Halacha and Agada.

Jochanan ben Zakkai, then, revealed his greatness in boldly

abrogating institutions that had lost their application with the

Temple's fall, bridging the transition between epochs, just as

Samuel had done in his day. His great personality strengthened the

union between the dispersed Jews. Further, like his master Hillel,

he combined in his character gentleness and firmness (_suaviter

in modo, fortiter in re_) and like him, too, he also exercised an

elevating influence on his pupils by his ethical teachings. He

showed them how to search the Scriptures to discover its noblest

lessons. This was distinct from that branch of the Bible study

already referred to, enabling the student to evolve new rules and

new observances. The latter was judicial, the former homiletic.

These gradually came to form the two great divisions of the

scholarly activities of the Rabbis, the judicial division called

_Halacha_ (legal decision), the ethical styled _Agada_. This latter

word means narrative--for many a story, anecdote, moral maxim or bit

of history would be brought in to illustrate a legal point or to

relieve the tension of argument by a pleasing diversion. So Agada

implied much miscellaneous material and included everything not

strictly judicial.

* * * * *

Here are some of the maxims of Jochanan ben Zakkai:

"No iron tool was to be used on the altar, suggesting that

religion's mission is peace."

"If thou hast learnt much, do not boast of it, for that wast

thou created."

"Fear God as much as you fear man."

"Not more?" asked his pupils in surprise? "If you would but fear

him as much!" said the dying sage.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_Sacrificial Worship_:

The pupil has already been made familiar with the prophetic views

on sacrifice (see _People of the Book_, vol. iii). Here follow some

opinions of the Rabbis as to its relative place in Judaism:

"The humble-minded is considered by God to have offered all the

sacrifices, for it is said that the sacrifices of God are a

broken spirit."

"Acts of justice are more meritorious than all the sacrifices.

Unless the mind is purified, the sacrifice is useless; it may be

thrown to the dogs."

"He who engages in the study of the Law, requires neither burnt

offering nor meal offering."

"A day in thy courts is better than a thousand," Psalm lxxiv.

is thus explained: God said to David, "I prefer thy sitting and

studying before me to the thousands of burnt offerings which thy

son Solomon will offer on the alter."

"He who prays is considered as pious as if he had built an altar

and offered sacrifices upon it."

"As the Altar wrought atonement during the time of the Temple,

so after its destruction, the Table of the home."

With the abolition of sacrifice, the Paschal Lamb was indicated only

in a symbolic way by a lamb bone on the Passover table.

* * * * *

R. Jochanan b. Zakkai asked his disciples: "Find out what is the

best thing to cultivate." The first replied a generous eye; the

second, a loyal friend; the third, a good neighbor; the fourth,

prudence and foresight; the fifth, Eliezar, a good heart. "I

consider R. Eliezar's judgment best, for in his answer all of yours

are included."

_Theme for discussion_:

Whether the Temple's fall suspended or abolished animal sacrifice is

a point of difference between Judaism's two schools today.

[Illustration: BRASS COIN STRUCK IN ROME, 74 C. E., DURING REIGN OF

VESPASIAN.

INDICATING JUDEA'S OVERTHROW.]

CHAPTER XXV.

THE PALESTINIAN ACADEMIES.

Jamnia was the first of many Palestinian schools; one was located at

Sepphoris, another at Tiberias, both in Galilee; another at Lydda

in the south not far from the Mediterranean. So the good work grew,

and under sadder auspices the thread of life was taken up again. A

new royalty, so to speak, was created in Israel. The first literal

royalty of the House of Judah had been overthrown by Babylon seven

hundred years earlier. After the restoration, the priests became the

monarchs of the state, exercising almost regal powers. Now in the

dispersion the teacher was king. Rabbi Simeon taught: "There are

three crowns: the crown of the Law, the crown of the priesthood, and

the crown of royalty; but the crown of a good name excelleth them

all."

The head of the Academy was called Nasi (prince), also Patriarch.

His sway was voluntarily yet gladly accepted in matters both

religious and civil (as far as the management of internal affairs

was granted) by the congregations in Rome, Babylonia, Greece, Egypt

and the Parthian lands.

Rabban Gamaliel II.

The first Nasi at Jamnia was Rabban Gamaliel II. of the family of

Hillel, for Jochanan ben Zakkai had held a unique position, _sui

generis_, demanded by the exigencies of the time. But it was the

wish of all that the official position should remain in the House of

Hillel.

Gamaliel was noted both as scholar and man. He was so conscientious

that in farming his estate he would take no interest. He was

so expert as easily to master the astronomical and mathematical

knowledge needed for the regulation of the Jewish calendar. He

was a stern man, but these troublous times needed a firm hand,

religiously as well as civilly, for it was a period of unrest; the

air was full of schemes and fantastic notions. Even so, he was

perhaps too severe, and for a brief period during his thirty years

of Patriarchate, he was actually deposed; the incident will be

related presently. One indication of his severity was his frequent

imposition of _Niddui_--excommunication. The person so condemned had

to remain aloof from the community and live as one in mourning. He

was thus ostracised until the ban was removed.

As in the days when the Temple stood, there were still two

parties--Hillelites and Shammaites. Rabban Gamaliel, however,

endeavored to place himself above party, as the leader should.

The following incidents will show the temper of these Jewish

scholars: One Akabiah ben Mahallel was asked to recede from a

particular decision. It was even intimated by some that if he

would yield, he would be made _Ab Beth Din_ (Vice-President, next

in order to the Nasi). To this suggestion he answered, "I would

rather be a fool all my life than a rogue for one hour." Is not

that magnificent? Living aloof and asked by his son for a letter of

recommendation to his colleagues, the stern father refused. "Thine

own works must recommend thee."

Another famous teacher was Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, who opened the

school at Lydda. His weakness lay in the fact that he would never

trust his own judgment to deduce a rule. He accepted and taught

only what he had learned on the authority of his teachers. That

type of man has its value in the world and is like the priest, who

treasures past traditions. But we need originators too, who boldly

open up new highways; for if we mistrusted our own powers altogether

and walked only in the old paths, knowledge would not grow and the

world would not advance. Rabbi Eliezer taught: "Thy fellowman's

honor must be as dear to thee as thine own. Do not allow thyself to

be easily angered. Repent one day before thy death."

R. Joshua.

In contrast, let us single out a more interesting figure, a man

who left his impress on his age--Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah. Broad,

versatile and gifted, he as a youth had been a chorister in the

Temple, now laid waste. His mother, like Samuel's, destined him

for a religious life from his birth. Like a true genius, he

broke through many of the disadvantages that handicapped him and

became one of the Tannäim and the founder of a new academy at

Bekiim. He was miserably poor and eked out a scanty existence as a

needle-maker. For these great teachers received no emolument for

their labors in the religious Academy. It was a service of love.

They followed the principle laid down by Rabbi Zadok, "Do not use

the Law as a crown to shine therewith or a spade to dig therewith."

Rabbi Joshua was, however, so severely plain that a Roman emperor's

daughter, combining at once a compliment and an insult, asked why

so much wisdom should be deposited in so homely a vessel. Tradition

says he advised her to put her father's wine in golden jars with a

lamentable result, to prove that, good wisdom, like good wine, may

be best preserved in plain receptacles.

Many of the scholarly leaders belonged to the Jewish aristocracy,

that was still prized even in their fallen state. Joshua was a man

of the "common people." Yet that became for him a source of power,

as, being closer to the masses, he was the better able to influence

them, and he helped to bring the upper and lower classes closer

together. By his gentleness and moderation he prevented many a split

in Judaism that often threatened when divergence of view reached the

danger point.

Although, like Gamaliel, a great mathematician and astronomer,

he was modest and obedient and submitted to a humiliating ordeal

imposed by this stern Nasi because of a mistaken calculation as to

the date of a holy day. He must travel with purse and staff on the

very day, according to his error, Yom Kippur would have fallen. He

came. Gamaliel embraced him and said, "Welcome, my master and my

pupil; my master in wisdom and my pupil in obedience." Such examples

by great teachers were most beneficial to the people at large.

Very valuable to the cause, too, was his shrewd and common sense

that exposed the folly of extreme and fantastic views. "The Law,"

said he, "was not revealed to angels but to human beings." Some

misguided pietists would not partake of wine or meat because, now

that the Temple had fallen they could not be offered at its altar.

"Why not," said he, "abstain also from bread and water since they

too were used in the sacrificial service?" Nothing like ridicule at

times to explode fallacies.

Most important perhaps of all his service was his endeavor to close

the breach between Israel and the Romans, which the unforgiving

Shammaites would have widened. He advised a graceful submission to

the inevitable. In consequence he enjoyed the confidence of the

Roman rulers. Like Jochanan ben Zakkai, he turned out to be the man

of the hour; and when a little later Israel again sailed into stormy

seas, he was called to the helm.

Rabbi Ishmael ben Elisha deserves a brief mention as one of the

great Tannäim of this age who, avoiding strained interpretation,

explained the Law with logical common sense. He gladly devoted his

wealth to the maintenance of girls orphaned by the war. He too

founded a School and was destined, alas, to die a martyr's death.

Ordination of Rabbis.

These men and others like them assured the continuity of their

holy work by training students in the exploration of the Law and

transmitting to them the _Halachoth_ that they thus far deduced.

When proficient, they were ordained as teachers by the ceremony of

_Semicha_ (laying on of hands). This gave them right of membership

in the Sanhedrin and certain judicial functions, and also the title

of _rabbi_, introduced after the Temple's fall by Jochanan ben

Zakkai.

Outside of Judea, schools were also being established in Babylon,

Parthia, Asia Minor and Egypt. In Alexandria a modest academy

replaced the pretentious Temple of happier days. But all turned

to Jamnia, where the Sanhedrin met as the centre of religious

authority. It was for the time being their spiritual capital. To

the presiding Nasi, Rome granted some civil jurisdiction in the

administration of internal Jewish affairs. So the Sanhedrin was

still quite a House of Legislature in its way.

The Prayer Book.

Here were regulated the institutions of Judaism and here was now

more completely formulated the ritual of prayer already inaugurated

in the synagogues while the Temple stood. Here is its outline:

(a) _The Shema_ the prayer beginning "Hear, O Israel," (Deut. vi.

4-9), was the centre of the first division of the service. It

was _preceded_ by two benedictions, the first expressing God's

providence seen in Nature, in the morning for the glory of light,

in the evening for the soft restfulness of night; the second God's

love for Israel manifested in the bestowal of the Law. The Shema

was _followed_ by another benediction voicing gratitude for divine

redemption. (b) The second division of the service was called

_Tefillah_, the "eighteen benedictions" prayer, containing a set

form of praises at the opening and close, with the central part

variable to fit the different occasions of week-days, Sabbath and

Holy Days. (c) The third section of the service was the reading from

the Pentateuch and the Prophets.

The Reader was no special official; any Israelite could "stand

before the Ark" where the scrolls were placed, and read the service.

Here again prevailed the idea that religious service was not to be

paid for. Prayer for the restoration of the Land and Temple was

now a fixed feature of every service. Perpetually to commemorate

the Temple's loss by outward signs, such as shattering a glass at

a wedding, became a duty in which patriotism and religion were

blended. Two of the fasts instituted in Babylon for the fall of the

first Temple were given a second sad sanction now, to commemorate

the downfall of the second.

As may be well understood, a long and disastrous war had demoralized

the masses, especially the country folk. The educated classes rather

held aloof from the _Am Haaretz_, "people of the soil," i.e., the

ignorant masses. This is rather surprising on the part of the

scholars, otherwise so conscientious and so benevolent. But the

times were rude and ignorance usually went hand in hand with many

evil practises.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_The Prayer Book_:

The ritual scheme given in this chapter was gradually amplified

by passages from Scripture especially Psalms, by additional

introductory and closing prayers and by poems for the Festivals.

See Singer translation of the old _Prayer Book_; also the _Union

Prayer Book_, closer to the ancient, shorter ritual.

In addition to complete services, the rabbis drew up a series of

Benedictions for daily occurrences. Darmesteter thus puts it:

"Each day, each hour is unalterably arranged by regulations

from on high ... benedictions before the meal, after the meal

benedictions. At sight of the imposing phenomena of nature, of

a storm, the sea, the first spring blossoms, thanksgivings.

Thanksgiving for new enjoyment, for unexpected good fortune,

on eating new fruits, at the announcement of a happy event.

Prayers of resignation at the news of misfortune. At the tomb

of a beloved being, set prayers; words all prepared to console

the sorrow-stricken. Every emotion and every feeling, the most

fugitive as well as the most profound, are foreseen, noted and

embodied in a formula of prayer ... sanctifying the present hour

and keeping one in perpetual communication with the divine."

_The Temple Fasts_:

Gedalyah's Fast (Tishri 3d); Tenth of Tebeth, 17th of Tammuz, 9th of

Ab. Only the last two apply to loss of Second Temple.

See _People of Book_, Vol. iii, p. 200.

_Theme for discussion_:

In what respect did the "Academy" differ from a school?

CHAPTER XXVI.

JUDAISM AND THE CHURCH.

The Development of Christianity.

In the meantime the new religion that had sprung from Judaism was

entering its second stage of development. We have seen (p. 133) how

its adoption of pagan ideas tended to separate Jews from Christians

theologically. We will now see how the trend of events tended to

separate them socially. There were still two Christian sects--the

pagan Christians, many of them Greeks, to whom Jesus was the Son of

God, whose blood shed on the cross was an atonement for the sins of

mankind and whose coming abrogated the Law. These had small sympathy

with the Jews in spite of the fact that it was the lofty morality of

the Hebrew Scriptures that formed the backbone of the new Faith.

On the other hand there were the Jewish Christians, the original

group, but now the small minority, who remained Jews in all

respects, but clung to the belief that Jesus of Nazareth was the

Messiah, that he had risen from the grave and would come a second

time to gratify the hopes not fulfilled in his first advent. They

also fostered the belief that they could cure by miracles and drive

out demons by declaration of a formula of their faith; for Jesus had

also believed in this power of exorcism. They still maintained to

a degree the customs of the Essenes (from which body, perhaps they

may have been an outgrowth),--particularly the duty of voluntary

poverty. Indeed, the Sanhedrin seriously considered whether they

might not be regarded as Jews.

But when Judaism and Jews became discredited through loss of land

and Temple and Jews were taxed for the privilege of remaining loyal

to the former, these Jewish Christians began to drift away from a

people who had lost power and status in the world, and threw in

their lot with the controlling majority. Such is the way of the

world. Furthermore, some of the Jewish country folk, losing faith

in the validity of Judaism through the loss of its Temple, were

attracted to Christianity with its new scheme of salvation, in

which Jesus took the place which had been filled by the altar of

sacrifice. In this way many of the Gentile proselytes to Judaism in

Alexandria and Asia Minor went over to the new creed. So the loss of

the Temple with its priestly service had much to do with the spread

of Christianity.

Although great bitterness at first existed between the two Christian

sects, the pagan branch soon absorbed the small Jewish branch and

all too soon the Christians "knew not Joseph." For the antagonism of

Gentile against Jew was now transmitted to the new church and, sad

to say, it became a more bitter persecutor of the people from which

Jesus and Paul had sprung than most of the heathen nations had been.

Old and New Testaments.

New ceremonials grew up in the new faith. Passover was turned into

the Easter sacrificial service. The unleavened bread and wine were

supposed to be transformed in some mystic way into the flesh and

blood of the Savior (as Jesus was styled). Many Roman rites and

symbols were consciously or unconsciously taken up by the new creed

in the first few centuries of its foundation; for it grew less and

less Jewish as the years went on. Depreciation of Judaism became now

the accustomed tactics of the Church Fathers, for Christianity's

justification depended in some respects on the theory of Judaism's

insufficiency. Jews were said to be blind and obstinate in still

clinging to the Law, now that Jesus had come. This unfortunate

spirit of antagonism to the parent faith pervades the Christian

Scriptures and mars its ethical teachings. These Scriptures were

known as the _New Testament_, to distinguish them from the Jewish

Scriptures which were called the _Old Testament_; the theory being

that the testament or _covenant_ between God and Israel, there

recorded, was now obsolete and superseded by a "new" covenant in

which, as already explained, belief in Jesus, the Messiah, took

the place of obedience to the Law. Many passages from the Psalms

and Prophets were retranslated to fit the impression that they had

really foretold the coming of Jesus and the events of his life. The

whole Hebrew Bible in fact was treated as but a preparation for

Christianity's grand climax! Even the history of Israel was regarded

as but an allegorical picture of the life of the man of Nazareth.

Gnostics.

We cannot pass this period of religious upheaval, without a word

about certain strange sects, neither wholly Jewish, Christian nor

pagan, but something of all, that arose at this time. They were

for the most part called Gnostics, from the Greek "know," claiming

to obtain through weird processes a clearer knowledge of God.

Very fantastic were the views of some on the problems of life and

sin. Some of the sects were led into all sorts of absurdities and

excesses. A few Jews were seduced by these fascinating heresies,

notably one Elisha ben Abuyah, learned in the Law though he was.

Having left the fold, he is said to have became a persecutor of his

people. The Rabbis only accounted for the sad change by a complete

revolution in his nature--so they called him _Acher_, "another man."

The Sanhedrin found it wise to prohibit the reading of such mystic

literature that would tend to lead youth astray from the sound and

healthy teachings of Judaism.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

For an elucidating picture of the compromise of paganism with

Christianity by a Christian writer, read "Is Catholicism a Baptized

Paganism?" by Rev. Heber Newton, in the _Forum Magazine_, New York,

1890.

_Jewish Scripture and Church Doctrine_:

Isaiah (particularly ch. ix, 6-7 and ch. liii), was a favorite book

among Christian theologians from which to deduce the doctrines of

the church. Notice the quotations used in Handel's Oratorio "The

Messiah." Also Daniel, hence the prominent place among the prophets,

given it by the Church. Modern critics altogether abandon this

forced method of Biblical exegesis. (See Skinner's _Isaiah_ and

Driver's _Daniel_ (Cambridge Bible).

_Theme for discussion_:

Contrast the ancient gnostic with the modern agnostic.

CHAPTER XXVII.

ROME'S REGIME AFTER JUDEA'S OVERTHROW.

=Roman Emperors= | =Jewry=

|

Titus 79 | Jamnian Academy 70

Domitian 81 | Clemens, Roman proselyte,

| put to death, 95

Nerva, 96 | Revolt of the Diaspora, 115

Trajan, 98 | Aquila's Bible translation

| about 128

Hadrian, 117 | Akiba, president of Sanhedrin 130

Antoninus Pius, 138 | Bar Cochba insurrection, 132-135

Proselytes Again.

The Emperor Vespasian, who had permitted the institution of the

Jamnian Academy, was succeeded by his son Titus. Titus lived too

briefly after he became emperor to exert a decided influence

on Israel, but it could never forget that to his hand had been

entrusted the final overthrow of Judea. His brother Domitian,

however, the next emperor, was a tyrant and a degenerate. It is said

that at one time he contemplated the extermination of the Jews. The

Jewish tax (_Fiscus Judaicus_) was collected with needless cruelty

and indignity. He bitterly persecuted those Romans who in spite of

Israel's fallen fortunes, were still drawn to its Faith and made

severe laws against those who encouraged conversion. Proselytes

came in sufficient numbers to make the subject an important theme

of discussion in the Jewish Academy. It was probably in Rome itself

where the spread of Judaism most alarmed the emperor. Perhaps its

teachings reached the Romans through the Jewish prisoners of war.

Certainly many high born Romans were enthusiastically prepared to

make sacrifices for its cause. It is said that even Flavius Clemens

and his wife Flavia Domitilla, relatives of Domitian and possible

heirs to the throne, were pledged to Judaism. Clemens was put to

death and his wife was exiled. But a step, and Judaism might have

mounted the imperial throne of Rome and have exchanged destinies

with Christianity. Perhaps not even then, for its unbending

monotheism and strict Law brooked no easy compromise. However, it is

one of the might-have-beens of history.

One of the most famous proselytes was Aquila, a Greek of scholarship

and wealth. Dissatisfied with the later Greek translations of the

Bible, distorted to fit Christian doctrine, Aquila made a literal

translation from the Hebrew that so commended itself to the Rabbis

that it became the "authorized version," so to speak, for the

Synagogue. An Aramaic (p. 60) translation of the Bible, following

his model, was called after him _Targum Onkelos_--which means "a

translation like that of Aquila." It is often printed with the

Hebrew texts of Scripture to-day.

Revolt against Trajan.

It was the unhappy fate of Israel that the mischievous Domitian

should have reigned so long and that the good Emperor Nerva,

his successor, should have reigned so briefly. So although the

injunctions against proselytes were removed during the sixteen

months of Nerva's rule as soon as Trajan came to the throne many

anti-Jewish laws were restored. Like Alexander the Greek, Trajan the

Roman cherished the wild desire of conquering Asia. When he attacked

Parthia, the Jews living in semi-independence there became his most

vigorous opponents. In Babylon they stubbornly held the city of

Nisibis against his legions. No sooner had he subdued the lands on

the Euphrates and the Tigris than the Persian provinces revolted.

All the Jews of the Diaspora now seized the occasion to throw off

the hated Roman yoke. For they had never become reconciled to it;

and, their children, now grown to manhood, had been brought up

in the assurance that soon Judea would be won back again and the

Temple rebuilt. "Carthage must be destroyed" had been the Roman cry;

"Jerusalem must be rebuilt" was now the Jewish. In Egypt, in Cyprus,

a Mediterranean island, and in Cyrene, further west on the African

coast--they rose against their opponents. At first success came

to their arms, though much blood flowed on both sides; but there

could be no doubt of the ultimate outcome with Rome's overwhelming

numbers. Yet so vigorous was their resistance that the historian

Graetz ventures to think that, in spite of lacking cavalry and being

indifferently armed, had these three separate Jewish uprisings

been organized under one directing control it would have gone hard

with the Roman legions. As it was, their beautiful synagogue in

Alexandria was destroyed, all the Jewish inhabitants of Cyprus were

slain and the island forbidden them in the future. Many lives were

lost in other places of Jewish insurrection, including Judea itself.

The revolt certainly nipped in the bud Trajan's foolish ambition to

conquer all Asia, and he died in mortification at his failure.

Gamaliel was now dead and Rabbi Joshua had become Patriarch. The

reins of power could not have been entrusted to wiser hands, for he

seized the moment of the accession of the new emperor, Hadrian, to

counsel conciliation. Like Jochanan ben Zakkai, he saw the futility

of Israel wasting its strength in fighting with colossal Rome.

The Sanhedrin was removed from Jamnia to Oosha in upper Galilee.

Joshua's sway was less rigorous than that of Gamaliel. At a time

when many of his brethren felt nothing but hatred toward the

heathen, he uttered the famous dictum: "The virtuous of all peoples

have a share in the heavenly bliss of the life to come." This has

since been accepted by the House of Israel as the classic expression

of its attitude towards other religions.

The new emperor Hadrian also seemed at first inclined to a policy

of concession; but there was little choice, for revolt burst out in

all parts of the empire, from Asia Minor in the East to Britain in

the far West. The discouraged emperor gladly met many of his enemies

half way. Parthia was restored to the control of its own princes. In

Judea proper a cruel general, Quietus, was checked in his terrible

purpose of exterminating the Jews and was ultimately executed.

Hadrian's "Promise."

To win peace and adherents, Hadrian was willing to make many

fair promises at the opening of his reign that he had no serious

intention of fulfiling. One of these was an offer to the Jews to

rebuild their Temple, which they had exacted as the condition of

laying down their arms. Imagine the boundless joy with which this

news was received--a Cyrus come to power once more! Hebrew poets

sang of the glories that were to come. Christians and Samaritans

were much disconcerted at the news.

But as soon as Hadrian had obtained the mastery of the situation

and quiet was restored, he resorted to subterfuge. They might

rebuild their Temple, but not in the same place! He knew it was

that place or none. The Jews saw through the pretense; their hopes

were blasted. There was talk of war again, but the wise Rabbi Joshua

still counselled submission. So for many years the embers of revolt

slumbered in the breasts of the Jews, but did not die out, though as

long as Rabbi Joshua lived they did not break into flame.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_Proselytes_:

Read the article on this subject in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_ for

fuller list of Roman proselytes. Notice here first, the different

degrees of proselytism; secondly, the attitude of the synagogue

toward the convert, favorable or unfavorable in different periods of

its history, varying with its changing relations with the outside

world. Based on the laws given to Noah (Genesis ix) the Tannäim

deduced seven Noachian rules, which they regarded as obligations

binding on all mankind. To these humane laws strangers living in

their midst must conform. For they felt this sense of responsibility

to those not of their religion.

[Illustration: BRASS COIN OF NERVA, 96 C. E.

MARKING THE WITHDRAWAL OF CERTAIN ABUSES IN CONNECTION WITH THE

JEWISH TAX.]

CHAPTER XXVIII.

AKIBA.

Love and Law.

The man who now came to the fore was of a different mould--the

famous Rabbi Akiba. He was born in Palestine in the year 50 C. E.

that is, some 20 years before the Temple fell. Many a pretty legend

is woven around his life. Have you ever realized that it is only

around great men that legends most luxuriantly grow? Imagination

does not seek to picture incidents in the lives of the commonplace.

Not only poor, but ignorant, Akiba despised scholars and

scholarship. One day, so runs the story, this humble shepherd met

Rachel, the beautiful daughter of his master, Kalba Sabua, and fell

in love with her. Angry at his daughter's attachment for this boor,

the rich Kalba disinherited her. Her sweet self-sacrifice in sharing

poverty with him rather than wealth without him, roused the noblest

qualities dormant in Akiba's nature. She was determined to bear yet

further privation that he might become a scholar in the Law. For it

was to his ignorance, rather than to his poverty, that the father

had objected. Among no people was illiteracy so great a disgrace as

among the Jews, and among none did learning simply, confer so much

honor. So at her urgency, he reluctantly left his home to sit at

the feet of the Rabbis of the Schools. The chronicles of chivalry

furnish pretty stories of knights-errant hieing forth at the bidding

of fair ladies to make conquests in distant fields of battle. Akiba

went forth at Rachel's bidding; and is not the mastery of knowledge

a victory as renowned as that of war? A wonderful pupil he became,

for he had the gift of enthusiasm. But while he was winning renown

at the Academy, she, alone and at a distance, was battling with

poverty, at one time having to sell her hair to buy food for her

child. But still the self-sacrificing woman would not permit his

return.

One day it was announced in the village in which she lived that

the great scholar, Rabbi Akiba, was about to visit it. He came,

surrounded by many disciples, and as the crowd of admirers gathered

about him, they pushed aside a poorly clad woman who tried to reach

his side. But espying her, he parted the crowd and caught her in his

arms. To the astonished spectators he declared, "All that I know I

owe to her, for she was my inspiration."

So far the romantic side of his life. On its literary side he was a

great _Tanna_, and famous scholars came from his School. His method

of interpreting new Law from old was based on the theory that no

word or particle in the Pentateuch was redundant; if any appeared

in the text that it seemed could be dispensed with, then it must

have some hidden significance. This changed the law of Moses from a

limited group of unvarying precepts to a living fount of continuous

tradition, and made the laws of the days of the Jewish monarchy

capable of modification and enlargement to fit Israel's life under

the Roman Empire. Interpretation that would produce new precepts to

meet the changing conditions of later times was undertaken by Hillel

(p. 113) but never before reduced to so complete a system as was

done by Rabbi Akiba. On such a principle there was no end of the

possible deductions from Scripture. Yet the Rabbis were too earnest

and too conscientious knowingly to abuse it. The theory worked in

the interest of progress. The institution of this method has earned

for Akiba the title of "father of rabbinic Judaism."

He further gave an impetus to the classification of the _Halachoth_

already begun before his day. This classification of the Oral Law

was called _Mishna_, or Second Law, of which we shall hear more

later on.

He, too, had a voice in fixing the canon of Scripture.

Akiba's Ethics.

Here follow some of his sayings:

"How favored is man for he was created in the Image" (of God).

"--Who slays a man sins against the devine image."

"Take thy seat below thy rank until bidden to take a higher

place."

"God is merciful but He does not permit this mercy to impair His

justice."

"Everything is foreseen, yet freedom of will is given to man."

There is also ascribed to him on doubtful authority the maxim,

"Whatever God doeth He doeth for the best."

There is a mystic note throughout his teachings; mark the following:

"Everything is given in pledge ... the office is open, the

broker gives credit; there is the ledger and the hand writes;

whoever wishes to borrow may borrow, but the bailiffs daily

exact; the judgment is fair; and everything is prepared for the

Banquet."

In the spirit of Hillel's Golden Rule he regarded the greatest

principle of Judaism the law "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as

thyself."

He was always entrusted with tasks of delicacy and

consideration--the notification to R. Gamaliel that he had been

impeached, to R. Eliezar that he had been excommunicated. To the

latter he broke the disagreeable news in these words: "It seems your

brethren turn away from you."

Law and Faith.

Akiba established an Academy at Bene Barak. There was a wonderful

fascination about the man that attracted hundreds of students

to him--tradition says thousands. That was in part due to the

enthusiasm of his _faith_. An instance of his faith is illustrated

in his visit to Rome, with some of his colleagues, to intercede on

behalf of his people. They burst into tears at beholding Rome's

splendor, mentally contrasting it with Jerusalem's desolation. He

met their tears with a hopeful smile: "The present ruined condition

of our beloved land foretold by the Prophets, only assures me of the

fulfilment of their brighter prophecies of our ultimate triumph."

Alas, even faith may have its drawbacks! Akiba's deep conviction

that the restoration of Judea's independence was at hand, to be

effected by the advent of the Messiah, induced him to encourage the

revolt that was quietly but steadily spreading among his disaffected

brethren.

Hadrian, little understanding the spirit of this people, reported

to the Senate after making a circuit through the Roman provinces,

that all was peace. He was both foolish and cruel enough to display

his absolute power and Israel's complete subjection, not only by

altogether withdrawing permission to rebuild the Jewish Temple,

but by ordering a heathen shrine to be reared on its site, thus

completely to paganize Jerusalem.

This was the last straw. The aged Rabbi Joshua went to implore the

emperor to desist from this wanton project, but in vain. It was one

of the last acts of the Patriarch's life. When he died it was said

good counsel ceased in Israel. Like Antiochus of old, Hadrian wished

to obliterate Judaism--and Christianity, too, for that matter,--and

make the idolatrous worship of Serapis universal.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_Masora_ is the technical term for the notes on the traditional

Scripture text by the Fathers of the Synagogue. The original text

has been thus preserved intact in these scrupulous and reverent

hands. See article, "Masora," Isidore Harris, _Jewish Quarterly

Review_, Vol. i.

_Akiba_:

The blessing that charity brings to the giver was a favorite idea of

Akiba--a _Mitzvah_!

Simon b. Shetach was called the "Restorer of the Law"; Hillel the

"Regenerator of the Law"; Akiba the "Father of Rabbinic Judaism."

In deciding the Canon of Scripture (p. 22), Akiba's influence kept

_Song of Songs_ and _Esther_ in the Bible, but unfortunately kept

_Ecclesiasticus_ out of it.

_Theme for discussion_:

Should Akiba's method of law deduction be called casuistic?

CHAPTER XXIX.

LAST STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY.

Bar Cochba.

Preparations for rebellion had been carefully planned for some

years. Arms had been stored in caves. Akiba was the inspiration of

the revolt, its Deborah, let us say. But who was to be its Barak?

The times created the man. A hero appeared to lead the forces of

Israel whom the multitude in admiration called Bar Cochba (son of

a star). This title may have been suggested by the name of his

birthplace, Koziba, but chiefly also because he was regarded by the

enthusiasts as the long-looked-for Messiah. This man, of colossal

strength and strategic resources, was going to make Rome feel the

power of a scorned people. Reinforcements came fast to the banner of

the supposed Messiah, scion of David's house, who was to throw off

the yoke of Rome and restore the throne of Judah. Soon he had half a

million men at his back.

The Roman governor, Tinnius Rufus, who is the Talmud's archetype of

cruelty, fled with his garrison. In the first year of the war fifty

fortresses and a thousand towns capitulated before the advancing

arms of Bar Cochba; for the presence of the beloved Akiba gave

confidence to all. We might say of him as was written of Moses,

"When Akiba raised his hand, Israel prevailed."

Hadrian, who first slighted the insurrection, had soon reason to

fear it. His best generals were dispatched to Judea only to be

repulsed. Already Bar Cochba was having coins struck with his

insignia. Alas the act was premature. King Ahab once said, "Let not

him boast who putteth on his armor as he who taketh it off." In the

meantime Roman prisoners of war were treated with great forbearance;

indeed some heathens, impressed with the enthusiasm of the Jews, had

joined their ranks.

General Severus.

Eventually, after Bar Cochba had held sway for two years without

cavalry and had repulsed every Roman army, Hadrian, alarmed,

summoned the great general, Julius Severus, from distant Britain.

The Jewish focus of operations was at Bethar, south of Caesarea,

and one mile from the Mediterranean, and fortifications had been

placed north, west and east to hold control of the country. Jezreel

commanded the centre.

Like Vespasian, the great general Severus, decided on siege rather

than attack. So he steadily cut off supplies and provisions and

also barbarously put to death all prisoners of war. There was no

Josephus to give us vivid details of this campaign, so we only know

its general result. The three great outlying fortresses on the

frontier were first mastered. The next battle took place on the

field of Jezreel. One by one the Jewish fortresses fell. The whole

Judean army was now concentrated in Bethar where the decisive battle

must be waged. It was the Jerusalem of this war. Severus resolved

to starve it out. For one year the Jews bravely held out against

the finest army of the age. At last some Romans found a way into

Bethar through a subterranean passage which some Samaritans, it is

said, betrayed. Then followed an awful carnage in which Roman horses

"waded to the nostrils in Jewish blood." More than half a million

souls were slain and thousands more perished by fire and hunger.

Yet so great were also the Roman losses that Hadrian in his message

of the campaign to the Roman senate, significantly omitted the

formula, "I and the army are well."

In the year 135 Bethar fell and tradition places it on the same date

so disastrous in Jewish annals--the 9th of Ab. The Roman soldiers

kept up a war of extermination against the scattered bands that

still held out. Many who had taken refuge in caves were brutally

massacred. All the Jews throughout the Roman Empire were made to

feel the weight of Hadrian's anger in heavy taxation. As though

wantonly to mark its complete desolation, the plow was passed over

Jerusalem. North of it was built a Roman city--Aelia Capitolina. On

the Temple Mount was erected a shrine dedicated to Jupiter, with

the vindictive purpose of obliterating the very name of Jerusalem.

(And it _was_ forgotten--for one hundred and fifty years.) No Jew

dared enter that city under penalty of death. But all this was but

preliminary to his real punishment of those who were called rebels

only because they failed. Keener sighted than Vespasian, who blotted

out the Nation but tolerated the Faith, Hadrian saw that there was

only one way to crush the Jew; that was by crushing his religion. To

that abortive purpose he now devoted himself with all the inhumanity

of a Pharaoh. To the cruel but cowardly Tinnius Rufus, who had fled

at the first alarm, that task was entrusted. Judaism was proscribed.

Obedience to its Law was declared a capital crime. Should they

commit physical or spiritual suicide was the dilemma that now faced

Israel. Was ever a people reduced to such straits?

Law and Life.

A few were ready for ignoble acquiescence and called it submitting

to the inevitable, forgetting that "inevitable" is an elastic

term that varies with our moral determination. Meeting secretly

in a garret, the Rabbis considered the momentous question of the

religious policy of this critical hour. They decided that while this

terrible decree lasted the people might disregard Jewish observances

under duress, since the Law was given, not that they should die, but

live by it. But fearing that their lenient proclamation might be

mistakenly applied to the fundamentals of religion and morals, they

made this safeguard: Even to save his life, no Jew must commit the

sins of _idolatry_, _adultery_, or _murder_. This vitally important

declaration, involving the all-compelling sanction of the second,

sixth and seventh commandments, became an abiding principle in

Judaism.

But many of the Rabbis themselves refused to take advantage of the

leniency they were willing to grant to others, and determined to

obey every injunction of Judaism. In particular they determined to

teach the Law to their disciples, on which the continuance of the

Jewish tradition depended--though they knew that death would be the

penalty of discovery. Roman spies were everywhere ready to pounce

upon any who committed the "crime" of fulfilling the precepts of

Judaism in obedience to the dictates of conscience. Some were only

fined, but others were put to death with tortures too cruel to tell.

Martyrdom.

There were ten famous martyrs among the teachers of the Law. One

of these, Chananyah ben Teradion, had the scroll of the Law he was

expounding, wound round him and was burnt in its flames--wet wool

being placed on his heart to prolong his agony. His executioner,

inspired by such lofty example of faith and courage, sought death

with him on the same pyre.

Another, Rabbi Judah ben Baba, gathered some of his disciples

about him in a lonely spot, to ordain them as rabbis by the rite

of _Semicha_, already explained. Roman soldiers discovered him. He

bade his pupils fly. They refused to obey until he pointed out that

having learnt from him important decisions of the Law, it was their

duty to live and teach them to others. Later they found him pierced

with three hundred lances.

Rabbi Akiba was among the martyrs and would not avail himself of the

temporary suspension of the ceremonial Law. Reproached for exposing

his life by teaching the Law he answered in a parable that has

since become famous, that of "The Fox and the Fishes." Seeing the

frightened fish swimming from nets set to entrap them, a crafty fox

on the bank called out, "Come up on land and escape the snares of

the sea." "Nay," advised the counsellor among the fish, "far wiser

will it be to remain in the water, your native element, even though

made perilous by the nets of men." Was not Judaism the _native

element_ of the Jew?

Soon this noble teacher was seized and cast into prison. Rufus

ordered him to be flayed to death by iron pincers. But religion

cannot be killed in that way. In the midst of his agonies, a

seraphic smile illuminated his face. "Daily," said he, "I have

recited the _Shema_, 'Love God with heart and soul and might,'

and now I understand its last phrase--'with all thy might,'--that

is even though He ask thy life; here I give Him my life." With

this wondrous recital of Israel's prayer, this sweet soul, whose

opinions may have brought him some opponents, but whose character

all loved, passed away. His parable of "The Fox and the Fishes"

contained a profound truth exemplified in himself; for, dying in his

native element, the Law, he lives immortally in the Jewish heart;

aye, through the inspiration of his death and that of others like

him, does Israel abide to-day. Here was another application of the

"suffering servant" in Isaiah's fifty-third chapter.

Thus ended Israel's last struggle for liberty. It severed, too, the

last link that yet united the Jewish Christians to the parent Jewish

body. For they said, "Why hold further relation with a community

completely crushed and discredited in the eyes of all the world?"

They believed that Judaism's collapse and disappearance was at hand.

NOTE.

Rome first despised the Judean revolt and then had to send its

greatest general to quell it. Compare the similar experience of

Britain with the Boers.

_Theme for discussion_:

What degree of pain or peril justifies disregard of ceremonial law?

[Illustration: COIN OF THE SECOND REVOLT OF BAR COCHBA, 132-135 C.

E.]

(Nearly all the illustrations of coins used in this book have

been taken from Madden's "Coins of the Jews," London: Trübner &

Co.)

CHAPTER XXX.

R. JUDAH, "THE SAINT," AND HIS TIMES.

Sorrowfully the Jews now took up the burden of life once more. In

spite of dreadful devastation and dreary outlook the faith and

spirit of the majority remained unbroken. Hadrian had tried to

eradicate Judaism, but he had failed. The defeated were still the

victors. In the year 138 Hadrian was succeeded by the more humane

Antoninus Pius. The religious persecution was stopped, Rome's normal

toleration of Judaism was resumed. The Sanhedrin was reopened at

Oosha, the Presidency being still retained in the family of Hillel.

Rabbi Simon, the Nasi, was the author of the maxim, "The world rests

on three pillars--Truth, Justice and Peace." Compare the "world's

three pillars" of Simon the Just. (p. 30).

Mair and Beruriah.

Rabbi Mair was a unique figure of this time. He is said to have

given one-third of his means to support poor students. Not at first

recognized because of his youth, he gave expression to the maxim,

"Look not at the vessel, but at that which it contains; for there

are new flasks full of old wine and old flasks which contain not

even new wine." Did not Rabbi Joshua express a similar sentiment?

Rabbi Mair was a broad man who gladly gathered knowledge from all,

Jew and non-Jew alike. Mark this bit of wisdom: "Who studies the

Law for its own sake is worth the whole world and is loved by God

and man." Is not the study of the Law _for its own sake_ the very

essence of religion? He would illustrate his lessons by fables in

the portrayal of which he was wonderfully gifted.

His wife, Beruria, is the most renowned--or perhaps the only

renowned--woman in Talmudic annals. We might compare her to the

Shunamite (II Kings, iv.), whom the Bible calls a "great" woman.

Great was Beruria in strength of character, in dignity and withal in

motherly affection. She was indeed a helpmeet to her husband and to

many of her people in a time of storm and stress. Her own parents

had been martyrs in the Hadrianic war. She was a scholar too. Her

keen penetration and at the same time her womanly tenderness are

revealed in her interpretation of the text, "Let sinners be consumed

out of the earth." (Psalms civ. 35). Not _sinners_, but _sin_.

Then indeed will be fulfilled the hope at the conclusion of the

text--"The wicked will be no more."

Her strength of character is perhaps best revealed in the pathetic

story told of the consoling way in which she broke to her husband

the terrible news of the death of their two sons. Some "jewels" had

been entrusted to her, which she so highly prized that it was hard

to give them up; what should she do? They must be returned said R.

Mair. In this way fortifying him with consolation for the sorrow

awaiting him in this double bereavement, she gently led him to the

chamber where the dead children lay.

Judah ha-Nasi.

As the epoch of the Tannäim opened, so now it closed, with a

remarkable man--Rabbi Judah, called _par excellence_ The Nasi, i.e.,

greatest of all. And no Nasi before him had been permitted to

exercise so much power over the Sanhedrin,--now located in Sepphoris

in Galilee.

Like so many of his predecessors, he devoted much of his wealth to

the maintenance of students of the Law, and fed the poor during

a famine. He came to be known as "the Saint." His most valuable

service was the complete codification of all the Halachoth that

had been gradually accumulating since post-Biblical time. While

similar collections had been made before his time, commenced by

Hillel, amplified by Rabbi Akiba and revised by Rabbi Mair, his

final editing of the previous work became the officially accepted

condensation of the Oral Law--the Mishna, superseding all earlier

collections.

It is treated in the following chapter.

Rabbi Judah, not only compiled the teachings of others, but he left

valuable maxims of his own:

"Be as careful of the observance of a light precept as of a

weighty one."

"Balance the material loss involved in the performance of a

precept against its spiritual compensation and the present

desirable fruits of a sinful deed against the injury to thine

immortal soul."

"Know what is above thee: A seeing eye, a hearing ear, and that

all thy actions are written in a book."

No Nasi received so much reverential regard from the people at

large. While he was dying, they gathered around his house, declaring

in the exaggeration of grief that they would slay the person who

would dare announce his death. At length there came forward Bar

Kappara, a man of broad scientific attainments and withal a man of

delicate imagination. In fact, he was a poet too, as may be judged

by the way in which he announced Rabbi Judah's death: "Angels and

mortals contended for the ark of the covenant; the angels have

conquered, the ark of the covenant is gone."

Other Famous Teachers.

Just a passing word on other great men of this epoch. Rabbi Jochanan

showed his breadth of view in encouraging the study of Greek and

opening up its great literature to Jewish youth, and particularly in

his recommendation of it for girls. This urging of the cultivation

of the female mind formed a pleasing contrast to the prevailing

practice--the comparative neglect of the education of women--which

practice survives in some of our communities to-day!

To this period also belonged that keen logician, Resh Lakish,

likewise renowned for his colossal strength and his scrupulous

honesty. He discerned that the Book of Job was not a history, but a

life problem put in the form of a story. He also taught that Hell

has no real existence. Not that he or his age altogether denied a

future retribution for the wicked. But Hell never appealed strongly

to the conviction of the Jew. Certainly the Synagogue does not teach

the doctrine of "everlasting punishment" to-day.

Another teacher, Rabbi Simlai, searched the Scriptures and

enumerated 613 ordinances of Judaism--365 negative and 248

affirmative precepts. He found them further reduced to eleven

principles in the 15th Psalm; in Isaiah xxxiii. to six; in Micah vi.

8 to three; in Isaiah lvi. to two; and in Amos v.-4 to one: "Seek

ye Me and ye shall live"; to one also in Habbakuk ii.-4. "The just

shall live by his Faith."

Nor must we forget that group of rabbis who, investigating the

religious and educational condition of various towns and finding in

one place no teachers, asked the magistrate to present the guardians

of the city. He marched forth the armed men. "No," said the rabbis,

"these are not the guardians, but the destroyers of a city. Its true

guardians are the teachers."

Let us mention in this group, too, Rabbi Abbahu, the last of the

great men of the Palestinian schools, renowned not so much as an

expert on the _Halacha_ as a keen _Hagadist_. This is another

way of saying that he was not so much a subtle jurist as a great

_preacher_. He was a student of human nature. His keen insight on

one occasion chose as the worthiest to pray for rain, a man bad by

repute, but who, he had discerned, was noble in character.

NOTE AND REFERENCE.

For complete enumeration of the 613 precepts, see article

"Commandments," _Jewish Encyclopedia_, vol. iv.

_Theme for discussion_:

Can the number of our duties be specified?

CHAPTER XXXI.

THE MISHNA.

All the supplementary laws that grew up around the _written_ Codes

of the Bible were called, by distinction, the _Oral Law_. These

included the decisions of the Scribes (p. 19), the Pairs (pp. 87-8)

and the Tannäim (p. 186). Rabbi Judah the Nasi made a compilation of

all of these and called it The Mishna. Derived from the Hebrew verb

_shanah_, to learn or repeat, the Mishna is popularly known as the

Second Law. It became the recognized code for all legal decisions,

and the authorized text-book in all the schools.

It now took its place beside the Law of the Pentateuch, and just as

that first Law was a text for further development, so too we shall

see that this Second Law, containing Halachoth of the _Sopherim_,

the _Pairs_ and the _Tannäim_, became the parent of a vast growth

of precepts and prohibitions in the interpreting hands of the

generations now to follow.

The Mishna is divided into six groups (Sedarim) containing sixty

subdivisions (Mesechtas), as follows:

I. SEEDS: AGRICULTURAL LAWS.

1, Introductory chapter on "Prayers"; 2, "Corners" of fields for the

poor (Levit. xix., 9-10); 3, Doubtful produce (whether tithed or

untithed); 4, Illegal mixtures (Deut. xxii. 9-11); 5, Sabbatic Year;

6, Priests' Tithes; 7, Levites' Tithes; 8, Secondary Tithes; 9,

Dough offerings (Numbers xv., 17-21); 10, Prohibited fruits of first

three years (Levit. xix., 23-25); 11, First fruits.

II. FESTIVALS.

1, Sabbath; 2, Uniting localities to extend limit of Sabbath walk;

3, Passover; 4, Half-shekel tax (Ex. xxx., 11-16); 5, Day of

Atonement; 6, Tabernacles; 7, Festival regulations; 8, New Year; 9,

Fasts; 10, Purim; 11, Middle days of the Festivals; 12, Festival

Pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

III. WOMEN

1, Levirate marriage (Deut. xxv., 5-10); 2, Marriage contracts; 3,

Vows; 4, Nazarites (Numb. vi, and xxx); 5, The suspected sinner; 6,

Divorce; 7, Betrothal.

IV. DAMAGES: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW.

1, First division--general; 2, Second division--Suits between

master and servant, etc; 3, Third Division--Municipal and social

regulations; 4, The Sanhedrin and Criminal Law; 5, Punishment by

flogging; 6, Oaths; 7, Decisions between opposing traditions; 8,

Idolatry (crime as well as sin); 9, Ethics of the Fathers; 10,

Accidental Offences.

V. SACRED THINGS.

1, Sacrifices; 2, Meat offerings; 3, Slaughtered animals for food

only; 4, The first born sacrifice; 5 and 6, Redemption and Exchange

(see Levit. xxii); 7, Excommunication; 8, Profanation; 9, Temple

sacrificial services; 10, Temple arrangements; 11, Offerings of poor

(Levit. v, 1-10, and xii, 8).

VI. PURIFICATION.

1, Household furniture; 2, Tents and houses; 3, Leprosy; 4, The

"Red Heifer" purification (Numb. xix.); 5, Lesser defilements; 6,

Washing; 7, Periodic defilement; 8, Conditional impurities; 9, Open

wounds; 10, Personal purification; 11, Washing of the hands; 12,

Defilement of fruits.

About 150 authorities are quoted in the Mishna, involving about two

thousand statements. Here are a few specimen sentences:

"From what time should we begin to read evening prayers

(Shema)? From the hour when the priests enter to partake of

their offering till the end of the first watch, according to R.

Eleazer; (other) sages say till midnight. Rabban Gamaliel says,

till dawn. Once it happened that his sons returned (late) from a

feast. They said to him, 'We have not yet recited (the Shema).'

He replied, 'If it is not yet dawn, the obligation to read it

still abides; nay further, where the sages have said, 'till

midnight,' their injunction extends it till dawn."--Opening

paragraph of _Mishna_.

R. Nechunjah b. Hakanah was accustomed to offer a short prayer

on entering and leaving the Academy. His (disciples) asked the

appropriateness of such prayer. He replied: "On entering I pray

that no harm should happen through me, on departing I give

thanks for my lot."

"It is man's duty to offer a prayer at the occurrence of evil,

just as he prays at good fortune; for Scripture says, 'Thou

shalt love the Lord thy God, with all thy heart, with all thy

soul and with all thy might,' 'With all thy heart'--with thy two

inclinations of good and evil. 'With all thy soul' (life)--even

though He (God) take thy life. 'With all thy might'--with all

thy substance."--_Prayers_, i, 1.

"On New Year all who enter the world, pass before Him (God)

like sheep to be judged, as Scripture says: He fashioneth their

hearts alike, He understandeth all their doings."

"On six (different) months messengers are sent forth (to report

on the occurrence of the New Moon); On Nisan on account of the

Passover; on Ab, on account of the Fast (ninth); on Ellul, on

account of New Year; on Tishri, to adjust the Festivals; on

Kislev, on account of Hannukah; on Adar, on account of Purim.

In the days when the temple stood they (the messengers) also

went forth on Iyar, on account of Minor Passover" (see Numb. ix,

10-12).

The following are prohibited from testifying:--he who gambles

with dice, he who lends money on usury, he who trains doves for

racing purposes, he who traffics in the produce of the seventh

year and slaves.--_New Year_, ii, 8.

Here is a specimen piece from Sanhedrin, with accompanying notes,

translated for a forthcoming work, _Library of Post-biblical Hebrew

Literature_:

They (the Judges[1]) examined them (the witnesses) with seven

searching questions: "In what sabbatical year? In what year? In

what month? What date of the month? What day? What hour? What

place?" R. Jose said, "What day. What hour? What place? Did you

know him? Did you warn him?[2] In a case of idolatry, whom did

he serve? And with what did he serve?"

The more searching a judge is in his examinations, the more

praiseworthy he is. It happened that the son of Zaccai

examined (even) concerning the stems of the figs.[3] And what

difference is there between investigations and examinations? In

investigations if one should say, "I don't know," his testimony

is worthless. In examinations, if one should say, "I don't

know," and even two should say, "We don't know," their testimony

stands. Whether in investigations or examinations, when they

contradict each other, their testimony is worthless.

One witness said, "on the second of the month," and another

witness said, "the third of the month," their testimony stands;

because one knows of the intercalary month, and another does not

know of the intercalary month.[4] One said, "on the third," and

another said, "on the fifth," their testimony is worthless. R.

Judah said "it stands." One said, "on the fifth," and another

said, "on the seventh," their testimony is worthless, because at

the fifth (hour) the sun is in the east, and at the seventh the

sun is in the west.

And afterwards they introduce the second (witness[5]) and

examine him. If both their statements agree, they open the case

for the defense. If one witness says, "I possess information to

clear him," or one of the disciples (of the Sanhedrin) says:

"I possess information to condemn," they are ordered to keep

silence. If one of the disciples says, "I possess information to

clear him," they bring him up, and seat him between the judges,

and he does not go down during the whole day.[6] If there be

substantial information, they give him a hearing. And even when

he (the accused) says, "I possess information for clearing

myself," the judges give him a hearing; only there must be

substantial information in his words. If the judges find him not

guilty, they release him, but if not, they defer his verdict to

the next day.[7]

[1] Criminal cases were judged by a regularly constituted court of

three-and-twenty qualified members.

[2] No punishment could be inflicted if the culprit had not been

warned that he was charged with a crime and forewarned as to its

consequences.

[3] The witnesses testified that the crime has been committed under

a fig tree.

[4] _i. e._, one knew that the preceding month was what is called

a complete month, counting thirty days, and the days of the

celebration of the New Moon (Rosh Hodesh) belonged to the following

month; while the other believed that the preceding month was what is

called a defective month, counting only twenty-nine days, and that

the semi-holyday of the new moon was observed on two days, the first

of which belonged to the preceding month.

[5] It was forbidden to examine a witness in the presence of another

one.

[6] Even if his information is worthless, he remains seated besides

the Judges, the whole day, in order not to degrade him before the

public.

[7] A verdict of guilty cannot be pronounced on the same day as that

on which the trial was held.

While the Mishna is strictly a code only, still its underlying

structure is religious. The moral is everywhere impressed. One of

its sections is a Book of Morals called Ethics of the Fathers, iv.

9, from which rabbinic sayings have already been quoted. A complete

translation of this section will be found in the Sabbath Afternoon

Service of the Prayer Book.

We find no system of doctrines in the Mishna and no formulated

creed. A bad life is summed up in the general term--_epicurean_,

which probably meant sensual self-indulgence and scoffing

scepticism. The Jew is not asked to believe in God's existence. That

is taken for granted; atheism hardly came within his ken. He is

asked rather to shun anything that tends to polytheism. Revelation

and Resurrection are regarded as fundamental beliefs. He who denies

them will be deprived of future life. To withhold immortality from

him who disbelieves it we might call poetic justice.

While the ceremonial law was rigorous, its observance was saved from

being mechanical by the importance laid on sincerity of intention

and on inner devotion. Not the brazen serpent but the repentant

heart cured afflicted Israel in the wilderness, the Mishna reminds

us, pointing its moral with the quotation from the prophet Joel,

"Rend your hearts, not your garments." To go beyond the Law in the

keeping of one's word merits the highest praise. Many prohibitions

were imposed against actions not wrong in themselves, as barriers

against possible wrong. These formed a "fence around the Law."

Amoraim.

The acceptance of the Mishna as the Canon of Jewish Law

curtailed--theoretically at least--the freedom of the rabbis who

now followed, in the evolving of new Law. This later group of

teachers was henceforth at liberty only to _expound_ the Mishna.

They are therefore called _Amoräim_, expounders, to distinguish them

from the Tannäim, that class of teachers who interpreted direct from

the Scriptures and whose work closed with the Mishna.

The Mishna tended still further to emphasize the legal character

of Judaism (p. 19). While it may have robbed the individual of

spontaneity of religious action, it strengthened the bulwarks of

moral law.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

Another collection similar to the Mishna and arranged on the same

plan, was called _Tosephta_ (addenda). This contains for the most

part commentaries on Scripture and much of what has been called

Agada (p. 187).

Read article "Prof. Schürer on Life Under the Law," by Israel

Abrahams in _Jewish Quarterly Review_, vol. xi., and "The Law and

Recent Criticism," Schechter, vol. iii.

"The Mishna is for the most part, free from the blemishes of

the Roman code. There are fewer contradictory laws, fewer

repetitions, fewer interpolations than in the digests: ...

as regards a certain outspokenness in bodily things ... its

language is infinitely purer than that of the mediaeval

casuists."--E. DEUTSCH, _The Talmud_, J. P. S. A.

_Theme for discussion_:

What is Revelation, and how did the sages apply it to the Oral Law?

(See "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. i), Sabbath Afternoon Service,

Prayer Book.)

Chronological Table.

=Emperors of Rome.= | =Rabbis of the Academies.=

|

Antoninus Pius 138 | Rabbi Mair and Simon b.

| Yochai flourished 140

Marcus Aurelius 161 | Jehuda ha-Nasi, Pres. of

| Sanhedrin 165

Commodus 180 | Jehuda ha-Nasi compiles

| Mishna 189

Alexander Severus 222-235 | Rab opens Academy at

| Sora 220

Diocletian 284 | Mar Samuel, Judge at

| Nehardea, about 225

Constantine 320 | Academy of Pumbaditha 247

| Rab Huna dies 297

Constantius 337-363 |

Neo-Persian Dynasty 226

Constantine's anti-Jewish decrees 315

Council of Nicea widens gulf between Judaism

and Christianity 325

CHAPTER XXXII.

BABYLONIA AND ITS SCHOOLS.

Ever since the Bar Cochba war, the numerical centre of gravity of

the Jews had shifted to Babylonia, and soon after the compilation of

the Mishna in Palestine, Babylonia became the religious centre too.

This fertile country, in which history began, lay between the

Euphrates and Tigris, with the Persian Gulf at the south. The

name Babylon is sometimes used in Jewish annals to include the

surrounding lands, with a southwestern boundary, as far as the

Arabian Desert. This second "Land of Israel" had been a home for the

Jews since the first forced exile there in the year 600 B. C. E., in

the days of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. From Babylon came both Ezra and

Hillel, though in the four centuries intervening between these two

men, we hear nothing of Jewish life in Babylon.

Babylon's Varied Rulers.

This land had varied fortunes. The home of the Babylonians--one

of the most important of the Semitic families and one of the most

ancient civilizations--it was conquered by Cyrus the Persian,

about 540 B. C. E. About the year 330 it was taken by Alexander

in his triumphant march through Asia and became part of the

Seleucidan Empire, (see p. 28). This brought into it something of

a Greek atmosphere. In the year 160 B. C. E. it was conquered by

Parthia--an Asiatic nation dwelling south of the Caspian Sea. This

regime continued for four centuries, though the Parthians exercised

no influence whatever on the Jews. In the year 226 A. C. E. a

Neo-Persian dynasty was re-established. This continued till the

coming of the Arabs in the seventh century--a later story.

During all these changes in the controlling power, the Jews

continued in Babylonia undisturbed. When Judea fell, in the year

70, almost an annihilating catastrophe to those at hand, their life

went on without a break, except that it brought to the new home a

large number of Jewish refugees. So that by the second century after

the Christian era, Babylon had become the centre of greatest Jewish

influence and activity. Trajan had tried to conquer the land, but

failed (p. 203). So Babylonian Jews remained out of the reach of the

Roman grasp.

Resh Galutha.

What was their status here? Since the time of Cyrus the government

had been Persian. Given almost complete political independence, the

Jews simply paid taxes to the ruling power. As Persia had granted to

the Jews the privilege of administering their own affairs in Judea

so, naturally, the same permission was granted in Babylonia. There

was this important difference. The head of the Judean community

had been the High Priest; those were the days when the Temple

stood. When we turn to Babylon in the century following Jerusalem's

overthrow, we find the governor of the Jewish community was called

Exilarch or _Resh Galutha_, Head of the Exile. _Galuth_ was a word

freighted with emotional meaning to our fathers.

The Resh Galutha, as distinct from the High Priest of an earlier

day, was entirely a civil functionary, and the office carried more

power. As Exilarch he was recognized by the government and occupied

a place among the Persian nobility. At first but collectors of

revenue, these officials were later treated as princes--perhaps as a

mark of gratitude for the Jewish support when Parthia was fighting

Rome. A good deal of pomp came to be associated with the office.

These Exilarchs were all chosen from the House of David, and so

represented a quasi-royalty. The line continued unbroken till the

eleventh century. They exercised complete judicial authority among

their own people. Unlike the Patriarch or Nasi of Judea, with whom

we may also compare them, they were not necessarily learned in the

Law.

The Jews of Babylonia were for the most part engaged in agriculture,

commerce and handicrafts, and even in work on the canals. Fortunate

indeed were they to have again secured a home beyond Rome's cruel

control, where, undisturbed, they might live their own life. In the

study of the Law they found inexhaustible material for intellectual

and religious activity. But how was religion taught and the

continuity of Judaism maintained in Babylonia?

At first they were entirely dependent on the Palestinian Academies

established in Jamnia and Lydda and other places after the fall of

Jerusalem, and were altogether subject to the Judean Sanhedrin. Many

students traveled to Palestine to study at its schools. But after a

time the community grew strong enough intellectually to establish

academies of its own. The heads of the Academies corresponded to the

Judean Patriarchs, only that all civil power was vested in the Resh

Galutha, above mentioned.

Step by step the Babylonian students increased in learning; and,

acquiring confidence, came to feel less the need of the guidance

of the parent authority. Soon this settlement further east claimed

independent jurisdiction. This was bitterly resented in Palestine.

The removal of the Sanhedrin to Jamnia had been the first wrench.

The second was the removal of the central authority from the Holy

Land altogether, to distant Babylonia. But Palestine could not stem

the tide. As the fortunes of the Jews declined there, its schools

declined with them. Steadily waned, too, the authority of the

Patriarch.

Rab and Samuel.

Babylonian schools also produced great scholars, some as renowned

as those of Palestine. For reasons given on p. 227 they are all

_Amoräim_, not _Tannäim_. Let us mention first _Abba Areka_,

popularly called by his many disciples Rab (Rabbi), "_the_ teacher,"

who flourished in Babylonia a few years after the Mishna had been

compiled in Palestine. Apart from his duties as expounder of the

Law, the Resh Galutha appointed him to the position of supervisor

of weights and measures. Occasioned by this occupation to travel

in outlying districts, he discovered the ignorance of the remoter

congregations. This led to his establishment of the Academy of Sora

about the year 220. It continued a seat of Jewish study for eight

hundred years. Hundreds of pupils flocked to Rab's Academy. Some he

maintained from his own purse. At the same time the study hours were

arranged to give pupils the opportunity of earning their living.

Some lectures were delivered to the public at large. An Academy

almost as famous was established at Pumbeditha; another at Nehardea.

It was not only in the expounding of ritual and civil law to which

Rab devoted his energies, but also to raising the ethical standard

of the people. For the austere simplicity and purity of Jewish

life had sadly degenerated in Babylonia. Wonderfully salutary and

effective was the influence of Rab in his moral crusade. He made the

betrothal and marriage laws more strict and more decorous. He also

strengthened the authority of the Courts of Justice by resort to

excommunication of refractory persons. Deservedly was this modest

man called the Hillel of his day.

Usually associated with the name of Rab was the versatile _Mar

Samuel_, his contemporary. He was essentially the rationalist of his

age who discouraged with his hard common sense the dreamers who were

awaiting the speedy and miraculous coming of the Messiah. In Jewish

Law his ability chiefly was directed toward the interpretation of

civil jurisprudence, for which he was especially fitted. As judge of

the Court of Nehardea, he made a brilliant record. His most famous

decision and that which most affected the Jews, was expressed in the

phrase, _dina d'malchuthah dina_,--"The law of the land is the law

for us." This means that it is our duty as Jews to obey the laws of

the countries in which we live. This principle tended to reconcile

our fathers to the lands of their exile, taught them their true

relation to them, and was in the spirit of the message of Jeremiah

to the very first exiles in Babylon--"Seek the peace of the country

whither ye are exiled and pray to the Lord for its welfare." The

ultimate result of Samuel's dictum was that the better the Jew, the

better the patriot.

Samuel had the courage of his convictions. For when the Persian

king, Shabur I (under whose rule the Babylonian Jews were living),

was engaged in war against Asia Minor, many Jews fell, who were

fighting in the ranks on the opposing side. Yet he would not

countenance mourning for his fallen coreligionists since they had

fought against his king!

Babylonia, with its broad unbroken plains that gave such wide

survey of the heavens, had early become the cradle of astronomy,

and Babylonian Jews were expert in this science. So versed was

Samuel in the course of the stars that he once said, "The tracks of

the heavens are as familiar to me as the streets of Nehardea." His

astronomical knowledge enabled him to arrange a fixed calendar and

made Babylon further independent of Judea in deciding the dates of

the festivals. As already stated (p. 186) these had previously been

decided by the appearance of the New Moon in Palestine. Samuel was

also a renowned physician and applied rational remedies, when the

world of his day clung to superstitious nostrums. But medicine and

astronomy were characteristic accomplishments of the Jewish rabbis.

Samuel did not scorn to learn from the Persian sages. While greatly

esteemed, not all of his contemporaries realized how profound a

scholar he was. For in a sense he was a man in advance of his time.

We understand him better to-day.

With all his intellectual gifts, he was modest, self-denying and

wonderfully tender-hearted. He had many laws passed to safeguard the

interests of the poor and helpless, and, decided that the Court must

take orphans under its fatherly protection.

In the patriotic incident above mentioned, it was seen that he

practised what he preached. Here is another instance. He had laws

passed against exorbitant prices. When grain he had purchased

cheaply, rose in price, he still sold it cheaply to the poor. What a

needed lesson for our times! Here are two of his maxims:--

"Deceive neither Jew nor pagan."

"Respect the man in the slave."

Zoroastrism.

What was the religion of Israel's Babylonian neighbors? The

Parthians were inclined toward Hellenism and exercised no religious

influence on the Jews. But when the Persians again gained

control of Babylonia (226 C. E.,) they brought with them their

own religion--Zoroastrism. Zoroaster or Zarathustra was a great

religious genius who flourished about 800 B.C.E. He reformed the old

cult of the _Magi_, i. e., a caste of Persian priests and sages.

His teachings are contained in the Parsee bible--the _Avesta_. The

cardinal doctrine of this faith was dualism; that is, it explained

the existence of evil in the world as the persistent conflict of

two great spirits--Ormuzd, spirit of light and good (God), and

Ahriman (devil), spirit of darkness and evil. In the process of ages

Ormuzd and good will prevail. The sun is the visible representation

of Ormuzd and fire the expression of his energy. So Ormuzd was

worshipped under the symbol of fire. This worship spread over a

large part of Asia. It did not deserve to be classed with the

idolatries of the heathen world that brought so many immoralities

in their train, for we see even while we must disagree with its

recognition of a devil, that it expressed exalted ideas and urged

its followers to live moral lives. But the rise of this Neo-Persian

dynasty, awakening new religious energy, led later to a passing

persecution of all non-fire-worshippers.

At the opening of the sixth century, Mazdak, a new zealot for the

religion of the Magi in Babylonia, tried to impose on all under

his rule certain dangerous doctrines of his own that tended to

undermine the moral foundations of society. Naturally the Jews,

always normally a chaste people, stoutly resisted. This meant fight.

Again must they lay down the book for the sword, or rather, take

up the sword for the cause of the Book. Led by the Resh Galutha

Mar Zutra II, they actually succeeded in throwing off the Persian

yoke altogether for some seven years; but they were, of course,

ultimately brought into subjection, and consequently many martyrs

were added to the Jewish roll of honor.

Babylonian Schools.

This incident carries us ahead of our narrative. To return:

The Babylonian schools--_Metibta_, as each was called (_Yeshiba_,

Hebrew), continued to grow until they drew far more students than

had been reached in Palestine, many of whom became great Amoraim.

Babylon, in fact, was now a very large Jewish colony regulated by

the laws of the Bible and Mishna as interpreted in the Academies.

Even the Resh Galutha was in later times often a Jewish scholar,

as for example, Mar Ukba. In addition to the _Resh Metibta_--head

of the School--there was a _Resh Kallah_, President of the General

Assembly--an institution not found in the Palestinian Academies.

These were for the benefit of visiting students and met twice a year

in the months of Adar and Elul.

Most renowned of Rab's successors was Rab Huna, who died in 297.

Following the recognized precedent, not to use the Law as a spade,

he earned his living by farming.

Reverence was shown to Judea now only in so far that the pious

desired to be buried there. Later persecutions in Roman provinces,

of which Judea was one, brought still more refugees to Babylonia.

The next generation of scholars we must pass over rapidly with

just a word. In Pumbeditha we may mention Rabba, who believed in

the saving sense of humor, and also set himself the more serious

occupation of classifying the Halachoth accumulated since the Mishna

had been compiled. He gave to his students this fine principle,--"He

who does good for reasons other than the good itself, it were

better he had never been born." The method of deduction as taught

in the Babylonian Schools was more subtle than that of Judea.

Its hair-splitting tendency in the next generation of Amoräim

occasionally degenerated into casuistry. But even that was the fault

of a virtue.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_Patriotism and Judaism._

Mar Samuel's theory and practice best answered the query of the

anti-Semite, Goldwin Smith, "Can Jews be Patriots?" The American

Jews had to face this problem in the Civil War of 1861, when they

fought in both the Union and the Confederate ranks.

* * * * *

Read Dr. Mielziner's _Introduction to the Talmud_, (Bloch Publ.

Co.), chap. iv.

This book is particularly recommended in connection with the

chapters on Mishna, Talmud and the Academies.

Read Article "Babylonia," _Jewish Encyclopedia_, vol. ii.

_Theme for discussion_:

Is the Jew's first duty to his countryman or to his coreligionist?

CHAPTER XXXIII.

CHRISTIANITY THE STATE CHURCH OF ROME.

Rome's Decline.

Now we must turn our glance westward again--to Rome. At the death

of Antoninus Pius in 161, two emperors reigned conjointly--Varus,

a degenerate, and Marcus Aurelius, a philosopher. The Roman Empire

was becoming steadily demoralized. It was at the mercy of a series

of degraded creatures who engaged in scandalous conflicts for the

bauble of royal power. At times the purple was offered to the

highest bidder.

But in 222 the throne came into the hands of the high-minded

Alexander Severus. Unlike most of his predecessors, he respected

Judaism, and Hillel's Golden Rule was inscribed on the walls of his

palace. So his reign meant thirteen pleasant years for the Jews--a

little break of sunshine through the lowering clouds.

After the death of Severus, degeneracy again set in and usurper

after usurper seized the throne. Rarely was the monotony of upstart

emperors broken by a better type of man such as Diocletian. The

demoralized condition of the State was reflected in the people at

large. Paganism, even at its best, had failed as a scheme of life.

Roman society was hopelessly corrupt and on the eve of collapse.

The people no longer believed in the supposed divinities Jupiter

and Apollo. The philosophers tried to explain them away as abstract

ideas. The ceremonies of the temple became mummeries. The augurs

(priests who were supposed to indicate the nature of events by the

flight and cries of birds) could not look each other in the face

without laughing.

The more earnest prayed for something better. Had Judaism not been

discredited and under a ban and its observers spurned as an alien

race, it might have been more largely sought--though its ceremonial

code was exacting, its moral code severe, and its sole spiritual God

seemed abstract and aloof to worshippers of divinities that could be

seen. Judaism made not an iota of concession to win a single pagan

to the fold. As it was, in spite of discouraging conditions, many

would-be proselytes knocked at the doors of the Synagogue.

Why Christianity Appealed to Romans.

But for many reasons, Christianity was in a better condition to make

converts. Most of its adherents had come through conversion, and

proselytism was a cardinal item in its program. The eagerness of the

Christians to bring a religious message to the heathen, deserves

high praise and must not be underrated, though they betrayed

weakness in being too ready to make concessions to pagan nations

for the sake of winning converts. The semi-idolatrous idea that

Jesus was at once man and God was a familiar conception to the pagan

mind. The dramatic picture of his dying on the cross to save mankind

appealed to their emotions. The treatment of the Hebrew expression

"holy spirit," as a being--a separate divinity, introduced a third

element into the God-idea--the "Holy Ghost," (old English: spirit.)

This made the Christian divinity a Trinity: God, the Father, Jesus

the Son, and the Holy Ghost. But a three-headed God, so revolting

to Jewish ideas, was quite a recognized theological notion in the

heathen world.

With these additions, so alluring to the pagan mind, the nobler

Jewish teachings, which were Christianity's ethical foundations,

were more readily accepted. Christianity became popular in Rome.

Its adherents were found in all ranks. When they were a small and

feeble group, the Roman emperors had persecuted them. But now, they

were in the majority. The tables were turned. Only minorities are

persecuted. Alas the Jews remained a minority.

Constantine.

Thus it was that an emperor named Constantine decided first

to give toleration to all cults and ultimately to adopt

Christianity--"partly from a genuine moral sympathy, yet doubtless

far more in the well-grounded belief that he had more to gain from

the zealous sympathy of its professors than to lose by the aversion

of those who still cultivated a languid paganism." This act made it

the religion of the empire. But since Rome was mistress of half the

civilized world, this acquisition of power and numbers at once gave

to the new Faith an eminence it has never lost. The effect of this

promotion was profound and lasting and vitally affected the destiny

of Israel.

Judaism and Christianity Contrasted.

The attitude of enthroned Christianity was at once inimical to the

parent Faith. At first sight it would seem that it might be more

kindly disposed to a religion to which it owed so much and to which

it was so closely related. Alas to confess it--for such is human

nature--the very closeness of the relationship was the cause of its

enmity. It regarded the very persistence of Judaism as a denial

of its theories and as a challenge to its claims. Christianity

declared the law abrogated; Judaism called it religion's keystone.

Christianity declared that the Messiah had come; Judaism maintained

he had not. Christians called Jesus a divinity--Son of God; the

Jews spurned this as blasphemy. The Church taught a Trinity; the

Synagogue made the indivisible Unity of God its cardinal principle.

Spiritual monotheism became for the Jew a passion.

The first act by which Christianity exercised its new power was to

prohibit Jews from making converts to Judaism and to reward those

who deserted it. Thus it conspired for the gradual elimination of

the Jewish Faith.

As its ranks rapidly swelled, Christianity continued to make

consciously and unconsciously more and more concessions to the

heathen beliefs and customs that were deeply rooted in the hearts of

people, who accepted the new creed more or less superficially. The

original Essene ideas from which it had sprung were completely lost

to view. Taking the imperial government as its model, the Church

reproduced Roman administration in its systematic organization,

even to its despotic demand of sole sway. It enforced a rigid

uniformity of doctrine; it organized a hierarchy of patriarchs and

bishops whose power was enforced by the State and whose provinces

corresponded with the administrative divisions of the Empire, the

emperor being head of the Church. In the year 325 a Council was

called at Nicæa (Asia Minor) to draw up the official creed of

Christianity. For it laid great stress on _belief_. This marked

another distinction from Judaism, which, so far, had formulated no

creed and had no particular theory of salvation. The Nicæan Council

condemned the doctrines of the followers of Arius, a Christian whose

idea of God was closer to Judaism, and declared the equal eternity

and divinity of the three persons of the Trinity, with more decided

emphasis. So the Arians were henceforth regarded as heretics. It

further decided, that the Festival of Easter (which was the Jewish

Passover readapted to commemorate the resurrection of Jesus) should

now be arranged independently of the Jewish calendar.

The policy of suppression directed against Judaism commenced

by Constantine was continued with greater ardor by his son,

Constantius. He forbade intermarriage and imposed the penalty of

death on Jews who made proselytes of Christian slaves. He even

prohibited their converting heathen slaves. Further prohibitive acts

followed. This hostile attitude was continued for centuries.

Thus the Jews in the Roman Empire were transferred from a heathen

to a Christian regime. Quietly they continued on the even tenor of

their way and prayed with greater fervency for the restoration of

their ancestral home and for the speedy coming of the Messiah; it

meant for them the coming of light and liberty.

The Calendar.

It became necessary for Hillel II., Palestinian Patriarch, in 359,

to establish a fixed calendar based on that of Samuel of Babylon,

(p. 234) to guide the people as to the time of celebrating New Moon

and Festivals, as in these troublous times they could not always

transmit the news obtained by observing the heavens. But the

"second" day of the Festivals, for lands outside of Palestine, now

no longer needed, was maintained as a matter of sentiment and is

maintained still in conservative Judaism.

This planning of a Jewish calendar by which the Festivals were

computed perpetually and yet kept in their natural seasons, was

a wonderful piece of astronomical and arithmetical ingenuity.

For a lunar year of twelve months is shorter than a solar year

of three-hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days. To average

the difference and thus prevent, for example, Passover eventually

occurring in Autumn and Tabernacles in Spring, an additional month

(second Adar) was added seven times in every nineteen years.

Further, the calendar had to be so devised that certain Festivals

should not fall on undesirable days--for example to prevent the Day

of Atonement falling on Friday or Sunday. This ancient calendar is

still our guide for the Jewish year.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

Julian.

But a brief check was made on Christian advance and its pitiless

attempt to suppress Judaism in the coming to the throne of Julian in

361. For this emperor did not endorse the new religion, but accepted

the old Roman cult of the Pantheon, though in its most idealized

form, preferring to purify instead of abolishing it. But it was too

late; it had been weighed in the balance and found wanting.

Julian, whom the Church styled "the Apostate," was both tolerant

and philanthropic, and a man who fostered learning. As between

Christianity and Judaism, though bred in the former, to which he

continued to grant perfect freedom of observance, his inclination

turned rather toward the latter, and he held it in high esteem. He

removed the restrictive laws and special taxes against Judaism,

imposed by his predecessors. He even took steps for the rebuilding

of the Temple at Jerusalem. The Jews were transported with delight

and began at once sending contributions toward its erection with

greater zeal than was even shown, according to Scripture, by that

generation in the wilderness in their gifts toward the Tabernacle.

The Christians looked on with consternation, and regarded every

unfavorable interruption as the miraculous intervention of heaven.

Not a supposed miracle however, but a real event, brought the

project to nought. Julian died on the battlefield.

Two Roman Empires.

In the meantime Rome was failing fast. The conflict for the throne

on the death of each new emperor, showed that the Empire was

crumbling from within. Long before the days of Constantine armies

were electing their generals to the imperial dignity all over

the empire. The throne was propped up a little longer by gaudy

trappings, but this meant heavier taxation and further slavery.

Finally the overgrown and undermined body split in twain, each half

maintaining a separate existence. Byzantium, afterwards called

Constantinople, was the capital of the Roman Empire of the East,

while the city of Rome remained the centre of the Western half. The

division was finally completed in the year 395. Although both were

Christian, the duel empires were menaced by too many enemies from

without to have the leisure to renew the anti-Jewish laws--for a

time.

Huns, Goths and Vandals.

The influx of "barbarians," as all people outside of Rome were

called, now came thick and fast. While some were absorbed in a

friendly way, impressed with Rome's grandeur, and even served in

its army, younger and healthier peoples looked contemptuously

upon the decaying Empire and sought to absorb it rather than be

absorbed. Even before the division, Julian had to keep off the

incursions of the Franks and Alemanni (Germans). Theodosius, called

the Great, bravely resisted the inflowing races, but he fought

against destiny and therefore fought in vain. Driven by the Huns, a

Scythian people from Tartary, under the leadership of Attila, the

Goths crossed the Danube into the Roman territory as refugees; but

cruelly treated, became enemies and began devastating the Western

division of the empire. Alaric in 410 had sacked the imperial

city itself. The Goths, to whom after much fighting, Rome granted

important concessions, also--like Rome--fell into two divisions--the

Ostragoths (Eastern), who settled on the Black Sea, and the

Visigoths (Western), who occupied Dacia from the Dnieper to the

Danube.

These details make dry reading; but the break-up of the Roman Empire

after occupying the centre of the world's stage for four hundred

years, marks the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. This

change of his environment was in a measure to change the Jew.

Let us complete this general survey. Already hordes of Suevi,

Burgundians, Alemanni and Vandals had invaded Gaul and set up a

Vandal Empire in Spain, where they contended with the Visigoths for

control. Genseric, called the scourge of God, invaded Africa in 429

and devastated the coast from Gibraltar to Carthage. It was he, by

the way, who seized the Temple vessels that Titus had taken from

Jerusalem. They had passed, like their first owners, through many

vicissitudes. Next, the Huns began laying waste the Western Empire,

though finally defeated by the Gothic king, Theodoric. At last

Odoacer, in 476, at the head of barbarian mercenaries, dethroned the

last emperor, and the Roman Empire of the West came to an end in

that year.

Persecution of the Jews.

In the meantime Christianity held the reins of power in the

surviving eastern half of the Roman Empire. Its Church Fathers

began to regard it as a part of their function to preach against

Judaism. The people at large followed by burning synagogues or

turning them into churches. But the Emperor Theodosius I. protected

the Jews. Later, Bishop Cyril cruelly drove them out of Alexandria

where they had had such an illustrious career since the days of

Alexander the Great. No redress was made to them for loss of home

and property. His disciples, following this barbarous precedent,

seized the cultured Hypatia, a teacher of Platonic philosophy, whose

rare learning had made her home a gathering place for students and

scholars,--and the fanatic crowd rent her limb from limb.

But it was a bigoted and savage age. In mentioning the cruelly

fanatic bishops, let us not forget the kind ones--Bishop Hilary of

Poictiers in Gaul, at whose funeral the sympathetic Jews expressed

their sorrow in the recital of Hebrew Psalms.

With Theodosius II, emperor of the eastern division of the Roman

Empire, who came to this Byzantine throne in 408, began the

systematic restraint of Judaism--the harsh discrimination against

Jews before the law. They were prohibited from building new

synagogues, from exercising jurisdiction between Christian and Jew,

and from owning Christian slaves. The bishops and clergy began

fomenting attacks in different localities, forcing baptism on some

by threat. Ultimately the Patriarchate of Judea, the office of Nasi,

was abolished in 425, after the Hillel family had enjoyed this

dignity for three and a half centuries.

Israel suffered, too, at the hands of Christian ascetics who went

to grotesque extremes and imposed absurd privations upon themselves

to express religious zeal. Some condemned themselves to stand on

pillars--hence called "pillar saints"; some to live as hermits in

the desert. But with them all Jewish persecution was deemed a kind

of piety, the logic being that Jewish beliefs were opposed to the

truth and the Jews were the enemies of God. The most famous of these

pillar saints was Simeon, surnamed Stylites, meaning pillar. As long

as the Roman Empire of the West lasted, Jews were excluded from

most public offices. The monies hitherto voluntarily contributed to

maintain the Patriarchate were, now that this Palestinian official

was deposed, demanded perforce to continue as a Jewish tax to aid a

hostile State. Thus did Christian Rome follow the precedent of pagan

Rome. This was the kind of treatment that they were now to meet in

all Christian lands, marking the beginning of the Jewish _Middle

Ages_.

Still Christian divines were glad enough to sit at the feet of

Jewish scholars and learn from them the Hebrew tongue. In this way

Jerome was enabled to make from the Hebrew a new translation of

the Bible into Latin. It was called the _Vulgate_ (Latin Vulgata,

for public use). It has remained the authorized translation of the

Catholic Church to this day.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_The Holy Roman Empire_, Bryce; chapter ii and iii. (Burt, New York.)

_Hypatia_, Kingsley.

On the Emperor Julian's relations with the Jews, especially with

regard to his proposition of rebuilding the Temple, see two articles

in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ vols. v. and x.

_Theme for discussion_:

What right had the _Eastern_ (Byzantine) Empire to the title

"Roman?"

Chronological Table.

=JEWRY.= | =ROME.=

|

Hillel II Introduces fixed | Emperor Julian 361

Calendar into Palestine 359 |

Completion of Palestinian | Division of Roman Empire 395

Talmud 409 |

Extinction of Palestinian | Rome sacked 410

Patriarchate 425 |

Death of Rabbana Ashi, |

editor of Talmud 427 | Fall of Western Roman

Completion of Babylonian | Empire 476

Talmud 500 |

Persecution of Jews by |

Mazdak, the Persia 500 |

CHAPTER XXXV.

THE TALMUD.

The times were becoming so uncertain in Babylonia as well as in

Palestine that the Jews felt it necessary now to collect and _write

down_ their varied traditions and laws to insure their preservation.

The sages could no longer trust the transmission by word of mouth;

they could no longer rely on their memories, marvelous though

these were. So they were reluctantly compelled to overcome their

sentimental objection to writing down these traditions--which,

as the very title, _Oral_ Law showed, should be transmitted from

mouth to mouth, inscribed, as it were, only on the tablets of

the mind. Perhaps, too, they felt that writing would crystallize

the _Halachoth_ at the point where they were transcribed, into

unchangeable decisions and prevent their further development. For

while unwritten, they were fluid and could be modified from age to

age. As a matter of fact, the writing down of the laws _did_ tend to

crystallize them, and thus retarded the progressive growth of Jewish

Law.

The Gemara.

The work of codifying and writing down the Oral Law was commenced by

Rabbana Ashi about the year 400. Placed at the head of the declining

Academy of Sora, he breathed new life into it. His knowledge won him

both esteem and authority such as had been granted to Rabbi Judah

ha-Nasi, compiler of the Mishna in Palestine about two hundred years

earlier. But Rabbana Ashi's was a vaster task--the compiling of all

supplementary laws that had grown out of the Mishna proper and from

all the Mishna collections in the course of two hundred years. It

included, too, the discussion and incidental material that developed

from every legal or moral problem, together with all the logical

steps that led to the final deduction. This vast after-growth or

commentary was called _Gemara_, which means completion. Together

with the Mishna, which formed the text, it was called the Talmud.

This commentary, Gemara, is far bulkier than the Mishna. Sometimes a

few lines of Mishna would call for pages and pages of Gemara.

For about half a century Rabbana Ashi and his disciples,

particularly Rabina, labored on this gigantic task. The completed

work was called the _Talmud Babli_ (Babylonian), as it was not only

written in Babylonia, but contained largely the decisions attained

in the Babylonian schools. Though do not forget that its Mishna text

was written in Palestine. The final touches were made about the year

500. It contains twelve folio volumes or 2,947 leaves.

A similar work had been done in Palestine about the year 400. This

Mishna commentary was called the Palestinian Talmud. Whether it

originally contained commentary on all the Mishna we cannot say; but

in the copies now extant there is only commentary to the first four

of the six sections of the Mishna and to a few additional chapters.

For this reason it is a less important work than the Babylonian

Talmud and but a quarter of its size. Indeed, when we speak of the

Talmud, we usually mean the Talmud Babli.

The Contents.

The two great divisions of _Halacha_ and _Agadd_ have already been

explained in the chapter on the Mishna (xxxi). These same two

classes of material, the legal and the narrative, characterize

the Gemara. It will be understood at once then that the Talmud is

not merely a code of laws for Jewish guidance, though primarily

that is its purpose. It gives us also, though incidentally, an

insight into the manners and customs of the Jews, their theological

views and general reflections on life; their hopes and their

sufferings for a period of some six hundred years--"A work in

which a whole people had deposited its feelings, its beliefs, its

soul." We have fragments of biography of Jewish scholars, bits of

inner history under Roman and Persian rule, homely philosophy of

the sages; glimpses too of their weaknesses and occasionally of

their superstitions--all the more reliable because unconsciously

portrayed. Interspersed between their legal discussions will be

found an anecdote, an abstract thought of the rabbi whose decision

is quoted, a bit of humor, a picture of Oriental civilization.

As direct outgrowth of many of their ritual arguments, we are

introduced to their science; astronomy and mathematics in the

drawing up of their calendar; botany in their agricultural laws;

hygiene, anatomy and physiology in the _shechita laws_ (slaughtering

animals for food); and natural history and medicine in various

laws. There is, of course, very unequal value in their data, and

naturally they shared some of the errors of their age.

The legal discussions in themselves reveal keen mental acumen,

subtle logic, "deductive reasoning raised to the highest power;"

they display a vivid sense of justice and philanthropy; and, touches

of harshness too--wrung from a patient and forgiving people in the

hour of agony.

The study of the Talmud was to become the chief occupation of the

Jews for many centuries. It was a world in itself in which they

lived, and in which they could forget the cruel world without. Its

study reacted on their character. First the Jew made the Talmud,

then the Talmud made the Jew.

Talmudic Literature.

Like the Bible, the Talmud produced a literature still vaster

than itself. While the _Gemara_ is a commentary, it needed later

commentaries to explain it to the student--for although so diffuse

in treatment, its language is terse. Frequently a letter stands

for a word and a word for a sentence. Therefore in editions of the

Talmud to-day, Mishna and Gemara together form the text and are

printed in the centre of each page, while commentaries in smaller

type are grouped around it. Since the days of printing all editions

are paged alike.

Saboraim.

After the completion of the Talmud, the work of the Academies became

preservative rather than creative. While not adding to the laws now

gathered in the Talmud, the rabbis reviewed them and formulated

from them complete codes for practical application. This tended

to give a finality to the laws so far evolved, which had both its

good and bad side. This undertaking gave to this next school of

commentators the name of _Saboräim_--revisers or critics--the third

group of law expounders. (For first group, _Tannäim_, see p. 186;

for second group, _Amoräim_, see page 228). They edited the Talmud

and amplified it with _agadistic_ material and finally brought it

down into the form in which we have it to-day.

NOTES AND REFERENCES.

_Language of the Talmud_:

The Mishna is written in Hebrew, and so too are some of the

older quotations in the Gemara. Many Greek words are adopted, of

which _Sanhedrin_ is one; some Latin words too. But the bulk of

both Gemaras is written in a dialect of Aramaic--we might say

Jüdisch-Aramaic just as we speak of Jüdisch-Deutsch to-day.

* * * * *

A knowledge of grammar was brought to Persia (Babylonia) from

Greece, which resulted in the important service of introducing vowel

points and accents. This tended to simplify the study of Hebrew

Scriptures and made the text more certain.

_Ethics of Talmud_:

The ethics of the Talmud have been touched upon incidentally in

preceding chapters, and at length in the two following. For a

systematic treatment, read Part iv., Outlines of Talmudic Ethics,

in Mielziner's _Introduction to the Talmud_. See also _Ethics of

Judaism_, Lazarus (translation), J. P. S. A.

Read "On the Study of the Talmud," _Studies in Judaism_, S.

Schechter, J. P. S. A. 1908, for rabbinic parallels with New

Testament teachings.

_The Law of the Talmud_:

In a note on the Mishna it was pointed out that it was free from

some defects of Roman law. This does not exclude the fact that

the rabbinic _halacha_ was largely indebted to Roman law. On this

Darmesteter says:

"Certain departments of legislation, such as the laws on slavery

and prescription ... are almost entirely inspired by Roman

legislation. But all they borrow takes on modifications under

the manipulation of the rabbis. The Jewish mind transformed the

alien elements by impressing upon them its peculiar character.

And from this vast crucible in which three centuries had melted

down materials of diverse origin gathered by the schools, was to

emerge the essentially uniform and homogeneous work of Talmudic

legislation."--_The Talmud_, translated by Henrietta Szold, J.

P. S. A.

_Themes for Discussion_:

(a) Compare Bible and Talmud as literatures.

(b) In what sense can it be said that "the Talmud made the Jew?"

CHAPTER XXXVI.

SAYINGS AND STORIES OF THE SAGES OF THE TALMUD.

"Let me make the ballads of a people and I care not who makes

the laws."

The maxims with which the rabbis occasionally endorsed their

decisions and the bits of humor with which they relieved the

tension of argument, may give a deeper insight into their character

than their laws. These morsels of homely philosophy and casual

reflections on human experience best reveal, too, their outlook

on the world and on life. So in its way the _Agada_ is quite as

precious a legacy from the Fathers as the _Halacha_.

The writing of parables of which some of the rabbis were masters,

is almost a lost art; it seems to have died out in literature. But

no moral is pointed so aptly as through a tale and no teaching

impressed so lastingly as through a story.

Many a Hebrew philosopher like Socrates, the Greek, and the yet

earlier prophet (_nabi_) would make the highway his school-house

and the passing crowd his disciples. Darmesteter suggests that the

lesson might have been conveyed in somewhat in the following way:

"Who wishes to live long," cries an _Agadist_ in the open

street; "who wishes to buy happiness?" The original questions

attract a crowd demanding to know the orator's secret. "Thou

desirest to live many days," he answers, "thou wishest to enjoy

peace and happiness? Keep thy tongue from evil and thy lips

from speaking guile. Seek peace and pursue it. Depart from the

evil and do good." And paraphrasing these words of the Psalmist

(Ps. xxxiv, 13-15), he developed his ideas in the midst of the

attentive crowd.

The parables and maxims that follow have been gathered promiscuously

and are classified here under appropriate heads.

God.

"Show me your omnipresent God," said the Emperor Trajan to R.

Joshua. "He cannot be seen, but let us try to look at one of his

ambassadors," replied the rabbi, pointing to the midday sun.

"I cannot," said Trojan, "the light dazzles me." "Can you then

expect to gaze upon the resplendent glory of the Creator?"

A Roman philosopher asked: "If your God dislikes idolatry, why

does he not destroy the idols?" Quickly came the wise reply:

"Shall He destroy the sun and the moon because the foolish

worship them and thus injure the innocent also?"

"Who denies idolatry may be called a Jew."

"He who possesses knowledge of God's law without fear of Him,

the Lawgiver, is like one to whom the inner keys of a treasury

have been given, but the outer ones withheld."

"God rejoiceth not at the fall of the wicked." When the angels

were about to chant their morning hymn on the day the Egyptians

were drowning, God stayed them: "The works of My hands are

sinking in the deep and would you sing a song?"

"Without God's law there would be neither heaven nor earth."

"The aim of creation is man's fulfilment of God's will."

"The consciousness of God's presence is the great teaching of

religion."

"In all God's creation there is not a single object without a

purpose."

Providence.

"Man should ever say: Whatever the All-merciful doeth is for the

best."

"Who hath bread for to-day and feareth for the morrow, is a man

of little faith."

"God adjusts the burden to the camel."

"We cannot comprehend either the prosperity of the wicked or the

suffering of the righteous."

Rabbi Akiba was alone in the wilderness at night with but a

lamp to study the Law, a rooster to waken him, and an ass to

carry him. He was inhospitably driven from a village in which he

asked shelter, and had to camp in the open fields. A wind blew

out his light so that he could not study; a wolf destroyed his

rooster; a lion devoured his ass. But at the occurrence of each

calamity, he still said: "Praised be God, whate'er He does is

for the best." Entering the village next morning, he found its

inhabitants slain by robbers.

Complete the providential application.

There is no mediator between Israel and God.

"If misfortune befalls a man, let him not cry to Michael or

Gabriel, but let him come unto Me: everyone who calls on the

name of the Lord shall be saved."

God scattered Israel through the world that the Gentile might

learn the purity of Jewish teaching.

Prayer.

"Prayer without devotion is body without breath."

"Better little prayer with devotion than much, without."

"He who asks God for his neighbor what he needs for himself, his

own wants will be first answered."

"Blessed be the mother who sends her children to the House of

Prayer."

(See prayer and sacrifice, page 188.)

Righteousness.

"Who gains the approval of good men, may hope for that of

Heaven."

"One should conduct himself as carefully before man as before

God."

"What shall man do to live; kill his (lower) self. What shall

man do to die; sustain his (lower) self."

"The righteous are greater in death than in life."

"A good man lost to his age is like a lost pearl. The pearl

remains a pearl wherever it may be; only the owner feels its

loss."

"Alas for him who mistakes branch for tree, shadow for

substance."

"To him who lacks nobility of heart, nobility of blood is of no

avail."

"Good men promise little and do much; wicked men promise much

and no nothing."

"There are three classes of friends of God; the wronged who seek

not revenge; workers for the love of God; cheerful sufferers."

"The righteous need no monuments, their deeds are their

monuments."

"Three names are given to a man: the first by his parents, the

second by the world, the third by his works."

"The best preacher is the heart, the best teacher time, the best

book the world, the best friend God."

"The greatest of heroes is he who turneth an enemy into a

friend."

The Study of the law.

"Study is more meritorious than sacrifice."

"A scholar is greater than a prophet."

"The soul of man is the lamp of the Lord; the law is light.

God's light (the Law), is in man's hands: man's light (the

soul), is in God's hands. Respect His light and he will respect

thine."

"The Gentile who studies the Law is as a High Priest."

"Who studies the Law in private, it will proclaim him in public."

"Scholars increase the world's peace. They are called builders

for they are engaged in upbuilding the world."

"I have learnt much from my teachers, more from my fellow

students, most from my pupils."

"The wise learn from all."

"He only is free who engages in the study of the Law."

"The aim of learning is moral perfection."

Education in General.

In the days when the Temple was still standing, education of the

young formed an important part in the life of the Jewish people.

They had schools in and out of Judea. Ignorance was despised. "A

fool cannot be pious," 'twas said. The studies to be undertaken

in accordance with the age of the children, the previous home

preparation, the number to a class, were all carefully planned.

The curriculum comprised law and morals deduced from Scripture

and rabbinic teaching, history, grammar, languages, according

to the time, Aramaic, Persian, Greek or Latin. Also to older

scholars--medicine, hygiene, astronomy, botany, zoology.

All Scriptural quotation of flowers were applied to children and

schools. "Teacher" was the highest title.

"The world depends on the children in the school."

"A city without school-children will be destroyed."

"Touch not mine anointed." These are the school-children. "And

to my prophets do no harm." These are the disciples of the wise.

"You should revere your teacher even more than your father. The

latter only brought you into this world; the former points the

way to the next. But blessed is the son who has learnt from his

father, and the father who has instructed his son."

"Who does not educate his children is their enemy and his own."

"Who is best taught? He who has learnt from his mother."

"Who acquires knowledge without imparting it is like a myrtle in

a desert."

"Who are you whose prayer has alone been answered?" "I am a

teacher of little children."

"Bestow most care on the children of the poor, for from them

will go forth the Law."

"Pride is a sign of ignorance."

"A single coin in a jar makes the most noise."

"The rivalry of scholars advances science."

"If thou acquireth knowledge what canst thou lack; if thou

lackest knowledge what canst thou acquire!"

Parents and Children.

"Three share a man: God, father and mother. When one honors

mother and father, God says He dwells among them; and in

honoring them one honors Him."

"Blessed is the generation in which the old listen to the young;

doubly blessed when the young listen to the old."

"Do not threaten children with punishment you do not intend to

inflict."

"Only when a parent induces a child to commit sin, is

disobedience justifiable."

"Do not limit your children to your knowledge, for they were

born in another age."

Rabbi Eliezar pointed out to his disciples the example of Damah.

His mother often abused him, yet all he would say on such

occasions was: 'Enough, dear mother, enough.' Once the priests

came to him to purchase a jewel. Finding his father resting

against the casket in which it lay, he asked them to come

later. They offered him a larger price. He replied, 'I would

not disturb my father's rest for all the wealth of the world.'

They waited. When his father woke he brought the jewel; they

tendered him the larger sum offered the second time. He declined

it, saying: 'I will not barter the satisfaction of having done

by duty, for gold; give me what you first offered and I will be

content.'

Albini allowed none of his five children to open the door for

their grandfather or attend his wants. That privilege must be

his. Once his father asked for water. On returning he found the

old man asleep. So there he remained, glass in hand, until his

father awakened.

"Reverence mother and father by neither sitting in their seats

nor standing in their places, by not interrupting their speech

nor criticising their arguments and by giving heed to their

wishes."

"Support the aged without reference to religion, and the learned

without reference to age."

Woman.

The exalted place given to woman in Jewish teaching is in pleasing

and remarkable contrast with her inferior position in the orient

and throughout antiquity generally. In some respects she is made

subordinate in the Jewish law, and is given a comparatively passive

place in religious life; but on the whole the sages of the Talmudic

era nobly resisted the example of their environment, in the

reverence they paid to womanhood.

"God gave more understanding to woman than to man."

"All blessing in the household comes through the wife; therefore

should her husband honor her."

"Man should consult his wife, treating her as a companion not a

plaything; making her what God intended, a help-meet for him."