_August 13._
This being a fast day, I heard a sermon in the Finnish tongue, preached
at the church of Tornea. A lawful wife was churched, after her lying-in;
which ceremony was performed in the choir, near the elevated part. The
women in general had either naturally white hair, or hair that had once
been brown, now turned grey. Very few had it red. They wear their hair
rather straight.
The physiognomy of both men and women is phlegmatic and stupid; the body
clumsy, the complexion bad, and the features destitute of all delicacy
of form or expression.
The boundary between West Bothnia and East Bothnia is not formed by the
river of Kimi, but by another smaller stream, not far distant, on the
left.
They catch _Sijk_ (_Salmo Lavaretus_) in a curious manner at this place.
These fish, like the common salmon, swim against the stream, and for
that reason are to be caught only near large falls of the river, which
they are unable to ascend. The fisherman, being furnished with a net
fixed at the end of a long pole, strips himself naked up to the waist,
and walks into the middle of the strongest cascade. To prevent accidents
from the force of the water, a rope is often tied round his waist, the
other end of which is held fast by a friend on shore. Thus they catch
the fish below the fall.
Seals are taken by various means, being either shot with fire-arms, or
caught in a net. The latter, three or four fathoms high, is made of
hempen cord, as thick as a goose-quill, each mesh being two spans wide.
This net is kept upright in the water by means of oblong floats of wood,
and has no stones at the bottom. Four or five such nets are frequently
tied to the ends of each other, and a large stone is attached to the
last, bound about with willow or osier, which serves to keep the nets
steady. These are set in places where the seals are known to hide
themselves, for those animals do the fishermen great damage, not only by
devouring fish, but by tearing the fishing nets, from the destruction of
which the haunts of the seals are discovered. When a seal comes in the
way of the above-described nets, he either thrusts his head between the
meshes, getting more and more entangled the more he pushes forward, or,
as often happens, he is caught by the foot.
On a sand-hill near the church at Tornea, grew, in great abundance,
_Gramen spicâ triticeâ maritimum_, (_Triticum radice repente_, _foliis
rigidis_; _Fl. Lapp. n._ 34, which, in the second edition of that work,
p. 23, I have, by the persuasion of my intelligent friend Dr. Afzelius,
referred to _Elymus arenarius_, and what Linnæus here says, confirms
this determination.) Its blue leaves looked quite different from all
others, and very handsome. I picked some seeds from the spikes, which
were as large as grains of rye. Hence I was induced to consider whether
this plant might not serve as a kind of corn, to be cultivated on such
dry and blowing sands, provided the proper method of managing it could
be discovered, which surely would not be a very difficult task. The
advantage of this would be that, by such means, many sandy tracts, where
nothing else will grow, might be turned to advantage; and the perennial
roots, which no other corn has, would of course save the trouble of
sowing it annually. Perhaps even these roots themselves might, in hard
times, serve for food.
The tall Finlander Daniel Cajanus, at Stockholm, born in this part of
East Bothland, was the son of a clergyman. At his birth he was no bigger
than the generality of children, and his health was very indifferent,
particularly with regard to his chest, till the age of twelve or fifteen
years.
I was informed that the inhabitants of this neighbourhood often hear
thunder in the alps during winter.
In the alps of Tornea cold is brought by a south wind, and mild weather
comes from the north, because of the sea.
The Laplanders consult several natural objects by way of compass as they
travel.
1. Large Pine-trees, which bear more copious branches on their southern
side than towards the north.
2. Ant-hills, the south sides of which bear grass, the northern
whortle-berries.
3. Aspen trees, whose bark is rough on the north side, smooth on the
opposite part.
4. Old withered Pines are clothed, on the north side, with the black
_Usnea_, or filamentous _Lichen_ (_L. jubatus_).
By such marks as these they are able to find their way through pathless
forests. Have we any guides so certain?
When these people kill any wild reindeer with fire-arms in summer, they
lodge the carcase in a cold cellar, and cut it up as they want it for
provision.
I observed a curious kind of lime-stone burnt at Kimi, Tornea, and other
places round the neighbouring sea-coast.
_August 14._
A very rainy day. A silver ore from Hjortot has been assayed by the
Mineral Board, and found to contain forty _per cent._ lead, but only
three or four of silver.
_August 15._
Near the ferry at Tornea I picked up the Fresh-water Sponge, _Spongia
lacustris_ of Newton, (_S. lacustris_; _Syst. Nat. v._ 1. 1299. Linnæus
here refers to Mr. Newton, the friend of Ray, who found the Sponge in
question in the Norwich river, where it still exists. It is however
denominated in Ray's _Synopsis_, _S. ramosa fluviatilis_, not
_lacustris_. Linnæus quoted from memory.)
_August 16._
In dissecting the flower of _Artemisia_ (_vulgaris_), I was struck with
its very curious conformation. (This alludes to the want of a limb to
the corolla of the female or marginal florets. See _Fl. Lapp. ed._ 2.
244.)
_August 17._
I went by sea from Tornea to Calix. The wind proved contrary. The
islands abounded with Whortle-berries, and with the fruit of _Rubus
saxatilis_. On one called Korsholm I met with a sort of _Behen_. Can it
be the same with that which grows in cornfields? Their different parts
are tolerably alike. This grew among the pebbles of the beach. Its calyx
is oblong. Leaves narrow. Stem erect. Fruit of one cell. In other
respects it resembles _Behen_. (This was _Cucubalus_ (_Behen_) variety
the third, or [gamma], _Fl. Lapp. n._ 180. _ed._ 2. 149. _Silene
maritima_, _Fl. Brit._ 468. _Engl. Bot. t._ 957. We have found it remain
for many years unchanged in a garden, propagating itself by seed, though
Linnæus reports that the third year he could not distinguish his from
our common _Silene inflata_, his _Cucubalus Behen_.)
[OE]CONOMICAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF TORNEA.
The soil is various, sometimes clay, sometimes sand. The corn-fields are
sown every other year, and lie fallow the intermediate seasons, half of
each field lying fallow, while the other half is cultivated. The former
is ploughed during the whole summer, to prevent the growth of grass or
weeds, which might exhaust it. Barley is sown in these open fields only.
Rye is cultivated on land that has recently been cleared of its wood by
burning, but not in any great quantities. Turnips and Rye are sown
together in one crop, and not, as usual in other places, Turnips one
year and Rye the other. Rye bread is reserved to treat visitors. Barley
bread is of three different qualities; 1. made of the unmixed barley; 2.
of a mixture of barley and chaff; 3. of chaff without any addition,
except now and then a handfull or two of barley. This last is their
_Spis-bröd_, or household-bread.
The plough is of the same construction as that used in Westbothland.
Almost every person, except such as are very poor, catches as many of
the small kind of Herrings, called _Str[oe]mming_ (_Clupea Harengus_
[beta], _Membras_ of old authors,) as are necessary for the support of
his family. Those who are not otherwise employed in spring and autumn,
catch them for sale afterwards to such as have not time to take any for
themselves. These fish begin to spawn about the 18th of May, and
continue till about the 16th of June. After the latter period they go
into the small inlets among the rocks, and are taken by means of large
nets till St. Peter's day, June 29th. This is called the large
Str[oe]mming fishery. From St. Peter's day till St. Bartholomew's (Aug.
24th), or even later, they are taken likewise with nets in their usual
haunts. These fish are found with milt as well as roe throughout the
summer.
One barrel of sour Str[oe]mming is as valuable as two of the salted
sort, the former being greatly preferred. A peasant whose family
consists of a dozen people, takes half a barrel of salt Str[oe]mming for
his whole supply, and this is used to make a kind of soup when boiled
with turnips; but he takes a barrel and three quarters of sour
Str[oe]mming, which is eaten without any preparation, like smoked and
salted meat. If the director of the family is a good [oe]conomist, he
will never allow it to be boiled or roasted. They let the fish which is
to make sour Str[oe]mming lie for three or four hours only before they
take out the entrails, after which it is washed in a small coarse sieve,
till most of the blood is removed. It is then salted, in the proportion
of thirty pounds of ordinary salt to each barrel of fish. The fish
destined to make salt Str[oe]mming must be much more carefully washed,
for if the least drop of blood remains it will turn sour. Every barrel
of this requires a quarter of a barrel of salt which is disposed in
layers, alternately with layers of fish. Each layer of fish and salt are
rubbed together with the hands, till a sort of scum rises on the top.
Another way of preparing salt Str[oe]mming is to make so strong a brine
that the entire fish, thrown into the tub, will not sink. They put in
only so many of the fish as can readily be stirred about in the brine.
If the tub be so full that the brine does not entirely cover the
Str[oe]mming, more is added, and the whole is suffered to remain for
some days. The fish is afterwards gutted in the following manner. A
person puts ten or twelve of them on the thumb of his left hand, in such
a manner that the back of each fish is turned towards the palm. He then
very dexterously loosens the gills with his right hand, pinching out the
gills and intestines at once; which is performed with great quickness.
The fish are then put into a rope basket, and salted as before. When
they have remained thus for a couple of days, they are put into other
baskets, in order that the brine may drain away, and finally are packed
up in new kegs for keeping, without any further salting. A hole is bored
in each tub, just above the lowermost hoop, to draw off the brine, which
is always collecting from the fish, and if permitted to remain, will
cause the whole to turn sour; but the same method is not practised for
the sour Str[oe]mming. This last is in its greatest perfection about St.
James's day (July 25th).
These people have three meals a day in summer, besides breakfast, and
the sour Str[oe]mming always makes a part of their dinner, as well as of
the preceding refreshment. The fish, after being repeatedly squeezed, is
laid between two slices of bread, and so eaten. After it they take some
sour preparation of milk, without cream. Sometimes indeed they eat a bit
of cheese, or bread and butter; but they never eat meat after the sour
Str[oe]mming. Their vegetable food consists of cabbage, pease, or
turnips, the first being generally eaten on Sundays. Pease are eaten
once a week, except when the cabbage is deficient, and then they supply
its place. Turnips and salt Str[oe]mming are generally eaten in a
morning, in the following manner. When the turnips are boiled nearly
enough, the fish is put to them, but not before, lest it should be
broken to pieces. To this some flour is added; and they drink sour milk
after it. Their supper always consists of flummery, made of barley-meal.
Before they first go out in a morning they eat either bread and butter,
or bread and cheese, but they prefer the former. The mixed bread (made
of corn and chaff) is their ordinary portion; good bread, made entirely
of corn, they seldom or ever taste. It is reserved for visitors, or for
very extraordinary occasions. Their mixed or household bread, being
baked in cakes as thin as paper, is eaten by laying four or five such
cakes together upon each other. They are never unprovided with ale in
their cellars, to treat visitors, though their ordinary drink is table
beer. In summer time they always drink _Syra_, (see vol. i. p. 243.)
The peasants themselves eat but very little of their own mutton, and
chiefly the shoulder and brisket. The rest they sell; scarcely any is
kept in the house but the above parts, with the marrow-bones, which
they break to get at the marrow. The heads and feet of sheep, goats, and
hogs, are salted and dried, being, when wanted, boiled with pease, and
not ill-tasted. The legs of sheep, cut off at the knee, are often boiled
fresh; the fat which floats on the top being collected and preserved in
a horn or pot, as very useful to grease small ropes, and wheels. The
legs and feet thus boiled are afterwards thrown away, not eaten. The
head and feet of a calf are usually pickled.
For fire-wood these people use birch-wood. They burn no candles in their
houses. They go to smoke themselves with the Finlanders in their huts.
The hay is mown here in the same manner as in Upland, and the corn is
managed in the same way as in Smoland. When the season is dry, they
prefer drying the corn in heaps in the open air, as before described;
but in wet weather they have recourse to sheds. The hay is spread out
till dry, and afterwards carried, without being made into cocks.
They raise as many hops as are wanted for each family, and have perhaps
a few pounds over, for sale.
Their pales are high, made of pine-wood, and placed sloping.
The milk is set in the cellar, in deep tubs made of alder wood, by which
they obtain a great proportion of cream, even two fingers' thick. This
cream is stirred up with the milk, warmed, and then coagulated, for
making cheese. Another mode is with butter-milk, to which they add a
sixth part of fresh milk, that has stood one day and been skimmed. This
mixture, being first warmed, is then coagulated. The cheese thus made is
preferred to the former, and often eaten in preference to butter.
Between Midsummer and St. James's day (July 25th), the whey is
collected, after the cheese is made; which, after boiling for some
hours, is set by to cool. When cold, it is barrelled up for winter use.
Poor people and old women beg or buy it, a small bottle-full at a time.
To one pot of sour milk they add a fourth part of _Syra_; and these
together have the taste of what they term _Filbunke_, which is sour milk
with the cream on, just beginning to ferment, and of which they make
_Servet-mjölk_; (see p. 150.)
Thick milk (perhaps _Mesosmör_, see vol. i. p. 243,) is often kept in
barrels till winter, as is the meal made of fir-bark, when both serve
for winter provision.
_Syra_ is so very sour as not to be eatable by itself. When they have no
milk to dilute it with, they add an equal quantity of water to the
_Syra_, and mix the whole with flummery, which mixture they prefer to
small beer.
Butter is now and then made of goat's milk; but it is very strong, and
quite as white as that made of the milk of the rein-deer.
_August 18._
On islands near the shore I saw a _Salix_ with leaves like the
cultivated olive. It is a shrub three feet high, but growing in a
spreading manner. Stem grey, with roundish dusky solitary buds, of a
very large size, in proportion to the plant. Leaves gradually larger
(upwards?), oblong-lanceolate, bluntish, on scarcely perceptible
footstalks, furnished with an obtuse longitudinal rib beneath, but no
veins. Their upper surface is green, sprinkled all over with minute
white dots; very slightly channelled, and paler, along the nerve. (This
appears to have been _S. rosmarinifolia_.)
_August 19._
At the fair of Calix I obtained some information concerning the commerce
of this country, which is very different from that of almost every place
in the world besides, insomuch that I am unable to determine which party
makes his market of the other. The townsman thinks it is himself who
cheats the peasant, but I verily believe he is the party who is cheated.
1. The general plan of traffic here is bartering one article for
another.
2. The merchant generally carries his goods home to the peasant's
residence in the country, at whatever distance it may be, or else
conveys them to the fair, from whence the purchaser is to fetch them.
3. When a townsman sets up trade as a merchant, his principal aim is to
get as many country-people to connect themselves with him as possible,
who are to supply him with their produce. These are termed
_Gield-bonder_, or creditors.
4. The advantage the peasants have in thus confiding to the merchant the
whole of their goods, is, that the latter pays their taxes for them to
the collector, which must be done either in ready money, or bills of
exchange.
5. When the merchant receives the goods from the countryman, no price is
fixed upon them between the parties; but when the former returns from
Stockholm, he sets down in his accompt-book nearly the sum for which he
has disposed of the articles there. In this the peasant trusts to the
honour of the merchant, and is paid accordingly.
6. These prices are not communicated to the countryman immediately, nor
does he know the price of the salt, tobacco, corn, and other articles,
with which the merchant supplies him in return, till they settle
accompts; which does not take place till the end of every year, or
perhaps not so frequently.
7. As long as a peasant keeps to one merchant, he is allowed credit, and
obtains advances of any money for which he may have occasion, even
although the goods delivered do not amount to the interest of the sum
lent, which is sometimes equal to 1000 dollars. But if he carries any of
his goods to another merchant, he must immediately pay what he owes to
his original correspondent, or suffer a sequestration of his property.
8. The countryman never brings his own goods to market, unless he
happens to be going that way, in which case he usually takes them with
him, but otherwise it is expected the merchant should fetch them.
9. When the towns of this part of the country were first built, each had
certain parishes appropriated to it, and these were called the trading
district of each town, in which no person who did not belong to the town
had a right to trade. These exclusive privileges were subsequently
annulled by royal authority, and free markets were established, where
strangers as well as the neighbouring inhabitants were equally permitted
to trade. This open trade has not however taken place at Calix, partly
because the peasants are situated at so great a distance from one
another, and partly because the merchants in the town conceive that such
a plan would ruin them, they being in that case obliged to buy and sell
for ready money.
10. Here are no free markets, properly speaking, but only _Upbördsmoten_
(periodical meetings of the collectors of the revenues with the
peasants). At these times the townsmen and the peasants meet together at
the place of rendezvous, as at Calix every year on the 19th of August,
and at Tornea in the depth of winter.
The inconveniences of the above plan of trade are,
1. The merchant lays considerable sums fast, with which he might
otherwise extend his commerce.
2. He has the trouble of carrying his goods to the house of the peasant,
where-ever it may be, up the country, and of bringing what he takes in
exchange from the place of rendezvous to his own house in town.
3. The consequence of such a plan is, that many a merchant has
outstanding debts to the amount of 100,000 dollars, the greater part of
which he may never get paid.
The inconveniences to the countryman are,