THE BEDAWÎN.
The last two chapters have been devoted to the settled population of the
villages in Palestine, the antiquity of the race being evidenced by the
language and customs. The peasantry must not be confounded with the
Bedawîn or nomadic tribes, living in the uncultivated districts; for the
two nations are quite separate branches of the Semitic people, and they
themselves acknowledge the distinction. The Bedawi speaks with the
greatest contempt of the Fellâh, and rarely, if ever, do intermarriages
occur, as both sides would consider themselves degraded by the
alliance. The Fellahîn call the nomadic people Arabs, and the nomads
call themselves Bedawîn, both names being derived from their place of
abode--the wild lands of the broad southern and eastern plateaux.
The narrow peninsula of cultivated hills, in which the settled
population lives, is surrounded by the broad sea of desert, over which
the Arab delights to roam. Thus from the great Moab plateau and from the
mountains of Gilead, from the southern Desert of Wanderings, and from
the western plain of Sharon, the wave of nomadic life is constantly
lapping against the mountains of the Fellahîn. This wave has its ebb and
flow, which even in the last five years has been very marked. In time of
peace the Government is strong, and the Arabs are driven back to the
deserts; but in time of war the outlying encampments of the great
eastern and southern tribes encroach upon the village lands, and the
armed horsemen extort blackmail from the border towns and hamlets. On
the whole, however, the settled people seem to be gaining ground, and
especially in Lower Galilee; in the Sharon Plain the Bedawîn are mere
shadows of their forefathers, only a few miserable tents of degraded
Arabs, whom the peasants call “cousins of the gipsies,” being left to
represent the once powerful tribes which, under Akil Agha, were the
terror of Palestine. These small encampments, surrounded as they are in
Philistia by the arable land, resemble the pools left by the retreating
tide on the shore of the sea, which, unless the wave return, must
gradually disappear.
The time-honoured conflict between two races is noticed, as it is almost
unnecessary to observe, in the Bible records. The Arabs are mentioned in
the Old Testament (Neh. iv. 7), and the hosts of Midian, with their
countless camels, were no doubt the ancestors of the modern Bedawîn. The
nomadic people are most interesting to the student of the earlier Jewish
history, before the consolidation of the nation in Samuel’s time; for if
among the peasantry we find a vivid picture of the life and customs of
the later period, it is from the Bedawîn that we learn most that can
throw light on the Patriarchal times, and on the life of Abraham and of
his immediate descendants.
A study of the Arabs is carried on under difficulties west of Jordan.
The great tribes are found either east of the river, or in the desert of
the Tih, and in order to form a really good estimate of Arab character,
it would be necessary to live in these remote districts for many years,
following the migrations of one of the great tribes. The Arabs of the
Jordan Valley are probably not of pure blood, and seem in some cases to
have been mixed up with negroes, flying to the deserts from Damascus and
other towns. The tribes are very small and scattered; many are offshoots
of the Sugr and ’Anezeh nations, whose countless tents stretch away far
into the Eastern desert; others have migrated from the north, and one
tribe--the Tâ’amireh--is of Fellâh origin, though now nomadic.
The migrations of the western tribes do not extend over large tracts,
but are confined to small districts marked by recognised boundaries.
Thus Wâdy Fŭsâil is the border between the Mes’aid and the K’abneh
Arabs, and the Plains of Jericho belong to the Abu Nuseir. In the Desert
of Judah, the two most powerful tribes are the Tâ’amireh, who wear
turbans and sow corn, and the Jâhalîn; south of these are the Dhullâm,
and south of Beersheba the ’Azâzimeh. West of this last great tribe are
the Tiyâhah round Gaza; and the Terabîn extend towards Egypt. The Arab
clans in Philistia and Sharon are too numerous and insignificant to
require notice; and in Galilee also there is a large number of very
small tribes. The above enumerated are the most important Bedawîn
divisions west of Jordan; but the Sugr, from the east, occupy in spring
the whole of the Valley of Jezreel, and in times of disturbance they
enter the Plain of Esdraelon.
Within the assigned limits, the migrations of a tribe over some 200 to
400 square miles are regulated by the temperature of the seasons, and by
the pasturage and water supply. Ranging from one spring to another, and
from the sheltered valleys visited in winter to the favourite camps on
breezy slopes in summer, the nomads seem to resemble the Hebrews at the
period when, for forty years, they lived in the wilderness--not, as we
often imagine, travelling steadily in one line, but rather ranging over
the small area of the Sinaitic peninsula, till the time for a further
migration arrived.
The camps are scarcely ever placed in the immediate neighbourhood of
water, but the Arab women go perhaps a mile away from the tents, and
bring the needful supply in the black skins (Ghirbeh), carrying them on
their backs or on diminutive donkeys. I have often asked the Arabs why
they did not pitch close to the water, but never got a satisfactory
answer. They have probably learnt from experience that the low ground
near water is often malarious, and the great requisites for a camp seem
to be shelter and concealment. The situations are not always, however,
wisely chosen; for, in more than one instance, a sudden thunderstorm in
the hills has brought a flood down the great valleys, in the bottom of
which the smaller groups of tents are often found, and the water has
carried away and drowned the whole settlement, together with its flocks.
The scantiness of pasture and of water supply, obliges the Arabs to
divide themselves into numerous small camps, dotted over their
territory. The Sheikh of the tribe, with his family, generally collects
the largest encampment round his tent, and this forms the rendezvous of
the rest. Among the Arabs of the Judean desert the largest number of
tents in one camp is about thirty, and these contain some thirty
families, or over a hundred persons. The total numbers of a tribe like
the Tâ’amireh are about 1000 persons, or 300 tents, but the average is
about 100 families.
The tents are arranged in different ways. Among the Sugr a large
encampment was set out in parallel lines some fifty yards apart, the
tents in each row being close together, end to end. Among the Tâ’amireh
and Jâhalîn the usual form is a rectangle. The average length of the
tent is from twenty to twenty-five feet, but the small ones will
sometimes be only ten feet long, and the larger forty feet. The distance
between two tents in a line is about four feet. Thus a camp of twenty
tents occupied a space of two hundred feet by seventy feet. In another
case the form was a triangle, the reason of this arrangement being that
the flocks are driven into the enclosure at night, and thus protected
from the attacks of robbers or prevented from straying by themselves.
The Arab tent is extremely unlike the usual representations, in which it
is shown either as a sort of hut, as among the Turkomans, or as a
bell-tent, instead of a long black “house of hair,” with a low sloping
roof and open front. It has, however, been carefully described by
Burckhardt, and there is little to add to his account. The canvas of
the roof and side walls is of goat’s hair, black, with occasionally
stripes of white running horizontally (Cant. i. 5). The pieces of stuff
are about two feet wide, and thirty to fifty feet long. The tent has
generally nine poles (’Awamîd), arranged three and three, those in the
centre being the longest; thus the tent has a low ridge both ways in
order to run the rain off. The cloths at the side can be easily removed
as the sun or wind requires, one side being always left open. The tents
are supported by cords and by pegs (Autâd), which are driven with a
mallet (Judg. iv. 21). The average height of a tent is about seven feet.
Frail and cold as these habitations might be thought to prove in winter,
they are really far more comfortable than would be expected. Being so
low, the wind does not blow them over, and they are, moreover, most
skilfully pitched, generally below a steep bank or low swell. Even in
heavy storms I have found the interiors dry, and the heavy canvas does
not let the rain through. The Arabs, however, suffer very much from
rheumatism in winter. In summer they occasionally inhabit reed huts
(’Arîsh), which are cooler than the tents.
The language of the Bedawîn differs from that of the peasantry, being
nearer to that of the Arab tribes from the neighbourhood of Mecca, and
thus to literary Arabic. Their names for natural objects are not always
the same employed by the Fellahîn, and they are seemingly less ancient,
though this difference is also partly due to the different character of
the ground in the districts which the nomads inhabit. The old names are
not preserved among the Arabs as they are among the peasantry, but
descriptive titles have, as a rule, replaced the former nomenclature.
These facts tend rather to confirm the views already expressed as to the
antiquity of the Fellâh race, contrasted with the more modern settlers
who have encroached on their territory.
The Bedawîn have, in addition to their ordinary language, a kind of
slang, which they use among themselves, and which we were quite unable
to understand. The corrupt pronunciation of ordinary words also renders
it very difficult for any one accustomed to the peculiarities of the
Fellâh dialect to comprehend the Arabs.
The character of the Bedawîn is not so easy to penetrate as at first
appears. They are a crafty and reserved people, with strong ideas of
policy and prudence. Nothing is more disagreeable to an Arab than to be
made to look foolish, and they are careful not to put themselves in a
false position. They also conceal under an affectation of carelessness
and indifference a very keen perception of what is going on. I have
often watched a Bedawi walking by my side, and noticed how carefully he
scanned every pebble in the road, and how the slightest sign of life--a
bird, a gazelle, or a distant figure--attracted his attention at once,
long before I had observed anything. Their sight is generally very clear
and good, and their agility and endurance are astonishing.
A traveller visiting a camp might easily imagine his hosts to be too
lazy to move; but if he wakes from a doze, he will be astonished to see
these grave, solemn figures, skipping like squirrels or creeping like
cats, inspecting perhaps his property, or endeavouring to make sure that
he is asleep. This sudden change of demeanour is quite in accord with
the Arab character, and the skill with which they conceal their
intentions and thoughts makes them very dangerous enemies.
The creed of a Bedawi is that a man should be terrible to his enemies,
and the assumed sternness of their faces is sometimes rather ludicrous.
In making an attack they will be careful to ascertain first that they
are really in a safe majority, and if they are outnumbered, they hide in
the undulations of the ground, in a manner which would excite the
admiration of any military man.
The Bedawîn are very trustworthy; they keep their promises honourably,
and their law of hospitality is strictly and chivalrously observed. The
murder of a guest who has eaten salt in their camp, is, I believe,
almost unknown, and they have a righteous horror of shedding blood, as
the blood-feud must go on until some heavy indemnity has been paid. The
life of any European is thus probably quite as safe among the Arabs as
in London.
Among those tribes which live beyond the corrupting influences of
townsmen, the character of the Bedawîn is said to be very noble; their
chivalrous and courteous demeanour, and their generosity, are praised
alike. Unfortunately, the tribes with which we lived are settled on the
border-land, and have been much spoilt by intercourse with greedy
peasants. We found them generally very avaricious, though in some cases
their ideas concerning money were amusing from their simplicity.
With their friends, the behaviour of the Arabs is kindly and
unaffected; and especially among the Abu Nuseir we met several specimens
of what we should call “good fellows” in England. The hostility usually
shown to strangers is due to the unceremonious way in which travellers
will enter their country, without conforming to any of their ideas of
courtesy and etiquette.
There is no greater mistake than to regard the Arabs as barbarous or
uncivilised. They have a peculiar civilisation of their own, which is
suited to their wants, and a system of government with recognised laws,
which are strictly enforced. Their life is, in fact, a perfect picture
of a patriarchal system, suited to a people who are not numerous, nor
engaged in any very complex transactions; they acknowledge certain
leaders, generally hereditary, but who are only obeyed because they have
obtained for themselves a reputation for wisdom in council, and prowess
in the field. These chiefs direct the policy of their tribe in its
relations with other Arabs, or with the Turkish nominal Governors, and
their tact and ability are often remarkable. The main duties of the
elders are the arrangement of marriages, and of treaties with other
tribes, and the settlement of disputes, which are submitted to them and
regularly tried. The Sheikh has the power of life and death, of peace
and war, and unless he disgraces his tribe by a blunder, he is pretty
sure of prompt and general obedience.
The costume of the Bedawîn is so simple, that it may probably have
remained unchanged since the days of Abraham. They wear the same shirt
which has already been described as used by the peasantry, and generally
they wear also the ’Abba; but their head-dress is the Kufeiyeh, except
among the Tâ’amireh, who, as before stated, are not true Bedawîn. The
Kufeiyeh is a shawl made of silk or cotton, with tassels on two opposite
edges; it is about a yard square, and is folded diagonally, and placed
on the head with the point of the triangle behind. A cord of hair or
rope is wound twice round the forehead and head, coming down behind the
ears almost to the nape of the neck, and this holds the shawl in place;
the cord is called the Aghâl, and is commonly black.
The head-dress thus formed is extremely comfortable, and for four years
we scarcely wore any other. The poorer Arabs wear only the shawl and
cord; the richer have felt and cotton caps inside it. The Kufeiyeh is
the best possible protection from the sun, for the tight cord over the
temples is a preventive against sunstroke, and the ends of the shawl
can be drawn over the face and tucked into the Aghâl, thus shielding the
eyes from the midday glare.
Another distinctive article of Bedawîn dress is the sandal, which also
requires special description. It is a skeleton shoe with a light leather
sole, which is supported by a string of hide, passing beneath the ankle
and above the heel, and then brought round between the great toe and the
second toe, where it is attached to the sole; this string is then drawn
tight, and fixed with a leather button. The sole is further connected
with the string by two straps on either side, and the whole structure
fits almost as tight to the foot as a shoe. Such, no doubt, was the
sandal mentioned in the Bible, and not the complicated cross-gartering
which is commonly represented in pictures of Old Testament incidents.
In the winter the Arabs also wear, under the ’Abba and over the shirt, a
sheep-skin jacket, the woolly side in, the outside tanned a sort of
brick-red colour. This garment looks very comfortable; but the bare legs
and scanty skirts of the Bedawîn give them a most miserable appearance
in the cold weather.
The weapons of the Arabs are different from those of their forefathers;
and in the adoption of gunpowder and tobacco, we find evidence that they
are not incapable of making use, as far as is convenient to themselves,
of civilised inventions. Even in the Jordan Valley I have seen French
cigarette-papers used; and this more convenient method of smoking has in
the sea-side towns quite taken the place of the old-fashioned pipes, and
is making rapid progress among the peasantry also.
The Arabs carry the sword, gun, and lance (Rumh), the last being
mentioned in Scripture. The sword (Seif) has a short and straight blade,
resembling a large knife. The gun (Barûd) is of great length--often five
feet from muzzle to stock--and is bound with brass; the stock is very
much lighter than with us; the piece is often loaded with stones, and
very indifferent powder is employed. The lock is, I believe, invariably
a flint one. The powder is carried in a ram’s horn, which is attached to
the leather belt.
The bow, javelin, buckler, and shield seem to be now obsolete, though
mentioned by travellers of the present century as still in use among the
Arabs. The introduction of firearms is no doubt the reason of the
disappearance of these weapons.
The helmet and coat of mail are still found among the tribes east of
Jordan; the first being a light iron cap (Kub’ah), with a spike on the
top, and a thin plate to protect the nose; the latter, a garment, with
sleeves, which descends to the knees, or rather lower; these coats are
of links closely woven, and are of considerable weight.
The Arabs seclude their women more than is the custom among the
peasantry, and they are carefully veiled in presence of a stranger. Each
tent has its Harîm, or women’s partition, and this, no doubt, is alluded
to in the passage where Isaac is said to have brought Rebekah into his
mother Sarah’s tent (Gen. xxiv. 67). The women, however, enjoy greater
consideration than among the Fellahîn, and an old woman is sometimes
admitted into the council, and becomes a power in the state--a privilege
which has as yet only been claimed by a small minority in our own
country.
The dress of the Arab women is remarkably becoming, and their appearance
is imposing, as they sweep over the grass, in long trailing garments
with ample hanging sleeves; their faces are swathed in a shawl
head-dress, generally of dark colour, which is bound over the mouth, and
leaves the nose and eyes exposed; their black curly locks are also
hidden, except in the case of young girls. The under-dress is indigo
coloured; the upper, which is very wide, with large sleeves and open in
front, is generally of a dull olive-green; thus the general effect of
their costume is very dark, and their faces are discoloured by extensive
tattooing and by the blue paint on the under lip, which is dyed all over
to give greater brilliance to the appearance of the teeth. It is curious
to note that the women, as a rule, are ugly, while the men are handsome.
When going to fetch water, the women wear only the under dress, which
they tuck and tie up until they present most comical figures. A great
part of their lives seems to be spent in going to and fro between the
tent and the spring, with their little black donkeys, or in sitting
squatted on the edge of the stream, beating the clothes, which require
washing (and generally require it very much) with a stone.
The women are all cooks, and their cookery is excellent in its way. They
grind the corn in a stone hand-mill; and make thin cakes of unleavened
bread; and butter and cheese by shaking the milk in a skin which is
hung up on sticks. Even on their raids the Arabs take with them one or
two young women to cook for the party.
The occupations of the men in time of peace are mainly pastoral. The
wealth of the Arabs consists in their horses, flocks, herds, and camels.
Among the Abu Nuseir, a regular trade in beasts goes on, and they act
apparently as agents for the sale of animals of other tribes. The
immense number of the animals which are pastured in the apparently
barren and waterless waste is astonishing. I have seen the plains of
Beersheba swarming with camels, and the Plain of Esdraelon has sometimes
been quite covered with the flocks and herds of the Sugr.
The eastern Arabs pride themselves on their horses, but west of Jordan
there are scarcely any. The mares are hardly ever sold, and often belong
to more than one owner. Thus it is possible to buy the “head” of a mare,
which means to own it, subject to the rearing of a colt for each of the
owners of the “body” and “tail,” who claim the young ones at a certain
age. The Arab horses are small and light; the better class walk very
slowly, and they can neither jump nor trot, but their powers of
endurance and their hardihood are immense, and their speed at a gallop
is generally fair; they are rarely vicious, and their paces are pleasant
when they are properly trained.
The Arabs scarcely ever attack a neighbouring tribe, but they prefer to
journey a distance of several days before committing any outrage, and
they retreat as rapidly as they came when once the booty is captured.
These marauding excursions are called Ghazû, and are the main events of
their lives; the whole of their affected listlessness is then laid
aside, and each Ghâzi, or “champion,” vies with the others in his feats
of daring and activity. The appearance of a party of the Bedawîn
horsemen, charging with long lances trembling in their hands and held
horizontally over the head, is extremely picturesque and imposing.
The Arab, in time of peace, does not require much amusement; he is
content to sit quiet, smoking and drinking coffee. Among the more
degraded, however, the Egyptian dancing-girls are sometimes welcomed,
and all the tribes indulge occasionally in what is termed a Fantazîa, a
word apparently of Italian origin, and introduced by the Franks.
These Fantazîas we often saw, but perhaps the most effective was that
executed in our honour at Engedi. A single Arab faced four others, and
held a sword over his head in both hands. The performance began by an
extemporary song from the sword-bearer in honour of the Kabtân and his
party, the other four Arabs clapping their hands in regular time.
Suddenly this ceased, and they advanced towards the swordsman, uttering
in a sort of growl, the word “Sŭ-hûbb, Sŭ-hûbb,” repeated many
times. The swordsman also advanced, and then recoiled, and the four,
closely packed shoulder to shoulder, began to clap their hands, and
crouched as if about to spring. The swordsman then crouched down and
writhed to and fro, almost kneeling, as if in mortal combat. After a few
moments he sprang up as though victorious, and began his song again,
while the four, as if enchanted, stood erect, clapping their hands and
swaying their bodies backwards and forwards. The growling and struggling
were again repeated, and the dance seemed to be intended to represent
the combat of a single hero against many foes.
The night was dark, and the wild scene was only dimly visible by the
fitful blaze of a fire of thorns, which sometimes flared up and showed
the eager excited faces and lank wiry figures, giving them the
appearance rather of wizards engaged in some terrible incantation than
of ordinary sword-dancers. Finally, the triumphant hero sung the praise
of the “Konsul Kabtân,” and alluded delicately to the probable
“bucksheesh.” The other four here joined very heartily in the chorus.
It was remarkable that the Sheikh of the tribe could be seen, a few
yards off, engaged in prayer during the greater part of the time that
this strange dance was going on. His attention appeared to be in no way
distracted by the noise, and there was nothing, in Arab estimation,
incongruous in the two occupations which were being thus carried on at
the same time.
Such is the simple life of the Arab tribes. Except in the use of tobacco
and gunpowder, these people seem unchanged since the days of Abraham. It
was thus no doubt that that Patriarch travelled to and fro with his
flocks, herds, and servants; thus he made war and entered into treaties
with the surrounding tribes. The wells which he dug, and which had to be
re-opened by Isaac, were perhaps similar to the Hŭfeiyir, or “pits,”
which the Arabs now dig in the beds of great valleys, as for instance
at Gerar and Beersheba.
The Bedawîn are very religious, and observe the appointed hours of
prayer much more devoutly than most of the Fellahîn; if water is
obtainable, they wash their hands, arms, legs, and faces before praying,
and we were often considerably hindered in our Survey work by the
inconvenient piety of the Arab guides. It is said that the Arabs east of
Jordan are pagans, and that moon-worship and yet more curious rites
exist among them. These practices date from the times of “ignorance,”
before the proclamation of El Islâm, but I have never seen anything of
the kind among the tribes with whom we lived.
The Arabs have many traditions, chiefly relating to their own origin and
to the descent of their clans. As they despise writing, regarding both
this and the cultivation of the ground as degrading, and only fit for
peasants, these traditions are handed down from mouth to mouth; the
stories naturally become more marvellous every time that they are
repeated, and in some cases they present historical confusions, as at
Jericho, where the Imâm ’Aly, Companion of the Prophet, is said to have
fought a battle with Abu ’Obeideh ibn el Jerrâh, who was a well-known
Moslem general of the time of Omar, and the conqueror of Jerusalem. The
contest between ’Aly and Moawîyeh, which led to the separation of the
Shiahs and Sunnis, did not, however, commence until after the death of
Othman, successor of Omar.
I have already alluded to the curious fact that Christian legends of the
middle ages are current among the Abu Nuseir Arabs round Jericho, the
case of the “high mountain” of the Temptation being the chief instance.
There is also a legend well known in the Jordan Valley and in Galilee,
of a famous chief named Zîr. He is said to be the maker of certain
curious pits dug in a line near ’Ain Fusâil, and connected with an old
aqueduct. The same legend is connected with pits found east of Jordan,
possibly intended for the same use, which was apparently the collection
of water. Zîr also found his way to the Nazareth hills, and the
acacia-trees near Semûnieh are said to have grown from his tent-pegs.
The Bedawîn reverence the tombs of their own ancestors, and, in some
cases, of those of other tribes. The Abu Nuseir are descended from a
tribe which had a peculiar reputation for sanctity, and which was free
to roam among the rest as a company of Derwishes. Some of these Arabs
were, by mistake, killed by the Egyptian Government, and their graves
are shown in a valley called the “Holy Valley,” near Mar Sâba. Any Arab
entering this valley makes use of the expression, “Your leave, O blessed
ones,” and kisses the tombstones on passing. A second place of the kind
exists not far north of Engedi, where are the graves of certain of the
Rushâideh tribe, who were massacred by Ibrahim Pacha. On passing this
spot our guides kissed the rude headstones very reverently.
There are many grave-yards in the desert, generally near sacred places
or large trees, or on the top of the larger Tells. In one or two
instances a whitewashed tomb is built, in the middle of the cemetery,
over the body of some noted Sheikh, and necklaces, or the furniture of a
horse, are hung as gifts upon it. The Arabs often bring the dead bodies
from a considerable distance in order to inter them in the cemetery of
the tribe.
There is one habit of the Bedawîn which has given rise to
misconceptions, and is worthy of notice. The camels and other property
are marked by a recognised tribe-mark called Wusm. Each tribe, and each
division of a tribe, has its mark, and some are curious. The Rushâideh
mark is a circle with a cross--resembling the astronomical sign for
Mars. The Jâhalîn have a T, a cross, or a C with a dot in the centre.
The Tiyâhah have two parallel strokes, the Dhullâm have three, and the
K’abneh a double cross. These marks are found on the flanks of the
camels, on the grave-stones, and on ruined buildings. Thus at Masada the
gateway is covered with the Rushâideh and Jâhalîn marks, the reason
being that the Arabs believe that a hidden treasure exists there, and
they therefore assert their ownership by putting the tribe-mark on the
place.
Two traditions are very commonly repeated among the Bedawîn. The first
is that hidden treasure exists in certain places, and can be discovered
by the use of incantations. There is some foundation for this
expectation of finding treasure, for it seems to have been common to
bury money in old times, as indeed it still is; and the hoards are found
from time to time. A quantity of gold Alexanders were lately found in
the neighbourhood of Tyre, and a number of shekels were discovered near
Jericho in the winter of 1873, and were brought to us in Jerusalem;
these were subsequently pronounced genuine in Europe. In Haifa also a
treasure of Byzantine coins was found under the sill of a doorway in the
gardens. The Arabs have exaggerated ideas on this subject, and they
suppose treasures to lie hidden in every ruin.
The second common idea is that the desert was formerly cultivated and
full of water. All over the plateau west of the Dead Sea ruins are shown
which are said to be remains of former vineyards, and even the Roman
camps at Masada are so called. This idea is also perhaps founded on
fact: “the vineyards of Engedi,” mentioned by Solomon, have entirely
disappeared together with its palms, and the palms of Jericho have left
only two survivors. The Crusaders cultivated sugar in three places along
the Jordan Valley, yet only the ruins of their mills and aqueducts are
now left, with the semi-fossilised stalks of the sugar-canes near
Beisân. But although the country is thus shown to have been at one time
more productive, still no such entire change as the Arabs suppose is
likely to have taken place, for the desert is called desert in the
Bible, and the Dead Sea plateau is the old Jeshimon or “solitude.”
The preceding pages will, I hope, serve to show how broad is the
distinction between the peasantry and the nomadic people, and how
interesting is the study of both the races as throwing light on the
Bible narrative. We must now pass on to consider briefly the other
inhabitants of the Holy Land.