
prolonged residence at Bor, the price of a wife has been reduced to
one cow.
[Sidenote: Arms.]
Bows (Danga) and arrows (Juet) are in general use, and are looked
upon as the principal weapon for fighting, as their lances are
indifferently manufactured.
Some of the wood from which the bows are made is said to come from Dar
Fertit; the arrows are made of cane with iron or hard-wood points,
and are poisoned by soaking them in the milky juice (Byol) of the
_Euphorbia candelabrum_, which grows hereabouts.
The Dinkas are very inexpert smiths, and so generally have their
lances made by the Jurs and Aliab of the west bank in exchange for
sheep or goats.
In addition to their bows and spears they usually carry an ebony club.
[Sidenote: Ornaments.]
Iron bracelets (Lung Kok) are made locally. These are about the
only things a Dinka smith can make. A Dinka receives his bracelets
on coming of age and is then not allowed to part with them.
Ivory bracelets (Gong) are only occasionally seen, as these people
are not great hunters, though elephants are very numerous in their
country.
The Jenotor[100] (Guainakwach) are the favourite beads, but they
are very particular as to the kind. The most popular are black with
red and white spots. Forty of these beads make a necklace and will
purchase a sheep or goat; five is the price of a hen and three will
buy five eggs.
Brass wire is not nearly so much appreciated as iron or the right
sort of beads. It is hammered into bracelets by the smiths, but they
prefer to buy these ready made.
Goat skin bracelets are also worn by the men as well as by the women
who wear, in addition, brass bracelets round the wrists and ankles,
and strings of small blue or white beads round the waist. The men
as a rule are naked, whilst the women wear the usual skin apron in
front and occasionally behind. At present cotton cloth is considered a
prohibitive luxury and is not of much use as barter, though acceptable
as a present.
[Sidenote: Word of greeting and language. Habits.]
The word of greeting is “Akingedo” and the reply to this is the
same word repeated.
The dialect of these southern Dinkas varies considerably from that
spoken in the northern districts.
The Dinka is so abnormally lazy that he has no desire whatever to hire
himself for work of any description. Carriers are most difficult to
obtain from them even when applied for through the medium of their
most influential sheikhs.
At certain seasons they are busily occupied with their cultivation,
but for the remainder of the year, with the exception of the few
engaged in superintending the grazing of the cattle, they live in
absolute idleness, varied only by an occasional and generally futile
hunting or fishing expedition.
The women on the other hand are very industrious. On them falls the
heavy work of pounding the dura into flour and preparing food and
other household duties, as well as carrying water which has often to
be brought from a great distance. Salt is not eaten by the Dinkas,
nor is it sought after like sugar, and they do not appear to have
any substitute for it. The women usually drink milk flavoured with
cow’s urine, but the men as a rule drink it unadulterated.
[Sidenote: Religion.]
As is stated on p. 128, the Dinka believes in a Creator of the world
and mankind known as Deng-Dit. It was only after man had learnt to
sacrifice cattle and sheep to Deng-Dit that woman became fruitful
and man was able to propagate his species.
The Dinkas have regular priests (Tieit) who are not,
however, professional men, but live and work like the ordinary
individual. These priests are believed to have supernatural powers
of conversing with those who are dead and have become the children
of Deng-Dit.
This communion with the dead is held on the occasion of a ceremony
to commemorate the deceased or sometimes in cases of serious illness.
Mr. R. Türstig gives the following interesting description of
these ceremonies:—
“It was the memorial day for a deceased wife of sheikh Bor. At
about 7 a.m. he and some of his people went to the tukl, which had
belonged to her, and sat down in front of the doorway; on the other
side near the ‘Gu’ or granary sat the deceased wife’s ‘locum
tenens’ as well as other wives. In the open space between them
the Tieit or priest sat on his cow-hide mat. Close by was a tree
from which the branches had been shorn, and to which a large number
of cow-horns had been affixed—said by sheikh Bor to be a very old
erection—and to the bottom of the tree a live goat was fastened.
“Sheikh Bor and his people then commenced to question the priest
on many points with regard to which they desired the opinion of the
deceased wife; the priest meanwhile sat with legs crossed supporting
his head with one hand, whilst with the other he continued to rattle
a bottle-shaped-gourd half-full of lubia beans. After much shaking
and rattling he proceeded, having first directly addressed the
deceased and having made a suitable pause to enable her to reply,
to give a detailed answer on each question in a deep guttural tone,
his eyes meanwhile being rigidly fixed on the ground, his voice
(similar to a ventriloquist) sounding as though it were not his own.
“Though I was unable to understand much that was being said, one,
at least, of the questions and answers referred to the approaching
visit of the Mudir.
“Having obtained all the information required, sheikh Bor rose,
the priest remaining seated, seized the sheep, threw it down, and
then slowly and solemnly cut the throat of the animal with a lance,
remaining himself the while in an upright position. The blood having
spurted out, the ceremony was over, and the old sheikh said ‘Now
let us go to your house.’
“On another occasion a somewhat similar ceremony took place in
connection with a sick man. The same priest officiated, but there
were more people, and it lasted from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. A good deal of
dancing was performed by women who were decked in fantastic fashion
with ostrich feathers, etc. One woman carried a gourd full of liquid
butter, with which she anointed in most liberal fashion the necks
of those present as well as the entire body of the bull which was
subsequently sacrificed. The priest invariably receives the ribs
of the animal as his portion, but in this case no one partook of
any of the flesh until 5 a.m. the following morning. On the whole,
the Dinkas did not strike me as a particularly superstitious race.”
_Vide_ also Chap. VII, p. 162, and compare with Shilluk religion,
Chap. VIII.
[Sidenote: Baris.]
On the right bank, 20 miles south of Bor, the Baris begin and extend
to Gondokoro and south. The Sudan Baris appear to be a poor race
both materially and mentally. At present they are neither willing
to work to increase their cultivation, nor to act as porters. In the
days of Baker they were a warlike race, rich in cattle—this spirit
and property seem to have vanished under Dervish rule. They appear
physically stronger and better built than the Dinkas. Like them they
do not appear to inhabit the country more than 20 miles inland. Their
inland villages have no wells, but each house has usually five pits
dug round it for collecting rainwater. The Baris cultivate dura,
simsim, telabun and tobacco. During the last few years their crops
have suffered much from drought and floods alternately.
Beads are of little use as trade goods. Brass wire, hoes, iron, and
tarbushes, as well as native cotton-cloth (damur) are all acceptable.
The men as a rule carry a long narrow-bladed spear, and go about
stark naked. The women wear a leather fringe round the loins, with
a tanned skin hanging down behind. The unmarried girls are content
with the fringe only.
The women carry their babies on their backs, in skin bags, which
can be detached and hung on a cross stick to form a cradle.
The principal Sheikhs of the Bari living on the right bank and working
south are Kula, Wungo, Lefo Abu Kuka, Legi Lefo, Lado, and Lowala,
and on the left bank Mudi, Wani, and Lado Kanga. They have apparently
no tribal organization, and the Sheikhs have very little authority.
[Sidenote: Mongalla.]
Mongalla is the southernmost post of the Sudan Government on the
White Nile. It was moved here from Kiro, on the left bank, in April,
1901. It is the residence of a British Inspector and Police Officer;
there is also a detachment of two companies under a British officer
furnished from the Sudanese battalion at Taufikia. There are here
Government offices, barracks, hospital, and residences of officials
built of brick. A gunboat is always stationed here. Mongalla is on
the right bank, 23 miles north of Gondokoro, and 13 and 12 miles
from the Belgian stations, Lado and Kiro respectively.
[Sidenote: Rains.]
The rainy season in this district is spread over the period from
the end of February to November, but during this season rain is by
no means constant. At first there are intervals of a week or even
a fortnight between the rainstorms, but after the middle of June,
when the heavy rains commence, there is, as a rule, one storm during
every 24 hours.
[Sidenote: Temperature.]
The temperature in these regions is comparatively cool, and the
thermometer very seldom rises to 100° Fahr.
[Sidenote: Health.]
The natives appear healthy, and there seems no reason why, with
ordinary precautions, white races should not enjoy equally good
health, though the more southern portions, at any rate, of this
district are certainly within the “Blackwater” fever zone.
(e) _The Beri Tribe._
[Sidenote: Description.]
The following information is taken from a report by Captain
N. T. Borton, who visited these people in April, 1904.
The Beri tribe appear to be a mixture of the Bari and Latuka. They
live on a hill about 2,000 feet high called Jebel Lafol which is
composed of granite with several fair sized trees growing on it. It
lies about 50 miles south-east by east from Mongalla.
[Sidenote: Houses.]
The hill is artificially terraced with granite slabs throughout and on
these terraces, practically right up to the top of the hill, are built
the tukls of the people, exactly similar to Bari Tukls except that
the sides are made of strips of wood instead of reeds. The fighting
men live round the foot of the hill and the older people higher up.
[Sidenote: Water.]
There is no water on the hill itself—all has to be carried from
rain pools of which there are at this time of year about a dozen
round and fairly close to the hill.
[Sidenote: Cattle.]
All cattle were driven off during our visit and were only beginning
to return when I left—there did not appear to be many really large
cattle zeribas, though these too may have been removed at our approach
which had been watched for by day and night for the last three days.
[Sidenote: Chief.]
Alikori[101] is the chief of the tribe and holds absolute sway. He
is an oldish man of about 65 years of age, about 5 feet 8 inches
in height, and like nearly all his tribe, wears a feather quill
piercing his lower lip to allow the saliva to run off, when smoking,
with a minimum of trouble to the smoker.
[Sidenote: Succession.]
The rule of succession is that brothers succeed each other according
to seniority; after the youngest brother’s death, the succession
passes to the eldest son of the eldest brother and so on through
the family.
Alikori succeeded his father Aseri who had no brothers, the present
heir apparent is named Waller Mari.
[Sidenote: Beris.]
All Beris stated they have no connection whatever with the Beir
tribe opposite Bor[102] and say they have no other district but Jebel
Lafol. From the top of it one can see 50 miles or more in the Bor
direction; there did not seem to be any roads and no hills were
visible. All tribes in these parts live on hills.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
The cultivation on the vast plain lying round the hill consists of
dura, tobacco, and a few ground nuts only. The dura was about a foot
high and appeared to be well looked after and the ground cleaned.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
The only trade is the purchase of dura for sheep, carried on
principally with the Lokova on Mount Illyria and a little with our
Bari Sheikhs Lado, Lowala, etc., on the Nile.
[Sidenote: Enemies.]
The present fashionable enemy is the Latuka tribe belonging to Queen
Topein—relations with other powers are reported as satisfactory.
[Sidenote: Population.]
The population probably amounts to about 3,000 men all told.
[Sidenote: Health.]
People seem very healthy, quite the opposite of the Baris; no
disgusting sights like one sees in their villages; malformed children
are destroyed at birth. Sleeping sickness is unknown.
[Sidenote: Legal.]
All disciplinary powers are vested in the chief. For premeditated
murder punishment is death. For killing in quarrel, etc., the offender
must pay a boy to the family of the deceased. Thefts of cattle must
be repaid or the offender is exiled. Thefts of food are not looked
upon as offences but as occasional necessities. For adultery the
co-respondent must pay 1 cow, 5 sheep and 5 iron malotes (hoes);
the wife is dealt with by her husband in the seclusion of the home,
but must not be killed.
[Sidenote: Customs.]
The birth of a child does not give an excuse for a festival of
any sort.
Marriages are arranged when the girls are very young. The bridegroom
interviews his proposed father-in-law, as in other countries,
and arranges to pay so many sheep a year until the lady reaches a
marriageable age. The ceremony is then celebrated amid much merissa
drinking. Divorce is allowed to husbands only; if granted they
receive back their marriage settlement. A widow marries her deceased
husband’s brother; if she has no brother-in-law she may marry
someone else, but she usually becomes the property of the head chief.
Death is believed to be the end of all things. No after state is
believed in. A sheep is always killed over a dead man’s grave.
[Sidenote: Language.]
The language is peculiar to the tribe.
[Sidenote: Clothing.]
The men go naked or wear a short mantle of skin over the
shoulders. Women wear a broad skin covering from the waist in front
and behind.
[Sidenote: Arms.]
The same practically as the Baris.
[Sidenote: Visitors.]
Alikori states no white man has ever been to him before (April,
1904). Emin Pasha once passed with a concourse of people going
towards Bor but did not stop.
[Sidenote: Siege.]
Arabi Dafaalla besieged the hill for 13 days in 1897; he then drew
off having suffered considerable loss. The natives used to rush the
water holes every night at a different point and thus bring in enough
to last for the next day.
[Sidenote: Supplies.]
Flour and sheep could only be obtained on payment by repeatedly
demanding them and were then only forthcoming in very small
quantities. It is probable that when the Beri are again visited
supplies of grain and meat will be more readily produced.
[Sidenote: Transport.]
Mules, donkeys, and in the dry season camels could all be
advantageously employed for transport.
[Sidenote: Game.]
Giraffe, hartebeest, topé and oribi practically comprised all the
game seen, but there were many fresh tracks of elephant and rhino. One
herd of giraffe numbered over eighty animals.
[Sidenote: Road.]
The best route from Mongalla to J. Lafol is up the right bank of the
branch of the Bahr El Jebel, south of Mongalla to Sheikh Lado’s or
Lowala’s (9 miles, thence south-east up the Felluru river _viâ_
Nierchuk to junction (18 miles) of track from Ali Bey and Gondokoro,
water in dry season all along this river. Thence general direction
east, passing two pools, liable to be nearly dry in dry season, to
Khor Wandida (15 miles), dry in April. Thence still east to Wallada
lake, 12 miles, thence 11 miles north-east to J. Lafol, passing
a marsh half-way where water should be always obtainable. Total
distance about 65 miles. Between the Felluru River and J. Lafol
there is no track.
(f) _Country South of the Akobo._[103]
[Sidenote: Boma.]
South of the junction of the Ajibur and Akobo rivers, an undulating
tract of country is traversed before the foot of the Boma hills is
reached. The soil is generally of a gravelly nature, but the district
is often most charmingly wooded, whilst striking cocked-hat shaped
peaks to the west enclose the valley of the Ajibur and add variety to
the scene. Until the Boma hills are entered the country appears to be
quite uninhabited, for it was not until we reached the lower slopes
that we observed natives for the first time gathering the fruit of
the many palms that grow, as well as bamboo, hereabouts. The hilly
district of Boma[104] is then entered, and many streams, valleys,
and ridges have to be crossed. The soil is seemingly very fertile
and capable of producing all kinds of cereals. Proceeding as we did
in a south-westerly direction through these hills, we, of course,
only traversed quite a small corner, so to speak, of the country, but
were much impressed by the possibilities of the place as the site of a
future post along the frontier. The natives appeared quite friendly;
the scenery at times was really grand; and plenty of food and water
could doubtless be always procurable once the natives saw that they
would be protected from outside raiding parties. The average altitude
of this region is generally from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea
level, but other ridges and heights attain an altitude of close
on 6,000 feet. The natives were exceedingly shy, but eventually
we persuaded them to approach us, though unfortunately we were
unable to converse with them except by that most unsatisfactory of
means—signs. Physically, the men—we saw no women at all at close
quarters—are finely built and appear a higher type than the Nuers
or Anuaks. Many of them wore ostrich feathers in their head-dress,
and several had large circular knives—like those of the Turkana,
but much broader—round their wrists. Beads were very generally
worn, and many of the young bloods had broad bands of red beads,
picked out with patches of blue and white ones, fastened across
the forehead. Small skin aprons, not unlike those of the Turkana,
were also worn by some of the men. Most of the men’s spears
were sheathed and not carried like those of the Nuers and Anuaks
uncovered. The huts we saw were wretched little grass erections with
no appearance of stability, and gave one the impression of being
little more than mere rough shelters. We gathered from these natives
that they had recently been raided by the Magois, whom they hate and
fear, and had in consequence no goats or sheep left. We certainly
did not see any, but at the same time the men looked so sturdy and
well-filled that they probably had plenty of grain food. Moreover,
the wild fig grows fairly abundantly along the banks of some of the
streams. The loftier heights of the country are well wooded, and
though, perhaps, they were somewhat distant to judge accurately,
I think probably these trees would provide excellent timber for
building purposes. The climate appeared most bracing, and, judging
by the few days experience we had, the rainfall must be very heavy.
Grand solid rock peaks in places spring out from the ridges in a
curious manner, and by their precipitous appearance would probably
tax the resource of the most skilled Alpine climbers to reach their
summits. We were able to learn nothing regarding the customs or
habits of these natives, and, in fact, from the time we left Anuak
country until we reached the Uganda Protectorate had to carry out all
conversation by signs. Judging by the great display of beads made,
for trading purposes I have little doubt but that red, blue and
white beads would be readily taken in exchange for food. The small
bead known as “pound” beads would, I think, be far less popular
than a slightly larger variety about the size of a pea. The beads
should be opaque, and the ordinary glass beads procurable in Cairo,
I fancy, would be little sought after.
[Sidenote: Karuno.]
To the south of Boma and some short distance away from the foot
of the hills, a pleasantly wooded tract of country is traversed,
consisting of alternate plains of open bush and grass land, whilst
water is obtained from khors running in a westerly direction across
this plain, before turning north. Further south, again, however, a
most uninviting dried up plain, which, after rains, would probably
be converted into heavy bog, is met with, and water now becomes a
most-serious consideration as far as about lat. 5° 30′ north,
where a broad sandy-bedded khor winds its way across the plain in a
westerly direction. Along this river bed we found the Karuno tribe
settled in considerable numbers. They appeared to be a somewhat
powerful tribe, and were certainly the most elaborately bedecked
and prosperous looking set of men we saw during our journey. They
possessed large numbers of cattle, goats and sheep, and donkeys,
and also grow grain along the banks of the Karuno. Like all the
natives of these regions, they are extremely suspicious of strangers,
and though not unfriendly, are by no means anxious, it seemed to us,
to have anything to do with Europeans. I do not remember these people
having ever before been mentioned by any traveller; but on comparing
my map with Mr. Donaldson Smith’s we seemed most obviously to be at
the place shown by him as inhabited by the Magois tribe. On enquiring
of these natives where the Magois were, they pointed away across the
plain to the west, and gave us to understand they had been driven
away in that direction by the Turkana, who had come up in force from
the south. Although we tried to induce the Karuno people to bring
grain or goats and sheep into camp for sale, they would not do so,
nor would they even provide us with guides. This is probably more
due to the fear these natives entertain of travelling into their
neighbour’s country than from any unfriendly motives. Here,
where raids and counter-raids are frequently being indulged in,
considerable hostility naturally exists between the several tribes
living next each other. The Karuno in some respects are not unlike
the Turkana, except that their head-dress is not a long pendant
bag-shaped one, but more like a squat chignon, which is stuck full
of fine vari-coloured ostrich feathers. Beads are worn by them in
great quantities, chiefly red, white, and a variegated one known in
East Africa as “Punda malia” (zebra). Many of the young warriors
in addition to numerous strings round the neck, had solid bands
of beads—similar to those we saw in Boma—fastened across the
forehead. The elders have most handsome head-dresses made of cowrie
shells, whilst others again wore skull caps made of small white and
red beads worked into a neat design of many circles. Physically,
the men are well set up and sturdy, though they do not run to height
much and are probably little above the average stature.
The women are not unlike the Turkana, and weave their hair into
straight ringlets which fall round the head. They also wear beads
in great numbers round the neck, whilst the lower part of the body
is covered with a skin apron, cut away at the side with a flap in
front and a long trailing tail arrangement behind.
In addition to long handled spears, the men carry short stabbing
spears, and oblong-shaped hide shields.
Exactly what extent of country the Karuno occupy I can hardly say,
but I should imagine they do not exist further east than the foot
of the escarpment, where the country becomes thickly wooded with
thorn bush. In a westerly direction they probably do not extend
more than 2 or 3 miles beyond where we first struck the Karuno river
bed, leaving an uninhabited area of country between themselves and
the Magois. After leaving the Karuno, and striking at first in a
south-easterly, and later in an easterly direction, we reached and
travelled along the foot of a rocky escarpment through an irregular
bay, as it were, in the hills. The valley, between our line of
march and broken hills to the south, was thickly wooded with thorn
bush, and water was difficult to find. We saw a few old grass huts
of natives, which had been deserted for some months previously,
but saw no signs of human life. It is probable that this tract of
country can only be occupied during the rainy season of the year,
owing to the extreme scarcity of water.
[Sidenote: Musha.]
[Sidenote: Mount Naita.]
After we had worked our way through these hills, finally crossing the
eastern ridge by an easy pass, we found ourselves in a broad plain,
thickly covered with thorn bush. Some 30 miles east more hills seemed
to bar progress in that direction, whilst to the south the thorny
plain appeared to extend for some 40 miles to the foot of the high
mountain masses to the west of Lake Rudolf. We were now in the tract
of country called by Dr. Donaldson Smith, Musha. The thorn-bush
plain terminated to the north at the foot of two lofty mountains,
the more westerly one of which attains a height of close on 6,000
feet, whilst the loftier mass to the south-east of it (previously
known to me as Mount Naita, and called by Dr. Donaldson Smith, Etua;
whilst in Bottégo’s map it is named Aguzzo) reaches a height of
about 7,300 feet. We passed numerous kraals whilst journeying in an
easterly direction across this plain, which had all been temporarily
abandoned by the natives, with whom we could get no intercourse,
as they refused to approach us. On several occasions, when we saw
two or three natives watching us from a distance, men were sent out
to try and induce them to come into camp, but they fled before our
men could get within even shouting distance of them. We were most
anxious to obtain the service of guides, as the country before us was
unknown, and the anxieties regarding water had become very great. It
would appear, judging by the tracks we saw, that the Musha possess
much livestock, consisting of camels, cattle, donkeys, goats, and
sheep. In the thick bush, however, these people had little difficulty
in driving them away and concealing their animals until we had passed,
when presumably they returned again to their kraals. On one occasion,
however, our advent was unexpected, as near our camping ground some
of our party surprised two or three Musha, who were tending a flock
of over 200 goats and sheep, and perhaps a dozen donkeys. The natives
fled, leaving everything behind in their little enclosures. Strict
orders were issued that these animals were not to be touched, as we
hoped by so doing we might induce the natives to understand that
we were not a marauding expedition, and were desirous of opening
friendly intercourse with them. The animals were left alone all that
day and night, but the Musha evidently feared to return, and when we
marched off next morning the donkeys gave us a parting bray, which was
the nearest approach to friendly intercourse we experienced in this
neighbourhood, as we never saw another Musha man during the rest of
our journey. In due course we crossed another low range of hills to
the south of that grand mountain, Naita, and entered another wooded
valley, which ultimately joined that of the River Sacchi, where
we arrived on the 1st April, and our difficulties regarding water
for the present were at an end. I would here remark that perhaps
for nine months in the year, for a large party to cross this bit
of country from Boma to the Sacchi, by the route followed by us,
would be a most risky undertaking owing to the extreme scarcity
of water. The many watercourses shown on the map were found to be
almost without exception merely dry stony beds in which no water was
procurable by digging. Fortunately, about the 20th March, rain had
fallen to the east of where we then were, and by extraordinary good
luck we subsequently found pools at intervals, after long continued
search. One point worthy of note is that, in spite of previous rain,
we seldom found water in the actual nullah beds, as, owing to their
stony nature, the water runs off at once. What water was found was
nearly always in depressions some distance away from the banks of
these nullahs, where the clayey soil prevented percolation, and
retained water in pools until it became evaporated in due course by
the hot sun.
[Illustration: ANUAK WOMEN.]
[Sidenote: Sacchi river.]
On our previous visit to Lake Rudolf from the south, our old Suk
guide, Nyanga by name, had on several occasions pointed out to me
the striking Naita peak away to the north-west, and told me that the
country thereabouts was the most dreadful one he knew for scarcity
of water. I believed him, as he was about the most knowledgable
and intelligent native of his class regarding the geography of the
country that I have ever met. His information had now been verified
by us, and it was with a sigh of relief we found the Sacchi a running
stream. To the Swahilis the tract of country we had traversed was
always known as Donyiro, which name appears on the map prepared by
the Macdonald expedition.
From very imperfect data I am inclined to think that between our
southerly route from Boma and the valley of the Sacchi the escarpment
we skirted is the edge of a fine hilly plateau,[105] varying in height
probably from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. I imagine all that
tract of country to be a fertile and probably well-watered region,
very much like Boma itself. Whether it is thickly populated it is
difficult to say, as the country is absolutely unknown to Europeans,
but to traverse it from north to south and east to west with mule
transport would probably be most interesting. It would probably be
almost too difficult for any pack animals except mules and perhaps
donkeys. The much talked of gold, which is discussed by our Swahilis
as existing in those parts, might also be found, although I must
admit we never saw any gold ornaments worn by natives in the plains
bordering that country.
[Sidenote: Game.]
In Sudan territory south of the Sobat the following species are known
to exist: Elephant, buffalo, giraffe, rhinoceros, zebra roan-antelope,
waterbuck, Mrs. Grey’s waterbuck (_cobus maria_), white-eared cob
(_cobus leucotis_), Uganda cob, bushbuck, reedbuck, Jackson’s
hartebeeste, tiang, lion, leopard, etc.
(g) _The Upper Pibor._
[Sidenote: General.]
In August, 1904, the head waters of the so-called Pibor were explored
by Lieutenant D. C. Comyn, Black Watch. It was found that 17 miles
above the Akobo junction the river bifurcated, one branch known as
the Agwei[106] apparently coming from the E. and S.E., the other,
known by the Anuaks as Nyanabek, by the Nuers as Kang, and by the
Agibbas as Natila, from the S. and S.W.
Following the latter branch, without encountering any serious sudd
obstructions, Lieutenant Comyn succeeded, with the aid of a steam
launch, in reaching a point which appeared to him to be very near
the source of this important feeder of the Pibor.
[Sidenote: Source.]
The flooded plain in which the river seemingly has its origin, is
according to Lieutenant Comyn’s sketch, about 60 miles due E. of
Bor, and 170 miles by river above the Akobo junction.
[Sidenote: Banks.]
The banks of the Natila are as a rule ill-defined, swampy and
sudd-fringed; in places they appear to be as much as 200 to 250
yards apart.
Almost throughout its course the banks were more or less inundated,
the left bank being usually the higher, and in its upper reaches the
plain was flooded to a depth of a foot or more for many miles round.
[Sidenote: Water-way.]
The water-way varied from 20 to 70 yards in width, and about 20 miles
above the Akobo junction, what appeared to be a sudd-covered lake,
some 800 yards broad and 6 miles in length, was traversed by a deep
and tortuous channel 20 to 30 yards wide.
[Sidenote: Depth.]
The average depth for the first 130 miles was found to be about 20
feet, but in the next 40 miles the river gradually shoaled to about
15 inches, and the direction of its course was then only faintly
distinguishable by the band of light-green grass which blocked its
bed and precluded further progress.
[Sidenote: Current.]
The current varied from ¾ to 2 miles per hour, the rise and fall
of the river apparently depending largely on the local rainfall. In
the dry season the plain, and, according to the Agibbas, the river
itself dries up.
[Sidenote: Fuel.]
Fuel is plentiful everywhere, the river being fringed with a belt
of talh and heglig trees for the greater part of its course.
[Sidenote: J. Atin.]
J. Atin, standing on the left bank, about 1½ miles from the river
and about 100 miles from the Akobo junction, forms a conspicuous
landmark. It is a solid rocky mass about 2 miles in circumference,
and has twin peaks some 400 feet above the plain.
Gordon is said to have marched up the right bank in 1878 (?) and
to have crossed to J. Atin, and to have marched thence westwards to
the Nile through the Beir or Beri country.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
As is stated on p. 136 the inhabitants of the Lower Pibor are Nuers
and a few of the less powerful Anuaks. On the Upper Pibor or Natila
a tribe known as the Agibba were found, their first village being
Nyanabek, about 70 miles S. of the Akobo. For the next 60 miles
villages were frequently seen.
[Sidenote: Agibba tribe.]
Lieutenant Comyn gives the following account of the Agibba tribe,
who appear to strongly resemble the Nuers, and also in some respects
the Turkana:—
“The Agibbas are a warlike tribe, feared by and fearing the
Nuers. Their other neighbours, the Anuaks and Dinkas, they look on
with contempt, and buy their suksuk from them. The Abyssinians do
not harry this part of the tribe. A few men know the Nuer, Dinka
and Anuak dialect. Their physique is good, but their stature is not
uniform. Many seem to suffer from hydrocele, and I saw one man with
elephantiasis in the leg. They are armed with roughly-made spears of
various shapes, wrist knives, and an oblong shield of giraffe hide,
and invariably carry their head-rest to sit upon. Their huts are
rudely built, of a bee-hive shape, and about the same size as an
ordinary tukl.”
“They appear to have no canoes, and I saw no fishing-spears, though
plenty of fish baskets. Their ivory ornaments are old and small. The
principal men wear over the right elbow a bunch of giraffe tails,
the band ornamented with cowrie shells. Their clothing consists of
a belt round the waist, and, in front and behind (if a man is well
off), a skin often embroidered and edged with beads—most wear a
3½-inch band of red beads with a 1-inch line down the centre across
their foreheads. Some of the older men had a bead-covered bowl on
their heads instead. The hair of the younger men was dressed very
neatly, like an inverted soup plate with the part over the forehead
cut oft. They have all sorts of suksuk. What they asked for were (in
order of preference) cowrie shells, beads (janitor), brass wire, red,
white and other beads. The head sheikh, whose name I think is Nadgweir
(they were very averse to telling it) seems a man of character. All
seem afraid of him, and said if they took up spears without his
permission he would cut their throats. I saw but half-a-dozen of
women and no children.”
TABLE OF DISTANCES ALONG THE SOBAT.
------------+------------------+------------------+------------------
| Intermediate. |From Sobat Mouth. | From Khartoum.
Place. +------+-----------+------+-----------+------+-----------
|Miles.|Kilometres.|Miles.|Kilometres.|Miles.|Kilometres.
------------+------+-----------+------+-----------+------+-----------
American | 5½ | 9 | 5½ | 9 | 524 | 843
Mission | | | | | |
(Tatug or | | | | | |
Deleib) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Khor Filus | 4 | 6½ | 9½ | 15½ | 528 | 849½
| | | | | |
Gokjak | 10 | 16 | 19½ | 32 | 538 | 865½
| | | | | |
Abwong | 63 | 101 | 82½ | 133 | 601 | 966
| | | | | |
Nasser | 107 | 172 | 189½ | 306 | 708 | 1138
| | | | | |
Pibor Mouth | 27½ | 44 | 217 | 349 | 735½ | 1182
| | | | | |
Machar | 36½ | 58½ | 253½ | 406½ | 772 | 1240½
| | | | | |
Jokau | 16 | 26 | 269½ | 434 | 788 | 1267
| | | | | |
Balankun | 9 | 14½ | 278½ | 448½ | 797 | 1282
| | | | | |
Itang | 36 | 58 | 314½ | 507 | 833 | 1340
| | | | | |
Fenkio | 23 | 37 | 337½ | 544 | 856 | 1377
| | | | | |
Gambela | 18 | 29 | 355½ | 572½ | 874 | 1406
| | | | | |
Baro Ford | 26 | 42 | 381½ | 614 | 900 | 1448
------------+------+-----------+------+-----------+------+-----------
[Footnote 85: Abyssinian boundary.]
[Footnote 86: During the driest season of the year there is no
difficulty in marching along either bank. Between Itang and Nasser
the best road is along the right bank.]
[Footnote 87: For distances along the Sobat, _vide_ p. 152.]
[Footnote 88: Between the Pibor and this point is a dreary, treeless,
uninhabitated region of marsh. Above Gadjak the banks are finely
timbered, and the river scenery is quite beautiful.]
[Footnote 89: Many Anuaks are to be seen marked with the Nuer tribal
mark, _i.e._, 6 parallel horizontal lines across the forehead.]
[Footnote 90: _Vide_ footnote to p. 135.]
[Footnote 91: Now moved to Finkio.]
[Footnote 92: Though the supposed mouth at Machar is deep and 30 yards
wide, whilst that at Jokau is only 5 yards wide, there seems good
reason to doubt if the former is in any way connected with the Khor
Garre. Capt. Wilson was informed by the natives in February, 1904,
when the Machar was entirely dried up, whilst the Jokau was a strong
flowing stream 3 feet deep, that the former is not a mouth of the
Garre. In June, 1904, the discharge of the Jokau was very marked,
being of a muddy-white colour similar to the Pibor. At Machar,
on the other hand, though the khor did contain water, perhaps an
overflow from the Baro, no discharge was noticeable.]
[Footnote 93: For description of Upper Pibor, _vide_ p. 151.]
[Footnote 94: In June, 1904, the discharge at its mouth was observed
to be a dirty-white colour.]
[Footnote 95: This country was traversed from March to June, 1904, by
Mr. McMillan and his expedition. Out of 150 mules and the same number
of donkeys only 16 animals survived. Anuak carriers were, however,
readily obtainable, from 150 to 380 being constantly employed.]
[Footnote 96: For précis of Lieut. Comyn’s report on his
exploration of this river south of the Akobo junction, _vide_ p. 151.]
[Footnote 97: _Vide_ also p. 18, and the itinerary of this river in
Vol. II.]
[Footnote 98: Visited Khartoum, 1904.]
[Footnote 99: Most of this information was supplied by
Mr. R. Türstig.]
[Footnote 100: Or “Gianotta;” _vide_ p. 120, footnote.]
[Footnote 101: There is another branch of this tribe living further
north under a chief named Lom (_vide_ p. 144).]
[Footnote 102: This statement appears to be untrue.]
[Footnote 103: Extract from a report by Major Austin, R.E., 1901.]
[Footnote 104: Boma was visited by Messrs. Bulpett and Jessen in June,
1904. The inhabitants were found to be very friendly, and a certain
amount of grain was obtainable from them. Iron wire—not brass—was
what they asked for in payment. Crops in Boma are harvested in
June. The maximum temperature registered on the Boma-Musha plateau
was 85° F.]
[Footnote 105: Messrs. Bulpett and Jessen reached a point about 30
miles N.N.E. of Mount Naita in June, 1904, and report that this
plateau appeared very rocky and cut up by water courses, which
contained water in pools in June. The land seemed uninhabitable and
unsuited to cultivation.]
[Footnote 106: For description, _vide_ p. 136.]
CHAPTER VII.
SOUTH-WESTERN SUDAN.
* * * * *
THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.
1. _Introductory._
[Sidenote: Introduction.]
The Bahr El Ghazal was re-occupied by the troops of the Sudan
Government during the winter of 1900-1901. Before their advent the
most recent detailed descriptions of the country (not counting
the necessarily superficial writings of the Marchand Expedition
in 1898) date from pre-Dervish days (_e.g._, Junker, Schweinfurth,
etc.). Although there has not been time or opportunity for the whole
of the country to be subjected to a searching examination since 1901,
still, sufficient is known to prove that great changes have taken
place in the province since 1881. Roads and places have disappeared,
the face of the country has in many parts completely changed, and
tribes have disappeared, have been thinned out, or have emigrated
to other territories.
Thus it will be found that in many particulars the detail given in
the following pages will not at all bear out the descriptions by
Schweinfurth and Junker of 20 years or more ago.
(For an abstract of the descriptions by these celebrated travellers,
_vide_ H.B.S. pp. 110-138.)
2. _General Description._
[Sidenote: Boundaries.]
The Bahr El Ghazal province is bounded on the south and west by the
Congo-Nile watershed, on the north by the Bahr El Arab and Bahr El
Ghazal, and on the east by the Bahr El Jebel. Its previous history
and that of the occupation of this province in 1900-01 by the Sudan
Government is narrated elsewhere (_vide_ Part II, Chaps. V and VII).
[Sidenote: The various areas.]
The northern boundary of the ferruginous tableland through which the
western tributaries of the Nile pass from the watershed through the
Bahr El Ghazal country may roughly be said to coincide with a line
drawn through Rumbek and Chamamui (Chak Chak). North of this and
until the sudd is reached, the country is flat, and the soil is clay,
with great plains of long grass and many swamps intervening—“The
Steppes” of Schweinfurth. North-west of this the country is dry and
covered with bush, cut up by small khors, which are full in the rainy
season. The sudd extends from Lake No to Meshra El Rek (where a base
post has been established), and stretches westwards towards Chamamui,
to receive the contents of the Wau, Bongo, and Bahr El Arab rivers.
[Sidenote: The table-land.]
The tableland rises gradually towards the south and west to the
watershed, the undulations of the surface becoming more pronounced in
this direction, and the khors more defined and frequent. Granitic
outcrops, rising to 400 feet in some cases, are numerous along
the higher slopes of the watershed. Everywhere ironstone and
crystalline rock appear above the thin layer of soil that covers
them. Nevertheless, on the lower slopes and in the basins of the
various khors the soil is profitable and fertile, generally of a rich
copper colour with a certain amount of sandstone soil. In Telgona
district and the country round, especially to the north and west,
are several granitic outcrops, the seven-peaked Telgona and the
conical hill of Lutu being the most remarkable. Great forests cover
the country almost throughout from east to west. In the steppes of
the lower level there are many grass plains, which become vast swamps
in the rains. In the table-land the open plains are of no great area.
[Sidenote: Soil and geological formation.]
The soil, both in the swamps and in the land liable to annual
inundation, is a rich black clayey loam. In the portions further
away from the rivers there is often a large mixture of sand washed
down from the higher lands. Most of it is, however, very suitable for
cultivation. Alluvial plains border one or both banks of all the more
important rivers for a considerable distance up their courses. It is
only in the upper reaches that the alluvial deposits almost disappear
and that the rocky tree-clad slopes descend abruptly to the river. The
soil on the higher lands is usually sandy, and clayey in depressions
or near streams. It overlies a pitted, ferruginous stone or laterite,
which, in its turn, rests on granite, which in places degenerates into
gneiss, schists, or quartzite. These granitic rocks are, as a rule,
not visible in the lower portion of the highlands, which only show
abundance of ironstone, but further inland outcrops of granite become
more frequent, and the country becomes more undulating, forming long,
low hill ranges, or throwing up solitary granitic hills, usually
rounded in outline, but occasionally more rugged in appearance.
3. _Rivers and Water Supply._
[Sidenote: Rivers.]
The surface of the Bahr El Ghazal country is intersected by
many rivers threading their way from the watershed towards the
Nile. Passing through the lower plateaux of the tableland, they are
mostly fine broad rivers, with high banks and sandy bottoms, and are
generally similar in formation. The Boro, Sopo, Chel, Sueh or Jur, and
Rodi vary from 80 to 130 yards in breadth, and should be navigable
for small craft, when in flood, for considerable distances. The
current in flood is not more than 2 knots per hour. The Jur River
is navigable for steamers from its mouth as far as the “Poste des
Rapides” at Rafili, and probably above this point by light draught
steamers to Khojali, from August till November. In the tableland
and higher plateaux of the watershed, these rivers are fed by many
streams running down from the slopes and hills. On the other hand,
in the lower steppes to the north, the water runs up into many khors
and swamps, which break away from the banks. Lower down, the banks
disappear altogether, and the waters are discharged into the sudd.
[Sidenote: Drainage of the country.]
The western portion of the Bahr El Ghazal is drained, at least in
its more elevated portions, by several rivers running in a more
or less northerly direction. These are, beginning from the east:
The Rohl (Naam) River, the Jau, the Tonj River, the Jur River, with
its more important branch the Wau River, the Bongo River, and the
Chel River, which, not far from Deim Zubeir, unites two branches,
the Kuru and the Biri Rivers. There are also less important rivers,
such as the Mulmul and the Getti, which do not flow during the dry
weather. The most important of all, on account of its volume of water,
is the River Jur or Sueh, which, flowing from Tembura’s country past
Wau, joins the Bahr El Ghazal some 20 miles below Meshra el Rek. The
courses of the other rivers, whether ultimately falling into the Bahr
El Ghazal itself, or first joining the Bahr Telgona or Bahr El Arab,
have not yet been properly explored, and the exploration is rendered
difficult by the fact that, owing to the flatness of the country in
their lower courses, the water spreads all over the land and forms
enormous swamps which stretch to those which join the Bahr El Ghazal
itself. The Jur itself, powerful a stream as it is, does not break
the rule, and the parties occupied in cutting its sudd had great
difficulty in tracing the channel when crossing the swamps. According
to its drainage, then, the country can be divided into three zones,
viz., (_a_) the perennial swamps near the mouths of the rivers, (_b_)
the somewhat raised alluvial flats further up, which are liable to
inundation during the rains, and (_c_) the undulating plateaux or
hilly country in the upper reaches.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
In the dry season water is scarce in the plains and plateaux. It is
generally obtained from shallow pits and wells, seldom more than
20 feet below the surface, though it cannot always be found at
that level.
4. _Administration._
The Bahr El Ghazal now forms a Province under a Mudir or Governor
(and Commandant) assisted by three or four British officers and
inspectors. The headquarters are at Wau.
At present a line of Government posts has been established from
east to west as follows:—Shambe on the Nile, Rumbek, Tonj, Wau
(the headquarters), Chamamui (Chak Chak), Deim Zubeir and Telgona. A
post has also recently been established at Kossinga and another at
Kafi Kingi to the north-west of the province. Each of these posts
consists of a small garrison, a few huts, and store-houses.
For administrative purposes the Province is divided into three
Districts—“Eastern,” Headquarters at Rumbek; “Central,”
Headquarters at Wau; and “Western,” Headquarters at Deim Zubeir.
5. _Resources._
[Sidenote: Ivory.]
The resources of the country are yet to be developed.
There is a good deal of ivory, and elephants are still very numerous
in many parts, especially towards the north, where they feed on the
gum tree. The natives hunt them, but do not apparently reduce the
numbers to any extent.
Ivory now forms one of the chief products of the Province.
The following information regarding the forests of the Bahr El Ghazal
is taken from a report by Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of Forests to
the Sudan Government.
[Sidenote: India-rubber.]
As regards the india-rubber, the rubber-yielding species is found
to be a fairly large apocynaceous creeper, a _landolphia_, called
“Odilo” by the Jurs, and “Ndala” by the Golos and Dinkas. Of
three other similar plants, one is an apocynaceous climber (also
a _landolphia_) called “Apwamah” by the Jurs and Dinkas and
“Bi” by the Golos, nearly allied to the first; another is a large
(originally _epiphytic_) ficus, known as “Kwel”; while the third,
known generally by its Arabic name “Lulu,” is a bassia (_Parkii_),
and the only one which belongs to the natural order, the _sapotaceæ_,
which yields the best gutta-percha.
[Sidenote: “Odilo” or “Ndala.”]
“Odilo” or “Ndala” (_landolphia owariensis_) is found almost
entirely on the ironstone, and only in very rocky situations, such
as the edges of the ironstone plateau. In such places, although by
no means rare, it is by no means so well represented as its cousin
the “Apwama” (or “Bi”), from which it can be recognised by
its young and slightly hairy shoots, and by its fruit, which is
smaller and with a sweet pulp, while that of the “Apwama” is
acidulated. It is also a smaller climber than the latter. There is,
apparently, no “Odilo” on the route from Wau to Deim Zubeir _viâ_
Chak Chak, nor between the Bongo and the Chel near Deim Zubeir,
but in the old days it used to be obtained in abundance from places
far or near, and was purchased by Government. It is, in fact, fairly
well distributed all over the Province.
The usual native method of collecting is as follows:—
A tangential slice is taken out of the bark, no special care being
taken not to reach the wood, and, as the milk oozes out of the various
milk vessels which have been cut through, it is taken up by the finger
and spread out on the collector’s bare skin, either on the arm or
over the stomach. It dries very quickly and is collected into a ball
by being rolled with the hand, or into a spindle-shaped mass round
a piece of twig. The rapidity with which the milk coagulates is very
striking, for, five minutes after the cut is made, all that has been
collected is made up into a ball and is ready for the market. This
peculiarity, although in many ways it shows the excellence of the
rubber, renders the clean collection a matter of great difficulty,
for the wounds get covered by a film very quickly, and collection
in vessels seems to be almost impossible. During the rainy season
the outflow of milk is more copious.
[Sidenote: “Apwama” or “Bi.”]
The other _landolphia (florida)_, “Apwama” or “Bi,” grows
under similar conditions as “Odilo.” It is however, more abundant,
and grows to a larger size. It is a gigantic climber which reaches the
crowns of the tallest trees. Its milky juice is much more copious than
that of its cousin, but, on the other hand, it coagulates with much
more difficulty. The difficulty with the collection of this latex is
to obtain it pure. The bark of the creeper is coarse, and as the stems
are not upright but bent in all directions, it is difficult to hang
collecting bottles in such a way as to make a clean collection. The
indiarubber obtained from the “Apwama” is far inferior to that
which the “Odilo” produces, and has but little elasticity.
[Sidenote: “Kwel.”]
The “Kwel” (_Ficus platyphylla_) is a large fig-tree which is
found all over the province, but is most abundant in the lowlands,
especially between Wau and Meshra El Rek. In appearance it is a
good deal like the “Banyan” (_Ficus bengalensis_). Like the
“Banyan,” it usually germinates on another tree, generally
in a place where moisture is retained for some time, such as the
fork of the stem, the axil of a palm leaf, etc. After some time it
begins sending down roots, which, following the stem, ultimately
reach the ground. Once this is effected the young tree grows apace,
sends down fresh roots, which ultimately surround the stem of the
host and finally kill it. Many such figs germinate in the axils of
dead leaves on the “Deleib” which they finally fold in their
embrace. The palms, being endogenous, are hard to kill, hence the
not uncommon spectacle of a “Deleib” growing out of a tree. Many
“Kwel” trees in the Dinka districts have become mutilated by
badly done tapping. This latex, when dry, forms a resinous brittle
gum, apparently of little value, as it is used by the natives to
clean brass ornaments. When the tree is tapped the latex flows in
abundance, pulsating somewhat like blood from a cut artery.
[Sidenote: “Lulu.”]
The “Lulu” (_Butyrospermum Parkii_) belongs to the family
of _Sapotaceæ_. It is common all over the ironstone country,
and grows abundantly on the borders of the alluvial flats and the
plateaux, especially between the Tonj and Naam rivers. The fruit
of the “Lulu,” called the “Sudan date,” forms a staple
food. Edible oil, greatly used in cooking, is extracted from the
kernel, which resembles the horse chestnut.
[Sidenote: Tanning products.]
The forests of the Bahr El Ghazal will probably some day be of great
value on account of the number of trees which yield tannin. The two
great families from which tannin is obtained, viz., _Combretaceæ_
and _Mimosæ_, are abundantly represented, and some trees have
already a reputation for their richness in tannin, viz., “Abu
Surug” (_Prosopis oblonga_) and “Mudus” (_Parkia filicoidea_),
the bark of which fetches a good price at Omdurman.
[Sidenote: Timber.]
With some notable exceptions, the forests have suffered from fire;
the trees are stunted, crooked, hollow, or generally misshapen, and
fire-protection will be required to obtain better grown timber. There
are, however, a few gigantic trees which have risen above the fires
and would yield timber of large dimensions. The most common is perhaps
_Khaya Senegalensis_ (“Homra” Arabic name), a tree of the family
of the _Meliaceæ_, to which mahogany and satin wood belong, and which
generally gives handsome or useful timber. The bark is, not unlikely,
a febrifuge, and the seed yields an oil which keeps away flies,
etc., from wounds; it is used against the “serut” flies. There
are also two enormous trees of the family of the _Leguminosæ_,
viz., the “Mudus” (mentioned above), which is found abundantly
near Tonj and sporadically to Wau, and the “Shande” (Jur name)
(_Daniellia Thurifera_) which grows on the banks of the Wau River,
not far from old Wau. There are several others of varying dimensions
and also Bamboos, but these are not in sufficient quantities to
be considered as an article of export. “Rattan” is also found
near Tembura.
For further timber, etc., resources, see under Forestry, p. 157.
[Sidenote: Wax and honey.]
Bees are abundant in the Bahr El Ghazal, and large quantities of
honey are collected every year.
[Sidenote: Salt.]
Salt is found only in the west, in the Faroge district, but is in
demand everywhere.
[Sidenote: Crops.]
Generally speaking, the ground is cleared in April. Crops are sown
in May, and reaped in November-December. One crop a year.
Indian corn is grown extensively in the plateaux. Sown in April,
it ripens in August. Sorghum dura is grown universally. The Dinkas,
living near the marshes, sow this at the end of March, it ripens in
October, and has a short stalk 4 feet high. Everywhere else it grows
12 feet high and ripens in December. Ground nuts and pumpkins are
also universally grown, especially by the Dinkas. Simsim, telabun,
dukhn, and various vegetables are met with in the habitations of
other tribes. Locusts play great havoc with the crops, and the
natives, especially the Dinkas, are too lazy to combat them. The
crops are increasing in extent, especially in the western portion;
each military post cultivates a certain amount, but it is expected
that the natives will soon produce enough (bar accidents and drought)
to supply the troops and any demand that may be made on them.
[Sidenote: Minerals.]
Iron is very plentiful almost throughout the province, and is
extensively worked (_vide_ p. 160). A recent analysis of the iron
ore gives a percentage of 47 per cent. of pure iron.
Copper is only found at the rich mines of Hofrat El Nahas, near
the southern borders of Darfur. It lies in the midst of a deserted
country, and has not been worked for a long time. It had not been
visited by Europeans (until Colonel Sparkes’s recent journey,
February, 1903), since 1876 (Purdy).[107] According to recent analysis
of a specimen the ore is a silicate and carbonate, not a sulphate,
of copper, containing 14 per cent. of pure metal. Although there is
an immense quantity of this ore, its distance from civilisation and
the obstacles to transport will render its development a matter of
considerable difficulty for some time to come. In places, it sticks
up in ridges above the surface.
[Sidenote: Currency.]
Different tribes and districts have a fancy for various articles of
barter. “Genotor” (Gianotta) beads (round, black beads with white
and coloured spots) are useful anywhere. With the Dinkas, small white
and red beads (“Suk-suk”) and brass wire, especially in the form
of bracelets, are acceptable; but cloth only holds a steady demand
on the direct routes to Government posts, where the inhabitants
are thrown into contact with civilisation; it is, however, rapidly
becoming more popular, and in some parts of the country is preferred
to beads. Jurs like beads, brass and cloth. Golos and Bongos prefer
cloth, which also obtains the best value from the Nyam Nyams. The
Dinkas in the north have been in the habit of exchanging ivory for
cattle with the Baggara Arabs.
6. _Climate and Hygiene._
The rainy season[108] begins in April and ends in November; December,
January, February, and March are the dry months, when the humidity
is slight, though there is always a certain amount of dew. From the
end of April till the middle of November rain falls, on the average,
one day out of three, generally in very heavy showers lasting for two
or three hours at a time. In the early months terrific thunderstorms
accompany the showers. The shade temperature in the dry season shows
an average maximum of 98° and a minimum of 59°. In the rainy season
the maximum in April, May, and June averages 89°, and from July to
December 85°. The minimum average during these months is 70°. During
the rains the humidity is excessive, and the dews exceedingly heavy.
[Sidenote: Sickness. Malaria.]
About 80 per cent. of the sickness in the Bahr El Ghazal is due to
malaria. It attacks Europeans and Egyptians more severely than blacks.
The frequency and severity of this disease varies with the season and
also with the locality. June and July have proved the most unhealthy
months; the rainy season being then at its height. From December
to March there is very little sickness. The natives state that some
years are far more unhealthy than others, but this does not seem to
depend upon the amount of rainfall. The most unhealthy stations are
Wau, Meshra El Rek, and Tonj, all of which are built close to the
river banks, whilst Rumbek and Deim Zubeir, which are some miles
from a river, and watered from wells, are comparatively healthy. It
is a noticeable fact that the natives never build villages near the
river bank, but generally at least a mile inland; they also usually
drink from wells. This is probably done to avoid mosquitoes, and
therefore is a possible reason for the small amount of fever amongst
them. Mosquitos cannot breed in shallow wells from which all the water
is drawn several times daily. By selecting these positions for their
villages they are also removed from the marsh, which is usually found
on one or other bank of the river. Egyptians are more susceptible
than Europeans, and the Sudanese from Khartoum more so than natives.
[Sidenote: Varieties of fever.]
Although the ordinary periodic types of fever are met with, and
easily combated by quinine, a malignant type is far from uncommon,
and is a very serious trouble. The patient may have two or three
distinct attacks of fever in one day, and often on two or three
consecutive days, leaving him weak and unfit for duty. Vomiting is
a common accompaniment, and sometimes continues for two days. The
stomach refuses food or medicine, and quinine has to be injected
subcutaneously. Drugs, however, seem to have little effect on
the course of the fever. The after effects met with are anæmia,
rheumatism, neuralgia, and dyspepsia. The most serious complication,
however, is “blackwater fever,” which is a hæmoglobinuria,
occurring in a patient saturated with malaria. The red-blood
corpuscles are destroyed by the action of the malarial parasite,
and the hæmoglobin thus set free is passed in the urine, giving it
its characteristic port wine colour. The patient becomes terribly
weak, has acute pain over the stomach, vomits frequently, and
cannot retain any nourishment, the heart becomes very feeble, and
death only too often follows. At present there have been as far as
is known, since 1900, about eight cases, with only two recoveries;
it does not appear to attack natives at all.
[Sidenote: Guinea worm.]
Guinea worm is common amongst the natives and Sudanese. It has
been met with all over the country, from Meshra El Rek to the Nyam
Nyam country. It appears in June and July, and is often the cause
of ankylosis of the joints. From observations made in 1901-02 the
period of incubation would appear to be a long one—probably 10 or
12 months. At least one European has developed it.
[Sidenote: Boils.]
Boils are common and appear in epidemic form, chiefly attacking
the hands.
[Sidenote: Dysentery.]
Dysentery in its true form has not been met with. The water supply
at all stations is good.
[Sidenote: Small-pox.]
Small-pox occurs occasionally amongst the natives and carries off
hundreds. An outbreak occurred amongst Tembura’s Nyam Nyams in
the winter of 1903-04.
[Sidenote: Phthisis.]
Phthisis in all its forms is common, and is believed to be responsible
for a large percentage of the mortality amongst natives. September,
October and November are the months in which it is most prevalent.
Night blindness is common.
Beyond mention of the great frequency of hydrocele and hernia amongst
the natives, there is nothing else that calls for special remark.
[Sidenote: Mosquitos.]
Mosquitos are not very numerous on the dry plateaux of the table-land
and the lower steppes during the dry season, but abound during
the rainy season near the rivers. Near the sudd, and on it, they
are always to be met with, but not in any quantities away from the
rivers. At least two out of six specimens sent home were found to
belong to malaria-bearing species.
[Sidenote: Tsetse fly. Sleeping sickness.]
A species of the tsetse fly, identified as _Glossina morsitans_, was
discovered in 1903 (April) by Major G. R. Griffith, D.S.O. Beyond its
often fatal attacks on animals, it seems otherwise harmless. Sleeping
sickness is unknown in the Bahr El Ghazal, though fatal cases have
occurred in the Lado enclave, which adjoins it.
7. _Forestry._[109]
[Sidenote: Fires.]
The Bahr El Ghazal province is, unfortunately, no exception to the
general rule which prevails in the Sudan. Traces of fires are clear
everywhere, from the grass lands near the rivers to the innermost
portions of the uninhabited forest tracts to the north-east and east
of Deim Zubeir. The largest fires are started in the grass lands near
the rivers in order to provide tender herbage for the cattle. These,
as they sweep inland, are fed by others, which are made to clear the
country near the villages, and they are then carried on until they
rush on and penetrate into the forest themselves. In the forests,
where the paths get overgrown with grass, travellers fire the grass,
not only to clear the way, but to provide against coming unexpectedly
on wild animals. Further, fires are lighted for hunting purposes. The
reed rat, which lives in long grass near water, and which is generally
relished for its meat, is hunted by setting fire to the grass, and
the hunting of other animals, including the elephant, is accomplished
in a similar manner. It is evident that before such fierce fires
seedling growth is killed out; that saplings and young trees are
killed or mutilated, and that larger trees themselves must suffer,
especially on the outskirts of the forests. So heavy is the toll
taken that more wood is destroyed each year than is produced by the
increase in girth and by the birth of new trees in places respected
by the fires once in a way. In other words, the capital is being
eaten into, the forests are deteriorating, and, unless protected,
will ultimately disappear. Apart from purely economic reasons this
is a prospect which is not good to contemplate if the effect of such
a denudation is considered.
[Sidenote: Forest zones.]
As before mentioned, the country can be divided into three divisions,
according to the amount of drainage. Each of these divisions has
its own characteristic vegetation:—
[Sidenote: Swamp vegetation.]
The ambach (_Herminiera elaphroxylon_), which in places forms dense
covers, and on the upper Bahr El Ghazal almost supplants papyrus,
is the only plant which may claim to form forest vegetation. It may
in future be of use, owing to its lightness, in floating timber down
the river.
[Sidenote: Lands not always submerged.]
On the land, which is under water annually at flood time, forest
vegetation is scanty, and such trees as there are are usually perched
on the top of termite hills. Such are the _Sarcocephalus esculentus_
and _Mitragyne Africana_ (_Rubiaceae_), the ardeib, dabka, gughan,
the small-leaved inderab, and, where the soil is poor, _Euphorbia
candelabrum_. Large expanses of country are treeless, owing to fires
and heavy felling.
[Sidenote: Highland forests.]
On the higher ground the chief ones are tamarind and gughan, with
sidr bushes, talh (acacia), and talh-beida forests, um shutur, zeitun
(edible fruit), abu khamera and heglig, and occasionally habil.
The above trees are also found on the higher land, but generally
near water or in clay soil and in smaller quantities. The highland
forests, however, differ largely from those on the lower lands,
there being little acacia or thorny growth. Among the largest trees
are the nwana (tanning bark “mudus”) and abu surug (tanning bark),
kuru, riang or bei, shanda and koba (in best parts of forest), digdig
(sweet yellow flowers), homra (large tree, allied to mahogany, also
called homraya or murraya), and lulu (blackish scaly bark and tufted
leaves, gutta-percha tree, above described).
The quality of the forests is at present not high. The best forests
are those found in the broad, uninhabited stretch between Deim
Zubeir and the Bongo, but even here the frequency of fires has
prevented the stock from being at all uniform. In other places,
where fires are still more frequent, and where there are traces of
former cultivation, the stock is of a much more patchy character,
and degenerates into curtains of forest surrounding blanks, or into
mere scrub composed of contorted shoots of habil, dorut, kalto,
akan, grewia, etc. It is, however, satisfactory to note that, even in
such fireworn areas, there are still to be seen scattered here and
there enormous trees such as shande, homra, bei, nwana, etc. But at
the same time it is also a fact that, except in the case of koba,
which reproduces itself fairly freely, the other large trees are
not at all largely represented among those of younger generations,
notwithstanding the fact that most of them seed abundantly. The most
that can be said of these forests is that the larger trees are very
fairly represented and that with proper treatment and protection
some magnificent reserves could be evolved.
[Sidenote: Principal timber trees.]
Homra: enormous size, would make a fine cabinet wood. Pinkish inside,
but soon turns mahogany brown; found on ironstone.
Heglig: not very tall, but 6 to 8 feet in girth. Timber durable and
not liable to attack by white ants; lowlands, clayey soil.
Koba: graceful, rounded crown, flat pods, abundant, good brown
building timber, much used by Jurs; highland.
Digdig: large tree, straight bole, sweet yellow flowers, leafless
during the cold season, strong yellowish timber; highland.
Ardeib: grows large, timber of very old trees is beautiful, mottled
black and white, much valued in cabinet trade and also for its fruit;
clayey soil.
Abu surug: large, fine dark red wood, capable of good polish, used
chiefly by iron smelters for charcoal, bark rich in tannin; common
in highlands.
Nwana: very large and abundant, white timber, not strong, but useful
for planking, seed pulp sweet and edible, bark (“mudus”) good
for tanning; ironstone.
Silag: common, tall, graceful, birchlike, white timber fairly durable,
much used for building, leaves probably rich in tannin; highland tree.
Gughan: ebony family, sometimes very large, fine dark brown timber
which turns black on exposure, much used for gun stocks; clay soil.
Abnus: Sudan ebony (not true ebony), crooked and thinnish; scattered
on rocky soil in highlands.
Zeitun: teak family, large size, white wood, not strong; lowlands
or clayey soil in highlands.
Bamboo: apparently strong and good, used for rafts and roofing;
line banks of khors in highlands.
[Sidenote: Fibres.]
The mottled-leaved _Sanseviera guineensis_ is found all over the
portion of the province visited. It yields a strong and durable
fibre. Strong jungle ropes for building are made with a species of
vitis growing in the highland forests, while grewias and sterculias
yield strong best fibre. In the Nyam Nyam country the bark of a fig
is used as cloth.
[Sidenote: Edible fruits.]
Many trees in these forests yield edible fruits, but most of them
are poor and insipid, with the exception of lulu, which has a fruit,
the pulp of which is not only eaten, but the kernel yields an edible
oil which is said to be a good substitute for “ghee.” Klato has
a not unpleasant acidulated fruit, and the fruits of both apwama
and odilo are also eaten. The pods of the nwana contain a sweet
farinaceous pulp; and a gardenia has a large ovoid fruit, which is
not unlike a very inferior apple. The fruit of zeitun is also eaten,
and when roasted and ground it makes an excellent substitute for tea.
[Sidenote: Iron smelting.]
It is impossible to omit mention of a very important industry which
is connected with, but would be impossible in this province without
an adequate supply of fuel. Iron smelting is carried on with a
certain activity by Jurs and Bongos. The ironstone and laterite,
which form the upper layer of rocks over a great portion of the
province, are very rich in iron[110]; and, with proper working,
all the needs of the Sudan, and possibly also of Upper Egypt, could be
supplied from this province. For this, however, it will be necessary
to work the forest in a systematic manner in order to make sure of
a continuous supply.
8. _Communications and Transport._
[Sidenote: Transport.]
The chief difficulty to contend with in the Bahr El Ghazal is that of
transport. During the rainy season (May or June to November) since a
large portion of the country is flooded, it is almost impossible to
get about. Stores have, therefore, to be laid in beforehand during
the dry season.
Between Meshra El Rek and Wau the direct road is practically
closed from the middle of June to the middle of November, though
communication by single individuals is possible by a roundabout
route during this period.
Between Wau and Rumbek the road is difficult, though never entirely
closed, from August to November. The same applies to the Wau-Deim
Zubeir road.
Between Rumbek and Shambe (on the Nile) the road is impassable for
animals from the end of April or May till early December. In October,
1903, nearly the whole of this route was actually under water.
On all the above-mentioned roads, however, carriers with light loads
can get about, though with difficulty, all the year round.
As thick bush and forest prevail almost throughout, the routes
everywhere are merely narrow tracks with tortuous windings, which
can only be traversed in single file. When the grass grows long,
high overhead in the autumn, the tracks are not easy to find. The
main Government routes, however, have been much improved.
Carrier transport is the most suitable, but carriers in great numbers
are not easily procurable and are never obtained from the Dinkas. The
Golos, Bongos, Ndoggos and Nyam Nyams are willing to carry. The
ordinary load for a man is 40 to 50 lbs. besides his own food.
[Sidenote: Mules. Donkeys. Camels.]
Mules and donkeys can be used along most of the routes. Mules,
especially the Abyssinian breed, answer best. Donkeys are useful
but die in great numbers. Camels have been successfully employed
from Shambe to Rumbek and from Meshra El Rek to Wau and Tonj river
post during the dry season; but the rainy season does not agree
with them, and nearly all have died. In the rainy season camels
cannot move, and mules and donkeys only with difficulty. The chief
causes of mortality amongst all transport animals are overwork,
fly, bad roads and poisonous grasses. It is doubtful how far the
climate shares in causing these losses. Practically all transport
animals have to be brought into the country. Generally speaking,
mules and donkeys thrive better than camels.
[Sidenote: Oxen.]
Rough carts drawn by oxen are being tried, and have given good results
so far. Each cart carries a load of 600 lbs. Pack oxen are slow,
and require much time for grazing.
[Sidenote: Fly.]
In the rainy season a fly, resembling the common horse-fly, attacks
horses, donkeys, and mules, and cattle in certain rocky districts. At
Wau this pest is particularly prevalent. The animals generally sicken
and die in a fortnight. This fly is well known to the natives. As
before stated a species of Tsetse fly has been identified on the
Bongo River, _vide_ p. 157.
[Sidenote: River transport.]
Below Meshra El Rek steamers ply on the Bahr El Ghazal, but from the
end of April till the end of August they are stopped at the mouth of
the Jur, or even to the north of it. Light craft can generally get
through to Meshra El Rek during that period, but with much difficulty.
The Jur river is now open to navigation for small steamers and light
craft from August till the end of November, as far as Wau, and even
to Rafili, the sudd having been cleared to a great extent from its
mouth to Wau. During the rest of the year it is only navigable for
about half this latter distance from the mouth. In June, in spite
of rains, it is almost dry (_see_ p. 154).
9. _The Tribes of the Bahr El Ghazal._
[Sidenote: General.]
The DINKAS occupy the lowlands in the north of the province, their
southern limit being the edge of the table-land, where the good
grazing and pasture land terminates.
On the lower slopes of the ironstone plateaux, between Rumbek and
the Bongo river, there are many Jur settlements. Between the Tonj
and Bongo rivers are a few villages of the BONGO tribe, which have
survived the raids of the NYAM NYAMS from the south. GOLOS, NDOGGOS,
and KREICH, who formerly held the country west of Wau to Deim Zubeir,
have been driven further north by the same powerful tribe, and have
taken refuge in the district between Wau and Chamamui, where they
are now more or less under the protection of the DINKAS. South of
these tribes, and separated from them by a broad belt of uninhabited
forest about 100 miles wide, are the NYAM NYAMS.
In the west the MANDALLA tribe live in Telgona district, but the
ruling classes in that district, including Sultan Nasser Andel,
have Arab blood in them, introduced through their relations with the
tribes of Darfur. The same may be said of the FAROGE tribe, ruled
by Sultan Musa, who reads and writes Arabic. To the east, on the
lower slopes of the plateaux, are the MITTU, WIRA, and MADI tribes.
[Sidenote: Dinkas.]
THE DINKAS.—There is no ruling chief, but every little district
has its own head man or sheikh, and fighting frequently occurs
between neighbouring districts. A man is powerful in proportion to
the number of cattle he owns and the size of his family. Head men
may own up to 30 or even 40 wives, but six is a fair average. The
great object of the Dinka is to acquire cattle, to which they pay
a kind of reverence. Owing to in-breeding the produce of cattle
is not numerous. The yield of milk is insignificant. The price
of a wife[111] varies from 25 to 40 head of cattle. A head man
is generally succeeded by his eldest son; and in this respect the
Dinkas are generally loyal. In character they are savage, deceitful,
and treacherous, but their domestic ties are strong. Tending flocks
and herds is the occupation of the Dinka. They are very lazy, and
cultivate only small crops; but they levy taxes of corn and produce
on the neighbouring Jurs and Golos.
The Dinkas are poor sportsmen. They do some fishing, chiefly with
spears in the pools of rivers during the dry season, but are bad
trackers and hunters of big game. Spears, long in shaft and blade,
made by the Jurs, and wooden clubs of hard wood or ebony are their
weapons. Tobacco is grown, chiefly for chewing, and occasionally
for smoking. Most of the men carry a plug of tobacco behind the ear.
Dura crops ripen in September in the low-lying areas, being sown in
May. Lubia (beans), pumpkins, and monkey nuts are also cultivated. Cow
dung is used for fires. The ashes of charcoal and cow dung are
rubbed in the hair, and all over the body by the cattle owners and
young warriors.
The Dinkas are a tall, slim race of men, 5 feet 9 inches being a fair
average height, and the women about 5 feet 7 inches. The men wear no
clothing, but fantastic head-dresses decked with ostrich feathers;
they are fond of beads as ornaments. The women wear numerous earrings
of brass and a leather apron fore and aft. Brass bracelets are worn
by both men and women; ivory bracelets by the men only. Compare also
pp. 126 to 130 and pp. 132 and 144.
[Sidenote: Jurs.]
THE JURS.—The Jurs are very like the Dinkas in appearance, the skin
being perhaps a shade lighter, but in habits they are more civilised
and peaceful. They are said to have originally been a branch of the
Shilluk tribe. Their language is quite different from the Dinkas,
but most of them speak and understand the language of the latter,
to whom they are subservient.
Living on the northern slope of the ferruginous table-land, where ore
is easily obtained from the surface, the Jurs practise iron-smelting,
with small furnaces about 4 feet high from the ground. “Malots”
(small hand-trowels used for turning the soil), spears, cowbells,
and axes are made in this way.
Dura is cultivated extensively, but is later than the Dinka crops,
ripening in November. This may be said of all the dura grown in the
plateaux and higher ground away from the marshes.
The Jurs understand tracking, and are accustomed to setting rough
traps for lion, leopard, and hyena.
The women, like the Dinkas, wear leather aprons, bracelets and
anklets of brass or iron. A wife costs from 40 to 50 malots, or 20
or 30 sheep and goats. The men are fond of clothing.
[Sidenote: Golos.]
THE GOLOS.—The Golos are an intelligent, active race, willing to
learn and to work.
The cultivation of crops is their chief occupation. Besides dura
and Indian corn they grow telabun, dukhn, lubia, simsim, onions,
sweet potatoes, water melons, pumpkins and “bedingan.” They keep
a few sheep and many fowls, but no cattle.
The huts are well built, with ventilation between the wall and roof,
and are clean both inside and outside.
“Malots” (iron hoes) are bought from the Jurs for honey, skins,
labour, etc. A wife costs 40 malots.
The men are fond of clothes, and are generally clad like the
Sudanese over the rest of the Sudan. They are fairly skilful weavers,
using the cotton of the country, which, however, is not extensively
cultivated. The women, on the contrary, are content with a bunch of
leaves fore and aft, but are fond of beads.
The Golos are good sportsmen and trackers. They possess a fair
number of guns, chiefly old traders and Remington rifles, but have
very little ammunition. Bows and arrows and elbow knives are other
weapons used.
[Sidenote: Bongos.]
THE BONGOS.—The Bongos have the same occupations and appearance
as the Golos, but are rather shorter and more thick-set.
The women wear a large circular stone on the upper lip or a wooden
plug pierced through the lower.
Decimated by the Nyam Nyams and slave-traders, very few of them
practise the crafts that they were formerly skilled in. Like the
Jurs, they are accustomed to smelting ore and working in iron. Their
dexterity in wood carving is shown in the various utensils, stools,
spoons, etc., which they still make. Great attention and trouble is
devoted to basket work and weaving grass mats.
The Bongos are fond of music, and play with string and wind
instruments.
[Sidenote: Ndoggos and Kreich.]
THE NDOGGOS AND KREICH.—The Ndoggos and Kreich are similar to the
Golos and Bongos in appearance, but not so comely as the former and
not so short as the Bongos. They are slightly fairer in skin. Having
formerly lived prosperously in the districts where the old Government
posts were established (Deim Zubeir, Deim Bekir, Deim Idris, Wau,
and Jur Ghattas), these tribes, Dinkas excepted, clearly realise
the protection and other benefits accorded by a civilised Government.
[Sidenote: Nyam Nyams.]
THE NYAM NYAMS.—The Nyam Nyams or Azande are the most intelligent,
keen and well-ordered tribe in the Bahr El Ghazal province.
The tribe—covering, roughly, the south-west third of the province
and a portion of the Congo Free State and Haut Ubangi to the south and
west of the Nile-Congo watershed—is split up into five districts,
each governed by a chief, holding absolute power, and these chiefs
form two factions, which constantly quarrel.
Tembura, Zemio and Sasa make the western faction; Ndoruma and Yambio
the eastern.
Colonel Sparkes, says in the account of his patrol to Tembura’s
country:—
“Tembura is a shrewd, intelligent man, anxious for progress and
development, and the Nyam Nyams generally are far superior to any
other people I have met up here.
“Tembura’s standing army, which is quartered round him, consists
of about 4,000 men, of whom 1,000 have rifles or guns of sorts,
and the rest spears, bows and arrows. They look after and handle
their guns exceedingly well, and have been taught a certain amount
of drill by the French.
“Besides quantities of dura, the Nyam Nyams grow bananas, limes,
tomatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, manioc, onions, and many
other sorts of vegetables. Excepting a few of the head men, they
have no cattle, sheep or goats, though quantities of fowls are
kept everywhere.
“Yambio has the largest number of people under him, but is the
least civilised, never having been brought into direct contact with
Europeans, as have the others.”
The Nyam Nyams are great hunters, and all the chiefs possess a
considerable quantity of ivory. The men wear well-woven straw hats,
with cock’s feathers, and loose breeches made of “Roko” bark.
The women are clad like the Golos and Bongos, but are more reserved
and retiring than the latter. Both men and women dress their hair,
grown long, in various styles. Beards are cultivated and are greatly
admired if long.
Of cannibalism amongst the Nyam Nyams there is not much heard, but
it is a fact that they eat their enemies who have fallen in battle
and those who die. They eat dogs when they can get them. Schweinfurth
considers this custom as allied to cannibalism.
Lighter coloured than the other tribes, they consider themselves
“white men.”
[Sidenote: Country, etc.]
Both Tembura and Yambio have a fine country, perhaps the cream of
the Bahr El Ghazal, well watered by flowing streams, undulating,
and growing many lulu, banana, and other fine trees. The country
teems with many kinds of game: elephant, eland, rhinoceros, and
buffalo all being numerous, the former especially so. The Nyam Nyams
manufacture a white cotton cloth, similar to fine sacking. They are
practically all clothed, and would probably readily purchase cloth.
Their arms are bows, arrows and spears, but both these sultans now
possess a considerable number of rifles.
They were formerly, in the old Government days, converts to Islam,
but they (Tembura at any rate) both now merely believe in the
existence of a God, without participating in any form of religion.
[Sidenote: Mittu, Madi and Wira.]
THE MITTU, MADI, AND WIRA TRIBES.—These tribes, living on the
eastern border of the Nyam Nyams, resemble the Bongos, but are
physically inferior to the latter. They have suffered too, in the
same way as the Bongos, from the raids of the Nyam Nyams.
The Madi and Wira tribes are really sub-tribes of the Mittu, and
they all speak the same Mittu dialect.
[Sidenote: Teeth.]
Regarding the teeth of the different tribes:—
Jurs and Dinkas extract the lower incisors; the Nyam Nyams file the
upper incisors to a point; Golos, Ndoggos, Bongos, and Belandas
file the upper incisor only on the inner aspect. But many of the
latter, who have been brought up in the Nyam Nyam country, have the
tooth-marks of that tribe. In fact, the tooth distinction is becoming
less characteristic, owing to interchanging of tribes.
10. _Game._
The following is a list of the game which is to be found in the Bahr
El Ghazal province:—
Elephant (numerous throughout).
Buffalo.
Eland exist in the higher plateaux, near Wau and Deim Zubeir, and
the Situtunga is said to be found in the marshlands of the Jur River.
Giraffe (in eastern and north-western portions).
Rhinoceros (throughout).
Hippopotamus (in all rivers).
Roan-antelope.
Waterbuck (throughout).
Mrs. Grey’s waterbuck (_Cobus Maria_) (swampy grass land on
banks of Jur and Bahr El Ghazal Rivers.)
Tiang.
Jackson’s hartebeeste.
White-eared cob.[112]
Bushbuck (throughout).
Reedbuck (in neighbourhood of rivers).
Oribi.
Duiker.
Wild boar.
Wart hog.
Lion (throughout, but rare).
Leopard (throughout).
Ostrich.
Comb duck.
Florican.
Great bustard.
Ground hornbill.
Guinea fowl.
Nile goose.
Partridge.
Rock fowl.
Sand grouse.
Snipe.
Spur fowl.
Spur-winged goose.
Whistling teal.
White ibis.
11. _Religious Beliefs among the Natives of the Bahr El
Ghazal._[113]
In making enquiries as to religious beliefs among the people here,
one is met at the outset by two difficulties. The first and greater
is the reticence displayed on such subjects by the natives, and the
second is that the interpreter, being invariably an Arabic-speaking
native who has with his Arabic acquired the Moslem faith, is liable
to colour his translations with ideas of his own; partly out of
shame for the beliefs he has discarded, and partly from his anxiety
to tell you what he thinks you expect. Perseverance in this line of
enquiry is, however, well repaid, as the primitive religions of the
tribes in the Bahr El Ghazal are most interesting and suggestive.
The Dinkas, though the most difficult of all to approach on
such subjects, appear to have a most elaborate list of gods and
demi-gods. At the head of the Divine community are Deng-dit (Rain
Giver) and Abok, his wife. They have two sons, Kûr Konga, the elder,
and Gurung-dit, the younger, and a daughter called Ai-Yak.
Their devil is called L’wâl Burrajôk, and is the father of Abôk,
the wife of Deng-dit. There are also other relatives.
Their story of the origin of mankind (or it may be of the Dinka
tribe) is curious and poetical. Deng-dit gave to his wife, Abôk,
a bowl of fat, and she and her children, softening the fat over
the fire, proceeded to mould from it men and women, in the image of
gods. Deng-dit warned her against L’wâl (the Shaitan), who was
suspected to have ill-intentions towards Deng-dit. But Abôk forgot,
and with her children went to gather wood in the forest. There
L’wâl found the bowl, drank the greater part of the fat, and
from the remainder proceeded to mould caricatures of men and women,
with distorted limbs, mouths, and eyes. Then, fearing the vengeance
of Deng-dit, he descended to earth by the path that then connected
it with heaven. On discovering the result of her neglect, Abôk
hastened to her husband, who, greatly incensed, started in pursuit
of L’wâl. The latter, however, had persuaded the bird Atoitoish
to bite asunder with its bill the path from heaven to earth, and
thus escaped from the Divine wrath.
In spite of this complicated mythology, the Dinkas appear to be
very indifferent to religion as an active principle in life. They
are without any plan of prayer, and though they assert that their
forefathers made great sacrifices to God, the present generation
thinks twice about parting with a goat—to say nothing of a cow—for
sacrificial purposes. Sacrifices constitute, however, their only
attempts at intercourse with God. In fact, they seem to regard him
not as a being likely to confer benefits, but as a destructive power
to be propitiated, if possible.
The Golos also believe in male and female deities, called Umvili
and Barachi, respectively. This couple is said to have originated
the human race, and to be the parents of mankind. This belief is,
I think, common to the Golo, N’Doggo, Shere, and Belanda tribes,
and possibly also to the A-Zande or Nyam Nyams.
They have vague ideas as to future bliss for worthy, and punishment
for evil, doers; the execution of the latter is entrusted to a spirit
called Ma-ah, who corresponds to Shaitan, but is the servant rather
than the enemy of God; some of the Golo songs in common use are of
the nature of moral exhortations, directing the people to hear the
voice of God.
Like the Dinkas, they do not pray to God, but attempt to appease him
with sacrifices of chickens. These sacrifices are rather one-sided,
as the procedure is to kill 20 chickens, cook and eat 19, and throw
out the twentieth for Umvili.
Golos and Dinkas both associate the ideas of reverence and divinity
with the sky, and of malignity and punishment with the bowels of
the earth; pointing upwards to their gods and downwards to their
devils. This association is, I believe, universal, and has probably
its origin in Sun worship. The natural human instinct for religion
is probably as deeply rooted in the Bahr El Ghazal as elsewhere,
and manifests itself perhaps in the readiness with which these tribes
embrace Islam, when they learn about it in Sudanese regiments or as
servants to Moslem masters.
They would seem to offer a hopeful and legitimate field for
judicious missionary work,[114] as they are far from being the
savages, destitute of ideas and beliefs, that they appear on a
superficial view.
12. _A Short Dinka and Bongo Vocabulary._[115]
English. Dinka. Bongo.
— — —
Bad Aragj.
Beads Gwet Kira.
Boat Aryan Kobbu.
Bracelets Melang Tilu.
Bread Râb Mun.
Bring Bei Gimma.
Brother Wakmat Guma.
Buffalo Anyar Kobi.
Bull Tono Wong.
Butter Miuk-chak Dibusha.
Cloth Alad Mabiu.
{ Bwam.
{
Clothes { Bium.
{
{ Bum.
Come Baa Aiba.
Cow Wong.
Crocodile Anyang Hyango.
Day Akol.
Donkey Akajaa.
Dura (bread) Râb Mun.
Elephant Akôn Kiddi.
Evening Aten.
Egg Tong.
Far Amet.
Father Wadet Bukàbbada.
Fire Mach Fudda.
Giraffe Mir.
Girl Nia.
Give me Bidègin Wadi gimma.
Goat Kaiou.
Go, go on Lok Indeba.
Grass Ual Totj.
Gun Akol Kuddah.
Hippo Rau.
Horse Dunkur.
Iron Lung.
Is there? Ata-ta.
Little Akur.
Man Mutj.
Many Adjokje.
Meat (flesh) Rînk Mihi.
Milk Kyap or Tia.
Morning Miak.
Moon Paï.
Much Ajwid.
Near Atiok.
Night Akān.
Nile Warr.
Oil Miuk yum. Yabumulla.
Path Kwĕrr.
Pool Auŏl.
Porter Munkinashiel (a). Budu tukba.
Raid Kito tora.
River Kjir.
Salt Awai. Taddu.
Sheep Tup or Amāl. Minya.
Sheikh (headman) Baindit.
Star Kwel.
Spear Tong.
Start Gerùd. Tubba terch.
Stone Kur. Landa.
Stop Kâja.
Station (post) Lobai. Indebba kor.
Take Muk. Tobba.
Tobacco Tâb. Tâb.
To-day Akoli.
To-morrow Miăk.
Track Dulik. Kunga.
Tree Amat.
Village Pâuda.
I want Bei. Gimma.
Water Piu. Muni.
Wind Jur.
Wilderness Ror.
Well Jīt.
Woman Tīk.
Wood Tim. Kagga.
Where? Aiyu. Nabba.
Yesterday Koluai.
DAR FERTIT.
For brief description of Dar Fertit, now partly in the Bahr El Ghazal
and partly in French territory, _vide_ p. 256. Very little is known
about it definitely.
[Illustration: WOMAN OF DAR FERTIT.]
13. ITINERARY OF THE BAHR EL GHAZAL RIVER.
_Lake No—Meshra El Rek._
---------------+-------------------+----------------------------------
| Miles. |
+-------------+-----+
|Intermediate.| From|
Place. | | W. | Description.
| | end |
| | Lake|
| | No. |
---------------+-------------+-----+----------------------------------
Lake No | — | — |Proceeding up-stream westwards
| | |from the junction of the Bahr El
| | |Jebel and the White Nile, Lake No
| | |is immediately entered. Lake No is
| | |known to the Arabs as the
| | |“Moghren-el-Buhur,” or the
| | |“Meeting of the Rivers.” It is
| | |situated in north latitude 9° 29′.
| | |It is a shallow expanse of water
| | |covering a good many square miles
| | |of area, and surrounded on all
| | |sides by reedy marsh. It is
| | |probably a portion of the great
| | |lake which once covered this
| | |country. Through its eastern end
| | |the Bahr El Jebel passes, and the
| | |Bahr El Ghazal enters it at its
| | |western extremity. Lake No acts as
| | |a reservoir for the waters of the
| | |sluggish streams which drain the
| | |extensive plateaux forming the
| | |watershed between the Congo and
| | |the Nile. These streams find their
| | |rise in an area lying between
| | |latitude 5° and 8° north, and
| | |longitude 24° and 30° east. The
| | |channel by which their united
| | |waters are delivered to the Nile
| | |is the Bahr El Ghazal, and from it
| | |the province through which it
| | |passes receives its name. Its
| | |chief affluents are the Rohl, the
| | |Jau, and the Tonj on the right,
| | |and the Bahr El Arab, the Bahr El
| | |Homr, and the Jur on the left. The
| | |water thus brought down fills up
| | |the depression known as Lake No,
| | |over which area the water of the
| | |Bahr El Jebel spreads. The
| | |consequence is that this lake is
| | |an expanse of water through which
| | |little or no current passes, but
| | |whose levels rise and fall with
| | |that of the Nile. The flooded area
| | |changes according to the season of
| | |the year. It forms an important
| | |reservoir for the White Nile. The
| | |actual extent of Lake No is
| | |difficult to ascertain. It has
| | |been variously estimated at from
| | |20 to 40 square miles. These
| | |differences are probably due to
| | |the fact that the area was
| | |estimated at different periods of
| | |the year. During maximum flood the
| | |extent cannot be much less than
| | |the larger estimate, but at the
| | |period of low supply the area is
| | |much reduced, and in 1900 and 1901
| | |could hardly have exceeded 8
| | |square miles. In the early months
| | |of these years the surface had
| | |shrunk to very small dimensions,
| | |and more resembled a large river
| | |than a lake. The width, during the
| | |period of low Nile, is extremely
| | |variable. Thus in April, 1901, in
| | |the first mile from the White
| | |Nile, the open water surface was
| | |at times under 200 yards, and then
| | |suddenly widened out to, perhaps,
| | |2 miles; a little further on it
| | |again contracted, and for 4 or 5
| | |miles more varied from 300 to 600
| | |yards. The depth, at that time,
| | |was nowhere more than 7 feet, and,
| | |in places, only 4 feet. No current
| | |at all was visible through any
| | |portion of the lake. Beyond the
| | |open water stretched a broad belt
| | |of flooded reeds. This belt was
| | |chiefly composed of “Um Suf,” with
| | |clumps of ambach. The open water
| | |itself was full of reedy islands.
| | |Lake No abounds with hippopotami
| | |and waterfowl. The former cause a
| | |good deal of trouble to the Nuer
| | |population, as they are unusually
| | |savage in this locality, and are
| | |said to make a practice of
| | |attacking any canoe or raft
| | |crossing the lake. The bank to the
| | |north of the eastern end swarms
| | |with lion and antelope of every
| | |description (January, 1903).
| | |
| | |After passing the entrance to the
| | |Bahr El Jebel, keep to the
| | |northern channel. Open water right
| | |and a few low bushes; ant-heaps
| | |(termites), and dry ground left.
| | |Some wood. Landing possible. At 6
| | |miles from the White Nile a
| | |continuous line of Nuer villages
| | |runs parallel to the left bank of
| | |the channel for several miles, and
| | |marks the ridge beyond which the
| | |swamping does not extend. Their
| | |average distance is some 2 miles
| | |from the river. The villages
| | |appear to be thickly populated,
| | |and the inhabitants possess large
| | |herds of cattle, sheep, and goats;
| | |they now barter their fowls, &c.,
| | |with readiness.
| | |
| | |From 7 miles above the White
| | |Nile—Bahr El Jebel junction
| | |(whilst still within Lake No) and
| | |westwards the channel is, in dry
| | |weather, reduced to 80 or 90 yards
| | |wide. In flood-time the line of
| | |the channel is not visible. This
| | |channel is by some termed the Khor
| | |El Deleb, in continuation of a
| | |khor of that name which flows into
| | |it at the western end of Lake No;
| | |but as the Bahr El Ghazal is
| | |obviously the main stream, the
| | |latter name has been applied to it
| | |here from the Bahr El Jebel
| | |junction westwards. About 10 miles
| | |west of the Bahr El Jebel mouth
| | |take southern channel, which comes
| | |in west-south-west, leave northern
| | |channel, as it closes up and comes
| | |to a dead end 5 miles on. Large
| | |village, Nuer tribe, 2 miles away
| | |left. Scrub on horizon left.
| | |Reeds, sudd, &c., both sides, and
| | |all part of Lake No.
| | |
Bahr El Ghazal | 0 | 0 |The true Bahr El Ghazal comes in
| | |close here left. Narrow mouth, 40
| | |yards; 8 feet deep in March. Sudd
| | |seen floating down stream, 1½
| | |miles an hour. Leave broad open
| | |channel, which bifurcates 2 miles
| | |farther on, and becomes the Deleb
| | |and Signorina backwaters, ending
| | |18 miles up. Take northern
| | |channel, which is now the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal. The Khor Deleb, which
| | |enters the river from the south at
| | |the western point of the lake, is
| | |a wide expanse of channel 150 to
| | |200 yards in breadth. It forms the
| | |outlet for the waters of the River
River Rohl or | 2 | 2 |Rohl, coming from the south. In
Khor Deleb | | |summer no current at all is
| | |apparent. The Ghazal River at this
| | |point, with a width of some 40
| | |yards, is in appearance a more
| | |insignificant stream than the
| | |other. Its depth, however, is
| | |greater, averaging 13 feet, as
| | |against 6 or 7 feet in the Deleb.
| | |The Khor Deleb was explored by
| | |Major Peake for some 18 miles
| | |above this junction. At this point
| | |it was blocked by sudd and reeds,
| | |with trees on both banks, so that
| | |further progress was impossible.
| | |It had, however, a decided stream
| | |coming through the reeds, which
| | |left the Ghazal 33 miles higher
| | |up. The transparency of the waters
| | |differs in the two channels; that
| | |of the Khor Deleb being opaque and
| | |of a whitey-grey colour, while
| | |that of the Bahr El Ghazal is
| | |clear and limpid, like that of the
| | |White Nile itself. Between the two
| | |rivers, which run parallel for
| | |some distance, is an expanse of
| | |low marsh, a foot above low- water
| | |level. This whole area must
| | |resemble a large lake when the
| | |rivers are in flood, and the
| | |aspect of the country is desolate
| | |and monotonous to an extreme
| | |degree. It is absolutely treeless;
| | |the atmosphere is damp and warm
| | |even in the winter months, and the
| | |mosquitoes are of a peculiarly
| | |venomous variety.
| | |
Mayyet Eléri | 16 | 18 |Proceeding up the Bahr El Ghazal,
| | |for a long way there is little
| | |change in the landscape. The low
| | |banks continue, and the stream
| | |winds about through the marshes
| | |with a very feeble velocity. At 18
| | |miles a large khor joins the Bahr
| | |El Ghazal on the left bank. This
| | |is known as the Mayyet Eléri, and
| | |appears to come from a north-
| | |westerly direction. It is this
| | |khor which has been supposed to be
| | |the junction between the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal and the Lollé. From the
| | |slope of the country, however, it
| | |would seem that water flows from
| | |the higher land into the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal. It is possible that in
| | |flood there may be a spill in the
| | |opposite direction. This khor,
| | |although 200 yards in width, is
| | |very shallow. At 21 miles the Khor
| | |Deleb approaches to within 1,200
| | |yards of the Bahr El Ghazal. A
Deleb palm | 3 | 21 |solitary deleb palm (mentioned by
| | |Junker) forms a fine landmark on
| | |the right bank. The Khor Deleb
| | |derives its name from this palm.
| | |The left bank of the river beyond
| | |the fringe of swamp is an
| | |extensive grass plain covered with
| | |ant-hills. These are so close
| | |together that they somewhat
| | |resemble a gigantic grave-yard.
| | |The Nuer villages are now a long
| | |way from the bank. As the river is
| | |ascended the country becomes more
| | |and more hopeless-looking. Flat
| | |grass plains extend to the
| | |horizon, and a wide band of swamp
| | |borders either side of the
| | |waterway. The channel narrows, and
| | |in places is not more than 25
| | |yards. The depth is from 12 to 16
| | |feet, and the turns and bends,
| | |though not as sharp as on the Bahr
| | |El Zeraf, are endless. The
| | |difference between the Bahr El
| | |Zeraf and the Bahr El Ghazal is
| | |very striking. The water of the
| | |former during the period of low
| | |supply is considerably below its
| | |banks; in the latter it is almost
| | |level with them. The rise of the
| | |former, even in ordinary flood, is
| | |not less than 6 to 6½ feet. That
| | |of the Bahr El Ghazal, on the
| | |contrary, must be very small. It
| | |is difficult to imagine that even
| | |in flood the water can rise more
| | |than 3, or at most, 4 feet over
| | |its lowest level. Even with such a
| | |rise, the area of the country
| | |under water would be enormous, and
| | |the flooding would extend for a
| | |very long distance. A few miles
| | |further up the depth of water
| | |increases to 19 feet, and in
| | |places to 25 feet. For the first
| | |time forest appears in the
| | |distance on the left, but several
| | |thousand yards away from the
| | |river. The right bank is now
| | |covered with low bush and scrub
| | |beyond the flooded line. The
| | |country bordering the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal does not have the
| | |appearance of being under water
| | |for any length of time, even in
| | |flood. In this respect, again, it
| | |differs from that traversed by the
| | |Bahr El Zeraf. It must, however,
| | |be saturated and resemble a sponge
| | |in the rainy season. There cannot
| | |be more than a very shallow film
| | |of water over these plains, or the
| | |bush and scrub would not flourish
| | |as it does; neither would ant-
| | |hills be found in such quantities.
| | |The general slope of the country
| | |is so low that the water must
| | |drain off extremely slowly.
| | |
Mayyeh Nur | 10 | 31 |At mile 31 the width is 60 yards,
| | |and the reed-belt gets narrower; a
| | |very large “mayyeh,” or khor,
| | |comes in on the left bank here.
| | |This is known as the Mayyeh Nur,
| | |or the Mayyeh Mahmud Effendi. Its
| | |width near the junction is from
| | |150 to 200 yards, and its general
| | |direction appears to be west. It
| | |is very shallow. This mayyeh is
| | |said to receive the waters of the
| | |Keilak River (Mayyeh b’ta
| | |Komandari (?)), a stream about
| | |which little is known, but which
| | |is supposed to rise in the hills
| | |of Dar Nuba. There is a wooding-
| | |station on right bank opposite the
| | |Nur. Up-stream of this junction
| | |the Bahr El Ghazal takes a more
| | |southerly direction. The two
| | |streams run for some miles
| | |parallel to one another, from 600
| | |to 700 yards apart. The country
| | |between the two is, perhaps, 2
| | |feet over the water. At mile 35,
Papyrus | 4 | 35 |the first papyrus seen since
| | |leaving the White Nile is met
| | |with. From this point on, for many
| | |miles, a band of this reed fringes
| | |both edges of the water. It is
| | |never so high as on the Bahr El
| | |Jebel, nor does it grow here in
| | |such dense luxuriance as on that
| | |stream. The water surface is very
| | |narrow, often not more than 20
| | |yards, but the depth is
| | |considerable, averaging from 15 to
| | |19 feet. The reed-birds here are
| | |an extraordinary sight. They are
| | |to be seen in myriads and resemble
| | |a flight of locusts. The Serût fly
| | |is very bad on the Bahr El Ghazal.
| | |The ant-hills certainly form a
| | |distinctive feature of the Ghazal
| | |scenery. Nowhere else are they so
| | |large or so numerous. They are
| | |generally from 20 to 50 yards
Camping ground | 14 | 49 |apart. At mile 49 good halting or
| | |camping ground, fairly dry; bushes
| | |and trees right. Large clump of
| | |big trees ½ mile away south. This
| | |clump is close to the stream
| | |running into Mayyeh Deleb. From
| | |here on, channel very narrow;
| | |papyrus both sides; liable to be
| | |blocked with sudd at any time;
| | |large islands of sudd are met,
| | |often taking up whole width of
| | |stream up to the junction with the
| | |Bahr El Arab, where river is much
| | |wider again. Mayyeh right: river
| | |bends sharply, channel only width
| | |of steamer, 17 feet; current very
| | |fast; numbers of owls and
| | |Balæniceps Rex seen about, also
| | |hippopotami; some wood left, 500
| | |yards away. Large trees left,
| | |close to water, good for fuel;
| | |village on horizon right, and two
| | |Dom palms; channel opens up. At
Wood-station | 4 | 53 |mile 53 wooding-station left. The
| | |papyrus belt gets wider as the
| | |river is ascended, and at 57 miles
| | |the forest on the left bank comes
| | |down close to the water’s edge and
| | |the river skirts it for some 2
| | |miles. The trees are large, but
| | |the belt is only a few hundred
| | |yards wide.
| | |
| | |The scenery here is beautiful, as
| | |the ground is high and glades of
| | |fine trees are scattered about the
| | |grassy plain. Many elephants are
| | |to be seen. On the right bank is a
| | |wide marsh through which the river
| | |channel has evidently wandered at
| | |times. This is the beginning of
| | |the reach in which the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal is occasionally closed by
Large tree | 8 | 61 |sudd. At 61 miles, in 1880, Marno
| | |found his first block here, and in
| | |November, 1898, and April, 1899,
| | |it was blocked. Large solitary
| | |tree right bank. The channel is
| | |very narrow, deep, and winding. At
| | |present it runs under the high
| | |bank, but it is clear that it
| | |could easily be blocked at one of
| | |the many bends, and in such a case
| | |it would doubtless form a series
| | |of lagoons and mayyehs in the
| | |adjacent papyrus marsh. After
| | |leaving the left bank forest for a
| | |time the river at mile 62 again
| | |returns to it. The depth of the
| | |channel suddenly decreases to 5
| | |feet, but soon deepens again to 10
| | |and 13 feet. This shoal is
| | |doubtless caused by decomposed
| | |sudd which has sunk to the bottom.
| | |Such a bar is one of the frequent
| | |causes of a block. The sudd raises
| | |the bed level, and other masses
| | |floating down ground upon the
| | |obstruction and the channel is
| | |speedily closed. The Bahr El
| | |Ghazal has evidently changed its
| | |course here very recently. It is
| | |now much closer to the left bank
| | |than it was in 1899. The change
| | |has probably been caused by a
| | |block of sudd. It was near here,
Gessi’s place | 2 | 63 |_i.e._, at mile 63, that Gessi
| | |Pasha had such a disastrous
| | |experience in January, 1880. His
| | |steamers, on descending this
| | |river, were imprisoned in the sudd
| | |for some 6 weeks, and he lost over
| | |100 men. Had it not been for the
| | |opportune arrival of Marno in the
| | |“Bordein” none of the party could
| | |have escaped. They were on the
| | |verge of starvation and it was
| | |impossible to obtain fuel for the
| | |steamers, being cut off from the
| | |shore by an impassable swamp.
| | |These 6 or 7 miles of the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal must always be more or less
| | |dangerous, as regards possible
| | |closure by sudd, at certain
| | |seasons of the year. In 1900 and
| | |1901 the channel was open, but in
| | |the spring of 1899 it was closed
| | |not far up-stream of this point.
| | |The channel is extremely
| | |contracted, having a width of only
| | |12 yards and a depth of 13 feet.
| | |The course is so tortuous that it
| | |is difficult to follow all the
| | |turns. The whole of this area
| | |must, in the rainy seasons, be a
| | |reedy lake. At mile 64 the river
| | |emerges from this dreadful marsh
| | |and the width increases to 30
| | |yards. The banks average 2½ feet
| | |above water level. The country on
| | |either side is generally higher.
| | |On the right, bush is dotted
| | |about, and the ant-hills reappear
| | |to the left in a large grassy
| | |plain. At mile 65 the river widens
| | |into a lagoon, some 400 yards
| | |broad, and a mile in length. At
| | |the up-stream end of this lagoon a
| | |large mayyeh is said by the Arabs
| | |to form the outlet of the Jau
| | |River, which is another of the
| | |tributary streams that feed the
| | |Bahr El Ghazal from the south.
| | |This channel, which is known as
Jau River or | 3 | 66 |the Mayyeh Ahmed Arabi, runs more
Mayyeh Ahmed | | |or less parallel to the Bahr El
Arabi | | |Ghazal for some 40 miles, taking
| | |off it at Lake Ambadi, or 88 miles
| | |from the point where the Ghazal
| | |and the Deleb join. It is often at
| | |a considerable distance from the
| | |main stream, but glimpses are to
| | |be seen of it at times. A fine
| | |tamarind-tree close to the edge of
| | |the mayyeh assists recognition of
| | |this spot. In 1899 the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal was blocked by sudd near
| | |this junction. The right bank
| | |continues to be fairly high, but
| | |the left is low and must be
| | |flooded for a long distance. The
| | |stream is now more rapid. The air
| | |in the mornings here is cool and
| | |damp, but a strong marshy smell
Wood-station | 8 | 74 |prevails. At mile 74 wood-station
| | |left bank. Elephants, and the
| | |Euphorbia first, appear. This
| | |shrub is fairly plentiful from
| | |this point up-stream. For several
| | |miles there is little change in
| | |the conditions, but at mile 79
| | |trees are visible on the right
| | |bank, about 1,500 yards from the
| | |river. The intermediate country is
| | |flooded. A few Dinka are
| | |occasionally met with, but no
| | |villages. The absence of human
| | |habitations on this river is very
| | |striking. Since the Nuer villages
| | |were left behind at mile 43, not a
| | |sign of life has been visible. A
| | |small but deep khor joins the
| 8 | 82 |river on the left bank here.
| | |
False Bahr El | 8 | 90 |From here for the next 20 miles
Arab | | |good wood left. At mile 90 a large
| | |and important khor comes in, also
| | |on the left bank. This channel,
| | |which was asserted by the boatmen
| | |to be the Bahr El Arab, and which
| | |was ascended under this
| | |supposition, flows from a north-
| | |westerly direction and evidently
| | |brings water from a long distance.
| | |Later experience has proved that
| | |the Bahr El Arab is several miles
| | |further up-stream, but this khor
| | |must, nevertheless, bring down a
| | |large volume of water during the
| | |flood. It is quite possible that
| | |it forms a second mouth of the
| | |Bahr El Arab. It joins the Bahr El
| | |Ghazal through two small lakes or
| | |lagoons, the largest being about
| | |1,000 yards long by 800 yards
| | |wide, with an island in the
| | |centre. These lakes are swarming
| | |with hippopotami. The width of
| | |this khor is much greater that
| | |than that of the Ghazal, being
| | |from 100 to 120 yards. It has a
| | |perceptible though feeble current
| | |even in April, but its depth is
| | |shallow, averaging from 4 to 5
| | |feet. It was ascended for some 8
| | |miles above the junction, when
| | |shoal-water prevented further
| | |progress. Its general direction is
| | |north-west, but at the furthest
| | |point reached it turns sharply to
| | |the north, and its course can be
| | |traced for a long distance,
| | |winding through the country. Even
| | |here its width is 100 yards, with
| | |wide-stretching mud-flats on
| | |either side. It runs between flat
| | |plains covered with low grass and
| | |averaging 2½ feet over the water
| | |at the river’s edge. It differs
| | |remarkably from the Ghazal in its
| | |characteristics, particularly in
| | |the absence of the reed fringe
| | |which distinguishes the main
| | |river. Its rise must be small, as
| | |the banks show no trace of
| | |flooding.
| | |
Lau | 6 | 96 |From 5 miles above the junction a
| | |succession of Dinka villages line
| | |both banks. Some of these are
| | |large and appear to be thickly
| | |peopled. The principal village is
| | |called Lau. This consists of a
| | |large collection of scattered
| | |huts, grouped together, and
| | |covering a large area. It would be
| | |interesting to explore this khor
| | |during high water and ascertain
| | |whether it really is one of the
| | |outlets of the Arab River.
| | |
| | |To return to the Bahr El Ghazal.
| | |From the point where this khor
| | |joins it, the general course is
| | |due west and fairly straight with
| | |occasional long curves. It is
| | |bordered by a narrow strip of
| | |papyrus on either bank, and
| | |traverses a country of flat grassy
| | |plains. This river is placid and
| | |sluggish throughout its entire
| | |length, and can never approach
| | |anything like a torrent, even when
| | |in flood. It meanders along,
| | |slowly and gradually sucking away
| | |the moisture of the vast, water-
| | |logged flats through which it
| | |passes. Its width averages from 60
| | |to 70 yards, and its mean depth is
| | |10 feet.
| | |
Forest | 4 | 100 |At mile 100 trees and bush are
| | |found on both sides and the banks
| | |are clear of reeds and continue
Bahr El Arab | 3 | 103 |until mile 103, where the Bahr El
| | |Arab joins the Ghazal. This forest
| | |is known as the “Ghaba b’ta el
| | |Arab,” and is one of the few
| | |wooding-stations to be found on
| | |the river. The trees upon both
| | |banks are different from those
| | |found elsewhere. There are a few
| | |mimosas, but the bulk are very
| | |thorny trees with bright green
| | |leaves. The belt of wood is about
| | |half a mile in width, back from
| | |the river. Behind it are open
| | |spaces of grass, through which
| | |broad and shallow lagoons wind. In
| | |this plain are many large clumps
| | |of trees. Except in the
| | |depressions, the country here is
| | |certainly not flooded, even in the
| | |rainy season. The marks on the
| | |banks show that the maximum rise
| | |of the river is not more than 3
| | |feet. The Bahr El Arab is a broad
| | |well-defined channel, from 40 to
| | |100 yards in width, and confined
| | |between well-marked, but swampy,
| | |banks. Its direction, at the
| | |junction, is due north, but about
| | |3 miles further up it turns more
| | |to the west and runs apparently
| | |through forest. Next to nothing is
| | |known of this river. Felkin
| | |crossed it in December, 1879, and
| | |found it, 300 miles from its
| | |mouth, 120 yards wide, with banks
| | |15 feet above low water. He noted
| | |that in the rainy season it
| | |flooded the surrounding country.
| | |It is impossible to investigate
| | |this river, as, at some 1,300
| | |yards above the junction, it is
| | |closed by sudd and reeds. It has
| | |no current at the mouth, and its
| | |depth is from 10 to 11 feet at low
| | |water. The water of the Bahr El
| | |Arab is singularly clear and free
| | |from sediment. Reports received in
| | |the spring of 1901 show that this
| | |river is still blocked by sudd.
| | |Immediately up-stream of the Bahr
Lake Ambadi | 1 | 104 |El Arab junction the Lake Kit, or
| | |Ambadi, begins. The Bahr El Ghazal
| | |traverses this lake, but from this
| | |point its nomenclature changes,
| | |and the river is known as the
| | |“Kit,” or “Keit,” by the natives,
| | |and as such is entered on many
| | |maps. At mile 105, Lake Ambadi is
| | |divided into two parts by a large
| | |grassy island, about a mile in
| | |length, the right channel being
| | |400 yards, and the left 150 yards
| | |wide. Half-way up the right
| | |channel, the large Mayyeh Ahmed
| | |Arabi, previously alluded to,
| | |rejoins the Bahr El Ghazal. It has
| | |a width of 500 to 600 yards here.
| | |The swamps surrounding this lake
| | |are of considerable breadth,
| | |especially on the left side. They
| | |are very low and reedy, and a very
| | |small rise in the water levels
| | |must increase the flooded area
| | |enormously. It is impossible to
| | |calculate the width of the swamps
| | |on the left bank. They appear to
| | |extend for many miles from the
| | |water’s edge. Lake Ambadi has an
| | |average depth of 10 feet, in the
| | |deepest parts of the channel, but
| | |shoals rapidly on either side. It
| | |is evidently the great reservoir
| | |of the Bahr El Ghazal, receiving
| | |the waters of the swamps and the
| | |southern rivers, and slowly
| | |discharging them by means of the
| | |narrow but deep channel of the
| | |Ghazal itself. At low water it has
| | |a length of about 10 miles by an
| | |average breadth of 1 mile; in
| | |flood-time the area must be very
| | |much greater. It is a great
| | |nursery for certain of the sudd
| | |grasses, but chiefly those of the
| | |“swimming” variety. The _Azolla_,
| | |_Utricularia_, _Aldrovandia_,
| | |_Otellia_, and many other kinds
| | |are found upon its waters. The
| | |_Pistia_ is conspicuous by its
| | |absence. Among the reeds in the
| | |swamps a certain amount of _Vossia
| | |procera_ and _Saccharum
| | |spontaneum_ is met with, but not
| | |in such proportion as on the Bahr
| | |El Jebel. The papyrus does not
| | |exist on this lake, nor does the
| | |ambach. Except between miles 35
| | |and 82, the former is not found at
| | |all on the Bahr El Ghazal, and it
| | |only grows in real luxuriance
| | |between miles 65 and 77. After
| | |Lake No is passed, ambach is not
| | |found in the Bahr El Ghazal. The
| | |absence of papyrus and “um sûf” is
| | |probably the reason why the sudd
| | |in this river is so much less
| | |tenacious and is so much lighter
| | |in consistency than than that of
| | |the Bahr El Jebel. [Col. Peake,
| | |however, speaks of the sudd here
| | |as being of a “very tough and
| | |felt-like consistency.”] Lake
| | |Ambadi is the home of large
| | |numbers of the rare Balæniceps
| | |Rex. The evaporation upon the lake
| | |must be very great during the
| | |hottest months. With two large and
| | |shallow sheets of water like Lakes
| | |Ambadi and No, the amount of water
| | |discharged by the Bahr El Ghazal
| | |must be largely reduced before it
| | |reaches the White Nile.
| | |
Kit River | 10 | 114 |At mile 114 the lake stops and the
| | |river recommences. This is the
| | |Kit, properly so called. Its width
| | |here is from 100 to 120 yards and
| | |its depth 10 to 11 feet. The
| | |current is so feeble as to be
| | |almost imperceptible. The Bahr El
| | |Homr comes in near this point. On
| | |the 1st October, 1900, Captain
| | |Sanders found the Bahr El Homr
| | |navigable for 5 miles; after which
| | |it was blocked by sudd. Its width
| | |is 80 yards and depth, 9 feet;
| | |direction N.N.W. Col. Peake places
| | |its junction 9 miles further down-
| | |stream. It appears to have no
| | |discharge in March and April, and
| | |the water shoals so that it is
| | |impossible to explore it. For the
| | |next 3 miles the Kit has a mean
| | |width of 180 yards. The water
| | |surface suddenly narrows to a
| | |width of 20 yards, the remainder
| | |of the channel being filled by
| | |sudd. In this block are several
| | |reedy islands. The country is now
| | |a dead flat in every direction.
| | |Even on these African rivers it is
| | |rare to see an expanse giving a
| | |greater impression of flatness
| | |than does this. On all sides
| | |marshes extend, apparently to the
| | |horizon. It is quite impossible to
| | |arrive at an idea of their area.
| | |In these marshes are many large
| | |lagoons. A little further up-
| | |stream, the channel widens again
| | |from 35 to 40 yards, with a depth
| | |varying from 12 to 15 feet.
| | |Occasionally it shoals to 6 feet,
| | |or less, probably owing to sunken
| | |sudd upon the bed. Navigation at
| | |all seasons must be very
| | |difficult, as the river winds and
| | |twists through the marshes. There
| | |are no tall reeds here; nothing
| | |but floating plants, and the water
| | |is choked with masses of decayed
| | |weed. It is a hopeless morass.
| | |During stormy weather, this place
| | |is one of those where blocks are
| | |often formed. There are no signs
| | |of life anywhere, with the
| | |exception of the Balæniceps Rex,
| | |which are numerous. These horrible
| | |marshes continue for another 6 or
| | |8 miles. Sudd islands separate the
| | |channel, in places, and the width
| | |varies greatly. At one point of
| | |this reach, viz., at mile 120, the
| | |main channel of the Kit was quite
| | |closed in March, 1900. The entire
| | |river was forced through a small
| | |opening, 10 or 12 yards wide,
| | |through which a strong stream was
| | |rushing, and in one place it was
| | |actually barred for 50 yards. The
| | |total length of the block was
| | |about 500 yards. A more loathsome-
| | |looking swamp it is difficult to
| | |imagine. The sudd in this river is
| | |very different from that of the
| | |Bahr El Jebel. It is impossible to
| | |walk on its surface, which
| | |resembles slime rather than sudd,
| | |but which is bound into a mass by
| | |vegetable matter. The chief
| | |ingredients appear to be the long
| | |trailing, swimming plants,
| | |described as found on Lake Ambadi.
| | |It is not difficult to force a way
| | |through it, but the stuff, when
| | |removed, does not float as does
| | |that on the Jebel, but sinks and
| | |decays. Three miles on, the two
Matruk-el-Wabur| 9 | 123 |groups of trees called Matruk-el-
| | |Wabur (“the landing-place of
| | |steamers,” _vide_ Junker) are
| | |passed on the left, about 2 miles
| | |from the main stream. A channel,
| | |at present blocked by sudd, leads
| | |to the landing-place. Matruk-el-
| | |Wabur is an island of dry land in
| | |a sea of swamp. When Col. Peake
| | |visited it in 1898 the remains of
| | |the former French occupation were
| | |visible. The Egyptian flag was
| | |hoisted here on the 28th
| | |September, 1898. Up-stream of this
| | |point, for another 5 miles, the
| | |Kit winds about; the width of the
| | |channel increases, averaging from
| | |180 to 200 yards; its surface is
| | |covered by myriads of water fowl,
| | |the whistling duck being
| | |especially numerous; a few Dinka
| | |are to be seen, who have come down
| | |to the river for the purpose of
| | |fishing and hunting the
| | |hippopotamus. At mile 128 the
| | |channel bifurcates. The Kit itself
| | |runs due south, in the direction
| | |of Meshra-el-Rek. The other branch
| | |has a westerly direction, and
Mouth of Jur | 5 | 128 |receives the water of the Jur
River | | |River, which, again, forms the
| | |outlet for the Sueh and Wau
| | |Rivers. The latitude of this
| | |junction, as observed in April,
| | |1900, was 8° 44′ 50″ north. The
| | |water at the time was so shallow
| | |that it was impossible for the
| | |steamer to ascend the channel, the
| | |width of which was from 600 to 700
| | |yards, with a depth of 3 feet. The
| | |water coming down this stream was
| | |of a dark amber colour, and was
| | |evidently the drainage of the
| | |marshes. A slight current was
| | |visible. The general direction of
| | |the Kit is south or south-west.
| | |Captain Sanders, who visited this
| | |place in September, 1900, found
| | |the Kit completely blocked by
| | |sudd: but Lieutenant Fell, R.N.,
| | |ascended it in November of the
| | |same year, and reports that the
| | |water near the Meshra was “foul,
| | |stagnant, and very shallow.” In
| | |March, 1900, the sudd was very
| | |light, mostly floating, and easily
| | |removed. Above this junction, the
| | |expanse of water into which the
| | |Jur discharges itself has a width
| | |of 400 yards, a depth of 10 feet,
| | |and a fair velocity, even in the
| | |month of March. The marshes here
| | |are bewildering in their extent.
| | |
Navigability | — | — |After 3 years’ experience, it is
| | |found to be impossible for a
| | |steamer to reach the mouth of the
| | |Jur River, and, therefore, of
| | |course, Meshra-el-Rek, from the
| | |middle of April till the middle of
| | |July. In May a steamer cannot get
| | |within 15, and in June within 35,
| | |miles of the Jur mouth. Even when
| | |free of sudd, the Jur is
| | |unnavigable, owing to its
| | |shallowness, from the first week
| | |of December to the end of July.
| | |After strenuous exertions during 2
| | |years on the part of Lieutenant
| | |Fell and others, the Jur has has
| | |now been cleared of sudd and a
| | |channel made for steamers up to
| | |Wau, a distance of 160 miles. This
| | |enables stores, &c., to reach
| | |headquarters by water during 4
| | |months of the year (August to
| | |November, inclusive). The sudd is,
| | |however, quick-growing and grows
| | |from the bottom. Sudd-cutting
| | |parties have, therefore, to be
| | |annually employed during the low
| | |river time to clear a channel for
| | |the flood-time. The average
| | |difference between high and low
| | |Jur is as much as 15 feet; in
| | |flood-time the current is swift
| | |and the river deep, whilst the
| | |reed beds on either side make
| | |towing impossible. Luckily a north
| | |wind helps boats along up-stream.
| | |
Meshra El Rek | 25 | 153 |(Junker made the total distance by
| | |river from Lake No to here, after
| | |1,781 angular measurements, to be
| | |about 135 miles; but it is
| | |difficult to make out his exact
| | |point of starting.)
| | |
| | |Meshra-el-Rek lies on a small
| | |island in a backwater—the river
| | |itself apparently starting in
| | |marsh land, and not yet having
| | |been defined. Island about a mile
| | |long and varies from 200 to 400
| | |yards in breadth. On either side
| | |of the river marshes extend for 2
| | |or 3 miles. Mosquitoes swarm, and,
| | |owing to the stagnant condition of
| | |the river, the water supply is
| | |very indifferent during the dry
| | |season. No natives live within
| | |about 7 or 8 miles. The station
| | |consists of straw tukls—the
| | |hospital standing on the one bit
| | |of high ground. Great difficulty
| | |in building huts, as there is no
| | |wood suitable within several
| | |miles; on the whole a most
| | |unhealthy place. High ground lies
| | |quite 5 miles beyond the marsh.
| | |The French had a fort near our
| | |present post in an even worse
| | |position.
---------------+-------------+-----+----------------------------------
[Illustration: THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.]
[Illustration: THE BAHR EL GHAZAL—MOUTH OF RIVER ROHL.]
[Footnote 107: Natives of the district deny that it was ever visited
by Belgians from the Congo Free State between these years, or in 1894,
as has been stated.]
[Footnote 108: Rainfall at Wau (1904) 25 to 30 inches.]
[Footnote 109: Taken from a report by Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of
Forests to the Sudan Government.]
[Footnote 110: Analysis of ore—47 per cent. of pure iron.]
[Footnote 111: Compare pp. 128 and 145, price of wives amongst Dinkas
at Bor, and amongst the Shilluks, p. 193.]
[Footnote 112: Very plentiful in east, and along banks of Jur and
Bahr El Ghazal Rivers.]
[Footnote 113: _Vide_ also pp. 197, &c.]
[Footnote 114: The Roman Catholic Missionaries who visited the Golos
and Bongos in the spring of 1904, and who now have stations in their
country, west of Wau, express themselves as well satisfied with the
outlook from their point of view.]
[Footnote 115: Compiled from information furnished by Captain
S. L. Cummins (R.A.M.C.) and Mr. R. Türstig.]
CHAPTER VIII.
WESTERN SUDAN.
* * * * *
KORDOFAN AND DARFUR.
SECTION I.—KORDOFAN.
1. _General Description._
The country between the Nile and the eastern frontier of Darfur
consists of vast plains broken in places by clusters of hills, which
rarely exceed 600 feet in height above the plain. In the north,
these plains are intersected by wadis which run down from the hills
and gradually lose themselves in the sand. The country is thinly
covered with low scrub, which becomes denser in the wadis. Towards the
south the khors gradually become less and less, until about lat. 14°
30′ north they cease. Here the real bush country commences, and the
surface of the ground becomes more undulating. There is no visible
watershed, the rain sinking in where it falls.
The northern plains, occupied by camel-owning tribes, consist chiefly
of reddish sand, which, if the rains are good, supports plenty of
coarse grass and crops of dukhn. Should they fail, even the grass in
the wadis does not afford grazing, and the wells give out (1902-03).
In the undulating country between El Obeid and the river the grey gum
acacia (hashab) is the prevailing tree. The soil here contains more
clay than further north. Between Id El Ud and Zereiga on the east,
and Hashaba and Jebel Kon on the west, is a waterless district called
El Agaba, in which grows little but marakh bush and coarse grass.
Between El Agaba and the river the ground falls, at first abruptly,
and then very gently, to the river. The sandy soil gradually
disappears, and along the bank is replaced by a strip of black soil,
in places, 12 miles wide. This soil is rich and is generally overgrown
with thick bush. On the river bank, and as far inland as the floods
at high Nile reach, large red sunt trees are found. At high Nile
these often stand in 3 or 4 feet of water. During the rains this soil
becomes a swamp, impassable for camels in most places, the khors fill
with water, and the roads near the river go out of use. As soon as
the rains stop and the river falls, this soil dries up and cracks, and
until the paths have been used for some time the going is very bad.
[Sidenote: Dar Hamid.]
In Dar Hamid, a large district north-west of Bara, there is a series
of basins running from north to south, divided by steep ridges of
red sand. At the bottom of each basin, locally called a “khor,”
the soil is white, sandy earth, containing much lime. Water is here
found at a depth of from 4 to 10 feet. These khors were formerly
all cultivated by Danagla, who used shadufs or saglias. The whole
district, which extends from Ashaf in the south to Shershar in
the north, is known as El Kheiran. Date, dom, and deleib palms, as
well as limes grow, and in a few places gardens with onions, shatta
(red pepper), rigl, etc., have been made.
[Sidenote: Southern portion.]
Though the change is very gradual, south of lat. 13° 15′ the
plains become more level. They are broken by deep khors with steep
banks, and are covered with thick bush or tall trees up to the foot
of the Nuba hills. Further south the bush becomes larger, until
huge forest trees are met with. On the edge of the khors there are
immense creepers and tangled undergrowth. The soil appears fertile,
but is only cultivated near the hills. The rest of the country is
covered with jungle, and becomes a swamp in the rains, but afterwards
quickly dries up. The timber found is of little value, being chiefly
acacia. Game is abundant. Elephant, giraffe, and antelope abound;
monkeys and birds are found in great numbers in the woods. Snakes
are also said to be common.
[Sidenote: Dar Nuba.]
Dar Nuba is the only part of Kordofan where the scenery can be said
to be pretty, and some of the views of the hills looking over masses
of forest are really beautiful, whereas most of the rest of the
country is wearisome from its sameness. The hills in the north are
nearly bare of vegetation. On all the Nuba hills thorny bushes grow
between the rocks, except on a few of the more isolated hills, whose
summits consist of piled masses of rock devoid of vegetation. They
are terraced for cultivation, by the people, to a height of 300 or
400 feet from their base.
[Sidenote: Hills.]
The most important groups of hills are, in the north, Jebel Haraza and
Jebel Kaja Katul, both inhabited by Nuba Arabs, and Jebel Kaja Serrug
in the west. In the south, Jebel Daier, Jebel Tagale, Jebel Kadero,
Jebel Gedir, Jebel Moro, Jebel Talodi, Jebel Kari, Jebel Eliri-liri,
and Jebel El Joghub, are all inhabited by Nubas.
[Sidenote: Dar Hamar.]
Dar Hamar, the country west of Dar Hamid, and extending up to the
Darfur frontier, consists of gently undulating steppes covered with
bush. In places there are a few low rocky hills, and the horizon
is broken by huge tebeldi trees. As there are few wells, almost the
whole population depends on the water that is stored in these trees
during the rains. Throughout the province, from November until June,
the plains have a dried-up appearance, only broken by the few trees,
such as the hashab and marakh, that remain green throughout the year,
and in the southern districts by the trees in the khors, which can
be traced as bands of dark green, winding through the black hills
and dull brown plains.
[Sidenote: Drainage system.]
The drainage system of Kordofan is complicated. It is doubtful if
any rain that falls there ever reaches the Nile, unless it does so
underground. In the north, the hard sand forms wide shallow wadis,
which, after wandering for a greater or lesser distance, either lose
themselves by spreading over a bare surface, or by striking an outcrop
of rock form a “sink,” which enables shallow wells to be dug,
and gives an excellent supply of water. In the south, the softer
soil and more abundant rainfall, together with, in places, steeper
gradients, cause the shallow wadis of the north to be replaced by
narrow khors with steep sides. But the water eventually disappears
from the surface in the same way as in the northern districts. For
example, the wadi from Abu Tabr and those north of Jebel Derish end
at Shageig, where a plentiful supply of water is to be found all the
year round. Jebel Kajmar also is the natural dam to Wadi El Sigai,
which flows from the south. Habisa is another similar place. In the
south, the Khor Abu Habl loses itself west of Gedid, and further
west, El Sinut, a large lake in the rains, and a swamp afterwards,
is believed to have no outlet.
[Illustration: KORDOFAN ARABS WITH CHIEF.]
[Sidenote: Lakes.]
The chief lakes are Abu Serai, Sherkeila, El Rahad, and El Birka. In
January, 1900, all were dry, but in 1901, El Rahad lasted for the
whole year, though El Birka was dry by the end of December. Abu
Serai always dries up a few weeks after the rains cease. Sherkeila
is said generally to dry up, but was full in December, 1900, and
was expected to last until the next rains. Rahad was also full.
These lakes are said to be all connected with the Khor Abu Habl, but
native information points to El Rahad being the end of Khor Khashgil,
only Sherkeila and Abu Serai joining the Khor Abu Habl. As a proof
of this, in 1902, after the rains, Sherkeila was full and El Rahad
nearly empty. When dry, wells are dug in the bottom of the lakes.
In Western Kordofan there is a series of swamps—Abu Zabbat, El
Sinut, El Seneita, Toto, Kutna, and Burdia—but though in the rains
they are generally full of water, they dry up almost at once, and
can hardly be dignified with the name of lakes. The Baggara Arabs,
who frequent these swamps, dig wells in the middle of them as they
dry up and build up the mouths with wood and earth to a height
of 4 or 5 feet, to prevent the mud and grass washing in during
the rains. In Southern Kordofan there are many such tracts of land
under water during the rains; and Butler Bey (in March, 1902) found,
about 50 miles north-west of Jebel Eliri, a lake called El Abiad,
which although said never to dry up, was dry in January, 1903. It was
(in March, 1902) about 6 miles by 4 miles, and contained excellent
fish. As far as could be ascertained it had no outlet. The only
really permanent lake, as far as is known, is Lake Keilak in the
Dar Homr district, which is about 4½ miles by 2 miles.
[Sidenote: Wadis, &c.]
In many districts the difference of level is so slight that it is
very difficult, except during or just after the rains, to detect
which way the water flows. As soon as the country dries up the wind
and sand rapidly obliterates all signs of running water, and many
wadis can only be recognised by their more abundant vegetation.
In the centre of the province, that is, south of the Helba-Bara
road and parts of Dar Hamar and north of the Gedid-Um Ruaba-El Obeid
road, there is no watershed, and hence no khors or wadis properly so
called. This country is undulating, but the hills seldom have any
general direction; where they have, it is north and south, but the
valleys are seldom of any length and never contain streams. The rain
sinks in where it falls. However, just as in Dar Hamid, every basin,
though without an outlet, is called a khor, so in this part of the
country every depression is called a wadi, and takes its name from
the adjacent village.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
The water supply, which is entirely dependent on the local rains,
is derived from (1) wells; (2) surface water in pools or fulas and
the lakes; (3) tebeldi trees (_Adansonia digitata_), and melons.
The best watered portions of Kordofan, excluding the Nuba hills,
are Dar Hamid, Bara, and El Eddaiya, where the wells can be worked
with a shaduf, and there is enough water for irrigation, and the
basins of El Obeid, Abu Haraz, and Sherkeila.
Elsewhere water is always liable to give out, and towards the end
of the hot weather whole villages are frequently obliged to migrate
to more favoured places until the rains once more fill the fulas.
[Sidenote: Wells.]
North of 14° 13′, except actually during the rains, when pools form
in the khors, the only water obtainable is from wells or holes in the
hills. The former are numerous, but are liable to become choked by
drift sand or to fall in when a sudden rush of water comes down the
khor. They vary greatly from year to year, being entirely dependent
on the local rainfall over a limited area. There are a few places,
such as Gabra, Habisa and El Safia, where the water is said never
to give out. The wells in the desert country are seldom more than
50 feet, and often only 5 or 6 feet deep, being dug in the bed of
a khor, often at its termination, as at Kagmar.
On the Bara-El Dueim road some of the wells are, however, over 200
feet deep, and water is generally plentiful. Further south the wells
become less deep, and give less water. In the valley of the Khor Abu
Habl and in Dar El Ahamda the wells average 30 feet, but the amount
of water they contain depends entirely on the local rains.
The deep wells in Eastern Kordofan are of two kinds: those in hard
soil or rock, and those in sandy soil. The former are generally
5 to 8 feet in diameter and unlined, and with care will last for
years. The latter are seldom more than 3 or 4 feet in diameter
and require constant attention. As they are dug, a lining called
“lawai,” has to be put in. This is made of grass rope in lengths
of about 40 feet. Near the bottom the lining is made of the roots
of trees, that of the “hashab” being considered the best for
this purpose. This class of well requires constant repairing and
cleaning, and seldom lasts more than two years, when the sand at
the bottom “caves in,” and a new well has to be dug. Hence,
where many old wells are found it does not imply that more than
one or two were open at the same time. In these, as in all desert
wells, a dilwa must be used for drawing water, as a bucket damages
the sides. Men must not be allowed to go near the mouth of the well
with boots on. In a few places stone-lined wells exist.
In the Nuba hills the wells are usually big holes, down the sides
of which the women climb to draw water; the art of well-sinking is
generally unknown. In some places, however, the wells are lined with
trunks of trees. When watering cattle the men and women go down the
well standing across it and pass kantushes up and down. This is a
very quick way of drawing water, but, as a good deal is spilt, and
as both men and women are naked and covered with oil and red clay,
the effect on the water is unpleasant. When drawing water in this way
the women protect their head-dress, which consists as a rule of a lump
of clay on each tuft of hair, by putting half a gourd on their heads.
In the Nuba mountains running streams are occasionally found,
notably at Jebel Eliri, Jebel Tira El Akhdar, and Jebel Kindirma,
but their water almost immediately disappears into the soil on
reaching the plains.
In other mountains water is found in large rock tanks often as much
as 500 feet above the plain.
In the greater portion of Dar Hamar there are no wells, and as soon
as the surface water dries up, generally about the end of October,
the natives are dependent on water-melons and water stored in
tebeldi trees.
[Sidenote: Fulas.]
“Fulas,” or artificial ponds, exist near many villages. They
are usually made by damming a khor, but the ground is so porous
that the water seldom lasts after October. The lakes have already
been described.
[Sidenote: Tebeldi trees (_Adansonia digitata_).]
The tebeldi trees (locally termed “Homr”), which are naturally
hollow, and are besides often artificially scooped out, when used for
storing water have a hole cut in the trunk, generally just above a
big branch, on which a man can stand when drawing water. The hole is
about 18 inches square. Round the bottom of the trunk a small pool
is formed. This catches the water during a storm and it is then put
into the tree by means of leathern buckets (dilwas) or girbas. Some
trees, however, in consequence of being open at the top and having
branches so formed that they act as gutters, fill themselves; these
are called El Lagat, and are naturally very valuable. The trees vary
in diameter outside from 10 to 25 feet, and the water-holding portion
is often 20 feet high. The bark is frequently much cut about as it is
used to make rope and nets. The largest trees are not used for water
as the trunks are generally cracked. Water so stored remains sweet
to the end of the hot weather, so that good trees are a valuable
form of property, and are let or sold, either with or without the
adjacent land. Near a town they are a source of many quarrels. On
the main routes across Dar Hamar, _i.e._, from Obeid to Nahud,
or Shidera to Nahud, the Hamar make a living by selling water
to travellers. During the Dervish rule many of these trees were
destroyed by raiding parties cutting holes at the bottom of the trunk.
[Sidenote: Melons.]
The melons, on which whole villages, including horses, cattle,
etc., depend, are small, almost tasteless, and full of black
seeds. The natives grow them on the same ground as the dukhn, or
else separately. When ripe, they are gathered and stored in heaps
for future use. They are also found wild all over Dar Hamar. The
skins are saved and given to the goats when the grass dries up. These
water melons are not the same as the ordinary well-known water melon.
[Sidenote: Produce. Dukhn.]
Dukhn or millet is the food of most of the Arabs. It is grown on
the sandy ridges during the rains, and requires little water. It
will not grow in the low ground as there is generally too much
salt in the soil. It is also given to camels and horses, but is
considered heating. It is easily grown. The ground is first cleared
of grass. Before the rains, about May, holes are made with a crooked
stick (mach-far) a few inches deep and 5 or 6 feet apart, and a few
grains are dropped into each hole, which is then closed with the
foot. As soon as the rains commence the grain sprouts, and the crop
is gathered at the end of October or beginning of November. The heads
of corn are piled to dry before threshing. When the young plant is a
few inches high it is liable to attacks from a large millipede called
surffa. The natives make no efforts to kill this, as they say it only
eats at night. This is an error, but even when it is proved to the
Arab that they feed by day he is too lazy to destroy it. Later on
the dukhn is liable, like other crops, to attacks from locusts and
voracious small birds. When required for food, it is ground between
two stones, the lower one being fixed, the upper rubbed backwards and
forwards. Mixed with water it is baked in flat wafers, called kisra,
or boiled into asida. It is also made into a sweet beer called Merissa
or Um Bilbil. The dukhn of Kordofan is famous for its good quality.
[Sidenote: Dura.]
Dura is grown south of El Obeid, in the valley of the Khor Abu Habl
and Nuba hills. It requires much more water than dukhn. It is cooked
in the same way, and is considered much better food, but does not make
such strong merissa. As forage, it is supposed to be less heating
than dukhn, and being larger, animals are obliged to masticate it
more; this is an advantage, especially in the case of camels.
[Sidenote: Simsim.]
Simsim is grown in small quantities everywhere. The seed is crushed
in primitive mills, made by hollowing out the stump of a sunt
or haraz tree. The pestle has a long arm attached to it, and is
turned round by a camel or a bullock. The oil is used for cooking
and hair-dressing. The refuse is excellent food for animals out
of condition.
[Sidenote: Tobacco.]
Tobacco is grown in small quantities in the Nuba hills. It is wetted
and made into hard cakes and smoked in large pipes by the blacks. It
has a singularly unpleasant flavour.
[Sidenote: Cotton.]
Cotton is grown in many parts of the Province and must have been
formerly extensively cultivated, as the old plants are to be seen
in the vicinity of most ruined villages. It is woven on hand looms
into damur (coarse cotton cloth) of an inferior quality.
[Sidenote: Salt.]
Salt is made in two ways. One method consists in mixing earth that
contains salt with water, allowing the sediment to settle, and then
evaporating or boiling away the water. The other method, which is
followed at El Ghar, and other places where there are salt-water
wells, is simply to boil the water until it has all evaporated. It
is generally of a dark colour and somewhat bitter.
[Sidenote: Iron.]
Iron is plentiful, but now seldom worked. Some is smelted at El Nahud
and Um Semeina, and spear heads, hoes, and axes are made. The works
at Jebel Haraza are not now used. The absence of fuel will always
preclude its becoming an extensive industry. A clay full of iron is
found some 60 miles to the north-west of El Obeid.
[Sidenote: Other minerals.]
Some old workings of gold and other minerals in the Tagale country
have recently been explored, but the result has been unsatisfactory,
and the gold appears to have been worked out. There may be other
minerals in the country, but no details are known regarding them.
[Sidenote: Gum.]
The best gum comes from the grey acacia, called hashab. This is found
between the parallels of 13° and 14°, but is little worked west
of El Obeid, on account of the cost of carriage to Khartoum. The
chief places where it is collected are El Obeid, Taiara, Bint Joda,
Gedid, Um Dam, and Nahud, whence it is either taken by camel straight
to Khartoum or to the river at El Dueim or Goz Abu Guma, and there
put into boats. The cultivation is simple. In January strips of bark
are torn off the trees, dead branches cut away, and, in well managed
gardens, the grass is cut as protection from fire. This should always
be done, as fires, both accidental and incendiary, are by no means
uncommon. As soon as the hot weather comes on, the sap runs up the
tree and oozes out of the wound and the tree comes into leaf. This
“garden” (geneina) gum is collected every few days and taken
into the nearest market. As soon as the rains commence the flow
of gum ceases. Wild gum (wadi) is also collected by people who do
not own gardens, from the ownerless and, as it were, wild trees,
but it is worth comparatively little.
The forests south of the Khor Abu Habl are full of red gum acacias
(talh), but the trees are not worked, as the gum is of little value
compared with the hashab which abounds. The latter is not yet worked
to more than half its capacity, even in Eastern Kordofan.
The following table shows the amount of gum, in hundredweights,
exported from the Sudan, most of which comes from Kordofan, but it
is impossible to say exactly what proportion:—
Year. Cwts.
— —
1879 144,706
1880 135,646
1881 150,861
1899 41,963
1900 60,912
1901 170,781
1902 220,000
1903 191,214[116]
[Sidenote: Ostrich feathers.]
The chief market for ostrich feathers is at El Nahud, where
considerable quantities are collected. The best come from Dar El Zeiah
in Northern Darfur, but few of these come into the market. The Hamar
Arabs keep a few birds in pens. Ostriches have been seen within a
few miles of El Obeid. Ostrich farming on a large scale has been
proposed, but would be difficult on account of the expense of
obtaining food. Feathers from wild birds (Kitala) are longer and
more valuable than those plucked from farm birds (Maata), which,
though cleaner, are shorter and cheaper.
[Sidenote: Ivory.]
The trade in ivory was never very large, and had in 1901 practically
ceased. It is now, however, increasing rapidly, owing to Government
restrictions being removed. Over 50,000 lbs. weight passed through
Nahud in 1903.
[Sidenote: India-rubber.]
Large quantities of india-rubber might be collected from the country
south of El Eddaiya if the cost of transport to Khartoum admitted
of a fair price being paid for its collection. At present it does not.
[Sidenote: Cattle.]
There is a large export of cattle, mostly to Omdurman.
[Sidenote: Imports.]
The imports consist chiefly of cotton goods, sugar, salt, soap,
tobacco, beads and metal goods, such as axes, hoes, and fasses. Blue
and white cottons and muslins, with open-work pattern, are chiefly
in demand, but coloured goods are frequently asked for now that the
sartorial regulations of the Khalifa are no longer in force. The
blacks especially like striking colours, but the dyes must be fast
to stand washing with mud and water when no soap is available.
[Sidenote: Past and present conditions.]
It must be borne in mind in comparing the following account with
former ones, that the Khalifa laid practically the whole of Kordofan
waste at various times, and that when the province was re-occupied
in December, 1899, all the large towns and most of the villages had
ceased to exist. Thus, on the old road to El Obeid from Tura, _viâ_
Abu Shok and Khursi not a single village or well remained, and the
present road from El Dueim to Helba and Bara had to be taken. Bara
was found almost deserted, all the old houses and gardens having
been destroyed. Khursi, once a large place with a market, had no
inhabitants, and has now only a few huts. At El Obeid there was not
a single soul, and nothing was left of the old city but a portion
of the mudiria buildings. Melbis is quite overgrown, and Abu Haraz
is still in ruins. Between El Obeid and Taiara there are now six
villages. In January, 1900, there was not one. At Foga, once the
headquarters of troops and a telegraph station, the ruins can hardly
be traced. At many places in Dar Hamid, hundreds of date palms had
been cut down. Everywhere the destruction was wanton and complete.
The only people who successfully resisted the Dervish occupation
were the Nubas; living in the hills, they closed the entrances to
their villages with defensible walls. They were constantly raided
by slave-traders in the old days and so knew how best to defend
themselves. But although the Mahdi failed to force these hills, except
in the case of a few small and detached ones, the inhabitants all
suffered severely, especially from slave-raiding. Mek Geili said in
1900 that he had lost two-thirds of his people, and, judging by the
number of deserted houses in his country, this statement is probably
not much exaggerated.
Those Arabs who were not taken to Omdurman, and who rebelled against
the Khalifa in 1896, fled after Mahmud’s raids to the Nuba hills,
the Gezira, or Nahud, a place which, though never mentioned by old
travellers, had over 4,000 inhabitants in March, 1900, and a large
market with traders from the Bahr El Ghazal, Darfur, and Wadai. Many
of these people have now returned to their villages, but they are,
of course, greatly impoverished and reduced in numbers.
2. _Inhabitants._
[Sidenote: General.]
The inhabitants consist of Arabs in the plains and Nubas (or blacks)
in the hills. The Arabs are either villagers or nomads; the latter
being divided into camel owners (Siat El Ilbil) and cattle owners
(Baggara). There are no camel owners south and no Baggara north of
El Obeid; in the south they are horse and cattle owners.
Nearly all the nomads grow a crop of dukhn, and in the west, where
there are no wells, melons are grown for the cattle during the dry
season. Portions of these nomad tribes have been obliged to become
sedentary in consequence of the destruction of their herds.
[Illustration: TAAISHA (BAGGARA) GIRL.]
[Sidenote: Villagers.]
The village Arabs own small herds of sheep and goats, a few donkeys,
and some cattle, and sometimes a camel or two. Near the river they
cultivate the islands and low ground, growing dura, beans, onions,
etc. Inland, dukhn, simsim, and melons form the chief crops, with a
little cotton in places. Throughout Eastern Kordofan gum is collected
largely and exchanged for dura or cotton goods.
Very poor after the defeat of the Khalifa, in consequence of two
good years, they are now becoming fairly prosperous. A large area
round each hella (village) is under cultivation; in the gum country,
the gardens show signs of attention, and both the men and women,
instead of wearing the dirty waist-cloth seen when the province was
first occupied, now wear Manchester cotton goods very largely. Silver
ornaments are becoming common.
They have few firearms, and, as a rule, only carry a spear or small
axe, even when travelling.
The most important tribe is the GOWAMA, living between El Obeid
and El Agaba, and owning most of the gum country. The Shankab and
Mesellemia live on the river; the DAR HAMID tribes and the BEDERIA,
near El Obeid, are large tribes, but are now poor. There are several
villages of DANAGLA and JAALIN scattered about. Jebel Atshan and
Jebel Royan are inhabited by ZAGHAWA Arabs, relations of the large
tribe in Northern Darfur, and at Ushut, north-west of El Obeid, there
are a few NIMR from Eastern Darfur. Between Hashaba and Jebel Kon
the BAZA Arabs have many gardens, and near Yasin, half-way between
Jebel Kon and Taiara, the MASSADAB have a few villages.
[Sidenote: Nomads. Baggara.]
The nomad tribes are far superior to the villagers, both physically
and mentally. The various BAGGARA[117] tribes live chiefly in Southern
Kordofan, and only move north during the rains. They occupy the plains
between El Obeid and the Bahr El Arab, and, being constantly in touch
with the NUBAS in the hills, were the chief slave-raiders. Their
occupations are hunting for meat and skins, and occasionally for
ivory, and herding their cattle. They own a good many horses, but when
on the move carry their baggage on their bulls. They always carry
arms. These consist of a large stabbing spear and small throwing
spears. They own a certain number of Remington rifles, but have
little ammunition, and their rifles are generally in bad order, as
they cut down the stock and fore-end to lighten them and frequently
remove the backsight, as it makes the rifle more convenient to carry.
They also carry a broad-bladed straight sword, which, when mounted,
is slung over the high pommel of the saddle, the blade resting
against the side of the saddle under the left thigh. The large spear
(Kibis) is carried in the hand and the small spears (Tabaiig) are
hung on the off side in a kind of quiver (Turkash). Shields are not
used. A few of the richer men wear chain armour. They are by far the
most warlike people in Kordofan, and are inclined to resent being
no longer allowed to raid the blacks. The most important tribes
are the HAWAZMA, between Sungikai and Jebel Eliri; the MESSERIA,
near Sinut; the KENANA, between Lake No and Tendik; the Selim,
on the White Nile south of Dar El Ahamda (a branch of the tribe
situated in the Gezira and Upper Nile Provinces), the HABBANIA, now
a small tribe at Sherkeila. The HOMR, south of El Eddaiya towards
the Bahr El Arab, are a large and fairly rich tribe; and the GIMMA,
near Gedid, the majority of whom, however, have permanent villages.
[Sidenote: Camel owners.]
The camel owners (Siat El Ilbil) are less numerous, and live entirely
in Northern Kordofan, only moving as far south as El Obeid when
the water and grazing further north is exhausted. This depends,
of course, on the rains. In the winter of 1902-03 the Kordofan
tribes were all south of the Shageig-Kagmar road by the beginning
of December. They are by far the pleasantest-mannered Arabs to meet,
being independent, but hospitable and polite, though perhaps no more
honest than the rest.
They live chiefly on camel or goats’ milk (the former is
excellent) and dukhn; the latter they grow as a rain crop or buy with
money earned by carrying goods, or else in exchange for sheep and
goats. During the rains they all go north and east towards Dongola
and beyond the Wadi Melh. Though most of the tribes still own herds
of camels, goats, and sheep, large portions of some tribes live in
villages and cultivate.
Of the camel-owning tribes in the province, the HAMAR, once a large
and prosperous tribe owning thousands of camels, now reduced in
numbers, own but a few hundred. They have a good many sheep and
goats. Their country (Dar Hamar) lies between Dar Hamid and the
Darfur frontier. A large proportion of this tribe have now settled
down in their former villages and cultivate near Nahud, Um Bel,
and all along the frontier between Foga and Taweisha.
The KABABISH still own many camels. They claim the country north of
Kaja Katul and eastwards to Gabra.[118] Their great watering-places
are Gabra, El Safia, Habisa, and Kagmar. A great part of the tribe
under Sheikh Ali Tom suffered very heavily from the Dervish rule,
and for having supplied us with camels in 1884-85, they had to face
the vengeance of the Mahdi when we abandoned the country. Their
cultivation is west of Omdurman.
The SHENABLA graze their flocks and herds in Dar Hamid, but keep
many goats and sheep near Shat. The BENI JERAR, now a small tribe,
generally water their camels at Kagmar, but have cultivation near
Shat, Um Deisis, and in the Busata district. Both the SHENABLA and
BENI JERAR were formerly under the head sheikh of the Kababish,
but separated in Dervish times.
The KAWAHLA live north-west of Shageig, where they water during the
dry season. They own many camels and do a good deal of carrying trade.
[Sidenote: Blacks.]
In the northern hills the inhabitants called NUBA ARABS speak Arabic
and have copied the habits of the village Arabs. They are black and
have woolly hair but their features are more prominent than is the
case with the southern tribes: they are not negroes. They live chiefly
in straw tukls at the foot of their hills, though at Jebel Haraza some
still live on the hillside. At Jebel Um Durrug the ruins of a very
large village can be seen on the north side of Jebel Kershungal (the
highest peak), near the largest well (a crack in the rock). At Jebel
Abu Hadid there is also a large ruined village on the side of Jebel
El Hella. At Jebel Atshan and Jebel Maganus, now entirely deserted
by the Nubas, the ruins of small circular stone huts can be traced.
In the southern hills, as at Jebel Tagale, Jebel Daier, Jebel El
Joghub, etc., the natives are pure, or nearly pure, NUBAS, and speak
Nuba, though most hills have different dialects. But there are also
several hills occupied by escaped slaves. These consist of negroes
of mixed origin, and call themselves after the tribe they escaped
from. Thus at Jebel Eliri there are HAWAZMAS and KAWAHLAS; at Jebel
Krondi, HAWAZMAS; and at Jebel Talodi, HOMRS. They speak Arabic,
and have little intercourse with the NUBAS.
The NUBAS are split up into innumerable tribes, each under a mek,
who is generally on bad terms with his neighbours. Mek Geili, of
Tagale, is one of the most powerful. He is a Jaalin by extraction;
it is not uncommon for the mek to be of Arab descent. Each mek is
assisted by a “kugur.” who acts as chief rain-maker and adviser
to the tribe, his power being dependent chiefly on his astuteness. He
is often the only man who can speak any Arabic.
Living in the zone of good rains they raise large crops of dura round
the base of their hills. They make, in good years, large quantities
of merissa (native beer), and drunkenness is very common. They own a
good many cattle. The men, as a rule, wear no clothing, and the young
women are usually contented with an elaborately plaited head of hair
and a girdle of beads, from which a strip of cotton 3 or 4 inches wide
depends, both in front and behind. But in places the latter garment
is replaced by a strip of dom palm an inch wide. The married women
generally wear either a cotton robe or a goat or sheep-skin. In many
places the whole body is covered with a mixture of red clay and oil;
and each tuft of hair, which is generally very short, is covered
with a lump of red clay to make it stand out at right angles to the
head. Cotton clothes, are, however, gradually coming into fashion
in the less remote hills.
[Illustration: NUBA WOMAN, DAUGHTER AND BABY.]
In most of the hills there are a good many rifles, but ammunition is
scarce. The Remington rifle is the most common, but old Italian ones,
magazine and single-loaders, are seen. Ammunition is manufactured
locally, match-heads being often used as a substitute for caps.
A man who owns a rifle, even if his bandolier be empty, always carries
it for appearance sake. In January, 1900, it was estimated that Mek
Geili alone had 1,500 rifles. The other arms carried are knob-kerries
and spears, but no shields. The blacks chiefly fear being raided
by horsemen when they are cutting their crops on the plains at the
foot of their hills. To disconcert the Arab horsemen they leave the
trunks of the trees about 2 or 3 feet high when they clear the ground,
and also make pit-falls with spikes at the bottom. A horse running
against one of these stumps hidden in the dura gives his rider a bad
fall and enables the fleeing black to turn on his pursuer or escape
to the hills. Their houses used to be always built high up on the
hill, and any gullies or valleys closed by stone walls high enough
and strong enough to be easily defended, but now they are beginning
to build in the plains. They also take care, as a rule, to have water
inside their defences; they were thus able to hold out successfully
against the Dervish expeditions which were sent against them from
time to time. It is also probable that having been constantly raided
for slaves by the Government troops they had discovered the best
means of escape and of defence even before the Mahdia.
It is difficult to say how they will develop now that they no longer
live in fear of the Arab. They are lazy, but have had no inducements
to work. Easily angered, their quarrels do not seem to last long;
in fact, they are primitive children who require constant watching
lest they become unmanageable, and constant protection lest other
races abuse their ignorance, improvidence, or credulity.
[Sidenote: Habitations.]
In a few places, such as El Dueim and El Obeid, there are mud houses
with flat roofs. But the natives mostly live in conical-shaped straw
huts (tukls) or in box-shaped shelters called “rakubas.” The
house is generally surrounded by a thorn fence, inside which the
sheep and goats are kept at night.
Tukls are cylindrical buildings with conical roofs. They are generally
built by driving forked stakes (shab) into the ground in a circle
from 10 to 20 feet in diameter. A circle (kara) of similar size is
then made, apart from the other circle, of strong tough twigs tied
together every few inches with strips of bark. To form the roof,
four poles are tied together at their small ends and the butts pushed
into the kara to form a cone. A small circle of twigs is then lashed
on near the top and more poles placed with their butts in the kara
and their tops lashed to the upper circle. As many more horizontal
bands of twigs as the size of the huts demand are then made, and the
whole frame is lifted on to the forks of the uprights. The roof is
then thatched with dura, or dukhn stalks, and the walls are built
of the same material.
“Rakubas” are box-shaped huts made of poles and covered with grass
or straw. They are useless in the rains but excellent at other times,
as the walls, while keeping out the sun, let the wind through.
The camel-owning Arabs make tents of woollen blankets. They are
exactly the shape of gipsy tents in England. The Baggara tribes make
similar tents, but cover them with mats made of grass or reeds and
tanned ox-hides called “dilla.” The old frames can frequently
be seen on deserted camping grounds.
The Nubas, though they vary very much in skill, generally build
better tukls than the Arabs. The walls are made of either stone,
mud, or wattle and daub, the latter being sometimes ornamented with
a pattern in red clay. The roofs are much better thatched than those
of the Arabs and are given a steeper pitch.
The furniture of an Arab tukl consists of a few bedsteads (angarib),
very short and narrow, and sometimes a mat. The cooking utensils
consist of a grindstone (generally outside the door), a stone to
cook kisra on, a few wooden dishes for food, some flat baskets and
earthenware pots (kantûsh), spherical in shape, for water. Pillows
of wood to support the head are used by the blacks, who go in for
extensive head dresses. Small and very light axes are used for
cutting wood, they are seldom more than an inch wide and 5 inches
long. A dilwa or bucket made of a piece of soft leather suspended
from a circle of wood by strings a few inches long, so that it can
open out nearly flat at the bottom of the well when water is scarce,
is used for drawing water.
[Sidenote: Rope.]
Rope is made from the bark of trees, such as the tebeldi (_Adansonia
digitata_), sayal (_Acacia spirocarpa_), kittr, and usher, which
makes the best.
[Sidenote: Fire.]
Fire is made by twirling a stick of marakh (_Leptadenia spartium_) on
a piece of usher (_Calotropis procera_), or if no usher is available,
two pieces of marakh are used. Two pieces of hard wood are also used
at times, sand being put in the hole to increase friction.
3. _Towns._
EL OBEID.—El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, is situated in
lat. 13° 11′ north and long. 30° 14′ east. Its elevation has
been given as between 1,700 and 2,000 feet. It is built on the side
of a depression in the centre of which are the wells. These are from
60 to 80 feet deep, and give (except from March to June) a plentiful
supply of water for the present population of about 10,000 people,
but in former times, when the population was larger, there were
frequently water famines.
The old mudiria is still standing and has been repaired. Barracks
for a Sudanese battalion and details are being built, and the town
laid out in squares. Most of the inhabitants, many of whom only come
in for the dry season, live in tukls, but a good many mud-brick
houses have been built by merchants. There is a large market, and
a considerable trade is done in gum and cattle.
The old fortifications can still be traced in places, but most of
the old buildings have disappeared.
The town was held by Mohammed Pasha Said against the Mahdi from
3rd September, 1882, till 17th January, 1883, when it fell (_see_
p. 247). It is 158 miles from Dueim on the W. Nile and, therefore,
268 miles from Khartoum. It is 388 miles from El Fasher.
BARA.—Bara is now a small place, but there are excellent gardens
there and a small market.
EL DUEIM.—El Dueim, on the Nile, is the port of Kordofan. Most of
the merchandise for the interior is landed there, and gum is shipped
to Omdurman. There is a good market. (_Vide_ p. 56 for description.)
NAHUD.—Nahud, situated 165 miles west of El Obeid and 80 miles
south of Foga, is a new town of some 7,000 inhabitants. It is not
mentioned in any of the old accounts of Kordofan, as before the
decline of the Dervish rule it was a small place populated by Hamar
and people from the river, such as Jaalin, Danagla, etc., who had
originally gone out to trade in slaves. Gradually people collected
there, so that the inhabitants consist of every tribe in Kordofan,
the Hamar predominating. All the trade with Darfur passes through
here, and there is a large market where cotton and trade goods can
be purchased. Cattle is the chief trade. Gum is not in any demand,
owing to cost of transport. Feathers and ivory are obtainable
in fairly large quantities. India-rubber is brought in in small
quantities. There is little crime there now; the market has been
built, and there are some 40 good mud-brick shops owned by Greeks,
Syrians, Jaalin, Danagla, etc. Dukhn is plentiful. When the town was
first occupied drunkenness was very common amongst both sexes. Dura,
simsim, and cotton are also brought into the market. It is the second
town in Kordofan, and is increasing.
TAIARA.—Taiara, formerly the centre of the gum trade, was destroyed
by the Dervishes, and in December, 1899, consisted of but six huts. It
is now the headquarters of a district and has a good market. There
are several gum merchants there, besides agents of Omdurman firms. The
place is rapidly growing.
4. _Animals._
[Sidenote: Cattle.]
The Baggara tribes have large herds of the hump variety, but they
are seldom anxious to sell them. They are small, but their meat is
of good quality. The bulls are used as pack-transport animals and
are extremely docile. Cattle are generally watered every second
day, but if grazing is scarce and they have to go far from the
wells, it is not uncommon for them to go three or even four days
without water. This applies especially to the cattle in Northern
Kordofan. There is also a smaller humpless variety.
The Nubas own considerable herds but seldom sell them. Like the
Dinkas and other blacks they regard cattle as a form of wealth which
enables them to obtain wives.
[Sidenote: Camels.]
These have also decreased to a terrible extent. The Kababish, Kawahla,
Shanabla, Hamar, and Beni Jerar, who formerly had the whole of the
carrying trade of Kordofan, are now hardly able to cope with it. All
over the gum country Hawawir and other northern tribesmen are to
be found with caravans of camels. The Hamar have almost ceased to
be a camel-owning tribe, and it must be years before the supply of
camels is at all large. The villagers own few camels, and the Baggara
tribes none, as they cannot live south of lat. 13° 30′. In the
Dinka country to the south it is not at all uncommon for people,
especially children, to fly in dread at the sight of a camel.
[Sidenote: Horses.]
The Baggara tribes own a good many horses. Some are ugly animals,
all head and tail, and not up to much weight, but the larger
proportion are small horses, up to weight, good looking and well
bred. The Dongalawi horse is prized, but it is now scarce; horses,
or rather ponies, are also imported from Abyssinia. These are far
inferior, but ridden by Arabs they are more suited to the country,
being very hardy. If trained they can do 60 miles without water
and do not seem to suffer. Their price is generally £E.3 to £E.5,
but a good one runs to £E.18.
[Sidenote: Donkeys.]
There are a good many donkeys, chiefly among the villagers. Like the
horses they can go for a couple of days without water. From Zereiga
to Bint Joda (50 miles) or from Abu Zabbat to Nahud (65 miles)
are quite common marches for donkeys.
[Sidenote: Sheep and goats.]
Large numbers of sheep and goats are owned by all tribes. In the
south there is a small and very active breed which seems to carry
more meat in proportion to its size than the ordinary Arab breed.
[Sidenote: Game.]
Elephants are found in Dar El Homr, Dar El Ahamda, Dar El Tagale,
and Dar Jange. Elephants are very numerous in Dar El Homr from May
until June, when they travel to Dar Fertit and towards Lake No.
Rhinoceros (both black and “white”) are found in Dar El Homr
and Dar El Rizeigat.
Buffalo are found in Dar El Homr, Dar El Nuba and in Dar El Ahamda.
Lion, leopard, and cheetah are found all over Kordofan from south
of Kaja Katul, and are very numerous in the south.
Giraffe are found south of El Eddaiya and are very plentiful all
over Southern and South-Western Kordofan.
Roan-antelope are found in Southern Kordofan.
Kudu are found scattered all over Kordofan; most plentiful in Kaja
and Talodi districts.
Hartebeeste (_Jacksonii_) are very plentiful in Southern Kordofan.
Tiang are plentiful in S. and S.E. and in Kaja and Foga districts;
there is a different species to that found on the White Nile, etc.,
which has been identified as the “_Damaliscus korrigum_” of West
Africa, _vide_ App. C.
Oryx (white) are found in Dar Hamid and Kaja districts.
Ril or Addra Gazelle are found all over Northern and North-Western
Kordofan, but are local. They are not found elsewhere in the Sudan.
Addax are found north of Jebel Fas. Rare.
Ariel are found near Gabra and as far south as Fachi Shoya, but not
very far west of White Nile.
White-eared cob (_Cobus leucotis_) are found on the White Nile and
in Dar Jange.
Mrs. Gray’s waterbuck are found in Dar Jange.
Waterbuck (two kinds) are found on the White Nile and in Dar Homr.
Reedbuck are found in Southern Kordofan.
Oribi, duiker, dig-dig, bushbuck, gazelle (four kinds) and warthog
are found in most places south and south-west of Keilak.
Gazelle (three kinds), viz., _Rufifrons_, _Dorcas_, and _Isabella_,
are plentiful in various part of Kordofan.
The “harnessed antelope” and eland are said to exist in the south.
[Sidenote: Small Game.]
Hares, quail, partridge, jungle-fowl, bustard (four kinds), and
guinea-fowl are plentiful in the south up to January.
5. _Climate and Health._
The year in Kordofan is divided into three seasons, viz.:—
The Kharif, or rainy season, which commences usually about 15th of
June and lasts until the end of September.
The Shita, or cold weather, from the beginning of October to the
end of February.
The Seif, or hot weather, from March to the middle of June.
THE RAINY SEASON.[119]—Towards the middle of June the wind
changes to the south, and heavy clouds begin to collect in that
quarter. These, in a very few days, bring a storm of rain, usually
heralded by strong wind, clouds of dust and sand, and thunder and
lightning. These storms appear every two or three days. Although
a steady rain falls, occasionally for 24 days, it usually comes
in the form of stormy showers. As the result of these showers,
by the end of July, the ground, even in the villages and around
Government buildings, become covered with rank green vegetation,
which defies all efforts to destroy it. The rank smell from this
grass, the numerous frogs, toads, and other reptiles it harbours,
and the general lassitude produced by these surroundings, render
life anything but enjoyable during the day, whilst sleep inside
one’s house is rendered well nigh impossible at night by the steamy
moistures of the air and attacks of sand flies and mosquitos.
THE COLD WEATHER.—Towards the end of September the wind begins
to blow from the north and a great change takes place. The fever
decreases, until by the end of November there are only a few cases
in hospital. The weather is delightfully cool and the breezes bracing
and refreshing.
THE HOT WEATHER.—The heat in El Obeid and Western Kordofan is not as
great as in other parts of the Sudan; the maximum temperature being
rarely above 106° Fahr., whilst the nights remain delightfully cool
until the rains appear.
Altitude above the sea level, compiled by Major Prout, 1876:—[120]
Feet.
Helba 1,381
Bara 1,622 Wells 20 feet deep.
El Obeid 1,919 „ 80-130 „ „
Faki Don 1,743 „ 120 „ „
Hamdaui 1,734 „ 110 „ „
Magenis 1,820 „ 80 „ „
Um Dobau 1,704 „ 15 „ „
Gumburra 1,853
Tibri 2,072
Um Ratali 1,994
Shitangul 1,998
Aboir Tine 1,789
Abu Sinun Hella 1,928
[Sidenote: Health.]
Most diseases in Kordofan may be included under one of two
heads—malarial and venereal. Were it not for these classes of
disease Kordofan might be considered a healthy country.
MALARIA.—The fever is, perhaps, more often of the remittent
type. Those attacked for the first time almost invariably have
remittent fever; the subsequent attacks are either remittent or
intermittent. During January and February, which are otherwise healthy
months, a particularly sudden and severe type of remittent fever has
been noticed. A patient, previously well, will lose consciousness
in the course of an hour, and either die in a state of coma or only
recover after weeks of convalescence. This apparently is the result
of malaria contracted during the rains, as Egyptian and British
officers who have spent a wet season here and afterwards left the
district, have been attacked in this way whilst on leave in Cairo and
England. The good effect of hypodermic injections of hydro-bromide
of quinine in fever of this kind is worth recording.
VENEREAL DISEASES of every kind rage, except in Dar Nuba, where
the people make great efforts to prevent the spread of these
diseases. Travellers should take precautions to prevent their guides
and servants drinking out of their water-bottles.
WATER-BORNE DISEASES.—Of diseases traceable to an impure water
supply there has been a remarkable freedom in El Obeid itself. In
this garrison there have been only a few cases of dysentery and
diarrhœa during the last three years. Amongst the inhabitants of
the country further south, who derive their water supply from rain
water collected in hollows during the rainy season or from shallow
wells during the dry season, this is not always the case, as many
cases of dysentery, tape worm, guinea worm (very prevalent), etc.,
coming from these parts testify.
GUINEA WORM.—With regard to the guinea worm, there is not sufficient
evidence to prove that it is contracted by washing or wading in water,
as the natives state. It in all probability is taken into the system
with drinking water. To avoid this pest all surface water or water
that is likely to have been fouled by the natives wading in it (for
the ova are introduced into the water in this way) should be boiled
before being drunk.
SMALL-POX is still common in the southern part of the district,
and the faces of many of the inhabitants are scarred in consequence.
PNEUMONIA is common amongst the blacks during the cold weather,
and a great many camels die from this disease.
SECTION 2.—DARFUR.
[Sidenote: Historical.[121]]
Darfur was formerly one of the line of ancient African Kingdoms
stretching across the Continent from west to east, of which Wadai
and Abyssinia are the only ones still surviving[122] as independent
states. Up to the early part of the 18th century the Kings of Darfur
had dominion over the country as far east as the Atbara; but the
war-like Fungs, who at that time were one of the most powerful tribes
of the Sudan, gradually drove the Darfurians back, and established
their own authority on the banks of the White Nile. _Vide_ p. 229.
In 1770 they wrested the Province of Kordofan from the Darfur kings,
but five years later it was retaken by the latter, and remained under
their control until conquered in 1822 by Mohammed Bey Dafterdar,
the brother-in-law of Ismail Pasha, who was burnt at Shendi.
After the loss of Kordofan the Darfurians retired westwards and the
kings then governed only a circumscribed area, of which Jebel Marra
was the centre. This is the Darfur that was conquered and annexed
to Egypt by Zubeir Pasha in 1874 and which is the Darfur of the
present day.
[Sidenote: Present boundaries.]
Modern Darfur in shape is a more or less regular parallelogram,
400 miles by 400 miles, and may be said to lie between N. Lat. 10°
and 16° and E. Long. 22° and 27° 30′.
It is bounded on the north by Dar Bedaiat and the desert west of
the Wadi Melh; on the east by Kordofan,[123] the frontier running
from Kaja Serrug (Darfur) in a south-west direction to Dam Jamad
(Kordofan) and thence in a southerly direction to the Bahr El Arab
and Dar Fertit; Dar Habbania and Dar Taaisha belonging to Darfur. The
western boundary leaves Dar Sula and Borgu or Wadai within the French
sphere of influence and Dar Gimr and Dar Tama to Darfur.
[Sidenote: Drainage.]
The watershed of Darfur, which forms part of that separating the
basin of Lake Chad from that of the Nile, runs nearly north and
south through the centre of the country. The chief features which
define it are in the North Jebel Meidob (3,500 feet) connected with
Jebel Tagabo further south by a plateau, the greatest altitude of
which is about 1,200 feet, and further south Jebel Marra and its
offshoots. To the south-west of these mountains, the main peaks of
which rise to an altitude of some 6,000 feet, the plain is about
4,000 feet above the sea.
As might be expected the general direction of the drainage is east and
west. In the north the country is so arid and the rains so meagre that
the water draining eastwards towards the Wadi Melh soon sinks into the
sandy soil and disappears. Similarly, further south the Wadis, chief
of which is Wadi Ko, draining the east and south-east of the Marra
group and which flow generally in a south-easterly direction towards
the Bahr El Arab, an affluent of the Bahr El Ghazal, seldom if ever
discharge water into that river. The Wadis Bulbul, Gendi, and Ibra,
however, which spring from the more southern slopes of the watershed
and also trend south-east, are believed to convey a considerable
quantity of water into the Bahr El Arab during the rainy season.
To the west of the watershed the general trend of the wadis is
south-west, the Wadi Sonot and Kia in the north, with their affluents
draining the hills of Dar Tama, and most important of all the Wadi
Azum which carries the drainage from the western slopes of Jebel Marra
are thought to unite near Dar Sula and to flow, under the name of Bahr
El Salamat, towards Lake Iro, though it is doubtful if their waters
ever reach this marshy swamp which, in turn, drains into the Shari.
The drainage of the south-west of Darfur flows towards the River
Mamun, a perennial stream, also an affluent of the Shari, which,
of course, empties into the southern end of Lake Chad.
[Sidenote: Water supply.]
Broadly it may be said that the country to the north and east of the
Marra range resembles that of Kordofan in its character and usual
dearth of water, whilst to the west, south-west, and south it is
much better watered and more fertile. During the rains water is here
everywhere plentiful, whilst at this season much of Southern Darfur
becomes marshy and difficult to travel over. In the rainy season too
the principal wadis, especially those in the south and south-west,
are perfect torrents, and, although their beds are dry soon after the
cessation of the rains, water is generally to be found in abundance
held up by the clayey strata at a few feet below the surface. In
Eastern Darfur the wells are of considerable depth and at great
distances from each other, especially south of Dara and Taweisha, and
the people are dependent to a great extent on water melons (_batikh_)
and to a less extent on Tebeldi trees (_Adansonia digitata_) which
are such a feature of Dar Hamar, the adjoining district of Kordofan.
The deepest wells are at Karnak, where water is only obtained at
250 feet. At Burush on the Fasher-Obeid road and on the road to
Taweisha, and at Taweisha itself, the wells, which pass through
strata of chalk and marl, average from 100 to 130 feet in depth.
At El Fasher the wells are of no great depth and at the end of the
dry season water is obtainable at 35 feet.
The nearer one approaches the central group of mountains the depth
at which water is found diminishes. At 3,200 feet above the sea it
is found by excavating in the sandy beds of khors, but at 4,000 feet
there is running water which becomes more abundant still further to
the west of Jebel Marra.
[Sidenote: Geology.]
The geological formation is very varied; in the west the mountains
show a volcanic origin; in the north and south granite and sandstone
are the prevailing rocks; in the east the soil is sandy and contains
a quantity of iron, which is worked to a small extent.
In the east and north-east, granite predominates, with the exception
of a strip between Foga and El Fasher, where red and white sandstone
crops out.
In the north, Wadi Melit and the hills in its neighbourhood are of
gneiss. To the north-east of this, granite again predominates at Saya,
whilst still further north, Jebel Tagabo is of sandstone.
Jebel Meidob contains both sandstone and granite; this group has
been much distorted by volcanic agency, and beds of lava are to be
seen in all directions. To its south-west lies Bir El Melh,[124] an
extinct crater, which to outward appearance is an insignificant hill,
but has a depth of about 150 feet. Here is a small lake strongly
impregnated with alkaline matter, while sweet water springs issue
from the sandstone and granite declivities.
The Jebel Marra group is also of volcanic origin; lava and granite are
to be found everywhere, but there is no sandstone; small peaks of pink
granite crop up here and there between these mountains and El Fasher.
Stretching from the main group in a westerly direction for a distance
of 30 or 40 miles is a huge dyke of white quartz with a sandstone
plateau raised some 300 feet above the plain which is itself about
3,200 feet above sea level.
The inhabitants report a large lake of brackish water, from which salt
can be obtained, on the north-eastern part of the mountain; while,
at a day’s journey to the west, salt is also found at Karunga,
and the Wadi Burka is strongly impregnated with soda.
In all the depressions sand rich in iron is met with.
In a southerly direction from Jebel Marra, there stretches a broad
alluvial plain which is dotted all over with peaks of granite,
giving the impression of a range of mountains, buried all but its
highest points.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
The original tribes of the country are the FORS and the DAGO;
the latter ruled for centuries over the entire district from their
inaccessible strongholds in Jebel Marra. Tradition relates[125] that
about the 14th century the TUNGUR Arabs, emigrating south from Tunis,
scattered throughout Bornu and Wadai, and eventually readied Darfur,
the first arrivals being two brothers, Ali and Ahmed, who settled
with their flocks on the western slopes of Jebel Marra. Of these
brothers, Ahmed, nicknamed El Makur, was destined to become the
founder of a new dynasty in Darfur. He became very popular with the
then king Kor who not only gave him his favourite daughter as wife,
but nominated him as his successor to the throne. Accordingly on
Kor’s death Ahmed succeeded to the throne of Darfur, and on the
news spreading to the Tungur of Wadai and Bornu, they flocked into
the country in such numbers as to partially displace the TEIGO. The
only small settlements now left of the former rulers are near Dara,
where there is a Dago sheikh, and also at Dar Sula, a long way to
the west, where there is a semi-independent ruler called “Sultan
Bekhit El Dagawi.”
A regular male succession was now established and a great grandson of
Ahmed’s was the celebrated Sultan Dali, who wrote the Kitab-Dali
or Penal Code. Another noted Sultan was Suleiman who took the name
of Solon, who being the son of an Arab mother and himself married to
an Arab woman, introduced Arab blood into the Royal Family. It was
through him, some 400 years ago, that the country became Moslemised,
and his descendants now proudly boast of their Arab descent and quite
ignore the black element which is undoubtedly there, and which may
account for the bitter enmity which exists between the ruling Darfur
family and the Nomad Arabs of the country. At the end of the 18th
century Sultan Abdel Rahman married a BEIGO girl and her son, Mohammed
El Fadl, became Sultan about the beginning of the next century. The
BEIGO tribe, originally slaves, were from that time declared free.
[Illustration: DARFUR GIRL.]
To turn to more recent times, Darfur has during the last 20 years
been so devastated and depopulated that many formerly important tribes
such as the MAHARIA, NAWAIBA, MAHAMID, EREIGAT, BENI, HUSSEIN, etc.,
have become so disintegrated and scattered that they now practically
cease to exist as tribes and are seldom heard of.
The population of Darfur, prior to the Mahdi’s revolt, was estimated
at 1,500,000. It is now probably less than half that number.
[Sidenote: Furs.]
The MASABAT and KUNJARA, the ruling class of FORS, have their centre
at El Fasher.
The FORS are clean and industrious. They may be found assembled
under trees spinning, weaving cotton or plaiting mats, whilst the
children will be herding the cattle. The men wear a jibba and drawers
of coarse cotton stuff, whilst the women wear a piece of the same
stuff made fast round the hips with the end thrown over the shoulder.
They live in tukls or conical huts, five or six of which arranged
in a circle form a habitation.
Compared to other tribes, they are exceedingly clean feeders and
very particular as to the manner in which their food is served,
though corn and merissa are the main articles of consumption.
They are religious and fanatical, and study the Koran assiduously.
The mountainous stronghold of Jebel Marra is inhabited by the
JEBELAWIN, the aboriginal inhabitants of Darfur.
[Illustration: OLD WOMAN OF DARFUR.]
[Sidenote: Arabs, etc.]
Other important tribes are in the north the ZAGHAWA and ZEIADIA,
in the east the BERTI and KAJA, in the south-east the MAALIA and
RIZEIGAT, and in the south the BENI HELBA, HABBANIA and TAAISHA. The
four last-named tribes are Baggara.[126] In the west are the MASABAT
and TAMA.
In addition to these Darfur has a large sedentary population amongst
whom are found the following tribes: MIMA, BIRGED, BEIGO, and GIMR,
etc.
The present ruler of Darfur is Sultan Ali Dinar, a grandson of
Sultan Mohammed Fadl; he was kept a prisoner at Omdurman during
the Mahdia. In September, 1898, immediately after the defeat of the
Khalifa at Kereri, he escaped to his native country. He now pays an
annual tribute to the Sudan Government by which he has been officially
recognised as its Agent in Darfur.
[Illustration: _By kind permission of M. Venieris, Khartoum._
THE DARFUR MAHMAL PASSING THROUGH OMDURMAN, 1904.]
[Sidenote: Administration.]
The management of the internal affairs of the country is left
almost entirely to the sultan, though the Sudan Government sends
him instructions and advice on certain matters from time to time as
occasion arises. His judgments on all administrative questions are
based on a combination of the Sharia Mohammedia and common law.
[Sidenote: Army.]
The sultan maintains an army, organised on Dervish lines, of some
6,000 rifles, mostly of a more or less antiquated description. In case
of need he could probably mobilise upwards of 2,000 horsemen. His
chief commanders are Mohammed Ali Dedingawi, Adam Rijal, and Kamar
El Din. The greater part of the army is quartered at El Fasher: the
principal outlying garrison (about 500 men) is at Jebel El Hella on
the Fasher-Obeid road.
[Sidenote: Communications.]
Though in 1874 it took Colonel Mason, with a large caravan, from
100 to 150 days to reach Fasher from Cairo, nowadays a letter from
Cairo could reach Fasher in 30 days without any difficulty.
In the old days the telegraph extended to Foga, now the furthest
point to which it is proposed at present to extend it is Nahud,
which is on the western frontier of Kordofan, and about 10 days’
camel ride from El Fasher.
[Sidenote: (1) With Omdurman.]
There are two routes from Omdurman to El Fasher. That most generally
used is _viâ_ El Obeid, Nahud, and Jebel El Hella. The other,
which has hitherto been avoided by merchants owing to the number of
robbers in the neighbourhood of Kaja Katul, and Serrug, lies to the
north of El Obeid, and, after passing the two above-mentioned places,
joins the El Obeid-Nahud route at Jebel El Hella. Both are described
in the route reports in Vol. II.
[Sidenote: (2) With Wadai.]
There are three routes from Fasher to Abesher, the capital of
Wadai. The direct road known as Sikkat El Masalat passes _viâ_
Kebkebia (Darfur) and Bir Tawil to Abesher. This is not much used,
in fact Ali Dinar has forbidden merchants or pilgrims to use either
this or the northern route, as at Kebkebia there is a Fiki named
Senin who has defied all the sultan’s efforts to induce him to
tender his submission, and this road is consequently unsafe.
The northern route runs through Kutum, Dar Zaghawa, Dar Gimr, and Dar
Tama; this is known as Sikkat Zaghawa. Owing to recent disturbances
in Dar Zaghawa, this road is temporarily closed.
The southern route leads _viâ_ Keibe and the Wadi Azum to Dar Sula
and thence northwards to Abesher; this is known as Sikkat Dar Sula,
and is the longest of the three, but it is comparatively safe.
[Sidenote: Trade.]
Trade between Darfur and other parts of the Sudan has increased a good
deal of late. The principal imports from the Nile are cotton goods
(gomash), sugar, and tea; the exports are feathers, ivory, pepper,
rhinoceros horns, and tobacco. The ivory, as a rule, comes from Dar
Jange and Dar Fertit in the south. Owing to the recent disturbances
in Wadai, ivory that formerly was exported through that country has
been finding its way _viâ_ El Fasher to Omdurman. A good many camels
and cattle are imported from Wadai and are exported again _viâ_
Nahud to the Nile.
[Sidenote: Customs.]
A royalty of about 20 per cent. is taken on all ivory and feathers
leaving Fasher, where the price of ivory is from £15 to £16 per
100 lbs.
Every laden camel entering Darfur pays PT.150 to PT.180, and each
laden donkey PT.30 to PT.60.
[Sidenote: Taxes.]
The taxes are three in number, Oshur, Zika, and Fitra. Oshur tax is
assessed at the rate of ⅒th of the harvest, whilst Zika is 2 per
cent. on all property animals, goods, or money.
[Sidenote: Currency.]
The sultan has ordered that the present Egyptian coinage shall
be current in Darfur, but merchants, finding they lose by it,
are not anxious to introduce it. At present the principal coins
in use are “Girsh Kabashi,” 20 of which equal one rial Mejidi,
the equivalent of PT.16.
There are also a few “Girsh Garagandi” in use, these are of the
same value as the “Kabashi.”
[Sidenote: Transport animals.]
Camels are the best transport animals, except in the mountainous
and southern regions, where mules, donkeys, or bullocks would be
preferable.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
The climate, of course, varies considerably. Fasher is healthy. In
the south, where the rains are heavier, there must be the usual
malaria at certain seasons. The climate of Jebel Marra is said to
be cool and healthy.
[Sidenote: Religion.]
The people of Darfur, as a whole, are followers of Islam, but the
negroes in Jebel Marra, the Jebelawin, and those in the south and
south-west have no religion. The late Sheikh Senussi wrote three
times to Sultan Ali Dinar asking him to prepare Zawias for him, and
to otherwise further his doctrine. Ali Dinar, however, considered it
best to politely hold aloof from him, and there are now no Senussiites
in El Fasher.
PRODUCE.
The country may be divided into three sections with reference to the
vegetation, _i.e._, the eastern zone of sandy steppes, the central
mountains, and the western zone.
[Sidenote: Corn.]
In the eastern zone, the cultivation of corn, in the shape of
dukhn and a little dura, is the chief industry. A small quantity
of simsim, cucumbers, pumpkins, and water melons are also grown. In
certain depressions of the ground, where the presence of clay gives
a stronger soil, cotton is produced, but in no great quantity.
The northern part of the country is almost uncultivated; and in
the west, agriculture is pretty much the same as described for the
eastern portion, except that owing to the greater quantity of water,
more vegetables are grown.
The central mountainous district is the best watered and richest,
and accordingly the most thickly populated. Small terraces, upon
which gardens are laid out, are constructed all over the slopes of
the hills. Here barley, wheat, dukhn,[127] dura, simsim, pumpkins,
and melons are grown. In the small water-courses, onions are planted
during the dry season. Honey of very good quality is collected in
Jebel Marra.
[Sidenote: Cotton.]
The cotton grown formerly was excellent. Now very little is
grown. Arabs manufacture from wool a coarse material, but the Fors
are ignorant of the process of its manufacture.
[Sidenote: Salt.]
The production of salt is carried on in many parts of Darfur.
[Sidenote: Camels.]
Camel breeding is the principal pursuit of the Arabs in the north and
east of Darfur. North of 14° lat. camels used to be very numerous;
they are now comparatively scarce. The Zeiadia, Maharia, and Bedaiat
are the principal breeders.
The Arabs who breed camels occupy themselves with no other industry,
and have even to buy the corn used in their households, which,
with camel’s milk, satisfies all their wants.
[Sidenote: Cattle.]
In the south, among the sedentary inhabitants, cattle and sheep are
to be found in abundance.
The cattle are of two kinds: the humped species and the so-called
African species, with long horns. The former are compact, well-made
animals, and become very fat; the others are not worth much.
[Sidenote: Sheep.]
The sheep have but little wool, but their flesh is good; among the
Zaghawa there is a species with long curly hair. Zaghawa is leased
to the present sultan’s sister, Miriam Tajer.
[Sidenote: Goats.]
Goats abound everywhere.
[Sidenote: Horses.]
The Baggara Arabs confine themselves chiefly to breeding cattle and
horses. The Messeria are large horse-owners.
Horse breeding is largely carried on by the Mahamid tribe. The horses
are small in size but very strong, and are said to be able on an
emergency to travel for 60 hours without water. They are chiefly of
a local breed (Tama).
The sultan has a stud farm in the Zeiadia country, with the object
of improving and reviving the breed of horses.
_Towns._
[Sidenote: El Fasher.]
The old capital was Kobe, but at the end of the 17th century it was
moved to El Fasher which is now the chief town. Colonel Gordon in
1877 described it as a most miserable place, though once a populous
and thriving town under the sultans. It is 388 miles by road from El
Obeid, or about 650 miles from Khartoum, and about 300 miles nearly
due east from Abesher.
El Fasher or Tendelti stands mostly on the western bank of the Wadi
Tendelti or Dindil in an angle formed by the junction of the latter
with the Wadi El Ko.
The Tendelti has no current of its own, but is filled during the
rains by the overflow from the Ko, and a dam, constructed near the
junction, retains the water for some time. The wells supplying the
town are all sunk in its bed.
The town now consists almost entirely of tukls and box-shaped straw
sheds. There are about five or six mud houses, and the sultan intends
to build himself a palace, the plans and material for which have
been already sent to him from Khartoum.
On the town side, opposite the old palace, the old Government
constructed a square fort with ditch and parapet. This is now
demolished.
The population of the town was, in 1875, about 2,650. Of these—1,700
were natives, 300 Zeiadia Arabs, 250 Sâbah Arabs, 400 Melha
Arabs. The population is now estimated at about 10,000.
[Sidenote: Dara.]
There are now no other towns of importance. Dara, which used to be
second in importance to Fasher, and the headquarters of a mudiria,
is merely a small tukl village.
[Sidenote: Melit.]
Melit is the name of rather a populous district in the north. Here
there is a plentiful water supply from wells 9 to 12 feet deep in
a khor, which also contains many date trees.
[Sidenote: Tura.]
The ancient burial place of the sultans is at Tura in Jebel Marra.
ROUGH GENEALOGICAL TABLE TO SHOW THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE MORE
RECENT SULTANS OF DARFUR.
* * * * *
SULTAN MOHAMMED EL FADL (died 1839).
|
(1)---+---(2)
+-------------------------+--------------------+---(1)
| | |
Sul. Hussein Hasaballa[128] Sul. Bosh
(died 1875). (died in Cairo). (died 1878).
| |
| |
Sultan Ibrahim. Abdel Rahman.
| |
+------+------+-+--------+---------+ |
| | | | | |
Sul. Sagha Abu El Abdel Hussein Osman Abdel
Yusef (died Kheirat Hamid (executed Rahman, late
(died 1889). (died (now in by Ali O. C. J. Hella
1888). 1890). Cairo). Dinar, (executed by Ali
1903.) Dinar, 1903).
(2)---+--------------+---------------+---------------+-------------+
| | | | |
Abu Bakr. Zakaria. Seif El Din. Nuerein. Imam, &c.
| | |
| | |
Dud Banga Ali Dinar Sul. Harun
(surrendered (present (died 1880).
1898. Now Sultan).
lives at |
Gedaref, |
1904.) |
|
+------------+---+--------------+
| | |
Hamza Ibrahim. Seif El Din, &c.
(Heir Apparent).
\_____________________________________________/
At present attached to the Staffs of the principal
Commanders in Sultan Ali Dinar’s Army.
[Illustration: SHILLUK.]
SECTION 3.—THE SHILLUKS AND THEIR COUNTRY.[129]
The Shilluk nation, the only people in the Sudan who acknowledge one
head as immediate ruler or mek, extends along the west bank of the
Nile from Kaka in the north to Lake No in the south. There is also
a colony along the banks of the Sobat, near its mouth, extending 35
miles up this river to Nagdyeb, and chiefly living on the north bank.
The country is almost entirely a grass country, and as a result its
wealth consists almost entirely of cattle.
A large and increasing amount of dura and other vegetables is grown,
but it is often barely enough for the needs of the population,
and with bad harvests famines are constantly occurring.
[Sidenote: Description of the people. Appearance.]
Physically, the Shilluks, Shulla, or Ojallo (native names) are a
fine race. In colour they are glossy blue-black. The average height
of the men is quite 5 feet 10 inches, and that of the women is
in proportion. According to European ideas they are narrow in the
shoulders and thin in the calves in proportion to their height, but
they are capable of sustaining considerable fatigue on short rations,
and are courageous and moral in their sexual relations.
Every man carries and cherishes a long spear, with a
laurel-leaf-shaped blade and a tuft of ostrich feathers near the butt;
when prepared for war he carries also a knob-kerry, an extra throwing
spear or two, and a light oblong shield of wickerwork or hide. The
hair is twisted by means of a mixture of gum, mud, and cow-dung,
into a series of extraordinary shapes, _e.g._, cockscombs, “tam
o’shanter”-like halos, plumes a foot high, knobs, etc., etc. Few
clothes are worn, occasionally a twist of cloth or a leopard’s skin,
but as a rule the men go stark naked. The women are more clothed. A
large proportion of the Sudanese battalions are drawn from Shilluks,
though no conscription is enforced.
[Sidenote: History and religion.]
The legendary history and the religion of the Shilluks are related
on page 197.
[Sidenote: Character.]
In character they are haughty and independent, and hate foreigners,
according to the lessons instilled by the older men who suffered under
the “Turks,” the Danagla slave-dealers, and the Dervishes. Under
the present regime it is hoped that this feeling will die out. They
are also crafty, quarrelsome, and untrustworthy as a rule; at the
same time they are thick-headed and obstinate; but, as aforesaid,
their morals in relation to women are very good; they have a fine
sense of discipline, and become very much attached to their leaders,
whether black or white; they are exceedingly plucky, and they are
the finest warriors in the Sudan.
[Sidenote: Population.]
The country is thickly populated for its size. Right away from Kaka
to Lake No is a continuous string of villages lying about a mile from
the river. There are only two points in the whole of this distance
at which the interval between villages exceeds two miles, and these
are at the points where grazing is bad (between Akurwa and Nun, and
between Nielwag and Nyagwado). There are, in addition, eight groups
of villages which lie 12 to 22 miles inland, away from the river.
[Sidenote: Villages.]
A careful census of the river villages in 1903 gave a result of
1,010 villages, 8,693 domiciles, and 39,312 souls.
Shilluk villages are invariably built in a circle, the open
space in the centre containing nothing but a meeting-house for
men only, and almost invariably a temple erected to a grandfather
or great-grandfather of the reigning chief. Each domicile consists
usually of three or four tukls, enclosed by a dura stalk fence. The
houses are kept scrupulously clean by the women. A family occupies
two or three huts; one is reserved for the householder with his wife,
another as a cook-house, where merissa is also made, and the third is
occupied by the retainers and children of the house. Dr. Schweinfurth
records the existence of Shilluk villages of 200 huts. The largest
village is Atwadoi, consisting of 120 domiciles, in a district of
the same name north of Kodok. The constitutional laziness of the
tribe does not prevent their erecting very well-built tukls, and
many men are most proficient in thatching the roofs. The crest or
peak of the tukl being completed, the workman descends, and a sheep
is at once killed by the future occupant and eaten by the workmen,
whose reward is completed by a further donation of two sheep.
[Sidenote: Domestic life.]
A wife can be had for a milch cow and four to five oxen, but this
is a high price to pay at present. This purchase money cannot be
collected by many all their lives. The Shilluks keep one, two,
or three wives; a very few exceed this number.
The Shilluk woman is fruitful; there are some with eight or nine
children; three, four and five children seem to be the average
issue. In former times, it is said, the number of children was
much larger.
Having cost the man much money and trouble the woman is well looked
after and treated. Aided by the girls she has she does her house
work. She helps her husband honestly in the field. She is permitted to
remain for weeks on a visit to her relatives. If disobedient the man
gives her a thrashing on the back with a rope end, but this occurs
very seldom.
The education of the children consists practically of the phrase,
“Do just the same as you see me doing.”
The native at home knows of no science or profession, hence
schools and house tasks are out of the question. Girls learn
from their mothers house, field and plaiting work. The boys are
all cattle-tenders. At the age of 13 to 15 years they start the
cultivation of a small field, and grow up to manhood by degrees,
acquiring the means for a house and a wife.
As long as they are young, children are obedient, but they take no
notice of what the parents say as soon as they are able to carry
out any work by themselves.
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
The cultivation carried on during the rainy season requires hard work,
which the Shilluk is not inclined to give except for short periods
at a time. The soil is, along the river, very rich and black, about
12 feet thick, and is named “do do”; inland it is poorer. Owing
to the richness, weeds grow apace, and the land has to be weeded two
or three times to avoid the young dura being choked. When gathered,
thieves, mice, and elephants reduce the stock considerably, and even
when he has produced, by dint of hard work, a fair pile of dura the
native does not use it economically, for he eats a great deal at a
time, gives generously to his poorer friends, and sells it badly.
Maize, beans, melons, ful (ground nuts), sesame, and cotton are also
grown, but in only sufficient quantities for local wants. The cotton
cultivation could probably be extended.
[Sidenote: Cattle breeding.]
The chief occupation of the Shilluk is, however, cattle breeding. To
him it represents property and wives. The amount of cattle in the
country is unfortunately smaller than formerly, for it has been
reduced largely by the depredations of the Danagla, the Dervishes,
and even their own kings. In comparison with the Dinkas they are
poor indeed, for a Dinka will willingly part with 20 or more oxen
and cows for a wife, whereas the Shilluk can only pay one cow and
three or four oxen with difficulty.
The cattle census of 1903 amounted to only 12,173 head of cattle
and 63,473 sheep and goats in the whole country, but they are
increasing. The cattle are large and of a good stamp, and breed well,
but the sheep and goats (the former of whom have hair, not wool) are
small and stunted. Many cattle die every year of disease, in spite
of every care being taken. One-sixth part of the sheep and goats,
it is said, die during the rains, and these animals are especially
exposed, not only to crocodiles, but to glanders and a sort of guinea
worm which burrows between the hoofs.
During the dry season herds migrate to different parts of the country,
the majority of those owned by the central district crossing over
to the east bank of the Nile, to return when the new grass springs
up. Similarly the cattle of the Sobat Shilluks descend to the lagoons
south of the Sobat and graze with the herds of Obai and Fennikang. All
the youths and boys over 10 years old accompany them, leaving their
homes for several weeks.
The grass of Shilluk land generally gives little nourishment. Milk
is therefore scanty. If one possesses even herds of cows the result
in milk is small; curiously enough three or four out of every 10 are
barren. A cow is never slaughtered; like man, it ought to expire by
itself. Oxen are only killed on festal occasions, such as funeral
dinners, etc. Mutton and goats’ meat are usually only eaten at
festival dinners and ceremonies, or when the animal expires; or in
cases of human sickness.
It is therefore very difficult to buy cattle from the Shilluks,
for they cannot obtain wives for cash. It is simply impossible to
buy a milch cow.
Old soldiers who have returned home to their native land, where
they never get a piece of meat to eat, hanker after the flesh pots
of Egypt, where they had meat nearly every day.
[Sidenote: Crafts.]
The Shilluks have their own blacksmiths, potters, thatchers,
pipemakers, surgeons, boat-builders, and basket and hair plaiters.
The blacksmiths are very skilful; they prepare spears, spades for
building, small axes, fishing rods, big harpoons, picks, arm rings,
bells and chains, etc. Their handicraft is a travelling one; they
take their tools and go about from one place to another. The pay of
a blacksmith is good. The employer has to support the man working
for him, and makes him a present of sheep besides.
Pottery is the handicraft of the women. They make pots, pitchers,
heads for smoking pipes in any form, and make them well. They are
paid in food for their work.
The thatchers make not only watertight but also very neat roofs;
a skilful European cannot make one better.
Snake stings and damage from blows or spear wounds are numerous. For
the treatment of these evils the surgeons are called in. In their
work they chop and cut most unmercifully, but although they inflict
much pain they often save lives.
To make canoes out of crooked pieces of wood is the work of the
ship-builders, and, with the poor tools they have, they make fairly
satisfactory boats.
The plaiting of baskets and straw mats is done by both sexes. The
species of grass here being not well adapted for plaiting, the
production is not grand; however, the result meets the demand.
The nimbus-like and other head-dresses of hair worn by the Shilluks
are masterly work.
Families carry on these respective trades for generations, and
the father and mother impart their skill to their children and
next relatives.
Building houses, carving and polishing clubs and spear sticks and
other common work is understood by every Shilluk.
There are villages which are especially distinguished; some in fishing
or hunting, some in cattle-breeding, others in cultivating dura, etc.
[Sidenote: Occupation.]
During the rainy season, old and young, men and women, are busy;
anyone who visits the country at this time of the year would
believe them to be a hardworking people. At this time work is very
fatiguing; no European could do it on such a meagre fare as that
of the Shilluks. Diseases, fever, dysentery, colds, coughs, and
pulmonary ailments are also rife at this season, both among the
natives and their cattle.
During the dry season, however, there is not much to do; at most
there are houses to be built and repaired, and this is done by young
men. The old ones, viz., from 35 years onwards, do nothing but lie
about or pay visits.
At this time of the year Shilluks begin to travel. Relatives pay
mutual visits, and marriageable young men go to the Nuers and Dinkas
with spears, wire, stuffs and dura, which they exchange for sheep
and calves.
[Sidenote: Industries. Fishing.]
[Sidenote: Hippo hunting.]
Fishing is precariously carried out in shallow waters, either by
spearing (horizontally, with bow-shaped fishing spears) or by pouncing
on the fish with hemispherical wicker traps somewhat like lobster
pots. Neither nets nor fishing lines appear to be used. Hippopotamus
hunting is done by combined parties in canoes or dug-outs, harpooning
the hippopotamus and despatching him with spears when he comes to the
surface to breathe. These animals, it may be remarked in passing, are
very savage, doing much harm on the land and gratuitously attacking
canoes, etc., in the water.
[Sidenote: Climate.]
From January to April the climate is not bad, though April is the
warmest month of the year. June to September constitutes the rainy
season,[130] and from October to December the country is flooded with
water: but the marshes and khors all dry up by April. From November
to April the climate, though certainly not perfect, has little effect
on a healthy constitution, provided good food, water, clothing, and
a house are available. October is perhaps the worst month of the year.
[Illustration: SHILLUK WARRIORS.]
[Sidenote: Relations with the Dinkas.]
The Shilluks do not, as a rule, agree well with the Dinkas, and
there are big contrasts between the two races. The Dinka possesses
many cattle and prepares his food with milk, whilst the Shilluk has
only a few cattle and sprinkles his food with the dust obtained from
drying and grinding dura stalks; for this he is despised by the Dinka.
Taken on the whole, the Dinkas are much more intelligent than the
Shilluks. When Shilluk boys are unable to find a reply to the pointed
remarks of a Dinka boy, they raise their sticks threateningly and
say “The Dinka boy has a sharp tongue and must be flogged till
he is quiet,” which generally stops the rather vulgar expressions
used by Dinka boys.
The Dinkas are said to have formerly lived on the right bank of the
lower Sobat, but were driven inland by the Shilluks.
Incited by a few Arabs, the Shilluks in former times used to raid
the Dinkas and carry away their women and cattle. They however live
peaceably now, thanks to the fear they have of the new Government. The
two races now and then pay mutual visits, and also intermarry
occasionally; a certain amount of trade is carried on between them.
[Sidenote: Arab and other immigrants.]
There are a few Selim Baggara in the neighbourhood of Kaka, but
these people appear to visit the district only after the harvest
to purchase dura from the Shilluks, which they are too indolent to
cultivate themselves.
The Kenana Arabs, under Sheikh Faki Hamed, occupy, though they are
not allowed to monopolise, the wells at Atara. They are disliked by
the Shilluks on account of their dirty habits.
Another branch of the Kenana Arabs occupy a village close to
Fadiang. This branch of the tribe dwells in 60 domiciles. Fama
(Sheikh Yogagieb Wad Awell), a sub-district of Nyagir, contains
a mixed population of Nubawis and Shilluks; the former cultivate
dura largely. They were originally driven into this district by the
Khalifa’s people when the latter were at Fungor, and under the
Sheikh Nail they inhabit five villages, consisting of 104 domiciles,
and are subject to the Shilluk Sheikh Yogagieb Wad Awel. In Fama there
is also a Gowama Arab village of 40 dwellings, under Sheikh Abu El
Gasim, who collected these people at Taiara on the approach of the
Khalifa, and permanently settled them in his present village. The
list of immigrants to Fama district is completed by the mention of
the Hawazma Arabs, under Sheikh Abu El Wahab Walad Handigai. From
their own account they are fearless hunters of the elephant.
A sprinkling of Kenana Arabs is to be found temporarily living in
villages as far south as Dusim, and a family or two of Felata hail
from Jebel Eliri, but these are not permanent residents.
[Sidenote: Administration.]
Since time immemorial the Shilluk nation has been governed by a Mek or
King, and the list of reigning monarchs since the beginning is known
to every well-educated Shilluk (_vide_ p. 199). For administrative
purposes the country has been divided for a long time into two
provinces, that of Gerr (sub-divided into Kaka, or Moama, and
Kodok). which extends to Bol (inclusive), and that of Loak, which
extends from Fadiet (south of Bol) to Tonga and Lake No. Each of
the three districts is under a head sheikh, residing in Oriang,
Debalo, and Nyabanjo respectively, and the whole is subject to a
mek or king, elected in a ceremonious manner by all the headmen of
the sub-districts.
Up till the last representative, Kur Wad Nedok, the meks had
supreme power, which appears to have been wielded in a somewhat
arbitrary manner. Wad Nedok was deposed in the spring of 1903 for
numerous malpractices, and his successor, Fadiet Wad Kwad Keir,
is now limited in power, and is subservient in most things to the
Governor of the Upper Nile Province, a British officer resident in
the town of Kodok. (_Vide_ Chap. I, p. 2).
For administration the country is still further divided into two
provinces, the northern and southern, containing 29 districts
altogether; the principal ones are:—
NORTHERN PROVINCE.
Name of District. Name of Head Sheikh.
----- -----
Ashargo Kudyit Wad Edor.
Golo Deng Wad Aiwol.
SOUTHERN PROVINCE.
Name of District. Name of Head Sheikh.
----- -----
Awarajok Lual Wad Agok.
Dusim Amailek Wad Amosh.
Fennikang Akurwat.
Tonga Yang Jok.
[Sidenote: Roads.]
A good track exists on either bank from Delal, south of Kaka,
to Fennikang, south of Taufikia. South of this again many villages
can be reached only by crossing deep khors which are filled with
water all the year round. The Lolle river, nearly 200 yards wide
throughout, flows past the villages of the districts Tonga and
Fennikang. South of the Sobat mouth, a branch of the White Nile flows
close to the villages of Dusim, Tuara, Oashi, Awarajok, and Fannidwai,
and emerges into the main stream at a village named Warajok, where
the telegraph cable crosses the river. This stream is about 13 feet
deep throughout. It is known to old native navigators as the Bahr
El Harami; sailing boats with contraband used to take this course
in preference to passing the Government station of Taufikia.
[Sidenote: Game.]
There is little game in the thickly inhabited Shilluk country
itself. A little way inland, however, elephant, lion, antelope, etc.,
are plentiful, and more especially is this the case near the river
towards Lake No. The neighbourhood of Kaka and north of it is also
a grand game country.
APPENDIX.
HISTORY AND RELIGION OF THE SHILLUKS.
In the beginning was Jo-uk, the Great Creator, and he created a
great white cow, who came up out of the Nile and was called Deung
Adok. The white cow gave birth to a man-child whom she nursed and
named Kola (Kollo); Kola begat Umak Ra or Omaro, who begat Makwa or
Wad Maul, who begat Ukwa. These people lived in a far off country,
nobody knows where. (Bahr El Ghazal (?), Jur tribe (?) according to
linguistic links).
Ukwa was one day sitting near the river when he saw two lovely
maidens with long hair rise out of the river and play about in the
shallows. He saw them many times after that, but they would have
nothing to do with him and merely laughed at him. It should be
mentioned that their lower extremities were like those of a crocodile.
One day Ukwa found them sitting on the banks, so he came up behind
and seized them. Their screams brought their father, Ud Diljil, out
of the river, to see what was the matter. Ud Diljil, whose right
side was green in colour and in form like a crocodile, whilst his
left side was that of a man, protested mildly, but allowed Ukwa to
take away his daughters and wed them, merely giving vent to a series
of incorrect prophecies regarding them.
Nik-kieya, the elder sister, gave birth to two sons and three
daughters, and Ung-wad, the younger, to one son only, named Ju,
or Bworo. The eldest son of Nik-kieya was named Nyakang (Nik-kang
or Nyakam) and inherited the pleasing crocodilian attributes of
his mother and grandfather. Meanwhile Ukwa married a third wife,
whose eldest child, a son, was named Duwat.
On Ukwa’s death there was a furious quarrel between Nyakang and
Duwat as to who should succeed Ukwa. It ended by Nyakang, with
his sisters Ad Dui, Ari Umker, and Bun Yung, his brother Umoi and
his half-brother Ju, acquiring wings and flying away to the south
of the Sobat. Here they found the Shilluk country inhabited by
wicked Arabs, so they drove them out and founded a most successful
kingdom. According to their genealogy this would have been about
1200 A.D., or later.
Nyakang had a creative power which he used greatly to the advantage
of the kingdom. In order to people the vast territory more quickly,
he proceeded to create a people from the animal life he found in
the forests and rivers. From crocodiles and hippopotami, and from
wild beasts and cattle, he created men and women. When these had
brought forth many children, the parent stock was removed by death,
so that the children might not know of their origin.
The new creation and their offspring form the Shulla race or common
people, in distinction from the direct descendants of Nyakang’s
family. The latter continue to bear authority and fill the priestly
function to this day. All outside the royal and priestly line are
accounted Shullas.
Nik-kieya still exists. She never died and never will. The
western part of the Sobat and part of the White Nile near there
is her favourite abode. She often appears, usually in the form
of a crocodile, but at times in different forms and always in the
river or on its banks. No sacrifices are ever offered to her. When
she wishes, she takes what is required from among men and beasts;
and when it is so, the people must not complain; indeed, it is an
honour when Nik-kieya is pleased to take her sacrifice of man or
beast from a family.
Nik-kieya becomes judge also in certain difficult cases, it is
said, particularly in cases of illegitimate children. When the man
accused denies fatherhood, the case is turned over to Nik-kieya. The
disputants are taken to the river bank, and along with them a
goat. They are then put into the river, and the one that Nik-kieya
carries off is judged guilty, and he or she is left in the hands
of Nik-kieya, to be punished. The beauty of this method is that a
consciousness of guilt, added to a belief in and fear of Nik-kieya
often causes confession, and thus the case is ended. It is not quite
clear why the goat is taken to the river. It may be to give Nik-kieya
a chance for a sacrifice without taking a human being, or it may be
because a goat tied close to the river will attract crocodile from
quite a distance. To Nik-kieya are ascribed many wonderful miracles,
and it is feared also that in actual practice she becomes a cloak
for sin.
Around this mythical being and her demi-god son are wrapped many
superstitions, not the least of which is that sacrifices to and the
worship of, the great deity Jo-uk, are carried out by the intermediary
of Nyakang, the demi-god.
[Illustration: EX-MEK KUR WAD NEDOK—DEPOSED 1903.]
[Illustration: SHILLUKS ON A VISIT.]
Jo-uk is recognised as the father and source of all life, of evil
as well as good. He is treated rather as a deity to be feared and
propitiated, but he enters into the small relations of life all
the same, and most incidents, such as death, sickness, going on
a journey, etc., are referred to his action. The Shilluks believe
that Jo-uk is everywhere, and that man when he dies goes to Jo-uk;
but whether anything happens to him in consequence seems doubtful.
To Jo-uk sacrifices are made at least once a year, at the beginning
of the rainy season, and much of good and evil are attributed to
him. This sacrifice consists in the slaying of an animal by the
priest of each village for the people of his village, assembled
at the house of the “Nyakang.” The animal is slain with a holy
spear, and the flesh divided among the people, cooked and eaten. Then
follows a dance, with much drinking of merissa to make their hearts
merry. For this sacrifice and dance, which is apparently the sum of
their worship, there are especial houses. But in each village there
is a small temple, similar in structure to the larger one. In this,
or more correctly, around this, the elders of the people assemble
for the transaction of all serious business, and call their gods to
witness in all covenants. No village is without this small temple, and
it is the only building on which any ornamentation is attempted. It
is called the house of Nyakang, not the house of Jo-uk.
In cases of illness sacrifices are made to Nyakang. The Shilluks
bury their dead inside the confines of their villages close to the
house where the deceased had lived, killing a bullock at the wake,
the horns of which are set up to mark the place of interment.
[Sidenote: History.]
After Nyakang there have been, including the present one, 26
kings. The following is the list[131]:—
1. Nyakang. 15. Nyadok.
2. Dag (Dok). 16. Akwot.
3. Odage. 17. Ababdo.
4. Kudit. 18. Awin.
5. Dokodo (Dakkode). 19. Akoj.
6. Boj (Boiwj). 20. Nedok (Nyadok).
7. Tugo (Tuka). 21. Kwad Keir (Kwat Ki).
8. Nya Dwai (Nya dwi). 22. Ajang (Ajung).
9. Nya Ababdo. 23. Gwin Kun (Kwoe Kon).
10. Muko (Mu Kao). 24. Yor Adodit (Yur).
11. Nya To (Nya Ta). 25. Akol.
12. Nyakong (Nik Kang). 26. Kur Wad Nedok.
13. Okun (Ukon). 27. Fadiet Wad Kwad Keir.
14. Nya Gwatse (Nkwaji).
Kur Wad Nedok was appointed king by the Dervishes as a reward, it is
said, for betraying Mek Yor Adodit to them. During Kur’s absence
in Omdurman, Akol was appointed mek by the Shilluks. Ak Kwo Kwan,
son of Akol, is a pretender to the throne, but has few adherents.
It is related that all kings from Dag to Nyadok were killed by
the Shilluks. Kwad Keir, Ajang, and Gwin Kun fell by the hand
of the “Turks.” Yor fell in fight with the Dervishes. Kur
abdicated. Akol is dead; he is said to have been shot by the
Dervishes. The descendants of the kings are called “Gwared,”
in contrast with the ordinary Shilluks, who are called “Ororo.”
The royal descendants form the upper class, while the Oroko are at
the beck and call of the kings.
The idea of kingship is implanted wherever the Gwared exist, and
the latter are numerous. It is, therefore, not easy to exterminate
the idea of royalty.
Royalty in this country is royalty, both by selection and inheritance
at the same time. It is so by selection because the leading men
of the country select the king from a variety of claimants, and by
right of inheritance, inasmuch as only sons of kings are entitled
to ascend the throne.
The right of accession to the throne is acknowledged as belonging
primarily to the sons of the late king.
[Illustration: SHILLUK VILLAGE SCENE.]
[Footnote 116: In 1904 the amount of gum exported from Kordofan is
expected to be 219,300 kantars. One kantar = 100 lbs.]
[Footnote 117: See table of Baggara Genealogies on p. 334.]
[Footnote 118: Gabra, north-west of Omdurman, must not be confused
with Gabra El Sheikh, near Kagmar.]
[Footnote 119: The rainfall at El Obeid from March to October, 1904,
amounted to 12·16 inches; the maximum temperatures registered in
1904 were 108° in April and 107° in May, the lowest being 45°
in February.]
[Footnote 120: Some of these names are not now recognisable.]
[Footnote 121: Chiefly from “Fire and Sword in the Sudan.”]
[Footnote 122: It was rumoured at Omdurman (May, 1904) that Abesher,
the capital of Wadai, was occupied by the French on the 20th December,
1903. This rumour, however, appears to be unfounded.]
[Footnote 123: For detail of frontier, _vide_ App. G, p. 337.]
[Footnote 124: Not to be confused with Bir El Melha on the Arbain
road west of Debba.]
[Footnote 125: Taken from “Fire and Sword in the Sudan.”]
[Footnote 126: For description of the Baggara Arabs, _vide_ p. 179,
also their Genealogical Table on p. 334.]
[Footnote 127: The dukhn is ready for harvesting 90 days after
sowing.]
[Footnote 128: Mother was not real wife of Sultan.]
[Footnote 129: Compiled chiefly from Reports from Major Matthews, the
Rev. Father Banholzer (R.C. Mission, Lul), and the Rev. J. K. Giffen
(American Protestant Mission, Sobat). The Editor is under much
obligation to Father Banholzer for his kindness in writing him a
special description, and to Rev. J. K. Giffen for allowing him to
make use of his MS. for part of the Appendix.]
[Footnote 130: Total rainfall at Kodok, January-October, 1904,
was 19·4 inches.]
[Footnote 131: From Father Banholzer’s memo. The Rev. J. K. Giffen
gives an almost identical list, and includes an extra king.]
CHAPTER IX.
NORTH-WESTERN SUDAN.
* * * * *
COUNTRY WEST OF THE NILE, SOUTH OF LAT. 22° AND NORTH OF KORDOFAN.
This district readily lends itself to division for description into
three sections, viz.:—
1.—Desert west of the Nile, north and west of Wadi El Gab, including
Arbain road (for detailed report of which _vide_ Appendix, Part III,
Vol. II.).
2.—Wadi El Gab.
3.—Bayuda Desert.
SECTION 1.—DESERT WEST OF NILE, NORTH AND WEST OF WADI EL GAB.
The country west of the Nile from Halfa to Kerma merits little
description. Desert of the most arid description comes down close
to the banks of the river, west of which all is uninhabited and
waterless, with the exception of the few oases, for as far as is
known upwards of 300 to 400 miles. The desert itself varies from
hard, often stony sand or gravel-covered plains, to undulating moving
sand dunes and rocky hills of lime, granite, or basalt. Remains of
petrified forests are occasionally met. The amount of mineral wealth
discovered in this inhospitable region is not yet definitely known.
Here and there a very limited amount of vegetation is met, at some
spot where the water of one of the rare rainstorms that pass over
this district has chanced to collect, but more often one may travel
for miles and miles over country devoid of any vestige of animal or
vegetable life.
The whole of this desert region, including the wells and oases, is
uninhabited. It is, however, visited occasionally by roving bands of
Hawawir and Kababish in search of natron or wild dates, as also by
raiding parties of the Bedaiat, a tribe living to the north of Darfur,
who only recently drove off camels grazing within 80 miles of Dongola.
The following is an extract from a report by Captain H. Hodgson,
February, 1903, descriptive of the country west of the Wadi El Gab.
“Beyond the limits of the Wadi El Gab, on the western side, there
seems to be a belt of country in which water is easily found, but is
undrinkable. Of the two water pans I have tried, namely Murrat and
Butta, the one is very bitter and the other has a distinct smell
of sulphuretted hydrogen—Arabs use these waters medicinally as
purgatives.
[Sidenote: Jebel Abiad.]
“I reached and ascended the plateau of Jebel Abiad at what I reckon,
roughly, to be 100 miles west from the river at Khandak. In 1901 I
found the northern extremity of this range to be 98 miles from the
river at Dongola. It is, on the eastern side, a high steep bluff,
exposing the white rock (gypsum) from which it gets its name. It
extends continuously from where I stood, both north and south,
as far as the horizon.
“The surface of the plateau is shingle and sand; it slopes gently
down on the western side.
[Sidenote: Wadi Natrun.]
“I reached the Natrun valley on the 31st January. It is not
literally a valley, but an undulating plain stretching south and
south-west as far as the horizon. From south-east to north-east it is
bounded by a high range of steep hills of black rock; from north-east
to north-west by high broken rocky ground with isolated conical
hills; to the west, by low gravel hills. On the distant horizon,
north-west, is a high range of hills. Close under the bluff on the
eastern side of the plain are two thickets of selem bushes, growing
luxuriantly and suffering in places from over supply of water. This
is very plentiful and near the surface, the sand being brown and damp,
but it is not the best water in the valley. The southern of these two
thickets is called Melani. An isolated peak in the northern centre of
the plain, called Jebel Kashaf, lies at a bearing of 315° mag. from
Melani. The best water, called Bir Sultan, lies 3 miles from Melani at
a bearing of 278° mag. and due south of Jebel Kashaf. On the ground
called Bir Sultan (which includes an area of about ¼ square mile,
covered with tussocks of Halfa grass, etc.), I found three or four
pans of good water, the soil below the sand being white clay. There
is a small clump of date seedlings near the biggest spring.
There is plenty of evidence of natron in the valley, but the place,
where most of the digging is done and where the thickest seam of
natron is reported to be, is 2,400 yards from Jebel Kashaf and to
the west of it, at a bearing of 310° (mag.). The diggings are in
what looks like a dry salt pan left by the sea, except that the sand
is very red. The method of collecting it is as follows: About 2 to
4 inches depth of sand is cleared away until the natron, a substance
resembling a yellowish rock salt, is reached; the top part is usually
bad, being half sand. Then there is a seam ½ to 2 inches thick, of
good natron, and again below a little bad natron, and then below all
sand again. Sometimes all the natron is spoilt by being mixed with
sand. Near the natron diggings is a large thicket of selem bushes,
and besides this and at Melani, there is a clump of date trees and
selem north-east of Jebel Kashaf and another thicket of “littel”
scrub, besides plenty of halfa, tamam, taklis, and halaf grass etc. A
party of 400 or 500 camels could live some months in the valley
on the grazing only. Good shelter can be obtained from the wind,
and there are plenty of garids etc. to make tukls. Gazelle plentiful.
[Sidenote: Arbain road.]
“The Arbain road lies along very high land, and anyone traversing
the road during the winter months should, if possible, march with
the wind, _i.e._, from north to south. The cold was intense, and
the shelter from north wind nil, as all hills are steep on the north
side and slope gradually away to the south.
“At Sultan, Lagia, and Selima this is reversed, and the hills are
steep on the south side. This change in formation accounts probably
for the presence of water.”
[Sidenote: Game.]
This desert region is the haunt of the Addax, the rarest of Sudan
antelopes. Specimens have been killed near Tundubi.
_Wells and Oases._
[Sidenote: Sheb-Nakhla district.[132]]
NAKHLA.—Situated about 80 miles north-west of Halfa. Named after
the single date palm overhanging the wells. Surrounding the hill
on which this date palm stands is a narrow valley about 80 yards
wide. Throughout this depression water can be obtained at a depth
of 3½ to 5 feet. The water is of better quality than that of any
of the neighbouring wells and is abundant. There is practically
no grazing or fuel here; the latter can be obtained, however, at a
distance of 2 to 3 miles.
HASSAB EL GABU.—About 10 miles west (?) of Nakhla. This well is
situated on the top of a circular sandhill 30 yards in diameter. Good
water is found at a depth of 2 feet, as it may be almost anywhere
between Nakhla and Sheb. Good grass for camels.
BIR SULEIMAT.—11 miles (?) from Nakhla. Good grazing. Water bitter,
but plentiful.
BIR SEDERI.—28 miles from Nakhla. Water bitter. Little grazing. Dom
palm covered sandhills 100 yards from well.
EL HAAD.—33 miles from Nakhla (direction uncertain). No well,
but good grazing on “Haad” grass.
SHEB.—40 miles W.S.W. of Nakhla. Is the southernmost water in
the Sheb district. Well 4 feet deep and same in diameter (October,
1902). Water plentiful, but brackish and aperient. Good grazing and
plenty of firewood. This is a watering place on the Arbain road.
TERFAUI (I).—About 6 miles north of Sheb, situate in a small oasis
in a broad wadi said to lead from the oasis of Selima to the Nile by
way of Kurkur. This valley is bounded on the west by precipitous
sandstone cliffs. There is a group of trees here 250 by 300
yards. Good grazing for camels. The water is drinkable. Immediately
to the west of Terfaui is a pass over which the usual road to the
northern oases of Beris, etc., passes. This is usually a watering
place on the Arbain road.
ABU HUSSEIN.—About 35 miles north-west of Sheb. Consists of a
clump of trees and bush-covered mounds about 30 feet high. There
are three more places exactly similar to Abu Hussein, two being to
the eastward and one to the west. They are all about 5 miles apart
and lie in a general line from east to west. Water may be found
at a depth of 1½ feet at any of them, and here and there between
them. Good water and plentiful. Grazing also good.
TERFAUI (II).—16 miles north-west of Abu Hussein or about 50 miles
north-west of Sheb. It consists of small mounds of sand covered
with long green grass. Water plentiful at depth of 4 to 5 feet,
grazing good, consisting of tufts of long grass, over an area of
about 1 mile by ¾ mile. There used to be three dom palms here,
but these were burnt down by Captain Ross in 1894 on account of the
snakes which infested them.
KASSABA.—The northernmost well in the Sheb district is at Naseib,
15 miles north of Kassaba. At Kassaba the water is not good, but many
old wells point to its having been much used in former days. Situated
in an open plain about 26 miles N.N.W. of Sheb. A watering place on
the Arbain road.
SELIMA OASIS.—Selima lies on the Arbain road about 78 miles south
of Sheb and 55 miles west of the river at Sagiet El Abd. Halfa is
about 120 miles to the north-east. It is perhaps the most important
oasis in the western desert of the Sudan, as not only must caravans
using the Arbain route almost necessarily stop here for water,
but its dates and salt are probably of considerable value from a
commercial point of view.
Mr. James Currie, who visited this oasis in October, 1901, thus
describes it:—
“A most beautiful place. It would be most difficult to find without
a guide, as it is really only a large hole in the desert. The descent
to it is very steep indeed. There are three wells, a good many date
trees, and good grass. One sees the remains of an old Christian
convent, moderately well preserved, but the point of interest
attaching to it is that it has apparently been built out of the
ruins of something much older, to judge from the inscribed stones one
notices. There are abundant salt deposits near, and a huge petrified
forest, which extends further than I had time or inclination to go.”
[Illustration: DONGOLAWI MERCHANT.]
Captain H. Hodgson (February, 1903) writes with reference to this
oasis:—
“Besides the old salt workings, which are capable of considerable
development, there are some 2,000 fruit-bearing date trees. My
estimate may not be very near, but I spent two hours with two
other men counting in order to get this idea, and in this time
counted 685 female trees, and covered only about one third of the
ground. The trees are uncleaned with very thick undergrowth, and
are being ruthlessly hacked in order to enable the Arabs (Hassanab
from Kosha) to get at the fruit. Dates of the following species were
collected: Kulma, Agwa, Barakawi, and Gawa. The first and second
are both of considerable commercial value: the Agwa trees seem the
most numerous.”
TUNDUBI.—For description of this oasis _vide_ Route Report Dongola
to Bir Sultan, Vol. 2. The addax is found near here.
LAGIA.—_Vide_ Route Report Dongola to Lagia, Vol. 2.
BIR SULTAN.—_Vide_ Route Report Dongola to Bir Sultan, Vol. 2.
TURA.—An oasis said to lie about 150 miles south-west of Lagia,
which is approximately 160 miles north-west by west from Dongola. Here
there is said to be a sulphurous lake about ½ mile long, known as
Tura El Bedai. Water, if obtained from holes dug on the margin of
the lake, is said to be tolerably sweet and drinkable. There are
many wild date trees here, for the fruit of which the Kababish and
Bedaiat have been long accustomed to fight.
SECTION 2.—WADI EL GAB (KAB).
_The Northern Branch of the Wadi El Gab._
(_By Major A. E. Turner, R.A., December_, 1884.)
The northern branch of the Wadi El Gab extends from Hannek to the
village of Sawāni, 20 miles due west of El Ordi, or Kasr Dongola.
It is a flat tract mostly sandy, but there are many stony plains and
occasional rocky hills, as well as plains where salt and lime crop
to the surface. The natives collect the salt, and carry it to the
villages on the Nile, where they barter it for grain, etc. There
are many wells, and round these wells the straw-built huts are
congregated, forming villages; there are numerous, and some very fine,
palms, both dom and date, near the wells, and these in some places
mark the site of deserted villages, where the wells have dried up.
The people at the present time (1884) have very few camels,[133]
except milch and young. They have sold a great many, and a good many
are employed by contract between Dongola and Sarras on the west bank.
The villages are all built near the wells, and in deep reddish sand.
There is no ground for cultivation whatever, and hardly any grass
(halfa or other); the trees are palms, acacias (the latter very fine
and old).
[Sidenote: Lagia.]
[Sidenote: Abu Naama.]
[Sidenote: El Mungur.]
Leaving Hafir and the Nile, the road leads S.S.W., crossing a plain
covered with stones and shingle, with scanty mimosa shrubs; at 9
miles a low ridge is mounted, and the Wadi El Gab is visible with
the village of Lagia and its palms 5 miles distant. At 13½ miles,
the ruins of three old buildings are met, one on the west, two on
the south side of the road; one of the latter is a ruined convent or
monastery, and its cells are visible. Many of the palms are burnt,
having been destroyed by their owners who went to join the Mahdia. 4
miles S.S.W. is the village of Abu Naama. Seven miles south-west
the village of El Mungur, which has two good wells.
[Sidenote: Abu Baguga.]
[Sidenote: Abu Halfa.]
Two miles south-west of El Mungur is the well and village of Abu
Baguga, and 1 mile south-west of it that of Abu Halfa.
[Sidenote: Sarari, Dukur, deserted.]
[Sidenote: Ain El Bir, deserted.]
[Sidenote: Mount El Kwais.]
After going 2 miles S.S.W., the road goes W.S.W., and a ¾ mile
further lies, on the east of the road, the village of Sarari, now
deserted, and that of Dukur on the west, also deserted. At 3 miles
further, the deserted village of Ain El Bir, a mile from the road
on our left (east), and just beyond it a solitary rocky hill called
El Kwais.
[Sidenote: Goz El Fugar.]
[Sidenote: Bayuda.]
At 9 miles the road mounts a ridge, and then descends into a sort of
circular basin about 1 mile in diameter, surrounded by low hills. On
leaving this at 10 miles, I saw the village of Goz El Fugar 1 mile
to the left (east), and ¾ mile further I arrived at the village of
Bayuda, on a sandy hill, with numerous palms; a considerable village.
[Sidenote: El Gumra.]
[Sidenote: Zalia.]
[Sidenote: El Kurmotai.]
After leaving Bayuda, the road goes south by east; at 1 mile on the
right (west) lies the village of El Gumra, and 2 miles further, also
on the west side, that of Zalia; at 7½ miles a large expanse, covered
with palms and acacias, with two good wells, is reached, called El
Kurmotai. From this the road goes south-east for 1½ miles to the
village of Sawāni, the sheikh’s own village and chief village of
the Wadi Gab. Some of the huts are built of mud, but mostly of straw.
[Sidenote: Sawāni.]
Sawāni is a very picturesque village with a large open space on the
south side, bounded on three sides by trees, and on the fourth side
lies the village.
[Sidenote: Um Hellal (1).]
[Sidenote: Um Hellal (2).]
The road to Dongola is due east; after 2 miles a low range of hills
is crossed, at the east foot of which lies the small village of
Um Hellal, at ½ mile further, a flat plain with much lime; at 4½
miles (2 miles further), another village, called also Um Hellal, on
the north side, and 1 mile from the road is passed; a mile further,
rocky ground is reached, which gradually rises, and 1 mile further
the Wadi Gab ceases, and the road goes over bare, rocky, and broken
ground to Dongola. The latter is 26 miles from Sawāni.
[Sidenote: Wells.]
The wells are very good, the water is, as a rule, near the surface,
and the wells are lined with stone; the depth of water did not appear
to be more than a few feet.
The sheikh told me that there is no settlement of his branch of
the Kababish tribe south of Khandak, and that all is desert between
that end of his valley (wadi) near Khandak to within a day’s march
of Debba.
----------------+-------------+--------------------------------------
|Distance in |
| miles. |
Names of places.+-------------+ Description.
|Intermediate.|
----------------+-------------+--------------------------------------
Hafir | |On the Nile.
| |
| |The road is in a S.S.W. direction,
| |and is over a plain mostly covered
| |with shingle and a few mimosa shrubs.
| |At 9 miles, a ridge is mounted,
| |whence the Wadi El Gab is visible. At
| |12 miles, the valley is reached; and
Lagia | 14 |at 14, the village of Lagia.
| |
El Mungur | 7 |The road is S.E. for 7 miles to El
| |Mungur.
| |
Bayuda | 10¾ |The road goes S.S.W. for 2 miles; the
| |rest of the way W.S.W.
| |
Sawāni | 9 |The road goes 7½ miles S. by E., then
| |S.E.
| |
Dongola | 26 |The road due E into Dongola.
+-------------+
Total | 66¾ |
----------------+-------------+--------------------------------------
WADI EL GAB.
(_By Col. Colvile, Grenadier Guards, October_, 1884.)
The Wadi El Gab is a sandy khor about 63 miles in length, running
through the trough of a broader and rocky valley. Its general
direction is north-west and south-west. It is inhabited by the Omatto
section of the Kababish tribe, of which Sheikh Fadl Mula Wad Rekha
is the chief. Its most southerly well is Marghum, 30 miles to the
west of Khandak, and its most northerly is said to be 20 miles west
of Hafir. Its only productions are wood and dates, both of which are
plentiful. Its inhabitants do not appear to own any great number of
camels; those to be seen at the various settlements being mostly milch
nagas and their foals. Goats, which feed on the mimosa, are plentiful.
On leaving the Nile at Bakri the road at first crosses a flat sandy
desert, destitute of vegetation; but after 7 miles a district is
reached, thickly studded with low mimosa bushes. In the district
are several Arab encampments, some of them as much as 4 hours’
journey from the nearest water. Fifteen miles from Bakri the country
becomes more undulating, and the surface covered with firm gravel;
and 10 miles further on, a range of hills running north and south
is reached. Passing through a break in this range, the road follows
for 3 miles a valley running nearly at right angles to the main
one, and then strikes the track running down the Gab to the Abu
Gussi-Kordofan road. Passing down a sandy valley, dotted with sand
dunes, and sparsely studded with low mimosa scrub, the most southerly
well, Bir Marghum, is reached, 7 miles north of the point where the
valley first entered. The well is stone-lined, and the water is 20
feet below the surface and 4 feet deep. It is said that the well
never runs dry; the water is good. For the next 6 miles the country
continues to be scantily covered with low mimosa scrub; Bir El Ain
is then reached, and the valley becomes more thickly and heavily
wooded, and continues to be studded with fine acacia timber to El
Sawani. Between El Ain and El Sawani are the following six wells:—
Abu Haweid. El Hudden.
El Bab. Bayuda.
El Harma. El Huffera.
They are all lined with stone, and about 4 feet of good water is
found in each of them at from 3 to 4 feet below the surface. Nine
miles beyond El Huffera, El Sawani, the chief settlement of this
section of the Kababish, is reached. It contains many native huts
and four mud dwellings. This well, like all the others (with the
exception of El Marghum) is marked by a clump of palms.
The road to El Ordi, after skirting the valley for a few miles in
a north-east direction, turns to the east and crosses 10 miles of
broken rocky ground and low ridges. A tract of undulating ground is
then reached, which extends to El Ordi. With the exception of small
patches of acacia in some of the valleys, this district is wholly
devoid of vegetation; it is uninhabited.
WADI EL GAB.
(_By Colonel A. Hunter, C.B., D.S.O., November_, 1896.)
The Gab does not realise expectation, nor fulfil the descriptions
given of it. The hand and sand of destruction is everywhere
visible. The wind, blowing prevalently north or north-west,
rolls the sand along, the sand catches in the tamarisk bushes,
in the roots and undergrowth of the palms, date and dom, till it
piles over the bushes, and reaches towards the top of the palms or
smothers them. The whole place has the appearance of a forest after
a heavy storm: trees lying prone in all directions, but no effort
is made at replanting or replacing. A few seedlings struggle into
existence now and then. The sand moves on, leaving the palms crippled
or dead. I have heard so much of the vegetation and grazing, and
date trees, verdure, luxuriance, etc., of the Wadi El Gab—it never
existed. Ruthless, and judging by events, not altogether unavoidable,
neglect, has diminished the little there ever was. We know it carried
a large head of camels, goats, and sheep, at least so it was supposed;
but, barring goats and a few donkeys, the herds of the Kababish had
to roam “for forty days in the wilderness” towards Darfur and
Kordofan, and northwards to abreast Mahass and Sukkot, for their
food. Water is found at from 12 to 20 feet below the surface; the
Gab averages about 5 miles in breadth, patches of grass and thorn
bush crop up at intervals, separated by rolling hills of rock and
sand. Round the wells there are the miserable straw huts and mud
houses of the tribesmen, with here and there groves of palms; no game
to speak of. Gazelle exist in small numbers, and are very afraid of
mankind. This is accounted for by the fact that the Arabs trap them,
and hunt them with dogs, a breed of yellow greyhound. The trap is
a round hoop, with thin strips of wood tied to the circumference,
and the points of the strips meet at the centre, laid so that the
strips make a slight cone, like the top of a basket. The gazelle
browse on the thorn bushes; close to the bush the Arab puts the trap
in a little hollow in the sand, cone downwards, places on the rim
of the trap a running noose, to the other end of which is fastened
a billet of wood. The whole is covered over with sand. The gazelle
comes to feed off the sprouts of the bush; puts his foot into the
noose; his foot slides through the apex of the spines of split wood;
he kicks to free his foot, and so the noose tightens on his leg,
and there he is, with a rope tied to his leg; he cannot kick off
the rope, for the billet of wood drags the knot tight, and the trap
prevents it slipping down, and the Arab then appears with his dogs,
and chases the animal down.
Twelve miles west of Shemsi is Wadi El Butta, very much like the
Gab in appearance. Addax and wild sheep are said occasionally to
come here in summer. Water is near the surface, and is got by the
animals by scraping. A curious feature is the occurrence over the
whole face of the desert of patches of succulent plants and grasses
which serve as food for camels and for goats.
Sawani to Bayuda, 9 miles. El Bab to Haweiya, 9½ miles.
At Haweiya, or Haweid, a number of wells, also at El Bab. They are
part and parcel of one place.
Rode to El Marghum, the post occupied by the old Sheb post. I asked
about these wells in the Gab, and got always the same answer. Those
existing were dug by their ancestors, so long ago no one remembers,
and ever since no one has been to the trouble to dig or explore for
anything fresh. Well here deep, 18 or 20 feet, and stone faced.
THE WADI EL GAB.
(_Sir W. Garstin G.C.M.G., April_, 1897.)
No account of the Dongola province would be complete without some
mention of this great depression which extends through the Western
Desert from Hafir to Debba, a distance of some 125 miles. It is
chiefly inhabited by the Kababish tribe of Arabs, who use it for
grazing their flocks; and it contains numerous wells.
It has been thought that this depression might possibly be utilised
as a storage reservoir or as a means for escaping the surplus water
in an excessive flood. It is very doubtful whether it could thus
be made use of. The wadi appears really to come to an end a few
miles north of Hafir, and the nearest point to the river to be at
a distance of some 10 miles.
The lowest portions of the Wadi El Gab must be considerably lower than
the level of the river in flood, but by how much it is impossible,
without levels, to say.
On leaving the Nile, in the direction of this valley, the country
rises rapidly for some 4 miles. It then begins to fall away from the
river, in a succession of terraces, until a total of about 10 miles
have been traversed. The real edge of the wadi then commences. Its
width at the northern end appears to be about 5 miles. The western
edge is filled up with drift sand, which is gradually covering
the palm trees. A well, measured at the Oasis of Lagia, showed the
water level to be some 9 feet below the ground surface. The water
was sweet and of good quality.
It would be useful to have the whole of this depression carefully
levelled and surveyed. The area covered by it is very large, and
supposing it were possible to fill it with water, the loss from
evaporation would certainly be very great.
SECTION 3.—“BAYUDA DESERT.”
[Sidenote: General.]
The tract of country north of Kordofan, _i.e._, north of N. lat. 16°
(approximately), bounded on the north and east by the Nile and on
the west by the Wadi Melh has been called the Bayuda Desert, though
this name is not applied to it by the Arabs.
[Sidenote: Inhabitants.]
It is inhabited by nomad Arabs, viz., on the east by the Kababish,
chiefly the Omatto section under Sheikh Fadl Mula Wad Rekha; in the
centre by the Hawawir, of which the Sauarab is the most important
sub-tribe, under Sheikh Hassan Khalifa; and on the east by the
Hassania, whose headquarters are at Jebel Gilif and Jakdul. In the
extreme north, in the angle formed by the bend of the Nile, are the
Monasir, who are, however, a sedentary tribe. These above-mentioned
nomads wander a great deal according to the grazing, on the existence
or absence of which, in many cases, depends the fact of wells being
open or not.
[Illustration: BAYUDA DESERT ARABS.]
[Sidenote: Cultivation.]
The Arabs cultivate their dura in certain well-known wadis, mostly
in the more southern districts, according to the rainfall, which is,
as a rule, not heavy, and very local, and varies considerably from
year to year.
[Sidenote: Wadi Melh.]
The W. El Melh is a broad shallow depression, frequently a mile or
more in width, having its origin near Um Badr. It is inhabited here
and there by the Kababish. It reaches the Nile at Debba, though
it has long since ceased, if ever, to discharge water into that
river. For further description of this wadi, _vide_ Route Report
Dongola to El Fasher, Part III. This route is now seldom, if ever,
used. _Vide_ also report on El Ein, p. 210.
[Sidenote: Wadi Mogaddam.]
The next wadi of importance in this district is the Wadi Mogaddam
which has its origin near Bagbag, about 60 miles south-west of
Omdurman, and joins the Nile near Korti after a course of about 200
miles in length. For description of this wadi and the wells, etc.,
in it, _vide_ Route Report Gabra to Korti, Part III.
[Sidenote: Gabra.]
The wells of Gabra in the Wadi Mogaddam, nearly 60 miles north-west
of Omdurman, are an important Arab centre, there being many wells
and a good deal of cultivation in the neighbourhood. The Arabs are
principally Kababish, but Geriat and Hassania also come here. Gabra
is under the Governor of Khartoum, but the boundaries of Dongola,
Berber, and Kordofan Provinces are all within a few miles of it.
[Sidenote: Communications.]
Communications throughout this district are bad owing to scarcity
of water. The principal trade routes are:—
(1) Debba-Fasher _viâ_ the Wadi Melh (little used).
(2) Debba-El Obeid _viâ_ Amri, Hobagi, and Haraza (used a little
during rainy season).
(3) Debba-El Obeid _viâ_ Amri, Elai, and Habisa (longer than (2)
but more water).
(4) Debba to Omdurman[134] _viâ_ Inderab, Gumr and Gabra (a good
deal used).
(5) Debba to Omdurman _viâ_ Elai and Gabra (little used).
(6) Ambugol and Merowe to Shendi (Metemma) (little used).
(7) Merowe to Berber _viâ_ Sani (a good deal used).
(8) Merowe to Omdurman[134] _viâ_ Hamboti and Wadi Bishara.
(9) Gabra to Korti (little used).
All the above routes except No. 8 are described in the route
reports in Vol. II, and from them some idea of the country may
be obtained. The traffic along No. (7) will presumably increase
considerably on the completion of the Nile-Red Sea Railway.
(_From the Reports of the Surveying Parties employed by
Mr. G. Kilgour and Mr. Fowler, C.E._, 1871-72, _and other Sources._)
[Sidenote: Northern Bayuda Desert.]
The track across the Bayuda Desert, from Ambugol to Shendi, is
comparatively easy going, and is fairly well supplied with water;
but not being a main trade route, it is little used by caravans.
There are no difficult defiles or passes.
The tract of country traversed consists of extensive plains divided
by ranges of low hills. It is very unlike the sterile and rocky
deserts further north, and in many places shows abundant signs of
vegetation. Wadis, pastures of long coarse grass, and many clusters
of trees are met with, whilst, during the rainy season, the ground
is susceptible of profitable cultivation in some parts.
This route is just within the limits of the tropical rains. The wet
season lasts from May to August, but rain never falls for more than
15 days in any year. Sometimes there is no rain for two consecutive
years.
There are no streams, the water sinking into the sand and disappearing
within 24 hours after rain has fallen.
During exceptionally hot days small whirlwinds pass in great numbers,
and carry across the desert sand and fine debris in columns upwards
of 150 feet in height. They have a formidable appearance, but are
really almost harmless. A very large one might upset a tent, but
this performance represents their maximum effect.
The Bayuda Desert is inhabited merely by wandering Arab tribes,
of whom the principal are the Hawawir, Hassania, the Sauarab, the
Fadnia, and the Aonia.
They subsist almost entirely by keeping flocks of sheep and goats,
and by breeding camels, wandering from spot to spot to the best
herbage, at such distance from the wells as enables them to water
their animals. They also trap the gazelle—so plentiful in this
desert; and after the rains a certain amount of ground is usually
cultivated by them, and small crops are obtained.
About 4 miles above Ambugol the wadi (valley or stream course) Abu
Gir debouches into the Nile; this wadi takes its rise in the Jebel
Gilif about 70 miles from the Nile; water is obtainable from shallow
wells along its entire course in its bed; like most of the lower
portions of the Bayuda Desert, it is thickly covered with vegetation.
[Sidenote: Vegetation.]
This consists principally of low “samr” bushes (spreading thorny
acacia), occasional “sunt” trees (_acacia arabica_, 20 to 25
feet high), the milk plant (_asclepia gigantea_), the “marakh”
(a green shrub), the “tundub” (a bush, some 15 feet high,), and
“heglig” trees (20 to 25 feet high, and often with a diameter of
trunk at 5 feet from the ground of 12 to 15 inches), the “mokert”
(_salvadora persica_), and even occasionally the “dom” palm
(_hyphæne thebaica_), of which the “dom” palm, the “usher,”
and “marakh” are indicative of water close to the surface.
[Sidenote: Firewood.]
Best suited for firewood are the “sunt,” the “samr,” the
“tundub,” and the “heglig,” the wood of the latter, I may
mention, being used as the base on which the natives twirl a dry
piece of “samr” root with the object of producing fire.
[Sidenote: Food for camels.]
Camels devour eagerly the younger branches of the “samr,” the
succulent leaves of the marakh (camel thorn) and el gau (camel
grass), both of the last-mentioned being plentiful in the Bayuda;
indeed, this is a favourite district for breeding and rearing hagins
(the lighter and faster class of camels).
[Sidenote: Sheep.]
Sheep, of which large flocks are owned by the Hassania, Aonia,
and other wandering Bedawi tribes of the Bayuda, find, during the
dry season even, ample food in the grasses of the plains near Jebel
Gilif; whilst the fresher shoots of the marakh and tundub, with the
juicy leaves of the usher, provide sustenance for the goats.
[Sidenote: Route from Ambugol.]
The readiest route from Ambugol is to strike for the desert close
to the town, whence an easy slope, some 2 miles in length, rises to
the desert plateau, here some 50 feet above the Nile bank. A shingly
level plain is then traversed for about 3 miles, when the Wadi Abu
Gir is struck, leading right up to Jebel Gilif, with an ascent of
about 10 feet per mile.
The route now skirts the hill Jebel Abu Shenkawi, near to the salt
diggings, and passing another clump of hills, Debba El Kebir, joins
another camel route from the Nile at a point some 300 miles from
Ambugol, where the Wadi Mofokakart debouches into the Wadi Abu Gir.
[Sidenote: First wells.]
This other camel track, after leaving Ambugol, follows the Nile to
near Korti, a distance of some 4 miles, then, turning sharply to
the right, passes by the Wadi Um Marra, and crossing the ridge of
Nasaib El Ruchan, at a point some 300 feet above Ambugol, descends
over rather broken ground to the Wadi Abu Gir, and from this point
there is but one route. At about 37 miles from Ambugol the first
wells are met; these are merely holes scooped in the sand, deepened
as the subterranean waters fall, until either the sides fall in,
or the whole of the excavations are obliterated by the rush of water
down the wadi during the rainy season.
The water is drawn from these, and all similar wells in the Bayuda,
by means of a rude skin bag; it is then poured into earth cisterns,
on the surface, at which the camels, sheep etc., drink. It is so
pure that a small quantity of salt, fairly plentiful in this desert,
is mixed with it.
The wadi at this point, about 38 miles from Ambugol, which has
hitherto been flat and sandy, with gently sloping sides, becomes
much broken. Small metamorphic ridges, hills, and lava-like mounds
close in, and petrified wood is strewn in all directions, showing
that the belt of metamorphic rock that intervenes between the lower
Nubian sandstone and the extensive granite rocks is being traversed.
[Sidenote: El Haweiyat wells.]
[Sidenote: El Mesalima.]
About 55 miles from Ambugol are the wells of El Haweiyat, of similar
character to those described above; the plain of El Rechewa is left
on the right, and quitting the Wadi Abu Gir, which turns abruptly
to the left, the route crosses a curious plain, about 3 to 4 miles
wide, called El Mesalima. This plain is surrounded by low hills,
and without vegetation; it is intersected by veins of mountain
limestone, much resembling marble, and I here found fossil remains
of the Saurian type.
Leaving El Mesalima, the route now crosses the plain at the southern
foot of the Jebel Gilif, passing across watercourses which, in the
rainy season, carry off the drainage from the mountains. These streams
issue from wild gorges, and are said to drain extensive plains,
20 or 30 miles distant; a statement corroborated by the fact that
they bring with them much brushwood and small timber.
After issuing from the gorges these streams wander at will, cutting
constant new channels over an irregular talus of boulders and debris
they bring with them; at the foot of this talus, they collect and run
down defined sandy channels from 1 to 3 miles long, whose permanent
character is proved by their tree-covered banks; these large channels
then break up into a number of smaller diverging channels, which lose
themselves in a grass-covered plain to the south, fairly covered with
trees and brushwood, and about 8 miles across; this plain is said
to be covered with water during the rains to a depth of 3 or 4 feet.
[Sidenote: Abu Halfa wells.]
Water may be procured in any of these sandy channels by digging holes
as described above; and at Abu Halfa, about 90 miles from Ambugol,
are large wells of this description, at which large numbers of camels
and flocks are daily watered.
After passing numerous pools of water still standing in basins
worn out of the granite bed, the gorge, at a distance of some 7 or
8 miles from the entrance, widened out into a valley about ½ mile
across; here there was a small lake, the edges fringed with bulrushes
and dom palms, whilst the native huts, flocks, and even birds and
conies showed the permanent character of the lake. I heard that many
similar lakes exist in the recess of the Jebel Gilif, but the Arabs
are extremely reticent on this point.
[Sidenote: Jebel Gilif range.]
[Sidenote: Jakdul wells.]
At about 79 miles from Ambugol the Jebel Gilif range, with its uniform
precipitous face, breaks up into outlying spurs with intermediate
plains. In one of these spurs, about 2 miles to the north of the
route and 100 miles from Ambugol, are situate the wells of Jakdul;
these consist of water-worn basins in the bottom of a granite gorge
of similar character to those mentioned above. The largest of the
pools is some 60 yards long and 10 yards broad, and it is stated
never to have run dry.
The water is sweet, but the lower pools are much contaminated by the
flocks constantly using them, and the sight of thousands of beetles
issuing from the water at dusk is not inviting.
The upper pools, however, are much cleaner, and with care an ample
supply of excellent water might be ensured.
No doubt there are many other reservoirs up this gorge as at Abu
Halfa.
[Sidenote: El Faar wells.]
To the eastward of the wells of Jakdul, and about 8 miles from the
camel track, are the wells of El Faar, consisting of holes dug in
a sandy water-channel similar to those of the Wadi Abu Gir.
With Jebel Gilif the granite rocks are left, and the route traverses
the upper Nubian sandstone, simple and metamorphic, to the river at
Shendi, or rather Metemma.
[Sidenote: 115th to 125th mile.]
Between the 115th and 125th mile the route crosses a belt of
drift-sand hills travelling from east to west, these are of the usual
type, _i.e._, a crescent presenting its convex side and gentle slope
to the wind; up this slope the sand is driven to the apex, whence,
falling over and remaining at its natural angle of repose on the
concave side, the hill gradually but surely advances, the highest
of the sand hills in this locality are about 13 feet high, their
rate of progress depending entirely on the strength of the wind;
to a camel they are no obstacle as it winds amongst them at will.
[Sidenote: Abu Klea or Tleh wells.]
At 150 miles from Ambugol are the wells of Abu Klea, or strictly
speaking Abu Tleh (Tleh equals a particular kind of grass), artificial
pits of similar character to those already described; the water is
good and rarely fails; they require of course frequent cleaning out.
[Sidenote: Shebakat wells.]
At Shebakat, near the 168th mile, is a large well about 12 feet in
diameter, sunk to a depth of 50 feet through the sandstone to a bed of
water-bearing gravel; the water is brackish but the supply perennial.
[Sidenote: Metemma.]
At 175 miles from Ambugol, Metemma is reached; the town is about 1
mile from the Nile, but the plain between is occasionally flooded. The
water supply is from wells kept up by percolation from the river,
and is therefore excellent.
Hence to Khartoum, as stated above, the river is navigable for nearly
the entire year, _vide_ Chap. X.
[Sidenote: Rainy season.]
The rainy season in the Bayuda Desert is uncertain, as this is the
extreme northern range of the tropical monsoon; there may be showers
in May, but the true rains fall in June, July, or August. Some years
may pass without any at all, and then a perfect deluge floods the
country and refills the pools and wells.
[Sidenote: Water.]
The conformation of the Jebel Gilif is such, that notwithstanding the
large amount of water running off during the rains, a considerable
quantity is stored at high levels, gradually finding its way into the
sand-filled wadis, through permeable granite augites and diorites,
of which Jebel Gilif is composed.
[Sidenote: Sinking wells.]
These wadis are crossed at intervals by spurs of trap rock, that
serve the double purpose of keeping up the level of the wadi, which
would otherwise rapidly degrade, and of affording, so to speak,
“artesian” vents, up which the water, confined between the beds
of the “Nubian” sandstone below, finds its way into the loose
sand above. In sinking wells, spots should be selected where the
vegetation in the wadis is of a brighter hue, and where heglig and
the dom palm exist. In December, 1871, water was found in many such
places, never more than 15 feet below the surface. The trap dyke in
the vicinity will provide any quantity of fairly bedded stone with
which to line the sandy sides of the well; the way I should suggest,
would be, in the first place, to dig through the sand until water
be reached, and then to excavate the ground in a circle of say, 24
feet diameter, lining it with a dry stone wall 3 feet in thickness,
in this should be built, at intervals, pieces of hard wood, of which
there is a large quantity, in order to form a rude ladder; as soon as
the water is reached, a Norton’s tube pump should be driven some
6 feet or more; this will prevent the accumulation of insect life,
to be found in any open pools in the vicinity, and prevent other
pollution; then, when this runs dry, the excavation should be again
carried down to the lowering water level, and a well of internal
diameter of 14 feet be built with a dry stone wall of say, 2 feet
thick (the word in India for this form of well is “butcha”),
the Norton tube driven down, and the process repeated as the waters
lower. Were it possible to procure lime readily, the well might
be sunk from the top, as is so habitually done in India, but the
only limestone found in the Bayuda is at the plain of El Mesalima,
as mentioned above.
The stone near these wells, and of which as described above, the
supply will be practically unlimited, may be used in constructing
defensive works, whilst there will be in their neighbourhood large
quantities of fuel, and a considerable amount of bush that will
serve as fodder for the camels.
A considerable quantity of sheep, milk, etc., may be procured from
the neighbouring tribes.
[Sidenote: Jebel Gilif.]
The Jebel Gilif presents a certain source of danger (during
the expedition, 1884): this consists of, in places, an almost
precipitous face of some hundreds of feet in height, at the foot
is an irregular talus formed by the degradation of the face, and
by the stones and boulders brought down the “khors” (ravines)
with which it is intersected. These “khors” are, in many places,
near their debouchure from the mountains, very narrow (in places
only one camel can pass at a time), with steeply precipitous sides,
the bottom being of granite rock, polished by the materials carried
down in the torrents of the rainy season, and in many places half
blocked up with boulders and _débris_. As these “khors” rise
to the level of the range they widen out into valleys, well supplied
with wood, water, forage, etc., where large numbers of men could be
kept concealed for a considerable period.
_Report on El Ein._
[Sidenote: Situation.]
El Ein is situated about 130 miles from Debba up the Wadi El Melh. The
general trend up the wadi is S.S.W. At El Ein on the western bank,
for some 60 miles northwards and a short distance southwards, is a
precipitous escarpment of rugged outline, but extremely uniform in
height, known as Jebel Makakush. El Ein is a gorge in this, the
northern promontory of which is surmounted by a rock of curious
shape and is called El Serg.
There are two places where water is obtainable along the route from
Debba to El Ein, one called Mahtul about 30 miles from Debba has
two wells, and the other is Soteir another 30 miles further on. The
latter is the better water, but the quantity is small. On the arrival
of the writer the well had been emptied by watering a troop of camels,
and his men stated there was not enough water to fill waterskins for
from two to three hours. At El Ein there is good and abundant water,
while grazing may be found almost anywhere along the Wadi El Melh,
but from about 30 miles south of Soteir it lies only along the
western side, and is much less abundant than further north.
[Sidenote: Geology.]
The formation at El Ein is a series of undisturbed sedimentary beds
lying horizontally, most of which are sandstones or grits. This
overlies unconformably a much older series of gneisses and schists
which are exposed in the lower parts of the Wadi El Melh along the
foot of the Makakush escarpment a few miles north of El Ein.
The sandstone series is continuous all the way to Debba, and extends
over very large tracts of the Sudan.
[Sidenote: Mineral deposits.]
There are no indications of any mineral deposits of value at El Ein
in any of the beds exposed.
[Sidenote: Old workings.]
At several points, especially along the sides and just above the
stream-bed, there are natural caves in the sandstone. For some
little distance a very soft underlying bed has been weathered away
undermining a harder upper one, the unsupported portions of which
have broken off and fallen, or cracked and bent over, leaving open
gashes. The general appearance of all this very much resembles that
of an ancient shaft nearly filled up with _débris_, though a careful
examination leaves no doubt that the phenomena are natural.
[Sidenote: Ancient buildings.]
On either side of the gorge about opposite the well is a cluster
of ancient houses, while on a hill some way up the gorge and on the
south side are some five more.
The houses are all of similar design approximately round, and are
well built, without mortar, of unhewn stone laid in courses; the
walls are about 2 feet thick, and many of the stones are of great
size. The doorways of most of them face down the valley, but a few
are on the opposite side. Many have additional rooms built forming
segments of circles.
These buildings are more substantial, and differ in other respects
from those usually seen round ancient mines in the Sudan. The only
implements noted were two crushing stones; these, however, have not
been used for crushing quartz (the matrix in which gold usually lies),
being of ordinary millstone and not hard enough for that purpose. They
were in all probability only the usual stones for crushing grain.
Across the entrance to the gorge is a wall probably originally 6
to 8 feet high, but now in ruins. It is built of unhewn stones,
fairly well coursed, without mortar. The sides are vertical. This
runs across the flat space at the entrance to the gorge and a little
way up the northern slope. The stream bed lies in a creek some 15
feet below the level of the ground on which the wall stands, and
there is no evidence of this waterway ever having been blocked.
In view of this as well as of the general construction of the wall,
it is impossible that the structure was a dam, but I should imagine
it was probably built for defence, and the gorge was used as a place
of refuge against marauding bands by a people whose flocks usually
grazed in the valley below.
[Footnote 132: This district is not actually in the Sudan, but owing
to its proximity to Halfa, some description of the wells in it is
given here.]
[Footnote 133: This remark applies equally now (1903).]
[Footnote 134: Cost of camel transport by this route varies from 55
P.T. to 75 P.T. per kantar.]
CHAPTER X.
* * * * *
COMMUNICATIONS.
Communications in the Sudan are carried on by:—
A.—Railway. D.—Riding and Transport animals
B.—River. E.—Post and telegraph.
C.—Roads.
There is no wheeled transport, except a few carts in the larger
towns drawn by camels, mules, or oxen, and an experimental system of
wheeled transport, rough carts drawn by oxen, in the Bahr El Ghazal.
Motor transport is in an experimental stage, and has only proved a
partial success up till now, chiefly owing to the generally sandy
nature of the ground and the present lack of roads.
There is a light railway at Khartoum which it is intended to run in
conjunction with a tramway at Omdurman.
[For practical details and hints regarding Communications in
the Sudan, _see_ “Notes for Travellers and Sportsmen in the
Sudan”[135] (price PT.5), “Sudan Almanac”[135] (price PT.5),
and “Notes on Outfit for the Sudan” (price PT.2), all obtainable
from the chief booksellers in Cairo or the Agent-General, Sudan
Government, War Office, Cairo.
These are recommended as being indispensable for intending
travellers.]
SECTION 1.—RAILWAYS.
[Sidenote: Historical.]
To Said Pasha (1860) is due the first idea of connecting the Sudan
by railway with Lower Egypt. Mougel Bey reported on the subject,
but, owing to the expense involved, the project was abandoned.
The first attempt at actually laying a railway in the Sudan dates
from the time of the Khedive Ismail Pasha.
After a preliminary study in 1865-66, by Messrs. Walker and Bray,
the Khedive sent up, in 1871, Mr. J. Fowler, C.E., to settle on
the best routes for putting the Sudan into railway communication
with civilisation. After some time spent in preliminary surveys,
Mr. Fowler decided on a line which, starting from Halfa, would run
up the eastern Nile bank, cross the river about Amara, and roughly
follow the left bank to Ambugol. From here it would strike across the
Bayuda desert, _viâ_ Jakdul, to Metemma, cross the river again here,
and continue along the right bank to Khartoum North.
From Debba a line was to be laid direct to El Fasher, capital
of Darfur.
In the Eastern Sudan, meanwhile, a line was to be laid from Suakin,
_viâ_ Sinkat, to cross the Atbara and strike the Nile opposite
to Khartoum.
These routes were accurately surveyed, and the railway from Halfa was
actually begun and carried along the right bank to about Sarras. It
was then abandoned, partly for financial reasons and partly at the
desire of General Gordon, who considered that the country was not
yet ripe for works involving such a considerable outlay.
During the 1884-85 expedition the railway was continued for some
40 miles, but in consequence of the evacuation of the Sudan it was
dropped, and the portion beyond Sarras was destroyed by the Dervishes.
In 1896, when operations became imminent, the Sirdar began laying a
line from Korosko southwards, but this was soon abandoned, and the
original railway was continued in April, 1896, in the direction of
Dongola. This line was completed after considerable difficulties,
as far as its present terminus, Kerma, on 4th April, 1897.
The main line, striking from Halfa across the desert to Abu Hamed,
was commenced on 1st January, 1897, and, after a stoppage of 22
days for want of material, reached Abu Hamed, 230 miles, on 31st
October, 1897. It was laid at the great rate of about a mile a day,
the maximum speed for one day being 5,200 yards. The record for 1
month was 48 miles; this was during October, 1897.
It eventually reached Khartoum North (Halfaya) on the last day
of 1899.
The Suakin-Berber railway was boldly taken in hand during the Suakin
expedition in the spring of 1885, but only a few miles were laid,
and it was then abandoned.
The route for the future Nile-Red Sea railway has now been decided
on and surveyed (1902-03), and the laying has been commenced from
both ends.
The present lines from Halfa to Khartoum North and Dongola (Kerma)
were laid primarily to supply an army in the field; the route, method
of laying, and materials, were all chosen with this object in view.
Partly as a consequence of this, nearly 50 per cent. of the line is
in the desert.
The main line is 575 miles, and the Kerma line is 203 miles long.
The gauge of the lines is 3 feet 6 inches, the same as the Cape
railways. Single line throughout (except at the crossing-places).
Goods trains on the Khartoum line have to carry 7,000 gallons of
water to enable them to cross the waterless desert sections; this
considerably reduces the useful carrying power of the line.
The Kerma line runs through very rocky country, and has sharp curves
and steep gradients. It is liable to washouts, and, as its cost
is prohibitive in proportion to the traffic receipts, it will be
abandoned in December, 1904, and the Dongola Province will be later
connected to the main line by a branch line to Abu Hamed.
Khartoum line, steepest gradient 1 in 125; sharpest curve 960
feet radius.
Kerma line, steepest gradient, 1 in 50; sharpest curve 500 feet
radius.
The Nile-Red Sea line will leave the main line about the mouth of the
Atbara, will run up this river to about Khor Hudi (15 miles), and then
branch off north-eastwards over the desert to Suakin, _viâ_ Sinkat
Pass. It is now in course of construction, and should be finished
by the summer of 1906. Besides this and the Abu Hamed-Merowe branch,
which is to be shortly commenced, other projected railway extension is
from Omdurman to El Obeid, Suakin to Kassala, and Khartoum (N.) to
opposite Wad Medani.
KHARTOUM LINE.
--------------------+-----------+------------------------------------
List of Stations. |Miles from | Remarks.
| Halfa. |
--------------------+-----------+------------------------------------
Halfa[136] | 1 |_See_ pp. 23 and 85 for description.
| |
Halfa (Camp)[137] | 0 | „ p. 23 „ „
| |
Nos. 1 to 9 | |In desert—these are only loops for
| |crossing trains; wells at miles 77
| |(No. 4) and 126 (No. 6); telegraph
| |station at latter, besides small
| |shops and engine pit.
| |
Abu Hamed[137] | 230 |Battlefield is 1½ miles south of
| |Station. Bath rooms in Station for
| |use of passengers.
| |
Dagash | 248 |Country between here and Berber
| |little inhabited or cultivated.
| |
Abu Dis | 267 |
| |
Shereik | 291 |
| |
Abu Sillem | 318 |In desert.
| |
Abidia[137] | 343 |
| |
Berber North[136] | 361 |Starting point for desert roads to
| |Suakin and Kassala.
| |
Berber South | 363 |
| |
Suakin Junction | 384 |Line from Suakin will join in here.
| |
Atbara | 385 |Girder bridge over the Atbara,
| |1,050 feet long.
| |
El Damer[137] | 392 |Many villages from here onwards;
| |much cultivation and cattle. Thick
| |scrub in parts; fertile soil. Chief
| |town of Berber Province.
| |
Zeidab | 404 |
| |
Aliab | 416 |
| |
Mutmir | 429 |
| |
Kabushia | 448 |Pyramids of Merowe about 3 miles
| |north of Kabushia, about 2½ miles
| |east of railway.
| |
Taragma | 460 |
| |
Shendi[137] | 471 |Headquarters of Cavalry. District
| |Headquarters of railway—Southern
| |Section—and office of District
| |traffic manager.
| |
El Goz | 483 |
| |
Wad Ban Naga | 496 |Nagaa temples 23 miles to the S.E.
| |(_vide_ Appendix D).
| |
El Meiga | 511 |
| |
Jebel Gerri | 524 |
| |
Royan | 538 |
| |
Wad Ramla | 547 |Zubeir Pasha’s residence (Geili)
| |close by.
| |
Kubalab | 560 |
| |
Khartoum North[137] | 575 |Terminus—on right bank of Blue
| |Nile, opposite Khartoum.
--------------------+-----------+------------------------------------
From about 1st April to 15th December there are two expresses each
way weekly between Halfa and Khartoum North; one of them has sleeping
and dining cars attached with a restaurateur, but the other has only
ordinary first, second, and third class carriages.
Passengers travelling by the latter must make their own arrangements
for meals; the first and second class carriages have small kitchens
in them for the use of passengers’ servants.
From about 15th December to 1st April there are two expresses weekly,
each having sleeping and dining cars and restaurateur. There are
also two local passenger trains each way weekly between Abidia and
Khartoum North all the year round.
For fares and freights apply to Agent-General, Sudan Government,
Cairo, or Traffic Manager, Halfa.
Time occupied on journey, Halfa to Khartoum, by passenger trains,
28 hours; by goods trains, 47 hours.
KERMA LINE.[138]
------------------+------------+------------------------------------
List of Stations.| Miles from | Remarks.
| Halfa. |
------------------+------------+------------------------------------
Halfa[139] | 1 |
| |
Halfa (Camp)[139] | 0 |
| |
Sarras | 33 |On river.
| |
Ambugol | 64 |In desert; wells.
| |
Akasha | 86 |On river.
| |
Kosha[139] | 105 |On river; small shed and workshop;
| |railway strikes south across desert.
| |
Kuror | 137 |In desert.
| |
Dalgo | 164 |Railway rejoins river.
| |
Kerma[139] | 203 |On river; shed and workshops.
------------------+------------+------------------------------------
Kerma is about 30 miles north of Dongola. Transport between these
two either by steamer, donkey, or camel, according to state of river.
Passenger accommodation on the Kerma line is of a rough
description. Rates according to class of vehicles.
[Sidenote: General.]
Gross receipts of Sudan Government Railways during 1902, £E.194,000,
of which £E.103,000 on Government account; in 1903 the receipts
were £E.137,000.
Goods trains on both branches run according to the requirements
of the traffic, usually one train each way daily. For rates, etc.,
apply Traffic Manager, Halfa.
Stations are open for receipt of goods from 7.0 A.M. to 4.30 P.M.,
and for delivery of goods from 7.0 A.M. to 5.0 P.M.
[Sidenote: Light railways.]
There is a miniature railway in Khartoum used for passengers, etc.,
but beyond this no light railways have yet been constructed in
the country. There seem to be openings for these towards Kassala,
Gedaref, and El Obeid, but the time has not yet come.
SECTION 2.—RIVER COMMUNICATIONS.
The Sudan freight, passenger, and postal communications are carried
out by river from Shellal to Halfa, Kerma to Merowe on the Dongola
reach, and to stations south of Khartoum by steamers and sailing
boats.
SHELLAL-HALFA (226 MILES).
On the Shellal-Halfa reach for this purpose are five stern-wheel
steamers, 2 screw tugs, 11 troop barges, 8 sailing barges (including
one of 500 tons carrying capacity), and 44 sailing gayassas belonging
to the Sudan Government; there are also about 110 gayassas on hire
for carriage of supplies, stores, etc.
A fast steamer service twice a week for through mails and passengers
runs in connection with the Egyptian and Sudan railway services. This
service is carried out by two steamers.
A slow service for local mails and passengers and freight also runs
twice weekly.
The steamer passenger service carries private passengers, but no
private freight is taken either by Government steamers or sailing
boats. This is taken by private companies, Messrs. Thos. Cook, etc.
Arrangements are made to load both ordinary passengers and cargo at
North End, Aswan, and for steamers and boats to pass through the dam
locks. The fast mail steamers start from above (_i.e._, south of)
the dam.
“DONGOLA REACH” (222 MILES BETWEEN 3RD AND 4TH CATARACTS).
On the Dongola reach there are two stern-wheel steamers, two troop
barges, and 15 sailing gayassas belonging to the Government; some
small nuggars are also being built for the use of districts.
One steamer is for the use of the Mudir, and the other runs a
fortnightly service between Dongola and Merowe during low Nile,
and from Kerma to Merowe when the river permits.
The river between Kerma and Dongola is always navigable for
lightly-loaded steamers, but when the river is low there are one
or two dangerous rocky places, and it is not considered advisable
to run a regular service. This portion is therefore principally
navigated by sailing boats during this period.
Steamers and sailing boats are available for the carriage of private
passengers and goods.
The river is only navigable a short distance upstream of Merowe at
certain times of the year.
KHARTOUM AND SOUTH.
There are three screw and seven stern-wheel armed gun-boats; the
latter being frequently used for transport work. The screw boats
are kept as station “guard ships” at the southernmost Blue and
White Nile posts and at Khartoum. In addition to the gunboats there
are five stern-wheel steamers and one new paddle steamer of about
100 to 120 feet long for post, passenger and freight service. For
local work or special duty there are four very old paddle steamers
of Gordon’s time, two screw tugs, and four launches, as well as
20 barges capable of carrying troops, animals, and freight.
[Sidenote: Regular services.[140]]
A monthly service, 13 days, runs to Gondokoro, the most northerly
Nile post of Uganda, leaving Khartoum on the 15th, and returning
from Gondokoro for the north about the 29th of each month, arriving
at Khartoum about the 10th.
This steamer calls at all intermediate stations south of Goz Abu Guma.
A monthly service (9 days) runs up the Bahr El Ghazal to Wau and
Meshra El Rek, or as near as the state of the river will allow,
leaving Khartoum on the 1st of each month; starting on the return
journey on the 12th, and arriving at Khartoum about the 19th. These
steamers also call at all intermediate stations south of Goz Abu Guma.
The weekly service from Khartoum every Tuesday to Goz Abu Guma and
intermediate stations, returning on Sundays, is now carried out by
the private company below-mentioned.
A steamer runs occasionally up the Sobat, as required, between the
middle of May and end of December.
A steamer runs twice a day between Omdurman, Khartoum, and Khartoum
North. A chain-steam-ferry also connects Khartoum and Khartoum North.
The Blue Nile is open for navigation by steamer only for about six
months of the year (beginning of June to beginning of December),
and a fortnightly service leaving Khartoum every alternate Wednesday
then runs to Wad Medani and back. From there to Roseires a monthly
service is maintained.
The stern-wheel post steamers have each 8 to 10 cabins, and are
capable of towing two double-decked troop barges each. They can then
take 300 or 400 troops each, or about 80 tons of freight.
A large proportion of the transport of supplies, stores, building
materials, etc., is carried in sailing boats (nuggars and gayassas),
of which the Government owns 125. They are generally of from 10 to
50 tons carrying capacity each.
Private passengers and freight are carried by the steamers; boats
and occasionally steamers can be hired when available.
[Sidenote: Non-Government steamers.]
Two steamers (stern-wheel) and seven steel barges have been put
on the river at and south of Khartoum by a private company (The
Sudan Development and Exploration Company), and carry passengers
and freight.
[Sidenote: Native boats.]
The native sailing boat, called nuggar, is found all along the Nile
in considerable numbers. It varies in size, from a capacity of a few
ardebs to that of about 200 ardebs (25 tons). These boats are very
strongly built of thick hard timber, occasionally half-decked, and
fitted with one mast and lateen sails, and very long oars, mostly
crooked. They are not so high in the bows nor as graceful as the
Lower Nile boats (gayassas). They are mostly employed in carrying
grain or gum. The chief native boat-building yards are at Omdurman,
Dueim, and Goz Abu Guma, and on the Blue Nile at Senga.
Small and cumbrous rafts, rowed by one or two men, are sometimes seen;
these are mostly used for carrying timber.
The ambach canoe, composed of a thick bundle of that pith-like cane
tied together, turned up at the bows, and propelled by a paddle, is
seen up the White Nile, and in the higher reaches, dug-out canoes,
holding from one to six men, are used, both for transport and for
hunting purposes.
A still more primitive method of water transport is that of inflated
skins, or empty jars with the mouth closed by a skin.
RED SEA.
The Sudan Government owns a steamer of 420 tons, the “Mukhbir,”
which plies between Suez and Suakin at irregular intervals as
occasion requires.
SECTION 3.—ROADS.
The Sudan is almost entirely flat, except along its eastern
frontier and in parts of Southern Kordofan, S. Bahr El Ghazal,
and Darfur. Theoretically it should be possible to traverse it
from end to end without difficulty, for it is almost everywhere
good “going” for animals, though not for wheeled transport;
but practically communication is everywhere limited by questions of
wells and water supply, in many parts by the presence of thick and
thorny bush, and in some parts by swamps.
The main cross-country roads (including some leading outside the
Sudan) are:—
1. The Darb El Arbain (40 days’ road), between El Fasher (Darfur)
and Assiut (Egypt). (_Vide_ Appendix, Part III., Vol. 2.)
Little used except by occasional smugglers.
2. Korosko-Abu Hamed. Little used since the railway was built.
3. Debba-Khartoum. Date caravans, Dongola to Omdurman.
4. Korti-Metemma. Date caravans, Dongola to Shendi, etc.
5. Berber-Suakin. Will be superseded by railway.
6. Suakin-Tokar-Kassala.
7. Berber-Kassala.
8. Khartoum-Abu Haraz-Gedaref-Kassala.
9. Omdurman-El Obeid.
10. El Dueim-El Obeid. Gum caravans.
11. El Obeid-El Fasher. Road to Darfur.
12. Renk-Jebel Gule-Roseires. Lately opened.
13. Shambe-Rumbek-Tonj-Wau-Deim Zubeir. Bahr El Ghazal supply
caravans’ road.
14. El Fasher-Shakka. In Darfur.
15. El Fasher-Abesher. Darfur-Wadai road. (_Vide_ p. 189.)
16. Kassala-Massawa
17. Gedaref-Gallabat-Lake Tsana. Trade route from Northern Abyssinia.
18. Kirin to Melut. Trade route from Eastern Abyssinia
(not yet opened).
19. Gore to Abwong. Ditto.
_See_ Vol. II for detailed descriptions of roads throughout the Sudan.
SECTION 4.—RIDING AND TRANSPORT ANIMALS.
The animal which is the most suitable for each district of the
Sudan naturally varies according to the locality. Roughly, it may be
said that north of the 12th parallel the camel is the most useful
animal. On the hilly slopes of the Abyssinian plateau the mule and
donkey are indispensable, and these are also employed in the Bahr
El Ghazal (_vide_ Chap. VII). In Southern Kordofan bulls are used
for riding, and a certain amount of stuff is carried on pack-oxen;
whilst in the low-lying, as well as in the hilly, districts of the
Upper Nile human porterage is employed.
[Sidenote: Horses.]
The horse is bred and used for riding purposes in Southern Kordofan,
in parts of the Dongola province, and in the northern part of
the Gezira between the White and Blue Niles, but, probably owing
to his inability to travel long distances without water, is not
thickly distributed any where, and a really good one is rarely to be
purchased. Some Abyssinian ponies and country-breds are to be had
near that border, price £E.4 to £E.5. The principal horse-owning
tribes in the Sudan at present are the Homr and Messeria Baggara in
south-west Kordofan.
[Sidenote: Camels.]
The great breeding-grounds of the camel are to be found in the
desert between the Nile (north of Berber) and the Red Sea; and
in the Kababish and other country in Southern Dongola, in the
Hadendoa country, and in Northern Kordofan. In these districts
a very fine stamp of camel is produced, much lighter, faster,
and better-bred-looking than the slow, heavy transport camel of
Lower Egypt.
Thousands of camels are bred in these parts and owned by the various
nomadic tribes; but it is not easy to obtain them in large numbers,
for the owners are, as a rule, disinclined to sell.
The camels of the Kababish and neighbouring tribes are fully engaged
in the transport of gum and dates, and in other parts constitute the
sole wealth of their owners, who will not part except at comparatively
high prices.
The price varies from £E.9 in the Kassala and Suakin districts to
£E.15 in the Dongola province, and fancy prices are sometimes paid
for particularly good riding camels.
Average cost of camel hire PT.8 to PT.12 per diem, including baggage
saddle, head rope, forage, and attendant.
Price of native riding saddle (maglufa) £E.2 to £E.5.
Sudan camels easily carry 350 lbs., and occasionally carry up to
500 lbs.
[Sidenote: Mules.]
Mules are only obtainable from the Abyssinian borderland, chiefly
at Gedaref, Gallabat, Roseires, and Itang, though, unless plenty of
notice is given, not many are obtainable even at these markets. These
mules are small, but good and hardy, suited to pack transport,
though not suitable, owing to their small size and weight, to draught
work. Price, £E.5 to £E.1O. Can carry 150 to 180 lbs.
[Sidenote: Donkeys.]
Donkeys make excellent transport animals; they can go longer without
water than mules. They are obtainable in most parts of the Sudan,
price £E.3 to £E.10, or, to hire, PT.5 per diem. The Sudan donkey
does for both riding or baggage work. The Abyssinian donkey is
smaller and cheaper, £E.1½ to £E.3, and better for transport
work, especially in hilly country, being less liable to sore backs,
but he generally permits no one to ride him. Large quantities are
to be had in Gedaref and Gallabat. Can carry 100 to 150 lbs.
[Sidenote: Oxen.]
Pack oxen, occasionally used in Southern Kordofan and the Bahr El
Ghazal, can only carry light weights up to 150 lbs., and are very
slow movers. For draught work they have been so far successfully
tried in the Bahr El Ghazal.
[Sidenote: Carriers.]
Human carriers are only obtainable with difficulty on the Upper
Nile and in the Bahr El Ghazal. They carry 50-lb. loads besides
their rations.
Elephants are still a dream of the future as regards pack and
transport work.
SECTION 5.—POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS.
[Sidenote: Posts.]
In March, 1897, a Sudan postal service was commenced. The first
office opened was at Halfa camp, and following in the wake of the
Army, offices were opened in the same year at Kerma, Dongola, Korti,
and Merowe, and a regular bi-weekly mail was established.
In 1898 offices were opened at various places between Berber and
Khartoum, and the postal service was rapidly further extended over a
great part of the Sudan. In February, 1901, the postal and telegraph
services were combined, and the head office was transferred from
Cairo to Khartoum North, and subsequently in 1902 to Khartoum.
There are now 26 post offices in the Sudan open to the money order
service, and a travelling postmaster issues and pays money orders
at stations on the Halfa-Kerma Railway.
There are various other offices open dealing with correspondence,
sale of stamps, and ordinary parcel service (_vide_ below).
An increasing amount of money passes through the post in the shape of
money orders. In 1902, a total of £E.355,000 was paid in at Sudan
offices by the public for transmission, and a total of £E.145,000
was paid out. The figures in 1901 were £E.267,500 and £E.107,700
respectively.
Mails in the Sudan are carried by railway, steamers, camels, donkeys,
or runners, according to the locality.
Mail services now extend to Gallabat, Roseires, Gondokoro, Meshra
El Rek, and Nahud.
Mails are exchanged weekly with Eritrea at Sabderat.
(For details of post offices, _vide_ Egyptian Postal Guide, 1904,
p. 175.)
[Sidenote: Telegraphs.]
The telegraph now, besides connecting with Suakin and Kassala, reaches
to Gallabat, Taufikia (W. Nile), Roseires, and El Obeid. A line from
Khartoum through Geteina and Kawa to Goz Abu Guma is now in course
of construction, and when the Nile-Red Sea Railway is commenced,
a telegraph line will be built along it.
At the beginning of 1905 a telegraph line will be laid from Meshra
El Rek to Wau, and thence probably _viâ_ Rumbek to the Bahr El
Jebel. Communication between Meshra and Taufikia is to be maintained
by oil launches.
Till 1902 white ants were a great source of annoyance, but since steel
bases have been used for telegraph poles this has, to a great extent,
ceased. Creosoted poles also do not appear to be attacked by them.
Elephant and giraffe in the more southern districts are, however,
likely to continue a somewhat frequent course of interruption of
communication.
A reconnaissance was made in April, 1904, south of Taufikia and
another from El Obeid to Nahud and Foga with a view to further
extensions of the wire. In the winter of 1904-05 the line will be
laid from Meshra Rek to Wau, but there is a great difficulty in
connecting with Taufikia.
There are now 3,074 miles of telegraph line (3,469 miles of wire),
and 35 telegraph offices, in the Sudan (_vide_ below).
Wireless telegraphy has not been lost sight of, but will not be
adopted, at any rate, for the present.
79,500 private telegrams were forwarded from Sudan offices in 1903,
as against 57,700 in 1901 and 66,000 in 1902.
[Sidenote: Telephones.]
A telephone system was established between Khartoum, Omdurman,
and Khartoum North, with an exchange in the Government buildings,
Khartoum, in February, 1903. There are at present 45 offices connected
to the exchange.
Instruments and stores have been ordered to extend the system
to enable private subscribers in the towns to be connected. A
sub-exchange at Khartoum North was installed in January, 1904,
and another has been ordered for Omdurman.
LIST OF SUDAN POST AND TELEGRAPH OFFICES.
Abidia — t. | Kawa 6 —
|
Abu Hamed 2 t. | Kerma 2 t.
|
Bara aaa 6 — | Khartoum 1 t.
|
Berber 1 t. | Kodok 2 t.
|
Debba 2 t. | Korti 6 —
|
Dalgo 5 — | Kosha 2 t.
|
Dongola 2 t. | Melut 6 t.
|
Dueim 2 t. | Merowe 2 t.
|
El Damer 2 t. | Nahud aaa 6 —
|
El Obeid aaa 2 t. | No. 6 Station — t.
|
Erkowit 6 t. | Omdurman 1 t.
|
Gallabat aaa 2 t. | Renk 4 t.
|
Gedaref aaa 2 t. | Roseires 4 t.
|
Geteina 6 — | Sarras 5 —
|
Goz Abu Guma 4 t. | Sennar 4 t.
|
Goz Regeb aaa 6 — | Shendi 1 t.
|
Halfa 1 t. | Senga[141] 2 t.
|
Halfa (Camp) 1 t. | Suakin 1 t.
|
Khartoum North 1 t. | Taufikia (W. Nile) 2 t.
|
Kamlin 2 t. | Tokar aaa 2 t.
|
Kassala aaa 2 t. | Wad Medani 2 t.
EXPLANATION OF THE ABOVE NUMBERS.
1 Office admitted to ordinary and registered correspondence,
ordinary and insured parcels, inland ordinary and telegraphic
money orders, and foreign ordinary money orders.
2 Office admitted to ordinary and registered correspondence,
ordinary parcels, inland ordinary and telegraphic money orders,
and foreign ordinary money orders.
3 Office admitted to ordinary and registered correspondence, and
ordinary parcels.
4 Office admitted to ordinary and registered correspondence, and
ordinary parcels in arrival.
5 Office served by travelling post for ordinary and registered
correspondence, ordinary parcels, and inland and foreign
ordinary money orders.
6 Rural service for delivery of ordinary and registered
correspondence, and ordinary parcels.
aaa Office admitted to the exchange of parcels not exceeding
3 kilogrammes.
t. Telegraph office.
[Sidenote: Mails]
MAILS.
Weekly between Halfa, Dongola, and Merowe.
Twice a week between Halfa, Berber, and Khartoum.
Weekly between Berber and Suakin.
Weekly between Berber, Kassala, and Gedaref.
Weekly between Suakin and Tokar.
Weekly between Gedaref and Gallabat.
Weekly between Khartoum, Dueim, Goz Abu Guma, and El Obeid.
Fortnightly between Khartoum, Kodok, Taufikia, Kanisa and Meshra
El Rek.
Letters, etc., are taken at their owner’s or addressee’s risk
by an occasional steamer to Gondokoro (Uganda).
Weekly between Khartoum and Wad Medani.
Weekly between Wad Medani and Gedaref, Sennar, Senga, and Roseires.
Weekly between El Obeid and Nahud.
Fortnightly in Suakin and Kassala.
All the above mails call at the intermediate postal stations and
post offices.
Fortnightly between Suez and Suakin.
Fortnightly between Suakin and Aden.
Weekly between Kassala and Keren for Massaua.
Closed mails are now exchanged between London and the Sudan.
Mails for the Sudan are sorted on the mail steamers between Shellal
and Halfa.
N.B.—No mails can be delivered at any other stations than those
mentioned as postal stations or post offices above.
[Footnote 135: Brought yearly up to date.]
[Footnote 136: Telegraph office in town.]
[Footnote 137: „ „ station.]
[Footnote 138: This line is to be abolished altogether in December,
1904.]
[Footnote 139: Telegraph office.]
[Footnote 140: Liable to alteration.]
[Footnote 141: For Karkoj.]
=PART II.=
=HISTORICAL.=[142]
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
* * * * *
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ARAB INVASION (A.D. 640).
The name of Ethiopia,[143] or Kush, was applied in ancient times
vaguely to the East African interior south of Egypt, from about
lat. 24° to about lat. 9°. (The name of Nubia, as representing
the more northern portion of “Ethiopia,” say between the 3rd
and the 1st Cataracts, does not appear till Roman times, but for
convenience sake that portion will be so termed in the following
account. It was termed Kenset by the Ancient Egyptians.)
The whole tract was, as we know, for the most part sandy or rocky
desert, rich in minerals, interspersed with oases, but contained along
the course of the Nile a valuable strip of territory; while, south
and south-east of the point where the Nile receives the Atbara, it
spreads out into a broad and fertile region, watered by many streams,
diversified by hills and woodlands, and of considerable fertility;
of this but little now remains. This ancient Ethiopia did not,
in all probability, include the present Abyssinia.
At no time did the whole of this vast tract—1,000 miles long
by 800 or 900 broad—form a single state or monarchy. Rather,
for the most part, was it divided up among an indefinite number of
states, or rather of tribes, some of them herdsmen, others hunters
or fishermen, very jealous of their independence, and frequently at
war one with another. Among the various tribes there was a certain
community of race, a resemblance of physical type, and a similarity of
language. Their neighbours, the Egyptians, included them all under
a single ethnic name, speaking of their land as Ta Kes, Kesh, or
Kush, and of the inhabitants as Kashi or Kushi—a term manifestly
identical with the Kush of the Hebrews. They were a race cognate
with the Egyptians, but darker in complexion, and coarser in feature,
not by any means negroes, but still more clearly allied to the negro
than the Egyptians were. Their best representatives in modern times
are believed to be the Gallas and the like, who are probably their
descendants.[144]
From the earliest times there appears to have been a constant
infiltration from South Arabia into Abyssinia[144] and the Eastern
Sudan; indeed, the dynastic Egyptians themselves are believed by
some high authorities to have been a Semitic tribe which came over
from Arabia, landed somewhere about Massaua (?), and proceeded
northwards along the coast, leaving colonies as it went, till it
struck the valley of the Nile _viâ_ Kosseir, the Wadi Hammamat,
and Kena (or Koptos). Here they found the Neolithic “New Race,”
and exterminated or expelled them (?); but it is doubtful how far
this New Race extended up the Nile valley.
[Sidenote: B.C. 4000 (?).]
The earliest mention that we have of the land south of Egypt dates
from the time of Snefru (? 3rd or 4th Dynasty), who conquered the
land of the Negroes, and took captive 7,200 men and women, and
200,000 cattle.
[Sidenote: B.C. 3400 (?).]
An inscription of the Fifth Dynasty informs us that King Assa sent one
Ba Ur Tettu to the “Land of Ghosts, which is south of the land of
the Negroes,” to fetch him some Pygmies. The quest was successful,
and is confirmed (?) by some dwarfish skeletons found in the tombs
of that period.
This would seem to show that there were communications, and possibly
even a brisk commerce, between the countries at an even earlier date.
[Sidenote: B.C. 3230.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 3200.]
In the time of the Sixth Dynasty Una, a high official under Pepi I,
raised Sudanese levies, natives and negroes, to fight in Eastern
Egypt and Sinai. He also cleared a canal in the 1st Cataract (of
which there are now no traces), and Nubian chiefs, whom he had
fought and conquered five times, brought wood for him. Mer-en-Ra
(of Sixth Dynasty) sent one Her-Khuf three times to Nubia on trading
expeditions, and he returned with ivory, ebony, etc., which would
seem to show that he had penetrated some distance. He reached Amani,
Arerthet, Meskher, Terres, etc., but the locality of these places is
unknown. At this period the Nehes—negroids of the Sudan—occupied
the country as far north as Aswan; some of their tribes were termed
the Aam, Wauat, etc., the latter living probably near Korosko.
By the end of the Early Empire, B.C. 2530 (First to Tenth Dynasties),
Egyptian armies had certainly advanced into the Eastern Sudan.
[Sidenote: B.C. 2500.]
In the Eleventh Dynasty there was regular communication between
Egypt and the debateable land of Punt, and we are told that one
Hennu, in the reign of Seankhka, made a trading expedition thither
by sea, _viâ_ Kosseir, for unguents. This is not the place in which
to discuss the position of the land of Punt, but it seems probable
that it lay somewhere in the “horn” of Africa, and was not as far
south as the Pungwe or Rhodesia, as some have recently tried to prove.
[Sidenote: B.C. 2460.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 2430.]
The next we hear of Nubia is that Amenemhat I (Twelfth Dynasty)
conquered the Wauat and Machaiu Nubians, and then raided the Libyans
to the west; and 30 years later his son, Usertsen I, sent an armed
caravan under Ameni into Ethiopia and “enlarged the borders of
Egypt between the 1st and 3rd Cataracts.”
[Sidenote: B.C. 2366.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 2325.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 2317.]
The Nubians attacked the quarries at Aswan in the following reign
(Usertsen II), but were repelled, and in the next generation a serious
expedition on a large scale was undertaken by the great Usertsen
III. This monarch worked through the canal in the 1st Cataract,
conquered the “abominable Kash,” and at the 2nd Cataract he set a
boundary stone. Eight years later he beat the Kash again, and built
the great temples and forts of Semna and Kumna, 40 miles south of
Halfa, to guard the defile of the Nile. He also issued edicts for
the prevention of any natives from descending the Nile in boats or
otherwise, except for the purpose of trade.
[Sidenote: B.C. 2300.]
A few years later Amenemhat III cut a Nile gauge in the rock near
Semna, and this is visible to this day. The height of the Nile
flood is curiously enough, marked as being 26 feet higher than it is
now. (This was the monarch who also built the Labyrinth in the Fayum.)
The statues of Sebek Hetep III on Argo Island probably prove that
the kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty occupied and garrisoned the
present province of Dongola; but for the following 600 years no
further records are available (Hyksos period).
[Sidenote: B.C. 1700.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1660.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1630.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1628.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1610.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1600.]
During the Eighteenth Dynasty (B.C. 1700 to 1400), Ethiopia was a
good deal _en évidence_. Amâsis I invaded Nubia, slaughtered the
“Anti of Kenset” somewhere south-east of Halfa, and returned;
Amenophis I sent punitive expeditions to the Eastern Sudan and took
many prisoners; Thothmes I had a river fight with the Nubians, killed
their king, and fastened his “vile dead body” to the bows of his
boat; he proceeded as far as Kerma (Tombos) and probably beyond, and
set up a Viceroy as Prince of Kush; and two years later he proceeded
again thither _viâ_ the canal above-mentioned, clearing it out on
his way. A few years afterwards, Thothmes II raided Nubia severely,
killing all males except “one of the damned sons of the Chief of
Kesh,” whom he used as a footstool. Under Queen Hatshepset[145] the
Nubians paid tribute to Egypt, but revolted against her successor, the
great Thothmes III. This monarch, however, seems to have crushed them
in an expedition through the 1st Cataract, and to have consolidated
the Egyptian conquests in Ethiopia.
[Sidenote: B.C. 1590. B.C. 1560. B.C. 1500.]
Amenhotep II, son of Thothmes III, again overran Nubia on a large
scale, and his successor, Amenhotep III, extended the Egyptian
frontier to the 4th Cataract and possibly to the Atbara, building
a large temple to Ammon at Napata, which lay close to Jebel Barkal
(the present Merowe) near the foot of the 4th Cataract.
[Sidenote: B.C. 1400.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1333.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1360.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1300. B.C. 1200.]
About this date there was formed a priestly colony at Napata,[146]
in close touch with the Egyptian religion, and forming a strong link
between the two countries. Civilization appears to have greatly
increased in the Napata region, but the Nubians to the north seem
to have remained in a barbaric condition, for we find Rameses I
making an expedition against them, and the great Rameses II forcing
them to pay tribute. The father of the latter, however, Seti I,
as well as his son, devoted his chief energies in Nubia to erecting
temples and works,[147] and more particularly to digging for gold,
minerals, and precious stones in the Eastern Desert. Starting from
Kubban, opposite Dakka, Rameses II dug wells in the Wadi Alagi and
other regions and worked gold mines with considerable result. The
warlike operations in these regions of himself and his successors,
Manephtha and Rameses III, seem to have been chiefly confined to
beating the Libyans in the Western Desert.
[Sidenote: B.C. 966.]
Meanwhile the hierarchy of Napata was growing in power. The Ethiopians
of this region, a plastic race, adopted to a considerable extent the
Egyptian civilization, worshipped Egyptian gods in Egyptian shrines,
and set up inscriptions in the hieroglyphic character and in the
Egyptian, as well as the Nubian, tongue. Napata and the Nile valley
both below it and above it, was already half Egyptianised when,
on the establishment of the Sheshonk Libyan (Twenty-second) Dynasty
in Egypt (B.C. 966), the descendants of Herhor of Thebes resolved
to quit their native country and remove themselves into Ethiopia,
where they had reason to expect a welcome. They were probably
already connected by marriage with some of the leading chiefs of
Napata, and their sacerdotal character gave them a great hold on
a peculiarly superstitious people. Retaining their priestly office,
they became at once Ethiopian monarchs, and High Priests of the Temple
of Ammon, which Amenhotep III had erected at Napata. Napata, under
their government, flourished greatly, and acquired a considerable
architectural magnificence. Fresh temples were built, in which the
worship of Egyptian was combined with that of Ethiopian deities;
avenues of sphinxes adorned the approaches to these new shrines;
the practice of burying the members of the royal houses in pyramids
was reverted to, and the necropolis of Napata recalled the glories
of the old necropolis of Memphis.
[Illustration: COLOSSAL RAM OF AMENHOTEP III. FROM JEBEL BARKAL,
ORIGINALLY AT AMENHOTEP’S TEMPLE AT SOLIB—_Berlin Museum._]
Napata was also a place of much wealth. The kingdom whereof it
was capital reached southward as far as the modern Khartoum, and
south-eastwards stretched up to the Abyssinian highlands, including
the valleys of the Atbara and its tributaries, together with most of
the tract between the Atbara and the Blue Nile. This was a region
of reputed great natural wealth, containing many mines of gold,
iron, copper, and salt, abundant woods of date palm, almond trees,
and ilex, some excellent pasture ground, and much rich meadow land
suitable for the growth of dura and other sorts of grain. Fish of
many kinds and excellent turtle abounded in the Atbara and the other
streams, while the geographical position was favourable for commerce
with the tribes of the interior, who were able to furnish an almost
inexhaustible supply of ivory, skins, and ostrich feathers.
[Sidenote: B.C 966-800.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 760-733.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 730-667.]
In course of time the Napata kingdom extended its sway to Aswan, and
even to Thebes. The kings of the Twenty-second (Libyan) Dynasty did
not attempt to make Egyptian authority felt south of Aswan, and at
last the Nubian opportunity came. In about 734 B.C., Piankhi, King
of Napata, seeing the weakened and divided sway of the Twenty-third
Dynasty, chose a favourable moment in the revolt of Taf Nekht,
Prince of Sais and Memphis, swooped down on Egypt, assaulted and
occupied Memphis, and became master of the country. Bak-en-Renf,
sole representative of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty, was killed;
the whole of Egypt, with the exception of a portion of the Delta,
became a province of Ethiopia, and the Twenty-fifth Dynasty was
composed of Ethiopian princes.
[Sidenote: B.C. 700.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 672.]
These Kings were named Shabaka (Sabaco), Shabataka, and Taharka
(Tirhakah), the latter of which trio delivered Hezekiah from
Sennacherib. He was, however, heavily defeated by Esarheddon, son
of the latter, somewhere near Tel-el-Kebir, and Egypt was overrun
by the Assyrians.
[Sidenote: B.C. 652.]
Fierce fighting continued for the next 20 years between Ethiopia
and Assyria over the prostrate body of Egypt, and the latter was
reduced to utter ruin. Finally Mi-Ammon-Nut, Prince of Napata, and
son (?) of Taharka, partly relieved the country from the Assyrians,
but he had no successors, and died soon afterwards.
[Sidenote: B.C. 650 (?).]
[Sidenote: B.C. 648 (?).]
[Sidenote: B.C. 590 (?).]
Psammetichus I (Twenty-sixth Dynasty), of Libyan descent, finally
shook off the Assyrian yoke a few years later. His connection with
Ethiopia is chiefly confined to the fact that a large number of his
troops (200,000 to 240,000, according to ancient authorities—but
this number must be grossly over-stated) quitted him as a protest
against the favouritism shewn to his foreign (Greek and Lydian)
mercenaries, and took service with Ethiopia. Several versions of
this story exist, but no serious disturbance of the balance of
power would seem to have resulted. Herodotus states that they[148]
were given land to the south of Meroe, in the land of the Macrobii
(Sennar?). His descendant Psammetichus II appears to have attacked
Ethiopia, and it is stated that Nebuchadnezzar II, after beating
Necho, the previous king, made a fruitless expedition into Nubia.
[Illustration: ETHIOPIAN KING FROM MEROË (BAGARAWIYA)—_Berlin
Museum._]
[Sidenote: B.C. 566.]
As far as can be gathered the following kings of Ethiopia succeeded
Piankhi between about 730 and 525 B.C.; little is known about them
except what is given below:—
Ra Usr Maat.
Mer-Ka-Ra.
Wach-Ka-Ra.
Aspelta, 625 B.C. Killed a colony of raw-meat-eaters at Barkal.
Pankhaluru, before 560 B.C.
Heru-Sa-Atef, Amen Sa Meri. A great warrior. 560-525 B.C.
Nastasenen, 525-517 B.C. Ruled over Kenset and the kingdom of Alut
(Napata and Soba?); conquered many people.
Between the years 625 and 560 the capital seems to have been shifted
from Napata to Meroe. The kingdom ruled by these monarchs included
Alwa, a place identified with the later Soba on the Blue Nile. The
connection with Egypt was weakened; Heru-Sa-Atef found the royal
palace at Napata in ruins and restored it; his successor Nastasenen
re-visited it and went on a journey of inspection as far north
probably as the 3rd Cataract, but Meroe was the principal seat of
his kingdom. Nastasenen mentions on his inscription five campaigns,
apparently against the rich pastoral peoples of the Eastern Desert,
from whom he captured in all nearly 2,000,000 head of cattle, sheep,
goats, etc. At Meroe, about 40 miles to the south of the Atbara,
at a place now termed Bagarawiya, were built temples and pyramids
copied from Napata.
[Sidenote: B.C. 527]
It was in his reign that, according to Herodotus, Cambyses, first
king of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty (Persian), sent an Embassy into
Ethiopia, and on this being received by the natives with jeers,
collected a large army and sent it south against them. He detached
50,000 men from the army when it arrived at Thebes against Siwa,
or more probably Kharga, Oasis, but these were all overwhelmed by a
sandstorm and were never heard of again. The remainder, ill-supplied
with food or transport, marched into a desert on the way south,
ate their transport animals, and finally began on each other;
the greater part undoubtedly perished of hunger and thirst. It is
impossible to trace where the disaster happened (Arbain road?), but it
appears not to have been very far south, perhaps no further than the
latitude of Aswan. The latest critic (Heinrich Schäfer) argues from
Nastasenen’s inscription that Cambyses sent, in concert with the
desert expedition, another one by river. This latter expedition seems
to have reached the 3rd Cataract, where it was met and defeated by
Nastasenen; this is, however, not yet universally accepted. Cambyses
is reported to have himself reached the “Island” of Meroe, to
have built a town there, and to have named it after his sister Meroe,
who died there; but this is certainly a fable.
Between B.C. 525 and 260 came 11 more kings, but their chronology is
more than doubtful, and little is known of them beyond their names,
which are as follows:—
Heru Nekht.
Sekheper en Ra, Senka Amen Seken.
Khuka Ra, Athlenersa (and four other names).
Kheper ka Ra Amen Netek.
Amen-tani-Ralbath.
Amen Arit, Kenthahebit.
Ankh Ra Ra, Arkenkhernlu.
Kenrethreknen.
Khenem ab Ra, Amenarkneb.
Kalka, Kaltela.
Ankh nefer ah Ra, Amen Mer Aser.
These names are here given for reference in case of future
discoveries.
[Sidenote: B.C. 300.]
About 300 B.C. (?), or perhaps earlier, the frontier of Egypt was
then fixed at a point about 80 miles south of Aswan.
[Sidenote: B.C. 260.]
Ark Amen, better known as Ergamenes, who was brought up at the court
of Ptolemy II, was a man of some character, for besides building a
temple at Dakka he set a new fashion in Priest-Kings by refusing to
commit suicide at the request of the priests and by executing those
who demanded it.
[Sidenote: B.C. 210.]
In the days of Ptolemy V, Nubia caused trouble to Egypt, and the
Egyptian king added the country between Aswan and Napata (?) to his
possessions, dividing it into 13 districts.
In later Ptolemaic times the kings of Ethiopia evidently became
more negroid, and owned barbaric names; and as time went on, the
Kingdom of Meroe seems to have been governed by a series of queens
or queen-mothers, bearing the title of Candace. Little is known of
this period.
[Sidenote: B.C. 30.]
When Egypt became a Roman province, an embassy from Ethiopia arrived
at Philæ, and the king of the country near Khartoum was taken under
Roman protection.
[Sidenote: B.C. 22.]
Eight years after, a Queen Candace attacked Aswan and routed the Roman
garrison there. She was, however, heavily defeated by the Prefect
Petronius, who pursued her as far as Napata (?) and destroyed that
town, leaving Roman garrisons there and near to Dongola.
[Sidenote: A.D. 200.]
In the time of Strabo, who visited Egypt during the government of
Ælius Gallus, Petronius’s successor, Aswan was again the frontier,
the Romans having, as he observes, “confined the province of Egypt
within its former limits.” Philæ then belonged “in common to
the Egyptians and Ethiopians.” This did not, however, prevent the
Cæsars from considering Lower Ethiopia as belonging to them or from
adding to the temples already erected there.
The descendants of the priest-kings of Ethiopia seem to have died
out about A.D. 200.
Strabo says the Ethiopians above Aswan consisted of the Troglodytæ,
Blemmyes, Nubæ, and Megabari. The Megabari and Blemmyes inhabited
the Eastern Desert north of Meroe, towards the frontiers of Egypt, and
were under the dominion of the Ethiopians.[149] The Ichthyophagi[150]
lived on the shore of the Red Sea; the Troglodytæ, from Berenikê
southwards, between it and the Nile; and the Nubæ, an “African”
nation, were on the left bank, and independent of Ethiopia, which
country, he states, did not extend north of Halfa.
[Sidenote: A.D. 296.]
From Procopius we learn that in A.D. 296, in the reign of Diocletian,
these Nubæ, or Nobatæ, were brought from the Oasis of El Kharga,
and given the country above Aswan, on condition of their protecting
Egypt against the incursion of the Blemmyes. This treaty was annually
ratified by a religious sacrifice, according to the rites of the
ancient Egyptian religion, on the Island of Philæ, in which the
Roman garrison took part. There are still the remains of the wall
which Diocletian built across the valley near here; and, according
to some authorities, not venturing to trust entirely to the Nubians
to defend the Egyptian frontier, he agreed to pay a yearly tribute
both to the Nubians and the Blemmyes.
[Sidenote: A.D. 330.]
A few years afterwards two young Christians of Tyre, Edesius and
Frumentius, were, on their return journey by sea from India (?),
kidnapped on the coast of Abyssinia. According to their story they
became advisers to the widow of the king who had captured them, and
used all their influence to promote Christianity in the land. They
succeeded so well that Frumentius, on his return to Alexandria, was
consecrated by Bishop Athanasius and returned to Abyssinia, where he
spent the rest of his life in proselytizing, with excellent results.
[Sidenote: A.D. 451.]
Little or nothing is known of the history of internal or Upper Nubia
during these centuries, but the Blemmyes continued to give trouble to
the Roman rulers of Egypt. They gradually succeeded in occupying the
five towns of the Commilitium Romanum, making Talmis or Kalabsha their
capital, and even penetrated into the Thebaïd, where in A.D. 451
Maximinus, the general of Marcian, was forced to make a treaty with
them for 100 years. But it was soon broken by the barbarians.
[Sidenote: A.D. 400-500.]
In the fifth century the Nubians, whose religion at that time was
chiefly limited to star-worship, were gradually converted by monks
and others of the Alexandrian Church. The first important convert
was one Bahriya (?), nephew of the king, and he built many churches
and monasteries.
[Sidenote: A.D. 545.]
During the sixth century the entire nation adopted Christianity. In
A.D. 545 their King Silko defeated the Blemmyes and took the already
well-known town of (old) Dongola for his capital.
The Egypto-Roman-Christian remains at Nagaa[151], and those of
the kingdom of Alwa, or Soba, then under the King of Nubia, may
belong to this or even to an earlier period, for there are legends
of Christianity having penetrated to the Blue Nile in the third
century, and St. Mark is reported to have preached in the Sudan,
or at all events, in “Ethiopia,” in the first century, A.D. 1.
[Sidenote: A.D. 560.]
In the days of Justinian there seems to be no doubt that Christianity
was the established religion of the whole of Ethiopia and Nubia.
[Illustration: ONE OF THE ANIMALS AT NAGAA.]
[Footnote 142: Authorities:—Acknowledgments to the works of
Dr. Budge, Prof. Rawlinson, Mrs. Butcher, etc., as mentioned in
Appendix H, and to some notes of Mr. Crowfoot, for history up to
a.d. 1493.
A.D. 1493 to 1837. — Col. Stewart, “Report on the Sudan, 1883,”
and various other writers.
„ 1837 to 1882. — From “Report on the Egyptian Provinces of
the Sudan.” I.D., 1884.
„ 1882 to date. — Compiled from various authorities, mainly Col.
Wingate’s works, Intelligence Reports and
Publications, &c.
]
[Footnote 143: Ethiopia is nowadays considered to mean Abyssinia,
and is the word employed by the ruler of that country to denominate
his dominions.]
[Footnote 144: _Vide_ also Appendix E.]
[Footnote 145: This lady sent a large (five-ship) trading expedition
to Punt, and did much business in gold, incense, and gum, in
consequence.]
[Footnote 146: _Vide_ Appendix D, p. 311.]
[Footnote 147: _e.g._, Abu Simbl, Gerf Husên, Derr, Wadi Sebûa,
etc.]
[Footnote 148: Referred to by Herodotus (430 B.C.) as Automoloi;
their descendants were later known as Sebridæ or Sembritæ, _see_
p. 319 for an explanation of the story.]
[Footnote 149: Query—the ancestors of the present Bisharin and
Ababda?]
[Footnote 150: The inhabitants of Elephantine Island, Aswan, were
also thus termed in the 6th century B.C.]
[Footnote 151: _Vide_ p. 315.]