and the abysmal fauna is much more distinct and more fundamental than
any that is found in ascending above the surface of the sea. The
habitat of the shallow-water fauna is limited below by the darkness,
limited above by the water-surface, limited at one side by the land,
and limited on the other side by the deep sea. It is hemmed in
vertically between two planes only a few hundred feet apart. Laterally,
it is confined to a narrow belt about the borders of the continents and
to the more or less land-girt epicontinental seas. Its vertical limits
are fixed, but its lateral extent varies with the relations of the sea
to the surface of the continental platforms.
This variation profoundly affects the development of the fauna. When a
major deformation of the earth takes place which increases the capacity
of the oceanic basins, the water is drawn down into them more fully,
and correspondingly retreats from the continental shelf. The shore is
thus carried out toward or to the border of the shelf, or even perhaps
down to some line on the abysmal slope. In either case, the zone of
shallow water suited to the photobathic life is narrowed, and at points
it may be practically cut in two. There are, however, shelves and
tracts that were below the light zone before, which now are brought
within it by the lowering of the sea-level. Into these, as into harbors
of refuge, the life migrates so far as it may. But these tracts are
less prevalent and continuous than the typical continental shelf, and
under the conditions supposed they would be but imperfectly connected
with each other by available shallow-water tracts. (The steep shelving
shore tracts, although furnishing a shallow-water connection possibly
available for some species, would be unsuited to others and, under
certain conditions of the sea-currents, would be an effective barrier.)
To these limited tracts, therefore, the life of the photobathic type
is restricted and measurably isolated, and develops into local and
provincial faunas.
After a deforming movement has ceased, the seashore habitually
advances, developing a new continental shelf, and in time new
epicontinental gulfs and seas. In this it is assisted by the erosion
of the continent and the filling of the sea, and probably by the slow
settling of the continents. As the sea-shelf broadens, the isolated
tracts, the harbors of refuge, become connected, and migration is
facilitated. When the connection becomes general and broad, and when
epicontinental seas have formed available tracts across the face of the
continents, a general commingling of faunas follows, and a cosmopolitan
fauna results.
In the same way, but more obviously, when the land is extended and
connection between the continents becomes general, there is migration
and commingling of the land faunas and floras, and cosmopolitan
communities are the result.
It is obvious that the development on the land is the reciprocal of
that in the sea. When the seas are extended and their life is tending
toward cosmopolitanism, the lands are dissevered, and their life is
tending toward provincialism, and _vice versa_. When, however, the land
is greatly extended, it is usually accentuated by mountain ranges,
and other products of the deformation which extended it, and these
form barriers. Desert wastes and other inhospitable tracts, and even
glaciation, are liable to develop as secondary consequences, and to
interpose barriers, and hence the cosmopolitanism of the land-life is
liable to be less complete than that of the sea-life.
=Restrictive and expansional evolution.=—It is obvious from the last
discussion that if the picture of the earth’s movement above drawn
be true, the areas available for particular classes of life may vary
greatly from age to age. At times the shallow-water sea-life may be
forced to retreat into a very narrow tract on the border of the land,
and into chance expansions here and there. In being crowded into this
limited tract, perhaps also less adapted for a habitat on account of
the change, the life is subjected to severe competition and to hard
conditions, and must experience in an intensified degree the effects
of the struggle for existence. Whatever of evolutionary potency there
may be in such a struggle under such restrictive conditions should be
revealed in the modifications of the fauna that ensued.
On the other hand, when the shallow seas are generally extending
themselves upon the land and the land is being base-leveled, and
thus adapted to shallow submergence, the shallow-water life enjoys
an enlarging realm, and should reveal the effects of evolution under
expansional conditions. In affording a comparison between these
opposite and alternating phases of restrictional and expansional
evolution, geology makes one of its great contributions to the external
causes and conditions of organic evolution. These will come under
repeated consideration in the historical chapters.
INDEX.
VOLUME I.
Abbot, M. L. (and Humphreys, A. A.), 106, 202
Abrasion,
by ice, 281
by streams, 119
by waves, 342
by wind, 38
Abysmal fauna, 671
Abysmal sea, 326
Accretion hypothesis,
internal temperature on, 564, 567
recombination of material on, 568
Actinolite, 447, 460
Adams, F. D., 474
Adjustment of streams,
structural, 146, 150
topographic, 162, 163, 197
Adobe, 467
Agassiz, 366, 604
Agassiz, L., 321, 322, 323, 366
Agate, 460
Agate structure, 436
Agglomerate, 434, 467
Aggradation,
by ice, 298
by streams, 2, 177
by wind, 25
in sea, 333, 355
Aggrading streams, characteristics, 179, 187
Airy, Sir G., 341
Alabaster, 460
Albite, 400, 460
Alferric rocks, 454
Algæ,
geologic contribution of, 653
influence on precipitation, 225
Alkalicalcic rocks, 458
Alluvial cone, 181–3
growth, 181
levees, 182
Alluvial deposits, 177–96
Alluvial fans, 181–3
Alluvial plains, 181, 184–96
material of, 196
origin of, 184, 185
piedmont, 183
topography of, 196
Alluviation, 181, 196, 467
ill-defined, 183
Alpine glaciers, 251
Alps,
crustal shortening involved in formation of, 549, 576
structure, 504, 507
Amber, 646
Amethyst, 460
Amphibole, 460
Amphiboles, 400
Amygdaloid, 411, 467
Analcite, 460
Analyses,
American river-waters, 107
American spring-waters, 235
rain-waters, 107
river-waters, 106, 107, 108
sea-water, 324
waters of enclosed lakes, 392
Anamorphism, 446
Andalusite, 460
Andes, snow-line in, 246
Andesine, 400, 460
Andesite, 467
Angiosperms, 657
Anhydrite, 460
Animal kingdom,
geologic contribution of, 658–63
synopsis of, 659
Anorthite, 460
Anorthosite, 467
Antarctica, snow-line in, 246
Antecedent streams, 169, 173
Anthracite, 426, 460
Anticlinal valleys, 159
Anticline, 504
plunging, 155, 157, 506
Anticlinoria, 504
Antimony, 460
Apatite, 460
Aphanite, 451, 452, 467
Aplite, 415
Appalachian Riser, 173
Appalachians,
crustal shortening due to folding, 549
extent of piracy in, 169
peculiarities of drainage, 169
rejuvenation of streams in, 165
stream adjustment in, 147
Aqueous rocks, 467
Aragonite, 460
Archean complex, 18
Arch of earth’s crust, strength of, 582
Archeozoic era, 19
Arenaceous rocks, 468
Arid regions, erosion in, 131
Argillite, 448, 468
Arkose, 422, 468, 645
Artesian wells, 242
Arthropoda, geologic contribution of, 662
Asiderites, 5
Asphaltum, 460
Asteroids, 661
Astronomic geology, 1, 2
Atlantic coastal plain, 587
Atmosphere, 5
affected by life, 639, 640
carbonation by, 43
chemical work of, 41–43
evaporation and precipitation, 50
fluctuations in composition, 639–44
geologic activity of, 6, 21–43
mass and extent, 6
mechanical work of, 21–41
oxidation by, 42
thermal effects of, 7
Atmospheric electricity, 43, 52
Atmospheric precipitation, amount of, 51
Augite, 400, 429, 461
Augitite, 468
Autoclastic rock, 444
Australia, fauna of, 668
Babb, C. C., 107
Bad-lands, 93, 130
Badger Mountain, 231
Bain, H. F., 67, 474
Barbadoes earth, 661
Barite, 461
Barrier, the, 356
Bars, 181, 357
Barus, Carl, 562, 563
Basalt, 417, 452, 468
Basaltic columns, 417
Base-level, 60, 62, 82, 168
Cretaceous, 169
Kiltatinny, 168
temporary, 84
Basement complex, 18
Batholiths, 500, 592
Bayou, 192
Bayou lakes, 193
Bays, origin of, 331, 332
Beach, the, 355
Beauxite, 461
Beck, R., 474
Becker, G. F., 474
Bergschrund, 258
Bertin, 323
Beryl, 461
Bighorn Mountains, lateral moraines in, 302
Biotite, 400, 461
Bischoff, Gustav, 108
Bismuth, 461
“Bittern,” 377
Bitumen, 461
Bituminous coal, 426, 468
Blake, W. P., 474
Blanford, W. T., 28, 203
Blood rain, 25
Blue mud, 380
Bone beds, 663
Bonneville lake, 360
Bonneville shore, 352
Bottom-set beds, 202
Bowlders, 468
Brachiopods, geologic contributions of, 662
Brahmaputra delta, 203
Branner, J. C., 489
Breakers, 341
force of, 344
Breccia, 423, 434, 468
Britannare, 459
Bronzite, 461
Bryozoans, geologic contributions of, 662
Buckley, E. R., 48, 50, 221
Buhrstone, 468
Burton (and Milne, J.), 636
Buttes, 142
Bysmaliths, 500, 592
Calcareous springs, 235
Calcareous tufa, 390
Calcimiric rocks, 458
Calcite, 461
Calc-sinter, 468
Calumet and Hecla mine, temperature in, 569
Calvin, S., 88, 204, 373, 389
Campbell, M. R., 167, 171, 173
Camphene, 646
Cannel coal, 468
Canoe-shaped valleys, 155
Canyons, 94–100
Colorado, 98, 233
Niagara, 99
Yellowstone, 100
Carbonation, 43, 429
Carbon dioxide,
amount in air, 5, 640
and plant-life, 665
climatic effects of, 643
loss of, 640
supply of, 618, 640
Cascade, 264
Cassiterite, 461
Catlinite, 461
Causes of crustal movement, 551–557
Caverns (see Caves)
Caves, 143, 227–231
deposits in, 228
Mammoth, 227
sea, 350
Wyandotte, 227
Cazin, F. M. F., 474
Cementation,
effected through chemical precipitation, 222, 225, 226
effected through evaporation, 42
Cephalopods, geologic contributions of, 662
Chalcedony, 461
Chalk, 468, 660
Challenger deep, 587, 588
Chalybeate springs, 235
Chamberlin, T. C., 23, 242, 256, 322, 477, 565, 668
Changes of level, 537–551
caused by earthquakes, 536
causes of, 551–557
effect on drainage, 161
sea _versus_ land, 538
Changes of temperature,
conditions affecting, 45
effect on rocks, 44, 49
internal (see Internal temperatures)
Charleston earthquake, 530
Chatter marks, 284
Chemical combination, cause of crustal movement, 556
Chemical deposits, 222–26
in deep sea, 383
in lakes, 391
in shallow sea, 374–378
Chemical work of atmosphere, 41–43
Chemical work of life, 638–46
Chert, 426, 468
Chiastolite, 461
Chimney rocks, 350
Chlorite, 461
Chlorite schist, 468
Chloritic rock, 431
Chromite, 461
Chrysolite, 462
Chrysotile, 462
Cinder-cones, 608
Cinders, 405
Cirques, 286
Clarke, F. W., 396, 573
Classification of rocks, 449
new system of, 451
Clastic rock, 468
Clay, 468
Clay ironstone, 468
Claypole, E. W., 549
Cleavage planes and erosion, 125
development of (see Slate and Schist)
Cliff glacier, 256
Climate, influence on erosion, 127–132
Climatic effects of carbon dioxide, 643
Climatic effects of life, 643
Climatic effects of water vapor, 643
Clinkstone, 468
Clinometer, 501
Coal, 468
Coast-lines 353, 363–6
effect of gradation on, 333, 363
effect of subsidence on, 329, 332
effect of vulcanism on, 332–33
forms of, 329, 333, 363, 364
Coast ranges, crustal, shortening due to folding of, 549
Coasts, natural bridges on, 351
Cobb, C., 36
Cœlenterata, geologic contribution of, 661
Collins, A. L., 474
Colorado, Canyon of, 98, 233
Columbia River, 171
Columnar structure, 498–500
effect on weathering, 153, 154
Common springs, 235
Compression joints, 514
Concave tracts of crust, 585, 586
Concretions, 438, 468, 490
Cones,
cinder, 608
composite, 610
formation of, 608
geyser, 237
lava, 608
spatter, 610
tufa, 611
Configuration of coasts, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 353, 363–6
Conformability, 15
Conglomerate, 423, 434, 468, 487
Continental glaziers, 251
Continental platforms, 11
relief of, 11
Continental segments, size of, 547
Continental shelf, 11
Continent-forming movements, 544
Contour interval, 31
Contour lines, 31
Convection hypothesis,
internal heat on, 559
thermal distribution on, 559
Cooley, E. G., 195
Coon Butte, 596
Copalite, 646
Coprolites, 646
Coquina, 469
Coral mud, 380
Cornish, V., 26, 28, 29
Corrasion, 110, 113
by glaciers, 281–86
by streams, 119
by waves, 342–49
by wind, 38
effect of sediment on, 120
Corthell, E. L., 202
Cosmopolitan faunas, 668
Coulter, J. M., 667
Coves, 143
Cowles, H. C., 35, 667
Credner, H., 35, 538
Creep, 231
Cretaceous base-level, 169
Crevasses, 264
Crinoids, 661
Croll, James, 322, 323, 339
Crosby, W. O., 513
Cross-bedding, 373, 487
Cross-currents, in streams, 117
Cross, Whitman, 412, 451, 535, 573
Croton River, material in solution in, 108
Crustal movements, 526–589
causes of, 551–57
differential extent of, 548
due to chemical changes, 556
due to cohesion and crystallization, 554
due to diffusion, 555
earthquake, 527–33
minute and rapid, 526
periodicity of, 517, 539
resistance to, 557
slow and massive, 537–59
Crustal shortening, 548–51
Crust of earth, 13
depth of, 14
varieties of rock in, 14
Crystalline rocks, types of, 16
Crystallites, 407
Crystallization of lava, 401–2
stages of, 403
Crystals, enlargement of, 435
Cut-and-fill, 190, 193
Cut-off, 191
Cycle of erosion,
its stages, 80
definition of, 82
recognition of, 164
Cystoids, 661
Dacite, 469
Dale, T. N., 505
Daly, R. A., 631
Dana, J. D., 203, 340, 349, 511, 543, 604, 636
Daniell, A., 572, 573
Danube River,
delta of, 202
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 107
Darton, N. H., 41, 50, 53, 94, 135, 154, 494, 570
Darwin, C., 604, 636, 665
Darwin, G. H., 534, 561, 576, 579, 583, 604
Daubree, G. A., 626
Davis, B. M., 225
Davis, W. M., 83, 159, 164, 170, 188, 202, 204 210 349,
and Shaler, N. S., 256
Davis, C. A., 655
Davison, C., 527, 538, 561
DeBeaumont, Eli, 323
Decarbonation, 429, 430
DeCharpentier, J., 321, 322, 323
Deeley, R. M., 322
Deep-sea deposits, 368, 378–86
chemical, 383–86
extra-terrestrial, 381
inorganic, 380
manganiferous, 384
organic, 382
Deep-sea fauna, 670
Deposition,
by glaciers, 298–305
by streams, 177–204
by shore currents, 355
by undertow, 355
by waves, 355–63
by wind, 25–37
Deformation of earth’s crust, 526–89
causes of, 551–57, 574–89
relation to distribution of volcanoes, 601, 604, 627, 629
Deformation of ice, 312
Degradation, 2
by water, 58–177
rate of, 105
De Launay, L. C., 474
Delesse, A., 221, 341
Delessite, 462
Dells of the Wisconsin, 152
Delta lakes, 204
Deltas, 181, 198–204
bottom set beds, 202
development, 199
fore-set beds, 202
fossil, 203
in tidal seas, 202
of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 202
of the Hoang-Ho, 202, 203
of the Mackenzie, 202
of the Mississippi, 197, 202
of the Nile, 202
of the Po, 202
of the Rhone, 203
of the Yukon, 202
rate of growth, 202
shape, 201
structure, 198, 199
top-set beds, 202
Densities within the earth, on Laplace’s law, 564
Denudation and volcanic action, 627
Deoxidation, 427
Deposition of mineral matter from solution, 50, 225, 428
at surface, 50, 224
by ground-water, 224, 428
in lakes, 387
in sea, 375, 383
Deposition of sediment, 66
by rivers, 177–204
by wind, 25–38
in ocean, 355–63, 368–86
Deposition of drift, at edge of glaciers, 299
at end glaciers 299
beneath ice, 298
Deposits,
deep-sea, 368, 378–86
hot springs, 237, 241
lacustrine, 387
littoral, 369
made by animals, 658–63
made by Arthropoda, 662
made by Bryophytes, 656
made by Echinodermata, 661
made by ice, 298–305
made by Mollusca, 662
made by Molluscoidea, 662
made by Protozoa, 660
made by Pteridophytes, 657
made by plant kingdom, 652–58
made by rivers, 177–204
made by Spermatophytes, 657
made by Thallophytes, 653
made by Vermes, 662
made by Vertebrata, 663
made by wind, 25–38
shallow-water, 369–78
silicious, 237, 241, 425
tufa, 237, 241, 473, 611, 653
Depression and volcanic action, 629
Depth of the ocean, 7
greatest, 8, 548
Diabases, 418, 431, 469
Diallage, 400, 462
Diastrophism, 2, 329, 526
effect on coast lines, 329
Diatom ooze, 380, 382, 425, 469
Diffusion,
in earth’s interior, 555
cause of crustal movement, 555
Dikes, 591
effect on topography, 143
sandstone, 514
Diller, J. S., 29, 514
Diorites, 416, 452, 469
Dip, 501
quaquaversal, 504
Dip-fault, 522
DiRossi, M. S., 537
Displacement of fault, 514
Disruption of rock, due to changes of temperature, 44, 49
by carbonation, 43
by hydration, 111
Distributive fault, 519
Divides, permanence of, 69
Docalcic rocks, 458
Dodge, R. E., 204
Dofemane, 455
Dofemic rocks, 454
Doferrous rocks, 459
Dohemic rocks, 457
Dolenic rocks, 456
Dolerites, 417, 452, 469
Dolomites, 424, 469
Domagnesic rocks, 459
Domalkalic rocks, 458
Domes of crust, strength of, 581, 582
Domilic rocks, 582
Domiric rocks, 458
Domirlic rocks, 458
Domitic rocks, 457
Dopolic rocks, 456
Dopotassic rocks, 458
Dopyric rocks, 457
Doquaric rocks, 456
Dosalic rocks, 454
Dosodic rocks, 458
Dotilic rocks, 457
Drainage,
effect of change of level on, 161
mature, 86
of glaciers, 273
old age, 89
youthful, 86
Dreikanter, 40
Drift, 287, 469
composition of, 304
deposition of, 298–305
wear of, in transit, 298
Drygalski, E. von, 322
Dump moraine, 301
Dune areas, topography of, 32
Dunes, 24–37
distribution of, 35
effect of vegetation on, 29
formation of, 26
migration of, 33
shapes of, 26
slopes of, 29
Dust,
volcanic, 22, 23
wind-blown, 22
Dust-wells, 269, 280
Dutton, C. E., 132, 534, 574, 636
Dynamic geology, 1
Earth, the,
as a planet, 2
constitution, 5
crust, 13
deformation of, 526
dependence on sun, 4
distance from sun, 3
inclination of axis, 3
interior of, 14, 559
internal heat, 559–74
motions, 3
orbit, 3
tremors of surface, 526
warpings of crust, 526–89
Earthquakes, 527–537
causes of, 527
destruction of life by, 536
distribution of, 533
destructive effects of, 530
epicentra of, 531
foci of, 527
gaseous emanations during, 533
geologic effects of, 534–537
Earthquake vibrations, 526
amplitude of, 529
Charleston, 534
Lisbon, 535
sequences of, 533
Earth’s crust,
composition of, 14, 396
warpings of, 538–551
Eastman, C. R., 658
Echinodermata, geologic contributions of, 661
Echinoids, geologic contributions of, 661
Economic geology, 1
Efflorescence, 42
Elæolite, 462
Electricity,
atmospheric, 43
chemical effects of, 43
geological effects of, 43, 52
Ells, R., 443
Emmons, S. F., 474
Emmons, W. H., 474, 573, 585
Englacial drift, 282
Enlargement of crystals, by secondary growth, 435
Enstatite, 400, 462
Eolian rocks, 469
Epeirogenic movements, 537
Epicontinental seas, 11, 326
Epidote, 431, 462
Equisetæ, geologic contribution of, 657
Eras, 17–19
Erosion,
affected by rotation, 194
analysis of, 110
base-level of, 60
by glaciers, 281–286
by rain, 57
by rivers, 56–177
by undertow, 342, 346
by waves, 342–349
by wind, 38
conditions affecting rate of, by glaciers, 283
conditions affecting rate of, by running water, 123
cycle of, 80, 82, 164
in arid regions, 131
influenced by climate, 127, 128, 129
influenced by composition of rock, 124
influenced by declivity, 123
influenced by structure, 124, 126
influenced by vegetation, 129, 644
sheet, 59
subaërial, 58
Erosion and cleavage planes, 125
Erosion and joints, 125
Erosion by streams (see Erosion by running water)
Eruptions, 591
fissure, 593
volcanic, 594
Eskers, 306
Etna, 605, 610
discharge of stream from, 636
Evaporation, 50
Everett, 578
Evolution restrictive and expansional, 672
Exfoliation, 44
Expansional evolution, 672
Expansion and contraction,
due to temperature, 44
due to wetting and drying, 52
Extinct lakes, 388
Extrusive processes, 590–637
Falb, R., 537
False bedding, 487
Faulting and vulcanism, 627
Faults,
conditions of, 521
dip, 522
displacement, 514
distributive, 519
effect on outcrops, 522
hade, 514
heave of, 514
normal, 517
oblique, 525
relation to folds, 515
reversed, 517, 521
stratigraphic throw, 518
significance of, 521
strike, 522
thrust, 517, 518
Fault scarp, 514
Faunas,
abysmal, 670
Australian, 668
cosmopolitan, 668
deep-sea, 670
pelagic, 670
photobathic, 670
Faunas and floras,
basis of, 663
effect of geographic conditions on evolution of, 668
Feldspar, 462
Feldspar-leucophyres, 453
Feldspar-melaphyres, 453
Feldspathic minerals, 400
Feldspathoids, 400
Felsites, 452, 469
Fenneman, N. M., 339
Ferguson, A. M., 203
Ferns, geologic contribution of, 657
Fiords, 290
Fisher, O., 561, 565, 574, 581
Fissure eruptions, 593
Fletcher, G. (and Deeley, R. M.), 322
Flints, 426, 469
Floods, 109
of the Mississippi, 188
Flood-plain meanders, 190
Flood-plains, 184–98
development of, 165
materials of, 196
Mississippi, 194
relation to terraces, 205
topography, 196
Floras and faunas,
basis of, 663
effect of geographic conditions on, 668
Flowering plants, geologic contributions of, 657
Flowing wells, 234, 242
Flow structure of lavas, 410
Fluorite, 462
Fluvio-glacial work, 305–7
Folded ranges, distribution of, 543
Folding and vulcanism, 628
Folds,
anticlinal, 504, 505
effect on valleys, 154
isoclinal, 504
synclinal, 504
Folds and faults, 515
Foliation of ice, 272
Foliation of rocks, 443
Foraminifera, geologic contribution of, 660
Forbes, J. D., 256, 322
Forel, F. A., 323, 386
Fore-set beds, 202
Formation, 487
Forster, W. G., 536
“Fossil” deltas, 203
Fossils, 16, 646
a means of correlation, 647
Fossils and stratigraphy, 647
Fouqué, F., 635, 636
Fracture, zone of, 219
Frank, A. B., 642
Freestone, 469
French Broad River, the, 168
Fulgurites, 52, 469
Fungi, geologic contribution of, 653
Gabbroids, 453
Gabbros, 416, 452, 469
Galenite, 441
Ganges River, delta of, 203
Gangue, 469
Gannister, 469
Garnet, 462
Garnetite, 469
Gaseous emanations,
during earthquakes, 533
from volcanoes, 617
Gases in volcanic rocks, 619
Gases, volcanic, 617–623
amount of, 620
kinds of, 618, 619
proportions of, 620, 622
sources of, 621
Gastropods, geologic contributions of, 662
Geantcline, 505
Geest, 469
Geikie, A., 203, 224, 344, 534–536, 636
Geodes, 436, 497
Geognosy, 1, 5, 393–485
Geologic effects of earthquakes, 534
Geologic functions of life, 638
Geologic processes, man’s influence on, 649
Geologic time divisions, 19
Geology,
astronomic, 1, 2
atmospheric, 2
cosmic, 1
dominant processes of, 2
dynamic, 1
economic, 1
geotectonic, 1, 486
glacial, 2
historical, 1
mining, 1
paleontologic, 1
philosophic, 1
physiographic, 1
scope of, 1
structural, 1, 486
subdivisions of, 1
George, R. D., 545
Geosyncline, 505
Geotectonic geology, 1, 486–525
Gerber, E., 195
Gerland, 538
Geschiebe wall, 300
Geyserite, 463, 469
Geysers, 236
deposits of, 237
of Yellowstone Park, 239
period of eruption, 240
positions of, 241
Gilbert, G. K., 11, 110, 140, 194, 198, 203, 339, 355, 388, 489, 596
Glacial débris,
how carried, 290
nature of, 286
shifting position in transit, 292, 293, 294, 296, 297
Glacial deposits, nature of, 304
Glacial erosion,
conditions influencing, 283
topographic effects of, 287
Glacial motion, 313–321
auxiliary elements of, 317
fundamental element of, 313
Glacial plucking, 282
Glaciated rock surfaces, 304
Glacier ice,
beginning of movement, 248
definition of, 250
granular texture of, 247
shearing of, 317
Glacier movement, 259, 313–323
at low temperature, 279
effect of water on, 318
rates, 260, 261
views of, 321
Glaciers,
alpine, 254
cliff, 256
compared with rivers, 262
conditions influencing movement, 261
constitution, 308
continental, 251
crevasses, 264
deformation, 312
drainage of, 273, 280
foliation, 247, 272
evaporation, 279
general phenomena, 256
getting load, 282
growth of, 308
growth of granules, 310, 311
high-latitude, 254
limits of, 258
motion in terminal part, 316
movements of, 259, 279, 313–323
piedmont, 254
polar, 254
rate of movement of, 260, 261
reconstructed, 256
stratification of, 247
structure of, 308
surface features of, 266
temperature of, 273–279
thickening of layers at end, 297
topography of, 266
types of, 251
upturning of ice at ends and edges, 296, 297, 298
valley, 254
waste of, 273
work of, 244, 281
Glacio-fluvial work, 305–308
Glass, volcanic, 451
Glassy rocks, 406
Glauconite, 384, 386, 463
Globigerina ooze, 380, 382, 660
Globulites, 407, 469
Gneiss, 415, 446, 448, 469
Gooch, F. A. (and Whitfield, J. E.), 236
Gorge, 100
Grad, Ch., 322
Gradation, 2
by running water, 56–212
effect on coast-lines, 334
in ocean, 334
Grade, 61
Graded plain, 82, 169
Graded valley, 83
Granitell, 470
Granites, 413, 452, 469
Granitite, 470
Granitoids, 420, 453
Granulite, 470
Graphite, 426, 463
Gravitational energy, 552
Gravitational force, 552, 553
Gravity,
a cause of crustal movements, 552
effect on erosion, 113
Gray, T. (and Milne, J.), 578
Greenland,
glaciers of, 246
snow-fields of, 245
snow-line in, 246
Green mud, 380
Greensand, 470
Greensand marl, 386
Greenstone, 419, 470
Greisen, 415, 470
Greywacke, 470
Ground ice, 119
Ground moraine, 301
Ground-water, 213–243
affects internal heat, 570
amount of, 221
descent of, 213
fate of, 221
lower limit of, 216
movement of, 220
results of, 226
solution by, 222, 223
work of, 222
Ground-water and vulcanism, 635
Ground-water level, 71, 215
Ground-water surface, 71, 215
Guano, 646
Gulf stream, 366
Gullies, growth of, 63
Gymnosperms, geologic contributions of, 657
Gypsum, deposition of, 376, 377
Hade of faults, 514
Hall, Jas., 511
Halleflinta, 470
Halophytes, geologic contributions of, 667
Hanging valley, 164, 290
Haüynite, 463
Hayes, W., 173
Hayes, W. (and Campbell, M. R.), 171
Head erosion, 64
Heat, by compression of ice, 311
causes crustal movement, 557
causes of, in ice, 278, 279
distribution of, within earth, 559
distribution, original, 559
internal, of earth, 559–570
metamorphism by, 446, 448
original distribution of, 559
Heave of faults, 514
Heilprin, A., 636
Heim, A., 256, 322, 549, 576
Hematite, 425, 447, 463
High-latitude glaciers, 254
Himalayas, snow-line in, 246
Historical geology, 1
Hoang-Ho delta, 202, 203
Hog-backs, 142
Holden, E. S., 538
Holmes, W. H., 99
Holocrystalline rock, 412
Holosiderites, 5
Hook (along shore), 363
Hopkins, W., 322
Horizontal configuration of coasts, due to deposition, 363, 364
due to wave erosion, 353
Hornblende, 400, 463
Hornblende-granite, 415
Hornblendite, 417, 452, 470
Hornstone, 470
Horsetails (see Equisetæ)
Hoskins, L. M., 219, 552, 581
Hot springs, deposits of, 225
Howell, Capt., 171
Hudson River, material in solution in, 108
Hugi, F. J., 321
Hull, E., 636
Humphreys, A. A. (and Abbot, M. L.), 106, 202
Huxley, T. H., 322
Hyalite, 463
Hydration, 43, 222
disruption of rock by, 111
Hydrophytes, geologic contributions of, 667
Hydrosphere, the, 7 (see also Ground-water and Ocean)
geologic activity of, 8
horizons of activity, 9
Hypersthene, 400, 463
Hypogene rocks, 470
Ice, glacial (see Glaciers)
ground, 119
of lakes, 389
of rivers, 118
Icebergs, 307
Ice-caps, 249, 250
Ice crystals, arrangement in glacier ice, 311
Ice-fall, 264
Iceland spar, 463
Iddings, J. P., 412, 451, 573, 614, 636
Igneous rocks, 16
composition of, 395
leading minerals of, 399
origin of, 393
relations to stratified rocks, 16
structural features of, 498
Ilmenite, 463
Incrustation, 223
Infusorial earth, 470
Inorganic deposits, in deep sea, 380
Interior of earth, 14 (see Vulcanism)
densities, based on Laplace’s law, 564
heat of, 562, 564
pressures, 564
Intermittent springs, 235
Internal heat (see Internal temperature)
Internal temperature, 562
affected by ground-water, 570
at centre of earth, 571
on accretion hypothesis, 564, 567
on convection hypothesis, 559
on Laplacian hypothesis, 559
Intrusions, 591
Iron-ore beds, origin, 425
Iron oxide, 400
Iron pyrites, 463
Ironstone, 425, 470
Irruptions, 591
Isoclinal folds, 504
Isoseismals, 532
Itacolumite, 470
Italy, lateral moraines in, 303
Jasper, 470
Jefferson, M. W., 193
Johnson, S. W., 109, 190, 665
Johnston-Lavis, H. J., 636
Joints, 510
causes of, 511, 531
compression, 514
effect on valleys, 150
Joints, tension, 514
Joints and erosion, 125
Judd, J. W., 636
Kaaterskill Creek, piracy of, 105
Kames, 307
serpentine, 306
Kansas, volcanic dust in, 23
Kanawha River, 168
Kaolin, 463
Katamorphism, 446
Keith, A., 442, 444
Kelvin, Lord, 560, 583
Keratophyre, 470
Kersantite, 470
Keyes, C. R., 474
Kidd, D. A., 313
Kilauea, 605
King, C., 560
King, F. H., 220
Kittatinny base-level, 168
Kotö, Dr., 534
Krakatoa, 22, 610, 611, 618
Kümmel, H. B., 203
Labradorite, 400, 429, 464
Laccolith, 500, 592
Lacustrine deposits, 388
Lake ice, 389
Lake Pepin, 179
Lakes, 386–392
bayou, 192, 193
changes taking place in, 387
delta, 204
deposits in, 387
extinct, 388
formed by rivers, 191, 192, 198
ice of, 389
ox-bow, 192, 198
Landslide, 231
topography of, 230
Landslip mountain, 230
Lane, A. C., 557, 636
Lapilli, 470
in sea, 381, 405
Laplace, Marquis de, 564
Laramide range, crustal shortening due to folding, 549
Lateral moraines, 266, 302
in Bighorn Mountains, 303
in Italy, 303
in Uinta Mountains, 303
in Wasatch Mountains, 303
Lateral pressure, metamorphism by, 448
Laterite, 470
Lava cones, 608
Lavas, 612–616
and ground-water, 616
consanguinity and succession of, 614
crystallization of, 402, 403
depth of source of, 616
modes of reaching surface, 631
origin of, 623–631
rhyolitic (flow) structure of, 410
solidification of, 393
temperatures of, 615, 626
Lavas and underground water, 627
LeConte, J., 474, 549
Lendofelic, 456
Lenfelic, 456
Lepidolite, 464
Leucite, 464
Leucophyre, 412, 453
Levees, breaking of, 188
miniature, 182
natural, 188
on alluvial cones, 182
Level of no stress, 561
Life, 638–672
atmospheric effects of, 638–644
chemical work of, 638–646
climatic effects of, 643
effect on rock decomposition, 130, 644
geologic effects of, 639
inorganic rocks due to, 646
influenced by environment, 666
man’s influence on, 650
protection against erosion, 130, 644
Life and carbon dioxide, 640, 642, 643
Lightning, effects of, 52
Lignite, 426, 470
Limburgite, 470
Lime carbonate, deposition of, 375, 376
Limonite, 425
Limestone, 378, 424, 434
origin of, 378, 654, 655
stratification of, 487
Limestone-forming animals, 660–662
plants, 654, 655
Limestone sinks, 227, 231
Lindgren, W., 474
Liparase, 459
Liparite, 470
Lisbon earthquake, 535
Lithosphere, 9–19
crust of, 13
irregularities of, 10
relief of, 11
size and shape of, 9
surface mantle of, 12
Littoral currents, 342
Littoral deposits, 368, 369, 379
Littoral zone, 369
Liverworts, geologic contribution of, 656
Livingstone, D., 49
Load (of streams), 177–179
Loess, 23, 470
Lodge moraine, 301
Loop (along shore), 357, 363
Lunar craters, 598
Lunn, A. C., 552, 565, 566, 567, 572
Lycopods, geologic work of, 657
Lydekker, R. (and Nicholson, A.), 658
Lyell, Sir Charles, 649
Mackenzie River, delta, 202
Magma, nature of, 401
Magnesite, 464
Magnesium salts in sea, 377
Magnetic nodules in sea, 381
Magnetite, 464
Malay peninsula, tin ores of, 478
Malaspina glacier, 254
Mallet, R., 322, 537, 538, 628, 636
Mammoth Cave, 227
Mammoth hot springs, 654
Manganiferous deposits, 384
Mantle rock, 12, 422
Marble, 447, 471
Marcasite, 464
Marine deposits, 355–363, 370–386
chemical, 367, 375, 383
deep-sea, 368, 378–386
extra-terrestrial, 381
littoral, 368, 369
mechanical, 369, 380
organic, 375
shallow-water, 369–378
table of, 380
Marine life, distribution of, 328
Marl, 471 (see also Greensand marl and Shell marl)
formed by plants, 655
green-sand (see Greensand marl)
Martinique, 605
Martite, 464
Mason, W. P., 107
Mass action, 478, 484, 554
Mature drainage, 86
Mature streams, characteristics of, 86
Mauna Loa, 605, 606, 624
McConnell, J. C., 313, 322, 323, 549
McGee, W. J., 59, 524
Meander belt, relation to width of stream, 193
Meanders, flood-plain, 190
intrenched, 164
of the Meuse, 164
of the Moselle, 164
of the Seine, 164
Mean sphere level, 548
Medial moraine, 266, 297
Medlicott, H. B., 203
Medicinal springs, 235
Melaphyres, 412, 431, 453, 471
Menaccanite, 464
Mendelejeff, D. (and Moissan, H.), 646
Mental element, material effects of, 649
Merrill, G. P., 35, 111, 221
Mesas, 142
Mesophytes, 667
Meta-diabase, 471
Meta-igneous rock, 471
Metamorphic rocks, 17
Metamorphism, 427, 433, 440, 449
by heat, 446
by lateral pressure, 448
deep-seated, 449
Meteorites, 4
number of, 381
Meuse, meanders of, 164
Mica, 400, 464
Mica schists, 448
Microcline, 400, 464
Microlites, 407, 471
Microgranite, 471
Migration of dunes, 33
Millstone, 471
Milne, J., 533, 537, 538, 583
(and Gray, T.), 578
(and Burton), 636
Mineral matter in sea, 324–326
amount of, 325
Minerals, felspathic, 400, 462
ferromagnesian, 400, 460
formation of, 397, 612
of igneous rocks, 399
list of, 460–467
Mineral springs, 235
Minette, 415, 471
Mining geology, 1
Minnehaha Falls, 137
Mirlic rocks, 458
Mississippi River, delta, 197, 202
depth of channel, 171
flood-plain, 194
floods of, 188
levees of, 188
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 106
Mississippi flood-plain, 194
lakes of, 192
Missouri River, scour-and-fill of, 195
Mitic rocks, 456
Moissan, H., 646
Mollusca, geologic contribution of, 662
Molluscoidea, geologic contribution of, 662
Molten interior, lava from, 624
Molten magmas, nature of, 401
Molten reservoirs, lavas from, 624
Monadnocks, 145
Monoclinal shifting, 127
Monocline, 504
Monzonite, 471
Moon, 3, 598
Moraines, dump, 301
ground, 302
lateral, 266, 302
lodge, 301
medial, 266, 297
molluscan shells in, 297
push, 301
surface, 266
terminal, 266, 301
types, 301
Moselle River, intrenchment meanders, 164
Moseley, H., 322
Mosses, geologic contributions of, 656
Moulton, F. R., 565
Mountain-forming movements, 542
Mountains, serration of, 48, 50
Mount Erebus, 603
Mount Hecla, 603
Mount Shasta, 611
Mount Terror, 603
Movements of glaciers, 259, 261, 279, 313–323
Movements of sea-water, 334–342
causes of, 334–339
Movements of the earth’s body, 526–589
causes of, 551–557
continent-forming, 544
distribution in time, 545
epeirogenic, 537
folding movements, 545
minute and rapid, 526
mountain-forming, 542
orogenic, 537
periodic, 542
plateau-forming, 543
relation of vertical and horizontal, 545
slow and massive, 537
Mud-cracks, 489
Mud-flows, volcanic, 610
Mud-rain, 25
Mudstone, 471
Mügge, O., 313, 322, 323
Muir glacier, 259
Murray, Sir John, 11, 215, 325, 326, 369, 604, 655
Muscovite, 400, 464
Narrows, 141
Natural bridges, 153, 231
of Virginia, 156
on coasts, 351
Natural gases, 646
Natural levees (see Levees)
Natural oils, 646
Nebraska, volcanic dust in, 23
Nephelinite, 471
Nephelite, 400, 464
Nevadite, 471
Névé, 246
New River, 168
Newsom, J. F., 514
Niagara Falls, 139
recession of, 139
Niagara River, 120
Nicholson, A. (and Lydekker, R.), 658
Nile River, delta of, 202
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 107
Nitrogen and life, 642
Nodules, 471
Nomenclature of rocks, 449
new system of, 451
Norite, 471
Normal faults, 517
North America, average elevation of, 106
Nosite, 465
Novaculite, 471
Nummulites, 661
Oblique fault, 525
Obsidian, 407, 453, 471
Ocean basins, 11
areas of, 7
connection of, 8
deposits on, 368–386
relief of bottom, 11
topography of, 326
Ocean basin segments, size of, 547
Oceanic deposits, chemical, 375
deep-sea, 368, 378–386
organic, 375, 382
shallow water, 369–378
Ocean, the, 7, 324–392
changes in, 329
composition of, 324
diastrophism in, 329
gradation in, 333
salts of, 324
volume of, 8
vulcanism in, 332
work of, 324–392
Offset with gap, 525
Offset with overlap, 525
Oldham, R. D., 534, 535
Oligoclase, 400, 465
Olivine, 400, 465
Omeose, 459
Omphacite, 465