Oolite, 435, 471, 496
Ooze, 471
Opal, 465
Ore deposits (see Ores)
O’Reilly, J. P., 538
Ore regions, origin of, 477
Ores, 428, 474–485
concentration by reprecipitation, 479
concentration by solution, 479
concentration by surface leaching, 478
“flaxseed,” 497
influence of rock walls on deposition, 484
magmatic segregation, 475
marine segregation, 476
original distribution, 475
purification by leaching, 478
residual concentration, 478
Organic processes, 638
Organic residue, 640, 641
Organic rocks, 449, 646
Original heat distribution, 559–568
Origin and descent of rocks, 393–484
Orogenic movements, 537
Orthoclase, 400, 465
Orthophyre, 471
Osars, 306
Outcrops, effects of faults on, 522
Outwash plain, 306
Overloading of streams, 177, 178, 186
Overthrust, 518
Oxbow lakes, 192, 198
Oxidation, 42, 427
Ozocerite, 465, 646
Paleontologic geology, 1
Paleontology, 1
Paraffine, 646
Peastone, 472
Peat, 406, 472
Pegmatite, 472
Pelagic deposits, 379–386
organic constituents of, 382
Pelagic fauna, 670
Pelecypods, shells of, 662
Pele’s, 618
“Pele’s hair,” 404
Pelites, 472
Peneplain, 81, 169
Penrose, R. A. F., Jr., 478
Peralkalic rocks, 458
Percaleic rocks, 458, 459
Perfemane, 455
Perfemic rocks, 454
Perfelic rocks, 456
Perferrous rocks, 459
Peridotites, 416, 453
Perlenic rocks, 456
Perlite, 408, 453, 472
Permiric rocks, 458
Permirlic rocks, 458
Permitic rocks, 457
Perolic rocks, 457
Perpolic rocks, 456
Perpotassic rocks, 458
Perpyric rocks, 457
Perquaric rocks, 456
Perrey, A., 537
Perrine, 538
Persalane, 455, 459
Persalic rocks, 454
Persodic rocks, 458
Pertilic rocks, 457
Petrifaction, 223
“Petrified turtles,” 496
Petroleum, 465
Petrology, 1, 393–485
Petrosilex, 472
Pfaff, F., 537
Phanerites, 451
Phanerocrystalline rocks, 412
Phenocrysts, 412
Philosophic geology, 1
Phonolite, 472
Photobathic fauna, 670
Photobathic zone, 670
Phyllite, 472
Physiographic geology, 1
Picrolite, 465
Pictotite, 465
Piedmontite, 465
Piedmont glacier, 254
Piedmont plain, alluvial, 183
Piracy, 160
domestic, 104
extent of, in Appalachians, 170
foreign, 104
of Kaaterskill Creek, 105
of Plaaterskill Creek, 105
Pirsson, Louis V., 412 451, 573
Pisolite, 465, 496
Pitchstones, 408, 453, 472
Plagioclase, 465
Plain, alluvial, 181, 184
graded, 169
outwash, 306
Planation, 82
Plant kingdom, geologic contributions of, 652–658
Plant life and carbon dioxide, 665
Plant societies, 667
Plants, contributions to deposits, 652–658
contribution to limestone, 654
effect on erosion, 131, 644
reference table of, 653
weathering influenced by, 112
Platte River, 187
Plaaterskill Creek, piracy of, 105
Plugs, volcanic, 591
Plumbago, 465
Plunging anticline, 155
Plutonic rocks, 472
Polar glaciers, 254
Poincaré, H., 576
Polic rocks, 456
Polmitic rocks, 457
Ponding of streams, 171
Po River, delta of, 202
sediment carried by, 107
Porphyries, 453
Porphyrite, 472
Porphyritic rocks, 411
Porphyry, 472
Posepny, F., 474
Potash, in sea-water, 377
Pot holes, 140
Potomac River, 168
sediment carried by, 107
Potonié, H., 652
Powell, J. W., 519, 521
Precipitation, 50
from atmosphere, 51
from solution, 41, 225, 239, 375–379
Precipitation from solution, conditions influencing, 225
influenced by algæ, 225
Pressures within earth, based on Laplace’s law, 564
Prestwich, J., 203, 225
Propylite, 472
Protogine, 472
Protozoa, geologic contribution of, 660
Provincial faunas, 668
Pseudomorphs, 465
Psilomelane, 465
Psychological factors 651
Pteridophytes, geologic contribution of, 657
Pteropod ooze, 380, 382
“Pulpit rocks,” 350
Pumice, 406, 453, 472
Push moraine, 301
Puzzalana, 405
Pyrite, 465
Pyroclastic rocks, 404, 406, 472
Pyrolic rocks, 457
Pyroxene, 400, 465
Pyroxenite, 417, 452, 472
Quaquaversal dip, 504
Quardofelic rocks, 456
Quarfelic rocks, 456
Quartz, 466
Quartzite, 447, 472
Quartz-leucophyres, 453
Quartzophyres, 453
Quartz-porphyries, 453
Radiolarian ooze, 380, 382, 425, 661
Rain, amount of, 51
erosion by, 57
mechanical work of, 51
Rain-drop impressions, 490
Rainfall, effect on erosion, 128
Ransome, F. L., 130, 513
Rapids, development of, 133, 146
Rate of erosion, conditions affecting, 123
Ravine, 64
Raymond, R. W., 474
Reade, T. M., 225, 366, 561, 572
Reconstructed glacier, 256
Red clay, 380, 383, 384
Red mud, 380
Red River of Louisiana, 188
Reid, H. F., 256, 259, 261
Regolith, 400, 472
Rejuvenation of streams, 162–163
criteria of, 164, 165, 166
Relief, of lithosphere, 11
of ocean basins, 11
representation on maps, 30
Relief of pressure, a cause of volcanic action, 627
Rendu, L. C., 321, 322
Restrictive evolution, 672
Reversed fault, 517, 521
Reyer, E., 636
Rhine River, material in solution in, 108
Rhizopoda, geologic contributions of, 660
Rhone River, delta of, 203
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 107
Rhyolite, 472
Rhyolitic structure, of lavas, 41
Ricard, T. A., 474
Richthofen, Baron von, 23, 604, 614, 615
Rigidity, distribution of, 578
Rill-marks, 372, 489
Rink, H., 248
Ripple-marks, 371, 489
due to wind, 37
Rio Grande River, sediment of, 107
River lakes, 198
River erosion (see Stream erosion)
Roanoke River, 168
Roches Moutonnées, 304
Rock breaking, by changes of temperature, 44, 49
Rocks, alferric, 454
alkalicalcic, 458
alkalimirlic, 458
alterations of, 426
aqueous, 467
arenaceous, 468
autoclastic, 444
calcimiric, 458
“chimney,” 350
chloritic, 431
classification and nomenclature, 449
clastic, 468
crystalline, 16
determination of age, 15
disruption by hydration, 111
docalcic, 458
dofemic, 454
doferrous, 459
dohemic, 457
dolenic, 456
domagnesic, 459
domalkalic, 458
domilic, 457
domiric, 458
domirlic, 458
domitic, 457
dopolic, 456
dopotassic, 458
dopyric, 457
doquaric, 456
dosalic, 454
dosodic, 458
dotilic, 457
eolian, 469
femic, 454
glassy, 406
holocrystalline, 412
hypogene, 470
igneous, 16, 393, 498
leading elements of, 396
lendofelic, 456
lenfelic, 456
magnesiferrous, 459
meta-igneous, 471
metamorphic, 16
mirlic, 458
mitic, 456
organic, 646
origin and descent of, 393–485
peralkalic, 458
percalcic, 458, 459
perfelic, 456
perfemic, 454
perferrous, 459
perhemic 457
perlenic, 456
permagnesic, 459
permiric, 458
permerlic, 458
permitic, 457
perolic, 457
perpolic, 456
perpotassic, 458
perquaric, 456
persalic, 454
persodic, 458
pertilic, 457
perpyric, 457
phanerocrystalline, 412
plutonic, 472
polic, 456
polmitic, 457
porphyritic, 411
precipitate, 427
“pulpit,” 350
pyroclastic, 404, 406, 472
quardofelic, 456
quarfelic, 456
salfemic, 454
salic, 454
secondary, 420
sedimentary, 422, 486
sodipotassic, 458
solution of, 427
specific heat of, 552
stratified, 14
talcose, 431
tilhemic, 457
Rock terraces, 140, 204
Rock waste, 12
Roots, wedge-work of, 112, 131, 150
Rotation of earth, change in rate of, 575
effect on stream erosion, 194
Rotation and vulcanism, 604
Roth, J., 108
Running water (see Streams)
Run-off, 59
Russell, I. C., 108, 118, 151, 172, 194, 203, 232, 256, 283, 388, 392, 636
Rutile, 466
Saint Vincent, 605
Salfemane, 455
Salfemic rocks, 454
Saline lakes (see Salt lakes)
Saline springs, 235
Salisbury, R. D., 203, 256
Salt lakes, 391
composition of, 372
deposits in, 388
Salts, deposition of, 375–378
in sea-water, 324–326
Sand, eolian, 26–37
Sandstone, 422, 434, 472
stratification of, 487
Sandstone dikes, 514
Sanidine, 466
Sapping, 127, 133
Satinspar, 466
Schist, 446, 472
Schistosity, 443
Schmidt, J. F. J., 537
Schoharie Creek, beheaded, 105
Scoriæ, 405, 473
Scour-and-fill, 194
of Missouri River, 195
Scrope, G. P., 636
Sea-caves, 350
Sea-cliffs, 349
Sea, the (see Ocean)
Sea-water, aperiodic movements of, 338
movements generated by attraction, 337
movements of, 334–342
salts in, 376, 377, 378
Sea-waves, caused by earthquake, 535
Secondary rocks, derivation of, 420
“Second bottoms,” 205
Secretions, 497
Sediment, carried by Danube, 107
carried by Irrawaddy, 107
carried by Mississippi, 107
carried by Nile, 107
carried by Po, 107
carried by Potomac, 107
carried by Rhone, 107
carried by Rio Grande, 107
carried by Uruguay, 107
character of, influenced by land vegetation, 645
deposited by rivers, 65, 177–204
deposited in lakes, 387
deposited in sea, 368–386
effect on corrasion, 120
effect on falls, 137
how carried by streams, 116
Sedimentary rocks, classes of, 422
structural features of, 486
Sedimentation and vulcanism, 629
Seed-plants, 657
Segregation of ores, 475
Seiches, 386
Seine River, intrenched meanders of, 164
Selenite, 466
Septaria, 473, 495
Serpentine, 431, 466, 473
Serpentine kames, 306
Seward, A. C., 652
Shale, 422, 434, 473
stratification of, 487
Shaler, N. S., 227, 349, 357 (and Davis, W. M.), 256
Shallow-water deposits, 368, 369, 379
characteristics of, 373
topography of, 374
Shearing of glacier ice, 317
Sheet erosion, 59
Shell marl, 655
Shore currents, 342
deposition by, 355
Shore deposition and coastal configuration, 363
Shore drift, 355
Shore ice, 389
Shoshone Falls, 135
Siderite, 425, 466
Silicified wood, 439
Silicious deposits, 425
Sills, 446, 592
Sketcherly, S. B., 23
Slate, 473
Slaty structure, 441
Slichter, C. S., 221, 563, 576
Slumps, 231
Smaragdite, 466
Smith, E. A., 543
Snow-fields, 244
distribution of, 244
Snowflakes, forms of, 310
Snow-line, 245
in Andes, 246
in Antarctica, 246
in Greenland, 246
in Himalayas, 246
Snow, work of, 244
Soapstone, 431, 473
Sodipotassic rocks, 458
Solms-Laubach, 652
Solution, by ground-water, 222
by rivers, 108, 122
Solution of rocks, 427
Solvent action, location of, 480
Sorby, H. C., 367
Source of streams, 178
Spatter cones, 609, 610
Specific heat of rock, 552
Spermatophytes, geologic contribution of, 657
Sphenophyllum, 657
Sphericity, a factor in deformation, 580
Spherosiderite, 466
Spinel, 466
Spit, the, 357
Sponges, secretions of, 661
Sporadosiderites, 5
“Spouting horn,” 351
Springs, calcareous, 235
chalybeate, 235
cold, 234
common, 235
deep, 234
intermittent, 235
medicinal, 235
mineral, 235
saline, 235
shallow, 234
sulphur, 235
Stalactite, 437, 473
formation of, 227
Stalagmite 437, 473
St. Anthony Falls, 136
Stapff, F. M. 388
Staurolite, 466
Steam discharge from volcanoes, 635
Steatite, 431, 466, 473
Stevenson, D., 341, 344, 370
Stoping, 632
Stoss side, 299
Strachey, R., 51
Stratification, 486
Stratified rocks, 14
Stratigraphic geology, 1
Stratigraphy and fossils, 647
Stratigraphy and paleontology, 647
Stream erosion, 56–177
economic effects of, 108
influenced by rock, 124
influenced by declivity, 123
influenced by structure, 125, 127
topography developed by, 92
Streams, abrasion by, 119
adjustment in Appalachians, 148
adjustment of, 146, 147
affected by rotation of earth, 194
aggradational work of, 177–204
antecedent, 169, 171
characteristics of aggrading, 179, 187
compared with glaciers, 262
consequent, 78
corrasion by, 119
cross-currents in, 117
decrease in size of, 179, 180
deposition by, 177
drowning of, 170
effect of change of level on, 161, 171
erosion by, 57–177
floods of, 109
ice of, 118
intermittent, 71, 72
mature, 86
mechanical work of, 226
migration from synclines to anticlines, 159
mineral matter in solution in, 225
old age of, 89
overloading of, 178, 179, 186
permanent, 70
piracy of, 103
ponding of, 171
relation of width to meander belt, 193
solution by, 108, 122
sources of, 178
struggle for existence among, 100
superimposed, 150
topographic adjustment of, 162, 163, 197
transportation by, 115, 116
velocity of, 115
young, 85
Stream-terraces, 204–212
Stream velocity, effect on transportation, 115
Stream work, 57–212
Stress-accumulation, 583, 588
Striæ, 283
Strike, 501
Strike fault, 522
Stromboli, 636
Structural adjustment of valleys, 147
Structural features of rocks, 486–525
arising from disturbance, 500
of igneous rocks, 498
of sedimentary rock, 486
Structural geology, 1, 486
Structural valleys, 77
Structure of glacier ice, 308
Structure of rock, influence on erosion, 125
Struggle for existence among valleys, 100
Subaërial erosion, 58
Sub-atomic forces, causes of crustal movement, 556
Subdivisions of geology, 1
Subglacial load, 282
Subsidence, effect on coast-lines, 331
Suess, Edw., 538
Sulphur, 466
Sulphur springs, 235
Sun-cracks, 373, 490
Superglacial load, 282
Superimposed streams, 150
Surface moraines, 266
Susquehanna River, 168
Switzerland, snow-fields of, 245
Syenites, 415, 452, 473
Syncline, 157, 504
Synclinoria, 504
Syssiderites, 5
Tachylite, 473
Tait, P. G., 552, 572, 573 (and Thompson, J.), 560, 579
Talc, 466
Talcose rock, 431
Talus, 112
Talus cone, 182
Talus glacier, 233, 232
Tarr, R. S., 165
Temperature, at centre of earth, 571
atmospheric, 43, 46, 49
based on Laplace’s law, 564
effect on erosion, 129
effects of changes on rocks, 44
expansion and contraction due to changes of, 44
in excavations, 569
of interior of earth, 559–570
of lavas, 615, 627
Tennessee River, history of, 168–169
Tension joints, 514
Terminal moraine, 266, 301
Terraces, stream, 204–212
flood-plain, 205
rock, 140, 204
termini of, 210
wave-built, 363
wave-cut, 351, 353
Terrigenous deposits, in sea, 379
Thallophytes, geologic contribution of, 653
Thames River, 224
material in solution in, 108
Thibetan plateau, 548
Thompson, James, 322, 560, 579
Thompson, W. G., 119
“Thorofares,” 358
Thrust-fault, 517, 518
Tides, 4, 338
effect on rotation, 4
Tilden, W. A., 620
Tilhemic rocks, 457
Till, 473
Titanite, 467
Todd, J. E., 195
Topaz, 467
Topographic adjustment of streams, 162, 163, 197
Topographic effects of glacial erosion, 287
Topographic effects of ground-water, 231
Topographic map, explanation of, 30
Topographic maturity, 86
Topographic old age, 89
Topographic youth, 86
Topography, developed by river erosion, 92
dune, 32
landslide, 231
mature, 86
of alluvial deposits, 196
of glaciers, 266
of ocean bottom, 326
of shallow-water deposits, 374
youthful 86
Top-set beds, 202
Trachyte, 473
Transportation, 110
by glaciers, 281
by ocean currents, 367
by streams, 115, 119
by waves, 354
by wind, 22, 25
Trap, 419, 473
Travertine, 473
Trees, uprooting of, 40
Tremolite, 447, 467
Tributaries, development of, 78
position of, 79
topographic adjustment of, 197
Tripoli, 661
Tripolite, 426
Trout creek, 193
Tschermak, G., 538
Tufa (see Tuffs)
Tufa cones, 611
Tufa deposits, 611
Tuffs, 404, 434, 473
Tuscarora deep, 548
Two Medicine River, 154, 157
Tyndall, J., and Huxley, T. H., 322
Udden, J. A., 22
Uinta Mountains, lateral moraines of, 303
Underground water (see Ground-water)
Undertow, 341
deposition by, 355
erosion by, 342, 347
United States Geological Survey, VI., 32
Upham, W., 388
Uprooting of trees, 40
Uralite, 431
Uruguay River, sediment carried by, 107
Usiglio, 375
Valleys,
affected by folds, 154
antecedent (see Streams, antecedent)
canoe-shaped, 155
consequent, 78
courses of, 77
development of, 63, 70, 73, 80
hanging, 164, 290
limits of growth, 67
oldest parts, 76
profiles of, 66
relations to lakes, 74
slopes of, 94
special forms of, 94
structural, 77
struggle for existence among, 100
Van Hise, C. R., 219, 434, 448, 474, 479, 504, 543, 555, 570
Vegetation,
effect on dunes, 29
effect on erosion, 131, 644
effect on sediments, 645
effect on weathering, 131
Veins, 223, 428, 511
Vermes, geologic contribution of, 662
Vermeule, C. C., 109
Vertebrata, geologic contribution of, 663
Vesuvius, 605
Virginia, natural bridge of, 156
Viridite, 467
Volcanic action, causes of, 623–633
activity, periodicity of, 607
ash, 23, 404, 592, 617
bombs, 406, 592, 617
cinders, 592
cones, 500
débris in sea, 381
dust (see Volcanic ash)
eruptions, 594
and atmospheric pressure, 606
and tidal strain, 607
types of, 593
gases, 617–623
action of, 617
kinds of, 618
proportions of, 620, 622
sources of, 619, 620, 621, 633
glass (see Obsidian)
in sea, 381
mud, 380
flows of, 610
neck, 500
plug, 500
rocks, 395–418
residual gases in, 619
smoke, 592, 617
Volcanoes, 599–611
coincidence in eruption of, 606
cones of, 608
distribution of, in curved lines, 603
distribution of, in latitude, 603
distribution of, in relation to crustal movements, 601, 604, 628
distribution of, in relation to land and sea, 599
distribution of, in time, 599
independence of, 605, 623
periodicity of, 607
relations of, 604–607
relations to one another, 605
Volume of ocean, 325
Vuggs, 437
Vulcanism, 2, 590–637
causes of, 623–633
effects on coast-lines, 332
in ocean, 332
Vulcanism and deep sedimentation, 629
ground-water, 635
rotation, 603
Wacke, 422, 473, 645
Wad, 467
Walcott, C. D., 194, 246, 371, 438, 440, 441, 502, 503, 509
Wallace, A. R., 665, 668
Walther, J., 50, 670
Warming, E., 667
Warping, effect of, on streams, 171
of earth’s crust, 526, 541, 542
Wasatch Mountains, lateral moraines of, 303
Washington, H. S., 412, 451, 573
Waste of glaciers, 273
Water (see Streams, Ground-water, Ocean, etc.)
amount of, 7
geologic activity of, 8
Water-gaps, 141, 167
Waterfalls, 132
development of, 133
Minnehaha, 137
Niagara, 139
Shoshone, 135
St. Anthony, 135
Upper Yosemite, 138
Yellowstone, 135
Waterfalls and sediment, 137
Water-lime, 473
Water-table, 71, 215
Water-vapor, climatic effects of, 643
Wave-built terraces, 363
Wave-cut terraces, 351, 352
Wave erosion, 342–354
range of, 346
topographic features developed by, 349
Wave erosion and horizontal configuration, 353, 363, 364
Wave-marks, 490
Wave-motion, 339
Waves, 339
deposition by, 355
erosion by, 342–354
force of, 344
transportation by, 354
work of, 342–366
Weathering, 54, 110, 226
affected by life, 644
aided by plants, 112
aided by hot vapors, 113
effect of gravity, 112
effect of joints, 151, 153
importance of, in valley growth, 114
Wedgework of ice, 45, 48, 150
of roots, 112, 131, 150
Weed, W. H., 225, 237, 474, 656
Wells,
artesian, 242
flowing, 234, 242, 243
Wheeling well, temperature of, 569
White glacier, 263
Whitfield, J. E. (and Gooch, F. A.), 236
Williams, H. S., 658
Willis, B., 157, 168, 169, 257, 344, 355, 365, 516, 543, 550
Winchell, H. V., 474
Wind, abrasion by, 38
effects on plants, 40
movements of sea, generated by, 336
transports organisms, 41
work of, 21–41
Wind-blown dust, 22
Wind-blown sands, 25
Wind-ripples, 37
Winslow, A., 474
Wisconsin River, dells of, 152
Woodward, R. S., 560, 581
Work of glaciers, 281
Wyandotte Cave, 227, 228
Yazoo River, 188
Yellowstone Park,
geysers of, 238
hot springs of, 225
Yellowstone River,
canyon of, 100
falls of, 135
Yukon River, delta of, 202
Zeiller, 652
Zeolites, 428, 467
Zircon, 467
Zittel, K. von, 658, 659
Zone of fracture, 219, 427
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The Earth. Johnson’s Encyclopædia. See also statement of Murray in
Smithsonian An. Rept., 1899, p. 312. Reprint from Brit. A. A. S.,
Dover meeting, 1899, and Scot. Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, 1899, p. 511.
[2] Its specific gravity as a whole is about 5.57, and the specific
gravity of its outer portion is about 2.7.
[3] For an excellent study of the erosion, transportation, and
sedimentation performed by the atmosphere, see Udden, Jour. of Geol.,
Vol. II, pp. 318–331. See also Pop. Sci. Mo., September, 1896.
[4] The Eruption of Krakatoa. Committee of the Royal Society, 1888.
[5] A brief account of the influence of the dust on sunsets is found in
Davis’s Elementary Meteorology, pp. 85 and 119.
[6] Science, New Ser., Vol. IV, p. 816, 1896.
[7] Von Richtofen. “China.”
[8] Sketcherley and Kingsmill. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. LI, 1895,
pp. 238–254.
[9] Chamberlin. Jour. of Geol., Vol. V, p. 795.
[10] A thoroughgoing study of the _Formation of Sand Dunes_ (by V.
Cornish) is to be found in the Geog. Jour., Vol. IX, 1897, pp.
278–309.
[11] Blanford. Geology of India, 2d ed., p. 455 et seq.
[12] Cornish, loc. cit.
[13] Cornish, loc. cit., p. 294.
[14] Diller states (17th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, p. 450)
that on the coast of Oregon the slope of dunes is sometimes 40°.
[15] From folio preface, U. S. Geol. Surv.
[16] Credner. Elemente der Geologie, 6th ed., p. 271.
[17] Merrill. Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, p. 295.
[18] Cowles. The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation of the Sand
Dunes of Lake Michigan. Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, 1899. An
excellent study of the relations of sand dunes and vegetation.
[19] For example, in the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming.
[20] It should be noted that it is the change of temperature of the
rock surface, not the change of temperature of the air above it,
which is to be considered. Many data concerning temperature changes
are to be found in Bartholomew’s Atlas of Meteorology.
[21] Buckley. Wisconsin Survey, Bull. IV, 1899, pp. 81–3.
[22] Livingstone has reported that the temperature of rock surfaces
in Africa sometimes reaches 137° Fahr. during the day, and cools
sufficiently at night to split off blocks of 200 lbs. weight.
[23] Buckley. Surv. of Wis., Bull. IV, pp. 19, 20.
[24] For an excellent discussion of erosion in dry regions see
Walther’s Die Denudation in der Wüste.
[25] On the assumption that condensation takes place at an average
elevation of 3000 feet, it has been estimated that the force
necessary to evaporate and diffuse the moisture which falls as
rain and snow would be equivalent to 300,000,000,000 horse-power
constantly in operation. (Strachey, Lectures on Geography, p. 145.)
[26] McGee. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VIII, pp. 87–112.
[27] For a discussion of convex and concave erosion slopes see Bain,
Geol. Surv. of Ia., Vol. VI, p. 449.
[28] Great rivers, like the Mississippi, cut their _channels_ somewhat
below sea-level, but probably not by an amount exceeding the depth of
the stream itself (see p. 79).
[29] Davis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, p. 87.
[30] _Ibid._, p. 77 et seq.
[31] In regions where canyons are common, the term is often applied to
all valleys.
[32] Humphreys and Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi
River.
[33] From Russell’s Rivers of North America, p. 78.
[34] Alkaline carbonates considered as sodium carbonates.
[35] Carbonic acid by difference.
[36] Babb. Science, Vol. XXI, p. 343. 1893.
[37] Quoted by Mason. Water-supply, p. 204.
[38] Sot. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76. 1887.
[39] Acids and bases combined according to the principles indicated by
Bunsen.
[40] Chemical Geology, Vol. I, pp. 76, 77, English ed., 1854.
[41] Allgemeine und chemische Geologie, Vol. I, pp. 456, 457. 1879.
[42] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 79.
[43] For disastrous floods of the lower Mississippi, see Johnson, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II, pp. 20–25. For effect of precipitation
and forests on floods, see Russell’s Meteorology, pp. 198–217, and
Vermeule, Report on Water Supply, Geol. Surv. of N. J.
[44] An excellent discussion of this subject is given by Gilbert in The
Henry Mountains, pp. 99 et seq., and more briefly in the Am. Jour.
Sci., Vol. XII, p. 85 et seq. 1876.
[45] Jour. of Geol., Vol. IV, p. 718. An excellent summary of the
principles of Rock Weathering.
[46] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 17.
[47] W. G. Thompson. Nature, Vol. I, p. 555, 1870. The Matapediac
River, N. B. Cited by Russell in Rivers of North America, p. 25.
[48] Dutton. Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon District, Mono. II,
U. S. Geological Survey.
[49] The terms rapids, falls, and cataracts are rather loosely used.
Many moderate rapids are incorrectly called falls. The “Falls of the
Ohio” is an example. The term cataract is often applied to very steep
rapids or falls.
[50] Gilbert, article on Niagara Falls, in Physiography of the United
States.
[51] Gilbert. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XII. p. 99, 1876.
[52] For a brief account of this fall see Gilbert in Physiography of
the United States.
[53] Gilbert. Science, Vol. VIII, p. 205, 1886.
[54] See Campbell, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, pp. 567, 657.
[55] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 280. The influence of joints
on drainage is further discussed by Hobbs, Jour. Geol., Vol. IX, p.
469.
[56] See Willis. The Northern Appalachians, in Physiography of the
United States.
[57] This process of adjustment has been well described by Davis in The
Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, Natl. Geog. Mag., Vol. I, p. 211
et seq.
[58] This sort of adjustment may be called _topographic adjustment_.
A tributary is in topographic adjustment when its gradient is
harmonious with that of its main.
[59] Davis. The Seine, the Meuse and the Moselle. Nat’l Geog. Mag.,
Vol. VII, pp. 181–202, and 228–238. An article which throws much
light on the behavior of rivers.
[60] Another view has been advocated by Tarr, Am. Geol. Vol. XXI, pp.
351–370.
[61] Campbell. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIV, p. 277.
[62] Willis. Physiography of the United States. The Northern
Appalachians.
[63] For excellent accounts of the rivers of the Appalachian Mountains
see Davis, Rivers of Northern New Jersey, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol.
II, pp. 81–110; and Rivers of Pennsylvania, op. cit., pp. 183–253;
Willis, The Northern Appalachians, Physiography of the United States,
pp. 169–202; Hayes, the Southern Appalachians, op. cit., pp. 305–336;
Hayes and Campbell, The Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians,
Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VI, pp. 63–126, and Hayes, Physiography of the
Chattanooga District, 19th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp.
1–58.
[64] This is the case at Davis and Lone Star. Capt Howell, Miss. Riv.
Commission.
[65] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 279.
[66] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 279.
[67] Hayes. Physiography of the Chattanooga District, 19th Ann. Rep.,
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp. 9–58. See, also, Hayes and Campbell,
Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol.
VI, pp. 63–126.
[68] Figs. 165–168 are based on reports of Hayes, and Hayes and
Campbell, already referred to. Drawn by E. S. Bastin.
[69] A question might be raised in this case as to what should be
called the source. A spring issues from beneath the surface and flows
away in a stream. The stream is said to begin where the water appears
at the surface, though in some cases the water of the spring was a
subsurface stream before it reached the surface. Water escaping from
beneath a glacier as a stream may likewise be considered a spring at
the point of its issue.
[70] Davis. Science, Vol. X, p. 142, 1887.
[71] L. C. Johnson. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II, pp. 20–25, 1891.
[72] Jefferson. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. XIII, pp. 373–84.
[73] According to map published by the Mississippi River Commission in
1887.
[74] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 114.
[75] Gilbert. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1884, pp. 427–34.
[76] Cooley. Rept. U. S. Engineers for 1879–80, Pt. II, pp. 1060 and
1071.
[77] Gerber. Cited by Todd. Bull. 158, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 150, 151.
[78] Chamberlin. Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 747–754.
[79] For an excellent discussion of deltas, see Gilbert, Fifth Ann.
Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp 104–8. Also Lake Bonneville, Monograph I,
U. S. Geol. Surv. (same article).
[80] Davis. Physical Geography, p. 294.
[81] Humphreys and Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi
River.
[82] Corthell. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VIII, p. 351, 1897.
[83] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 132.
[84] Prestwich. Chemical and Physical Geology, Vol. I, p. 85.
[85] Geike. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 402.
[86] Medlicott and Blanford, Geology of India. Chap. XVII; Medlicott,
Records of the Geological Survey of India, 1881; Oldham, Geology of
India, 2d ed., Chap. XVII; and Ferguson, Q. J. G. S., Vol. XIX, pp.
321–54. The extent of this and other deltas is variously stated,
probably because it is difficult to determine the exact position of
its head and borders.
[87] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 198.
[88] Salisbury and Kümmel. Lake Passaic. Ann. Rept. of the State
Geologist of New Jersey, 1893, and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III. p. 533.
[89] Gilbert. Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.
[90] For discussions of terraces see Gilbert’s Henry Mountains, p. 126;
Davis’ River Terraces in New England, Bull. of the Mus. of Comp.
Zool., Geol. Series, Vol. V, pp. 282–346; and Dodge, Proc. Boston
Soc. of Nat. Hist., Vol. XXVI, pp. 257–73.
[91] Davis, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Geol. Ser., Vol. V.
[92] This point has recently been emphasized by Davis, loc. cit., pp.
282–346.
[93] Murray. Scot. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, p. 70, 1887.
[94] Hoskins. 16th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 853.
[95] Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology, 16th
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv.
[96] For a full discussion of this subject see King, 19th Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, and Slichter, Water Supply and Irrigation,
Paper No. 67, U. S. Geol. Surv.
[97] For tables see Buckley, Building and Ornamental Stones, Bull. IV,
Wis. Surv., and Merrill, Stones for Building and Decoration, and
various Survey Reports.
[98] It is probable that the porosity decreases in more than an
arithmetic ratio, both because the deeper rocks are not of porous
kinds, and because of the pressure which tends to close openings.
[99] Slichter (op. cit., p. 15) estimates that the ground-water is
sufficient in amount to cover the earth’s surface to a depth of
3000 to 3500 feet. Earlier estimates gave still higher figures (see
Delesse, Bull. Soc. Geol., France, Second Series, Vol. XIX, 1861–62,
p. 64).
[100] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 367.
[101] Ibid., p. 378.
[102] Prestwich, Q. J. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. lxvii.
[103] Reade. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1876 and 1884.
[104] This is not true in the case of minerals, such as lime carbonate,
dissolved under the influence of gases in solution in the water.
[105] Weed. The Formation of Hot Springs Deposits. Excursion to the
Rocky Mountains. Compte Rendu. Fifth Session of the International
Geological Congress, p. 360, and Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
pp. 613–76. Also B. M. Davis, Science, Vol. VI, pp. 145–57, 1897.
[106] For a racy and interesting account of caverns see Shaler’s
Aspects of the Earth.
[107] Russell has emphasized this point in 20th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Pt. II, pp. 193–202, and Cross, 21st Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Part II,
pp. 129–150.
[108] Gooch and Whitfield. Bull. 47, U. S. Geol. Surv.
[109] Copied from Russell, Mono., XI. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 176.
[110] Correction for specific gravity only approximate, as specific
gravity was not given in original analyses.
[111] As carbonates.
[112] As carbonate.
[113] As oxide.
[114] As carbonate.
[115] As sodium chloride.
[116] As fluoride of calcium.
[117] Oxygen added to SiO₂ to form SiO₃ of Na₂SiO₃.
[118] Liters of gas thrown off per liter of water.
[119] Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 613–76, and Am.
Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVII, 1889, pp. 351–59.
[120] Geikie. Geological Sketches, pp. 206–38. Hayden. Amer. Jour.
Sci., Vol. III, 1872, pp. 105–15 and 161–76.
[121] Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. I, pp. 689–97, and Fifth Ann.
Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 131–73. The former a brief, and the
latter an elaborate, exposition of the principles involved.
[122] Russell. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. III, pp. 127 and 181.
[123] For an account of experiments illustrating the mobility of ice
see Aitkin, Am. Jour. Sci., Vols. V, p. 303, and XXXIV, p. 149, and
Nature, Vol. XXXIX, p. 203.
[124] Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 888.
[125] The following list includes many of the more available articles
and treatises on existing glaciers; others are referred to in the
following pages.
_Alaskan glaciers_: Reid, (1) Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, pp. 19–55;
(2) Sixteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Part I, pp. 421–461.
Russell, (1) Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, pp. 176–188; (2) Jour. of
Geol., Vol. I, pp. 219–245.
_Glaciers in the United States_: Russell, (1) Fifth Ann. Rept., U.
S. Geol. Surv., pp. 309–355; (2) Eighteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol.
Surv., Part II, pp. 379–409; (3) Glaciers of North America.
_Greenland glaciers_: Chamberlin, Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp.
768–788; Vol. III, pp. 61–69, 198–218, 469–480, 565–582, 668–681,
and 833–843; Vol. IV, pp. 582–592. Salisbury, Jour. of Geol., Vol.
III, pp. 875–902, and Vol. IV, pp. 769–810.
_Glaciers in general_: Shaler and Davis, Illustrations of the
Earth’s Surface; Forbes, Norway and its Glaciers, and Theory of
Glaciers; Heim, Handbuch der Gletscherkunde.
[126] Reid. Natl. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 44.
[127] Rink’s Greenland.
[128] Reid. Variations of Glaciers. Jour. of Geol., Vols. III, p. 278;
V, p. 378; VI, p. 473; VII, p. 217; VIII, p. 154; IX, p. 250, and X,
p. 313.
[129] For example, in the Middle Blase Dale glacier, Island of Disco,
Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, p. 784, and in the Bowdoin glacier (Fig.
242).
[130] Centimeter-gramme-second system. The rate of conductivity has not
been very accurately determined.
[131] Russell. Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 823.
[132] Geikie. The Great Ice Age, 3d ed., p. 529.
[133] Carried out by C. E. Peet and E. C. Perisho under the direction
of one of the authors.
[134] Ueber die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle. Neues Jahrbuch für
Mineralogie, etc., 1895, Bd. II, p. 211.
[135] On the Plasticity of Glaciers and other Ice. Proc. Roy. Soc.,
Vol. XLIV, 1888, pp. 331–67 (with D. A. Kidd); Vol. XLVIII, 1890, pp.
259, 260; Vol. XLIX, 1891, pp. 323–43.
[136] Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin,
1891–93, Bd. I, p. 491 et seq.
[137] _References on glacier structure and motion._—L. Agassiz, Études
sur les Glaciers, Neuchâtel, 1840. Rendu, Théorie des Glaciers de la
Savoie, Soc. Roy. Acad., Savoie, Mém. 1840 (in English, ed. by Geo.
Forbes, London, 1874). J. de Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers
et le terrain erratique du Basin du Rhone, Lausanne, 1841. F. J.
Hugi, Ueber das Wesen der Gletscher und Wintereise in dem Eismeer,
Stuttgart, 1842. R. Mallet, The Mechanism of Glaciers, Jour. Geol.
Soc. Dublin, Vol. I, p. 317; On the Plasticity of Glacier Ice,
Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1845, Vol. III, p. 122; On the Brittleness
and Non-plasticity of Glacier Ice, Phil. Mag., XXVI, p. 586. James
Thompson, On the Plasticity of Ice as Manifested in Glaciers, Roy.
Soc. Proc., Vol. 8, 1857, pp. 455–58. J. Tyndall and T. H. Huxley,
On the Structure and Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1857, Vol.
CXLVII, p. 327. J. D. Forbes, Occasional Papers on the Theory of
Glaciers, Edinburgh, 1859. W. Hopkins, On the Theory of the Motion
of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1862, p. 677; Phil. Mag., 1863, Vol. XXV,
p. 224. J. Tyndall, Forms of Water, New York, 1872; The Glaciers of
the Alps, London, 1861. James Croll, On the Physical Cause of the
Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1869, Vol. 38, pp. 201–6. A. Heim,
On Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1871, Vol. 41, pp. 485–508; Handbuch der
Gletscherkunde, 1885. H. Moseley, On the Cause of the Descent of
Glaciers, Br. Assoc. Rept., 1860, Pt. 2, p. 48; also Phil. Mag.,
1869, Vol. 37, pp. 229, 363; Vol. 39, p. 241; Vol. 42, p. 138; Vol.
43, p. 38. Ch. Grad, La Constitution et le movement des Glaciers,
Revue Sci., 1872. H. J. Rink, Danish Greenland, 1877. R. M. Deeley,
A Theory of Glacial Motion, Phil. Mag., 1888, Vol. 25, pp. 136–64.
J. C. McConnel, On the Plasticity of an Ice Crystal, Proc. Roy.
Soc. London, Vol. 48, 1890, pp. 256–60; ibid., Vol. 49, 1891, pp.
323–43. O. Mügge, Über die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle, Nachr. k.
Ges. d. Wiss., Göttingen, 1895, pp. 1–4. R. M. Deeley and George
Fletcher, The Structure of Glacier Ice and its Bearings on Glacier
Motion, Geol. Mag. (London), Decade 4, Vol. 2, 1895, pp. 152–62. T.
C. Chamberlin, Presidential address before the Geol. Soc. Am., Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VI, February 1895, pp. 199–220. Reid, Mechanics
of Glaciers, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 912. Erich von Drygalski,
Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891–93,
Vol. I, 1897.
[138] Much information on these and other points is to be found in
the following books: Wild’s Thalassa; Thompson’s Depths of the Sea;
Barker’s Deep Sea Soundings, and Maury’s Physical Geography; Agassiz’
The Three Cruises of the Blake, and the Challenger Reports give much
more detailed information concerning these and other matters.
[139] Dittmar, Challenger Reports, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. I, p.
204.
[140] For a discussion of the way in which this gas is held in
solution, see Tolman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. VII, pp. 598–618.
[141] Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 39.
[142] Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76.
[143] Ibid., p. 70.
[144] Limited areas of the ocean bottom are actually concave upward;
that is, they are basins in the more commonly accepted sense of the
term (see Chapter IX).
[145] J. Geikie. Earth Sculpture, p. 329.
[146] Murray. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XV, p. 507.
[147] Lindenkohl. Science, Vol. X, 1899, p. 807.
[148] This does not hold for tropical latitudes.
[149] National Geographic Magazine, Vol. XI, pp. 377–392.
[150] For causes of ocean-currents, see Croll’s Climate and Time; Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1869–73, and Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1871–77.
[151] In the following pages concerning the waves and their work
Gilbert’s classic discussion of shore features, in the Fifth Annual
Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 80–100, is freely drawn on.
Another incisive discussion of certain shore phenomena is that of
Fenneman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 1–32.
[152] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 213.
[153] Delesse. Lithologie des Mers de France. Cited by Geikie,
Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 438.
[154] Sir G. Airy. Encyclopedia Metropolitana, Art. Waves. Cited by
Geikie, loc. cit., p. 438.
[155] Stevenson. Treatise on Harbors.
[156] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.
[157] Stevenson. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVI, p. 25. Treatise on
Harbors, p. 42. Quoted by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, p. 437.
[158] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 437.
[159] Brit. Assoc. Rept., 1850, p. 26.
[160] Davis. Physical Geography, p. 354.
[161] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 219.
[162] Shaler. Sea and Land, p. 29.
[163] Gulliver, Shore Line Topography: Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci.,
Vol. XXXIV, 1899, pp. 151–258. A valuable study of shore-line
topography.
[164] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.
[165] See Gilbert. Topographic Features of Lake Shores, 5th Ann. Rept.
U. S. Geol. Surv.
[166] Shaler, Sea Coast Swamps of the U. S., 6th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol.
Surv.; and Merrill, Pop. Sci. Mo., Oct., 1890.
[167] Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. IX, p. 113, and Tacoma,
Wash., Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv.
[168] Agassiz. Three Cruises of the Blake, Vol. I, p. 259. Agassiz
would ascribe the Blake plateau itself to the Gulf Stream, p. 138.
See also Am. Jour. Sci., Vol XXXV, 1888, p. 498.
[169] Reade. Phil. Mag., Vol. XXV (1888), p. 342.
[170] Murray. Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 184, 185.
[171] Murray, loc. cit., pp. 187, 188.
[172] Ibid.
[173] Stevenson. Harbors, 2d ed., p. 15.
[174] Usiglio. Encyclopædia Britannica. Article on Salt.
[175] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 500, where the evidences for
deposition are fully set forth.
[176] Murray, loc. cit.
[177] Ibid., p. 186.
[178] Murray, loc. cit., p. 295.
[179] Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, p. 327.
[180] Young’s Astronomy, p. 472.
[181] Murray. Scottish Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, p. 511. An excellent
summary of deep-sea deposits.
[182] Murray, Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, p. 337 et seq.,
and Buchanan, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVIII, 1892, pp. 17–39.
[183] Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 385–391. See also
Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp. 167–172.
[184] Forel, Compte Rendu, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1879, and P. Du Bois,
1891. Also Forel’s Lac Leman.
[185] C. A. Davis, Journ. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 485–97, and 498–503,
and Vol. IX, pp. 491–506.
[186] Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv., Chap. V;
also Third Ann. Rept., pp. 211–221. Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono.
I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 167.
[187] Stapff, Zeit. deut. geol. Gesell., Vol. XVIII, pp. 86–173.
[188] Upham, Lake Agassiz, Mono. XXV, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Salisbury and
Kümmel, Lake Passaic, Rept. of the State Geologist of N. J., 1893,
and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, pp. 533–560; Gilbert, Lake Bonneville,
Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S.
Geol. Surv.; and Mono Lake, Eighth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt.
I.
[189] Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 71, and
Topographic Features of Lake Shores, Fifth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol.
Surv., p. 109.
[190] Buckley. Wis. Acad. of Sci., Vol. XIII, Pt. I, 1900. A study
of ice ramparts formed about the shores of Lake Mendota, Wis., in
1898–99.
[191] Copied from Russell’s Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv.
[192] Less .04254 carbonic acid added to amount found. Average of two
analyses.
[193] Average from four analyses.
[194] Average of two analyses.
[195] As sesquicarbonates.
[196] As chloride.
[197] As peroxide.
[198] Carbonic acid by difference.
[199] Analyses of Rocks, Bull. 168, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, p. 15.
[200] Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, by Whitman Cross,
Joseph P. Iddings, Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington. 1903.
[201] Van Hise. 16th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 589–94.
[202] The application of these principles we owe chiefly to Van Hise:
Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Flowage, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 9,
pp. 269–328.
[203] Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington. Quantitative
Classification of Igneous Rocks.
[204] The initials f.n. (field names) are introduced to show that the
term is used in the broad field sense proposed.
[205] Added by the authors of this work.
[206] The following definitions are given, as nearly as practicable, in
accordance with present common usage, which is, however, more or less
varying and inconsistent.
[207] A comprehensive discussion of the “Genesis of Ore Deposits” may
be found in Vols. XXIII and XXIV of the Trans. of the Am. Inst. of
Min. Eng. (also printed with additions in book form by the Institute,
1902), in which Posepny, Emmons, Van Hise, LeConte, Blake, Becker,
Ricard, Raymond, Lindgren, Weed, Vogt, Winslow, Winchell (H. V.),
Church, Cazin, Adams, Keyes, Bain, Collins, Beck, and DeLaunay
participated. Various phases of the leading modern views are set
forth.
[208] Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 599 et seq., 1882.
[209] Penrose. Jour. of Geol., Vol. XI, pp. 135–155, 1903.
[210] Van Hise, Mono. XIX, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 268–295, 1892.
[211] Gilbert. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. X, pp. 135–140, 1898.
[212] Branner. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 481–484, 1900.
[213] Iddings. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 704–710.
[214] Daubrée. Géologie d’Expérimentale, pp. 306–372.
[215] Crosby. American Geologist, Vol. XII, 1893, pp. 368–375.
[216] Becker. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. X, pp. 41–75.
[217] Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology. 16th
Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 668–672.
[218] Diller. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I, pp. 441–442. Ibid. Hay,
Vol. III, pp. 50–55; and Newsom, ibid. Vol. XIV, pp. 227–268.
[219] Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIII, pp. 331–336.
[220] McConnell. Canada Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., 1886, Pt. II.
[221] Geikie. Text-book of Geology.
[222] Becker. Geology of the Comstock Lode, Mono. III, U. S. Geol.
Surv., Chapter IV.
[223] Reference, Van Hise. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt.
I, pp. 672–678.
[224] Davison. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, p. 301.
[225] Nature, October 24, 1895.
[226] Milne. The Geog. Jour., Vol. XXI, p. 1. See also Seismology, a
more technical work than the same author’s Earthquakes.
[227] Darwin. Journal of Researches, 1845, p. 303.
[228] Oldham. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. 257.
[229] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 372.
[230] Kotô. Jour. Coll. Sci., Japan, Vol. V, Pt. IV (1893), pp. 329,
339. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 373.
[231] An elaborate account of this earthquake is given by Dutton, Ninth
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 209–528.
[232] Cross. Twenty-first Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, Chap.
V.
[233] Oldham. Report on the Indian Earthquake of June 12, 1897, p. 138.
Mem. Geol. Surv. of India. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 374.
[234] Oldham, loc. cit., p. 80.
[235] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 375.
[236] Ibid., p. 376.
[237] Forster, Seismology, 1877. Summarized in the Am. Geol., Vol. III,
1889, p. 182.
[238] The literature of seismology is very extensive. Some of the
more general treatises are the following: Mallet, Brit. Assoc.,
1847, Part II, p. 30; 1850, p. 1; 1851, p. 272; 1852, p. 1; 1858,
p. 1; 1861, p. 201; and The Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857,
2 Vols., 1862; A. Perrey, Mém. Couronn. Bruxelles, XVIII (1844),
Comptes Rendus, LII, p. 146; R. Falb, Grundzüge einer Theorie der
Erdbeben und Vulkanenausbrüche, Graz, 1871, and Gedanken und Studien
über den Vulkanismus, etc., 1874; Pfaff, Allgemeine Geologie als
exacte Wissenschaft, Leipzig, 1873, p. 224; Schmidt, Studien über
Erdbeben, 2d ed., 1879, and Studien über Vulkane und Erdbeben,
1881; Dieffenbach, Neues Jahrb., 1872, p. 155; M. S. di Rossi, La
Meteorologia Endogena, 2 Vols., 1879 and 1882; J. Milne, Earthquakes
and other Earth-movements (contains a bibliography), 4th ed., 1898;
Seismology, ibid., 1898; Dutton, Earthquakes, 1904.
Records of earthquakes have been preserved more or less fully in
several countries, especially in recent years. A few of the more
accessible publications where these records are found are cited
below: California earthquakes, Perrine, Bull. 147, U. S. Geol.
Surv.; Earthquakes of the Pacific Coast, Holden, Smithson. Misc.
Coll., No. 1087, 1898; Records of recent earthquake movements in
Great Britain since 1890 are published by Davison in Quar. Jour.
Geol. Soc., Geol. Mag., and Nature; Records of earlier earthquakes
are found in the reports of the Brit. Assoc. (Mallet), in the
Edinburgh New Philos. Jour., Vols. XXXI-XXXVI (Milne), and in
Trans. of the Roy. Irish Acad., 1884 and 1886 (O’Reilly); The
Earthquakes of Scandinavia have been recorded in volumes of the
Geol. Fören, Förhandl.; Records of other continental European
earthquakes are found in Gerland’s Beiträge zur Geophysik, 1895,
1900, and 1901; Neues Jahrb., 1865–71; Zeitschr. Naturwissen.
(1884), (Credner); Bericht. k. Sachs. Geol. Wissen., 1889 and 1900
(Credner); Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst., 1895 and 1897; Tschermak’s
Min. Mitth., 1873, and later; Transactions of the Seismological
Soc. of Japan. An index to these Transactions is given at the end
of Milne’s Seismology.
[239] Antlitz der Erde. Vol. 1, p. 136.
[240] Eugene A. Smith. Underthrust Folds and Faults, Am. Jour. Sci.,
Vol. XLV, 1893, pp. 305–6.
[241] Manual of Geology, 3d ed., p. 23.
[242] For discussions of folds, see Van Hise, Sixteenth Ann. Rept.
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 603–632; and Willis, Thirteenth Ann.
Rept., Pt. II, pp. 217–296.
[243] Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, p. 213.
[244] Am. Nat., Vol. XIX, p. 257, 1885.
[245] Geol. Surv. of Canada, p. 33 D, 1886.
[246] Elements of Geology, 5th ed., p. 266.
[247] Van Hise. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., 1897, Vol. IX, p. 291.
[248] See Woodward’s address, Mathematical Theories of the Earth, Proc.
Am. Assc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, pp. 59–63.
[249] Nat. Phil. Thompson and Tait, Pt. II, p. 477. See also Popular
Lectures and Addresses, 1894, II, p. 313.
[250] Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Fisher, p. 95.
[251] Origin of Mountain Ranges, T. Mellard Reade, p. 125.
[252] Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 178, pp. 231–49.
[253] Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, 3d series, Vol. 45, p. 7.
[254] Essentially the same as atmospheres.
[255] The pressures and densities here given are essentially the same
as those previously worked out by others and already published. The
temperatures are the results of recent preliminary computations made
under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution, and are subject
to change on further study. They are based on the assumption that
the increase in density is due to compression. They are in general
accord with the results previously reached by Dr. F. R. Moulton
(see “A Group of Hypotheses Bearing on Climatic Changes,” by T. C.
Chamberlin, Jour. of Geol., 1897, p. 674). The Rev. O. Fisher, in the
Am. Jour. of Sci., 1901, p. 420, gives much higher results.
[256] Attention was called to this feature by Chamberlin in a paper
before the Geol. Soc. of Am. at Rochester, December, 1901.
[257] These are reckoned by assuming that the temperature of no
variation at 50 feet below the surface is 40° F.
[258] Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. V, 1898, p. 161.
[259] Van Hise. Personal communication.
[260] Bull. 168 U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 14.
[261] Daniell’s Physics, p. 407.
[262] Heat. Tait, p. 225.
[263] All the feldspars are calculated as anorthite. Augite is used for
hypersthene, ilmenite is included with magnetite, and all minerals
are calculated as if of the isometric system.
[264] Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Chap. VIII.
[265] Penn Monthly, Philadelphia, May, 1876.
[266] The following conclusion by an eminent authority has come to our
notice since this was written:
L’influence des marées océanienes sur la durée du jour est donc
tout à fait minime et n’est nullement comparable à l’effet des
marées dues à la viscosité et à l’elasticité de la partie solide
du globe, effet sur lequel M. Darwin à insisté dans une series
de Mémoires du plus haut intérêt. Par H. Poincaré, Bulletin
Astronomique, tome XX (June, 1903), p. 223.
[267] On the Secular Changes in the Elements of the Orbit of a
Satellite revolving about a Tidally-distorted Planet. Phil. Trans.,
Roy. Soc., Pt. II, 1880.
[268] Jour. Geol., Vol. VI, 1898, p. 65.
[269] Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. 39, 1883, p. 140. Everett (Units and
Physical Constants) gives 837 × 10⁶ for steel, but as the modulus
for granite seems low, we have taken the lower estimate for steel to
avoid exaggerating the ratio between them.
[270] Nat. Phil. Thompson & Tait, Vol. II, p. 424, 1890.
[271] Computations made at the request of the authors. See also Fisher,
Physics of the Earth’s Crust, p. 36.
[272] Of like import is the statement of Woodward—“If the crust of the
earth were self-supporting, its crushing strength would have to be
about thirty times that of the best cast steel, or five hundred to
one thousand times that of granite.” Mathematical Theories of the
Earth, Proc. Am. Assoc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, p. 49.
[273] It is assumed that the direction of the supporting thrust at the
periphery of the dome is at every point parallel to the tangent to
the domed surface. This is justified by symmetry in the case of a
shell conforming to the sphericity of the earth, and in the other
cases it would seem to be as favorable an assumption in the direction
of high supporting capacity as can reasonably be made.
[274] Prepared at the authors’ request by W. H. Emmons.
[275] The terms are here used in their narrow technical sense.
Extrusion is also used in a broad generic sense to indicate the whole
process of outward movement.
[276] Gilbert. 14th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, p. 187.
[277] Gilbert, after a careful study of the moon’s topography, has
suggested that the lunar pits may be indentations produced by
infalling meteorites or planetoids, and has shown by experiment that
pits of a similar type, with similar central cones, can be produced
by impact. The Moon’s Face: A Study of the Origin of its Features.
Presidential address, Phil. Soc. of Washington, 1892, Bull. Vol. XII,
pp. 241–292.
[278] Structure and Distribution of Coral Islands.
[279] Corals and Coral Islands.
[280] Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. X, pp. 505–18, and Vol. XVII, pp.
79–109; Nature, Vol. XXXII, p. 613; Narrative Chal. Exp., Vol. I, pp.
781–2.
[281] Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVII, 1889.
[282] Ante, p. 22.
[283] Origin of Igneous Rocks. Phil. Soc. of Wash., Vol. XII, pp.
89–214.
[284] The Natural System of Volcanic Rocks. Cal. Acad. of Sci., 1868.
[285] Chemical News, April 9, 1897.
[286] Phil. Trans., 1873.
[287] Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion, Am. Jour. Sci., Apr., p. 269, and
Aug., p. 107, 1903.
[288] Frank. Lehrbuch der Botanik, I, p. 576, 1892.
[289] Science, Vol. VI, p. 838, 1897. Zeitschrift für Anorganische
Chemie, 1897.
[290] Reference works: Scott, Studies in Fossil Plants, 1900;
Zeiller, Éléments de Paléobotanique, 1900; Potonié, Lehrbuch
der Pflanzenpaleontologie, 1899; Seward, Fossil Plants, 1898;
Solms-Laubach, Fossil Botany, 1887.
[291] Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1887–88, pp. 613–76;
also Bradley M. Davis. Science, Vol. VI, 1897, pp. 145–57.
[292] Cohn. Abhandl. Schles. Gesell. Naturwiss., Heft II, 1862.
[293] Deep Sea Deposits, p. 257.
[294] C. A. Davis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. IX, 1901, p. 491.
[295] Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1887–8.
[296] Reference books: Zittel’s Text-book on Paleontology, translated
and edited by Eastman; Williams’ Geological Biology; Nicholson’s
Manual of Paleontology.
[297] After Zittel in the main.
[298] S. W. Johnson, How Crops Feed, p. 47.
[299] Reference works: Plant Relations, Coulter, 1900,—a convenient
elementary work; Schimper, Pflanzengeographie, 1898; Warming,
Lehrbuch der oekologischen Pflanzengeographie, 1896; Cowles,
Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, 1898.
[300] One of the earliest attempts to map these and develop their
significance and value is found in Vol. II, Geol. of Wis., 1873–77,
Native Vegetation, pp. 176–87.
[301] Chamberlin. A Systematic Source of Evolution of Provincial
Faunas, Jour. of Geol., Vol. VI, 1898, pp. 597–609.
[302] Wallace. Island Life.
[303] For data, see Walther’s Einleitung in die Geologie, pp. 35–45.
Transcriber’s Notes:
- Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
- Text enclosed by equals is in antiqua font (=antiqua=).
- Text enclosed by pluses is in small caps (+Small Caps+).
- Blank pages have been removed.
- Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.