Read the _Histories_ of Olympiodorus,[392] in twenty-two books.
They begin with the seventh consulship of the emperor Honorius and
the second of Theodosius, and go down to the time when Valentinian,
the son of Placidia and Constantius, was proclaimed emperor of the
Romans. The author, a heathen, was a native of Thebes in Egypt,
a poet by profession, according to his own account. His style is
clear but loose and wanting in vigour, and sometimes degenerates
into commonplace vulgarity, so that the work does not deserve to
be considered a history. Perhaps that is the reason why the author
himself, conscious of these defects, declares that his work is not a
history, but a collection of materials for a history, so destitute
of regular form did he himself consider his style and phraseology.
He is not distinguished for form, except so far as one might assert
that he now and again approaches simplicity; but even in this, owing
to the excessive meanness and paltriness of his diction, he is
unsuccessful and gradually descends to vulgar mannerism. He calls his
work _Silva_, but divides it into books and strives to embellish it
with prefaces. It is dedicated to the emperor Theodosius, the son of
Arcadius, and nephew of Honorius and Placidia.
The rise of Stilicho to power; his appointment by Theodosius the
Great to the guardianship of his children Arcadius and Honorius,
his marriage to Serena, betrothed to him by her uncle the emperor
himself. Marriage of his daughter Thermantia to Honorius, and his
rise to the height of his power. His many successful foreign wars.
His death at the hands of the cruel and inhuman Olympius, whom he had
himself recommended to the emperor.
Alaric, chieftain of the Goths, whom Stilicho had previously sent for
that he might retain Illyricum for Honorius (to whom that prefecture
had been assigned by his father Theodosius), in consequence of the
murder of Stilicho, and because the promises made to him had not been
kept, besieges and sacks Rome. He carries off an enormous amount
of booty together with Placidia, the sister of Honorius, who was
in the city at the time. Before its capture he declares emperor a
distinguished citizen named Attalus, the city prefect. Another reason
for Alaric’s conduct was that Sarus, also a Goth, captain of a small
band, not more than 200 or 300 in number, and a brave and invincible
warrior, had been offered an alliance by the Romans as being hostile
to Alaric, who thus became their irreconcilable enemy.
During the siege of Rome the inhabitants were reduced to cannibalism.
Alaric, while Stilicho was still alive, received 4000 pounds of gold
for the expenses of his expedition. After the death of Stilicho his
widow Serena is strangled, it being thought that she might have been
responsible for Alaric’s attack on the city. His son Eucherius had
already been put to death.
During the reign of Honorius the name _Bucellarii_[393] was given not
only to Roman, but also to foreign soldiers; and similarly, the name
_Foederati_[394] to a mixed and irregular body of troops.
Olympius, who intrigued against Stilicho, appointed master of the
offices,[395] but afterwards deprived of his post. He recovers it
and is again deprived of it. He is beaten to death by order of
Constantius, the husband of Placidia, after his ears have first been
cut off. Thus the impious wretch meets with due punishment at last.
The chief men of the Goths with Radagaisus, about 12,000 in number,
called _Optimati_, are defeated by Stilicho, who enters into an
alliance with Radagaisus.
Illness and death of Alaric, who is succeeded by his wife’s brother
Ataulf.
The author says that dry bread was called _bucellatum_, and jestingly
suggests that the soldiers were called _bucellarii_ for this
reason.[396]
Constantine, having made himself tyrant in Gaul, sends ambassadors
to Honorius, excusing himself on the ground that he had been forced
to assume the purple by the soldiers, and asking forgiveness and
recognition as his colleague. Honorius, being in great straits,
agrees to his request. This Constantine had been declared emperor
during a revolt of the soldiers in Britain, where, before the seventh
consulship of Honorius, they had proclaimed a certain Marcus emperor.
He was soon removed by them and Gratian appointed in his stead. After
four months, they grew tired of him also, and put him to death,
Constantine being promoted to the rank and title of Augustus. Having
appointed Justin and Neobigastes to the command of his forces, he
left Britain and crossed over to Bononia,[397] a town on the coast,
the first in Gallic territory. There he spent some time, gaining
over all the soldiery of Gaul and Aquitaine, and occupied the whole
of Gaul as far as the Alps which separate Italy and Gaul. He had two
sons, Constans and Julian, the former of whom he raised to the rank
of Caesar, and bestowed the dignity of _Nobilissimus_[398] upon the
latter.
Attalus, created rival emperor to Honorius, marches towards Ravenna,
where Jovian,[399] praetorian prefect[400] and patrician,[401]
Valens, _magister utriusque militiae_,[402] Potamius the quaestor,
and Julian _primicerius notariorum_,[403] are sent to him as envoys
by Honorius. They inform Attalus that they have been sent by
Honorius to discuss the question of admitting him to a partnership
in the empire. He refuses, but offers to allow Honorius to retire
unharmed to some island or anywhere else he pleased. Jovian gladly
accepts this proposal, further proposing that Honorius should be
mutilated. Attalus rebukes Jovian, saying that there is no reason
for mutilating Honorius, if he voluntarily abdicates. Jovian,
after several unsuccessful embassies, remains with Attalus as his
_patricius_. Meanwhile, the command of Ravenna devolves upon the
_praepositus_[404] Eusebius, who, soon afterwards, by the cruelty
of Allobich and by public decree is flogged to death in the sight
of the emperor. After a considerable time, Attalus, who does not
remain loyal to Alaric (chiefly owing to Jovian, who had betrayed the
ambassadors of Honorius), is deprived of the throne, and afterwards
joins the suite of Alaric as a private individual. He is subsequently
restored, but again compelled to abdicate. Finally, he sets out for
Ravenna, is captured, and, after the thumb and forefinger of his
right hand have been cut off, is banished.
Soon afterwards, Allobich pays the penalty for the murder of the
praepositus Eusebius, and is put to death before the emperor. The
tyrant Constantine, when informed of the death of Allobich, sets
out in haste for Ravenna, to make a treaty with Honorius, but being
alarmed, turns back.
Rhegium[405] was the chief town of Bruttii,[406] whence the historian
says Alaric intended to cross over to Sicily, but was prevented
from doing so by a sacred statue. This statue is said to have been
consecrated by the ancients as a protection against the fires of
Aetna and the passage of barbarians from over seas. In one foot it
contained a fire that was never extinguished, in the other a supply
of water that never failed. When it was subsequently destroyed
by Asclepius, the manager of Constantius and Placidia’s Sicilian
property, the inhabitants suffered greatly from Aetna and the
barbarians.
The tyrant Constantine and his son Constans, who was first Caesar
and afterwards Augustus, having been defeated and put to flight,
his general, Gerontius, gladly makes peace with the barbarians and
proclaims Maximus, one of the domestics[407] and his own son,[408]
emperor. He then pursues Constans, puts him to death, and sets out
after Constantine. While these events are taking place, Constantius
and Ulphilas are sent by Honorius against Constantine; having reached
Arelate,[409] where Constantine was living with his son Julian, they
lay siege to it. Constantine takes refuge in a church and is ordained
priest, having been solemnly promised that his life should be spared.
The city gates are thrown open to the besiegers, and Constantine
and his son taken to Honorius. But the emperor, bearing a grudge
against them for the murder of his cousins by Constantine, orders
them to be put to death in violation of his oath, thirty miles from
Ravenna. Gerontius, on the arrival of Constantius and Ulphilas, takes
to flight, and is seized by his mutinous troops, who resented his
severe discipline. The house where he seeks refuge is set on fire,
but he offers a brave resistance to the mutineers, together with one
of his servants, an Alan by birth. At last, he slays the Alan and
then his wife, at their earnest request, and then stabs himself.
His son Maximus, on hearing of this, takes refuge with friendly
barbarians.[410]
Jovinus, meanwhile, is proclaimed emperor at Moguntiacum[411] in
upper Germany, with the aid of Goar the Alan and Guntiar,[412] a
Burgundian chieftain. On the advice of Attalus, Ataulf joins him with
his forces. But Jovinus, being offended at the presence of Ataulf,
in mysterious language blames Attalus who had advised Ataulf to join
him. Sarus also is on the way to join Jovinus, but Ataulf, hearing
of this, collects a force of 10,000 men and waylays Sarus, whose
followers numbered only twenty-eight. Sarus fights with marvellous
heroism, and is with difficulty taken alive by a soldier, who threw
a bag over his head, and afterwards slain. Sarus had revolted from
Honorius, who had treated the murder of Sarus’s servant, Bellerides,
as a matter of indifference and had refused to find out and punish
his murderer.
Donatus and the Huns, and the skilfulness of their kings in shooting
with the bow. The author relates that he himself was sent on a
mission to Donatus, and gives a tragic account of his wanderings and
perils by sea. How Donatus, being deceived by an oath, was unlawfully
put to death. How Charaton, the first of the kings, being incensed
at the murder, was appeased by gifts from the emperor. Such are the
events of the first decade of the history.
The second begins as follows. Jovinus, contrary to the advice of
Ataulf, proclaims his own brother Sebastian Augustus. Ataulf, deeply
offended, thereupon sends envoys to Honorius, promising to send him
the heads of the tyrants and offering to make peace. Oaths having
been exchanged, the envoys return, and the head of Sebastian is sent
to the emperor. Jovinus, besieged by Ataulf, surrenders, is sent to
the emperor and executed by the praetorian prefect Dardanus with his
own hand. Both heads are exposed outside Carthage,[413] where those
of Constantine and Julian, of Maximus and Eugenius, who had aspired
to the throne during the reign of the great Theodosius and had met
with the same fate, had already been exposed.
The restoration of Placidia to her brother Honorius is urgently
demanded from Ataulf by Constantius, who afterwards became her
husband. But as the promises made to him remain unfulfilled,
especially in regard to the supply of corn, he refuses to give her
back and prepares for war instead of peace.
Ataulf, when requested to restore Placidia, asks for the corn
promised him. Although those who had promised it are unable to supply
it, they agree to do so if Placidia is restored; the barbarian makes
a similar pretence of complying. In the meantime he sets out for
Massilia,[414] hoping to capture it by treachery. But having been
severely, almost mortally, wounded by the most noble Boniface, he
returns to his own quarters, abandoning the city which joyfully
acclaims and extols Boniface.[415]
Ataulf, determined to marry Placidia, in spite of the request of
Constantius for her restitution, raises his demands so that, if they
are not granted, he may appear to have a good excuse for detaining
her.
Constantius, who was formerly consul elect, is created consul
at Ravenna, Constans being at the same time made consul at
Constantinople. Sufficient gold was found among the property of
Heraclian, who had been put to death[416] as aspiring to the throne,
to defray the expenses of the consulship, although the amount was not
so great as had been expected. The amount in gold which was found
was about £4600, and the value of the real estate 2000 _litrae_
(£92,000). All this was made over to Constantius by Honorius “at
one asking.” Constantius, as he rode along,[417] had a dejected and
sullen appearance, with his great eyes and neck and broad head; his
whole body was bent over his horse and he looked askance on either
side, in order as the old expression has it, “to appear worthy of
empire.”[418] At feasts and banquets, however, he was agreeable and
sociable, and often even condescended to vie with the mimes who
performed at table.
On the advice and with the assistance of Candidian the marriage of
Ataulf with Placidia was celebrated at the beginning of January in
the city of Narbo (Narbonne), in the house of Ingenius, one of the
most distinguished citizens. Placidia sat in the inner apartment
dressed in Roman style and in royal robes, with Ataulf by her side,
wearing a woollen tunic and Roman costume. Amongst other wedding
presents Ataulf gave his bride fifty beautiful youths dressed in
silk, each bearing in his hands two very large dishes, one filled
with gold, the other with precious, or rather priceless, stones, the
spoils of Rome when it was sacked by the Goths. Then wedding-songs
were sung, Attalus leading the chorus, accompanied by Rusticius and
Phoebadius. The ceremony ended with great demonstrations of joy and
games, in which Romans and barbarians alike took part.
After the capture of Rome by the Goths, Albinus, the city prefect,
when the normal condition of things was restored, reported to the
emperor that the amount of corn distributed to the people was
insufficient, since their number was increasing, as many as 14,000
strangers having passed through in one day.[419]
Ataulf, after Placidia had borne him a son whom he called Theodosius,
courted the friendship of the Romans still more, but the opposition
of Constantius and his supporters made his and Placidia’s efforts
vain. The son soon died and his parents, deeply grieved, buried
him in a silver coffer in a church near Barcino (Barcelona). Soon
afterwards Ataulf himself was murdered, while looking after his
horses in the stable, as he had been in the habit of doing. He was
slain by a certain Goth in his service, named Dubius, who had long
been on the watch for an opportunity to satisfy an old-standing
hatred. Dubius’s master,[420] chief of a Gothic tribe, had been
killed by Ataulf, who had taken Dubius into his own household.
Dubius, to avenge his first master, slew his second. Ataulf, before
he died, ordered his brother to give back Placidia and, if possible,
to cultivate the friendship of Rome. He was succeeded by Singeric,
the brother of Sarus, who secured the throne by violence and intrigue
rather than legally or on the score of relationship. He put to death
Ataulf’s children by a former marriage, tearing them from the arms
of bishop Sigesarus, and by way of insult compelled Placidia to walk
in procession in front of his horse with other captives as far as
the twelfth milestone from the city. After he had reigned seven days
Singeric was slain and succeeded by the Gothic chieftain Walia.
The historian relates that he heard from a person of distinction
named Valerius about certain silver statues that were consecrated to
keep off the barbarians. In the reign of Constantius, when Valerius
was governor of Thrace, he received information of the whereabouts of
a treasure. He proceeded to the spot and learnt from the inhabitants
that it was regarded as sacred, and that certain statues had been
consecrated there in accordance with ancient rites. Valerius reported
this to the emperor, who gave him written permission to remove them.
The spot was excavated, and three statues of solid silver were found,
lying in barbaric guise, with arms akimbo, clothed in parti-coloured
barbaric raiment, with long hair, turned towards the north, the
country of the barbarians. When these statues were removed, the
Goths a few days afterwards first overran and ravaged Thrace, and
a little later Huns and Sarmatians made inroads into Illyricum and
Thrace itself; for these consecrated districts lay between Thrace
and Illyricum, and from the number of the statues consecrated, they
appear to have been intended as a protection against these barbarous
nations.
The historian tells us of the sufferings and perils of his voyage.
He says also that he landed at Athens, and that by his support and
efforts Leontius was appointed to the chair of sophistic, although
he did not desire it. Concerning the philosopher’s cloak,[421] he
says that no one in Athens, particularly a stranger, was allowed
to wear it, unless permitted to do so by the general vote of the
sophists, and unless his right had been confirmed by their rules and
regulations. The following were the rites on such occasions. All
newcomers (novices), young and old, were taken to the public baths.
Those who were by age fit to wear the cloak were brought forward by
the scholastics[422] who escorted them; then, while some ran in front
and pushed them back, others, running behind, pushed them forward and
resisted them, amid shouts of “Stop, stop, he must not wash.” Those
who pushed back those who tried to hinder the progress of the novice
were considered to be victorious in the contest. After a considerable
time, and after a long disputation had taken place in accordance with
custom, he who was being escorted was taken into a warm room and
washed. Having dressed himself, he received permission to wear the
cloak on his way from the bath, being accompanied by a numerous and
distinguished throng. Large sums are voted for the presidents of the
schools, who are called Acromitae.[423]
The Vandals call the Goths Truli, because, when they were hard
pressed by famine, they bought a _trula_ of wheat from the Vandals
for a gold coin.[424] The _trula_ does not contain more than a third
of a pint.
When the Vandals were ravaging Spain, the Romans who took refuge in
the fortified cities were so destitute of food that they were driven
to cannibalism. A woman who was the mother of four children ate them
all, in each case pretending that she did so to provide some food for
the rest and save their lives, but when she had eaten them all she
was stoned to death by the people.
Euplutius the chamberlain is sent to Walia, king of the Goths, to
make a treaty of peace with him and to recover Placidia. Walia
receives him kindly and on receipt of 600,000 measures of corn,
Placidia is released and handed over to Euplutius to be escorted to
her brother Honorius.
When a discussion arose in Athens how books could be fastened
together and people wanted to know how much glue should be used,
Philtatius, the writer’s companion, who was well acquainted with all
matters connected with literature, showed them what to do. A statue
was erected in his honour by the grateful citizens.
About the oasis the author relates much that appears incredible.
First, the climate is so healthy, that not only do none of the
inhabitants suffer from epilepsy, but those who come from other parts
are cured of it. Next, he speaks of the vast tracts of sand, and the
wells, dug 200, 300, sometimes even 500 cubits deep, which spirt up
a stream of water, from which the husbandmen who have taken part in
the work in turn draw water to irrigate their fields. The trees bear
fruit perpetually, and the corn which grows there is finer than any
other and whiter than snow. There are sometimes two crops of barley
in a year and three of millet. The inhabitants water their little
plots of land every third day in summer, every sixth day in winter,
which makes the soil very fertile. Clouds are rarely, if ever, seen.
About the clocks made there. The author says that the oasis was
formerly an island, which had been detached from the mainland, and
that it is called by Herodotus the islands of the blest, but that
Herodorus (who wrote the lives of Orpheus and Musaeus) calls it
Phaeacis. He argues that it was an island, first, from the fact that
sea shells are found adhering to stones upon the mountain which leads
to the oasis from the Thebaid, and, secondly, because of the vast
quantity of sand, which fills three oases. For he tells us that the
oases are three in number, two large, an outer and an inner, opposite
each other but a hundred miles apart, while the third is small and a
great distance from the other two. A further argument that it was an
island is that fish are often found that have been carried there by
birds, and the remains of fish that have been eaten, so that one may
conjecture that the sea was not far off. The author says also that
Homer’s family belonged to the Thebaid.
During the eleventh consulship of Honorius and the second of
Constantius, the marriage of Placidia was arranged. She herself
was greatly opposed to it, which incensed Constantius against her
household. Nevertheless, on the first day of his consulship, her
brother the emperor Honorius took her by the hand and, although
she protested, delivered her over to Constantius, and the wedding
was celebrated with great magnificence. They had two children, a
daughter Honoria and a son Valentinian, who at the urgent request of
Placidia received the title _Nobilissimus_ during the lifetime of
Honorius. After the death of the latter and the suppression of the
usurper John,[425] he became emperor. Honorius unwillingly agreed
to accept Constantius as his partner in the empire, and Placidia
received the title of Augusta from her brother and her husband.
Theodosius the cousin of Honorius and emperor of the East, to whom
an embassy was sent to inform him of the elevation of Constantius,
refused to receive it. Constantius soon became tired of the throne,
since he could no longer come and go when and where he pleased, and
his dignity forbade him to indulge in his customary amusements. This
seriously affected his health; and, after he had been on the throne
six months, a vision appeared to him and addressed him with the
words, “Six are gone, the seventh begins.” He died of pleurisy, and
with him died the indignation aroused by the refusal to acknowledge
his accession. The projected attack on the East abandoned. Walia,
king of the Goths, dies and is succeeded by Theodoric.[426]
The author relates various perils at sea from which he barely
escaped with his life. While talking of a marvellous star (called
Urania[427] by the sailors), he was leaning heavily against the mast,
which nearly gave way and precipitated him into the water. He also
tells of a parrot, with which he himself lived twenty years, which
mimicked nearly all the acts of a human being. It used to dance
and sing, call people by their names and the like. He also relates
that, when he was staying at Thebes and Soëne[428] for the sake of
gathering information, the chiefs and prophets of the barbarians at
Talmis,[429] called Blemmyes,[430] were eager to meet him owing to
his reputation. “They took me as far as Talmis,” he says, “that I
might examine the country, which is distant five days’ journey from
Philae[431] as far as the city called Prima. This was the nearest
city of the Thebaid to barbarian soil, and was hence called by the
Romans Prima (first), the name being still preserved although it has
long been in possession of the barbarians with four other cities,
Phoenicon, Chiris, Thapis, and Talmis.” In this district he heard
that there were emerald mines, which furnished an abundant supply
of those precious stones for the Egyptian kings. The prophets of
the barbarians invited him to inspect them, but this was impossible
without the king’s permission.
He tells a wonderful story about a certain Libanius, an Asiatic, who
appeared at Ravenna during the reign of Honorius and Constantius,
a most consummate magician. He declared that he could work wonders
and promised to perform them against the barbarians without the aid
of soldiers. After his promise had been put to the test, the report
reached the ears of Placidia, who threatened to apply for a divorce
against Constantius, unless the magician and infidel were removed.
Libanius was accordingly put to death. Constantius was an Illyrian
from Naisus[432] in Dacia, who, having served in numerous campaigns
from the time of Theodosius the Great, was afterwards raised to the
throne. In many respects he was worthy of praise and of a generous
disposition, until his marriage with Placidia, when he became
grasping and covetous. After his death, numerous petitions against
him from those who had been financially injured by him were presented
at Ravenna. But the indifference of Honorius and Placidia’s intimacy
with him made these petitions useless and thwarted the power of
justice.
After the death of Constantius, Honorius lavished the greatest
affection upon his sister, which, however, soon turned to mistrust
and hatred, aggravated by the intrigues of Spadusa and Elpidia
(Placidia’s nurse), in whom she had the greatest confidence, and
Leontius her steward. There were frequent riots in Ravenna, where
a large number of barbarians, who sided with her in consequence of
her marriage with Ataulf and with Constantius, frequently came to
blows with the imperial guards. At length the quarrel became so
bitter that, as the result of the hatred instead of love which her
brother now felt for her, Placidia, finding herself unable to resist,
retired with her children to Constantinople. Boniface alone remained
loyal to her, sent her money when he was able from Africa where he
was governor, and rendered her every service in his power. He also
subsequently assisted her to regain the throne.
Honorius died of dropsy on the 27th of August, and an announcement
of the news was sent to the East. In the meantime, a certain John
seized the throne. While his inauguration was taking place, a voice
was heard, as if proceeding from some oracle uttering the words, “He
falls, he does not stand,” whereupon the people, as if to break the
spell, shouted, “He stands, he does not fall.”
Boniface was an heroic soldier, who often distinguished himself
against the barbarians, sometimes with large, sometimes with small
forces, sometimes even in single combat; in a word, he entirely freed
Africa from many barbarous nations. He was a lover of justice and
despised wealth.
The author says that each of the large houses in Rome contained
all the conveniences of a well-arranged city--a hippodrome, fora,
temples, fountains, and baths. This leads him to exclaim: “One house
is a town; a city has ten thousand towns.” There were also public
baths of great size; those called Antoninianae had 1600 seats for
the convenience of bathers, made of polished marble; those called
Diocletianae twice as many. The wall of Rome, according to the
measurement of Ammon the geometrician, at the time when it was first
overrun by the Goths, was twenty-one miles in circumference.
Many Roman families received yearly incomes from their property
to the amount of about forty _centenarii_ of gold (£160,000), not
mentioning the corn and wine and other produce, which, if sold, would
equal a third of the above amount. Families next in rank enjoyed an
income of fifteen or ten _centenarii_ (£60,000-£40,000). Probus, the
son of Olympius, who was prefect of the city during the tyranny of
John, spent twelve _centenarii_ of gold (£48,000). Before the taking
of Rome, Symmachus the orator,[433] a senator of moderate rank, and a
certain Maximus, one of the wealthy citizens, spent twenty (£80,000)
and forty (£160,000) _centenarii_ respectively on their sons’
praetorships. The shows given by the praetors lasted a week.
The author says that the scene of the wanderings of Odysseus was not
the coast of Sicily, but the farthest shores of Italy; that, after
crossing the ocean, he descended into Hades and made many perilous
voyages over that sea; an opinion which he attempts to confirm by
various arguments. I have read many other writers who agree with him.
Placidia is sent back with her children from Constantinople by
Theodosius to oppose the tyrant John. She is confirmed in her title
of Augusta, and Valentinian in that of _Nobilissimus_. They set out
accompanied by an army, both horse and foot, under the command of
Ardaburius, his son Aspar,[434] and Candidian.[435] At Thessalonica
Helion, the master of offices, who had been sent by Theodosius, put
the royal robes on Valentinian, then only five years old. On his
way home, Ardaburius is captured by the soldiers of John and taken
to the tyrant, with whom he becomes on friendly terms.[436] His son
Aspar and Placidia were meanwhile overwhelmed by grief and anxiety;
but Candidian, by capturing many towns and winning great renown,
dispelled their grief and raised their spirits. The tyrant John was
put to death, and Placidia with the Caesar her son entered Ravenna.
Helion, the master of offices and a patrician, took possession
of Rome, and in the midst of a vast throng of people arrayed the
seven-year-old Valentinian in the royal robes. At this point the
history ends.