THE PORCELAINS OF SOUTHERN EUROPE--ITALY, SPAIN, ETC.
Florentine, or Medicean.--Is it a True Porcelain?--The House of
Medici.--Marks.--Doccia Porcelain.--The Marquis
Ginori.--Beccheroni.--Present
Work.--Marks.--Venice.--Vezzi.--Cozzi.--Marks.--Turin.
--Gioanetti.--Marks.--Nove.--Terraglia.--Marks.--Capo di
Monte.--Naples.--In Relief.--Marks.--Spanish Porcelain.--Buen
Retiro.--Marks.--Portugal.
Florentine (or Medicean) Porcelain.--In the time of the 1700's, after
the discovery of kaolin in Saxony, kings and princes were eager to
signalize themselves by establishing porcelain-works in their states,
and upon these they spent much money. It has come to light within a few
years that the merchant-princes of the house of Medici enlisted in the
same cause, and were the _first_ to establish a porcelain-factory in
Europe; this discovery, made by Dr. Foresi, of Florence, has been
confirmed by various others. The question only is, "Is it porcelain?"
Mr. J. C. Robinson, a distinguished English writer, says:
"A discovery of some curiosity and interest in connection with the
history of the manufacture of porcelain in Southern Europe has recently
been made by the acumen of Dr. Foresi, of Florence, and which has the
effect of antedating the manufacture by at least a century. Before this
discovery the fabrique at St.-Cloud, in France, was the earliest that
could be authenticated. This was about the year 1695; but the facts now
brought forward prove the existence of a factory for the manufacture of
a true porcelain at Florence, under the patronage of the Grand-duke
Francis I., about the years 1580 to 1590. For some time the doctor had
observed a peculiar ancient porcelain of a fine body and glaze, and
covered with an arabesque ornament in blue, which, while it generally
resembled Oriental porcelain, showed unmistakable features of European
design. It was also marked in a peculiar manner, and, as one mark
consisted of the well-known pellets of the Medici family arms, he was
induced to search the records of the house, and, to his surprise,
found--what had been overlooked by all historians of the potter's
art--that the duke above named had attached to his well-known laboratory
in the Boboli Gardens a small manufactory of porcelain. By continuing
his researches he at last exhumed a manuscript from the Magliabecchian
Library, which had been compiled by some person employed by the duke,
and which also detailed the facts connected with the composition of the
ware."
This manufacture continued from 1575 to 1587.
THE MEDICI.--The history of this remarkable family of the Medici can
never fail to interest. Roscoe has presented it well in his "Life of
Lorenzo the Magnificent," etc. The origin of the family is very vague;
but the fact is well known that the founder of its greatness was
Giovanni de' Medici (he died 1429), who, instead of grasping states and
principalities with one hand, while the other held the glittering sword,
as had for so long a time been the fashion, seized upon the great trade
which then had sprung up between the Occident and the Orient, and which
became vast and profitable in the hands of the merchants of Florence,
Genoa, and Venice.
This trade poured ducats into his coffers like the flow of a river, and
when he died he left vast stores of gold to his sons Cosmo and Lorenzo.
Cosmo, instead of degenerating into a "rich man's son," went on with the
work which his father had begun; but he conducted it as a great man
should, not as a great miser would. This was true of his successors, who
continued to be merchants and bankers, even after they had come to be
grand-dukes and rulers of the Florentine state. This wealth was used, of
course, to push their own fortunes and ambitions, but it was used in a
ducal way, not only in the building of palaces and galleries, but in the
encouragement of the arts and of letters, all of which increased his own
glory, while it ministered to the magnificence of the state. The Medici
had ceased to be merchants long before the time of Francis, but it is
easy to believe that the traditions of his family ran in his veins, and
that he should have been ready to attempt the production of porcelain in
his city, when the love for it and the desire for it had grown to be an
influence in Europe, as it had in the seventeenth century. Nineteen
specimens only are known of this earliest porcelain, and these are in
the hands of museums and of private collectors. Examples may be seen in
the Sèvres and Kensington Museums.
It seems that the best quality was made for the family of the founder,
and this bears the mark of six pellets, each with a letter and one with
a _fleur-de-lis_. These letters, F. M. M. E. D. II., mean _Franciscus
Medici Magnus Etruriæ Dux Secundus_.
[Illustration: FIG. 140.--_Medicean Porcelain._]
We engrave here (Fig. 140) a beautiful _bocca_, or pitcher, fifteen
inches high, of this porcelain, which is in the collection of the Baron
de Rothschild. The decoration resembles the style of maiolica known as
Raffaelesque; the body is white and the painting of a light blue. The
handle is a crown, formed by uniting those of the Medici and of Austria.
The less beautiful pieces are described as "coarse, opaque, and of a
bluish gray, the glaze thick and vitreous." This china was something
between hard and soft.
Whether this production of Italy is really porcelain, is open to doubt.
M. Demmin, who is certainly entitled to great consideration, denies it
very plainly. He states that the vase exhibited by M. Rothschild, in
1865, showed a break at the neck, and that the body was not porcelain,
but a white clay--_terre de pipe_. He states, also, that the five pieces
in the museum of Sèvres are not translucid, and have no signs such as
mark the _pâte tendre_ of France or Italy. English writers choose to
class this under the head of porcelain, which seems, at least, to be
very questionable. The two marks are:
[Illustration: _The Duomo of Florence and the six pellets of the
Medici._]
DOCCIA (near Florence)--HARD AND SOFT PASTE.--In the beginning of the
last century there existed in the north of Italy families who had
inherited wealth and honor, and who still retained their vigor. They may
not have been many, but among them the Ginori were numbered. Italy has
been living in the luminous glories of the art of the Renaissance these
five centuries, and the light, as it seems to us, grows dim rather than
glowing. Neither painting, sculpture, nor architecture, seems to-day to
have more than a thin flavor of that past, when Church and state, noble
and simple, combined to welcome the advent of a new artist. The
production of porcelain belongs to the later time; but it certainly, in
a limited way, shows signs of life and of originality more than any art
of the later time, except, perhaps, music. To-day it is not so.
The productions of the south--Capo di Monte--I have elsewhere spoken of
as not being servile imitations of anything, and as possessing much
merit and originality. Of the productions at Doccia I have seen none,
and the descriptions in books do not enable me to form any judgment. Of
the maiolicas of Italy, now being reproduced largely at Doccia, I shall
write hereafter.
The Marquis Ginori founded a manufactory near Florence in 1735, which is
in a flourishing condition to-day. Inspired with the desire to produce
work of a high character, he spared neither trouble nor cost, and sent a
ship to China to procure there the clays which had secured the Chinese
porcelain its peculiar character and its great excellence. Not only were
services for the table and other articles for social use produced by the
workmen and artists under the direction of the marquis, but almost
immediately they were engaged in the production of statues and groups,
in great variety, and some of which were half the size of life; many
were modeled from fine work of the Greek sculptors.
The paste is said to have been of a high grade, but the glaze was then
lacking in the finest effects of the Chinese potters. Having seen none
of it, I am unable to say more than that.
A pair of vases from this factory, in Walpole's collection at Strawberry
Hill, are described as "vases with blue and white oblique flutes; they
are of coarse workmanship, although the form is good."
Forsyth, an English traveler who visited the factory in 1802, speaks of
the works and the work very disparagingly, and says the latter was then
much inferior to that of England, as it doubtless was.
In 1821, when the Capo di Monte factory, at Naples, was discontinued,
the moulds were bought and taken to the Doccia works, and are still
owned there. The peculiar work in relief, which will be spoken of under
the head of "Capo di Monte," is now made there, and is sold in
considerable quantities, and often for the genuine Capo di Monte, from
which, of course, it is not easy to distinguish it. Marryat states that
this was made at Doccia, in the last century, probably from moulds
procured then at Naples.
Sèvres shapes and designs were imitated at Doccia, and a large
production is now going on of the maiolica vases and dishes of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which are sold all over Europe and
in America. In Paris are produced copies of these, not only in design,
but also with marks to indicate age, intended to deceive the unwary. We
do not believe this of the works at Doccia. Still, one can but regret
that the public demand for these copies should be so great as to forbid
original work there.
The artist most praised is Beccheroni, and his painting of miniatures is
spoken of as "exquisite." Baldassini and Tuppi are also mentioned in
terms of high praise.
A note in Marryat's volume says: "The manufactory now employs two
thousand persons. Attached to the establishment are a fine park and
farm, schools for the children, an academy of music for the workmen, a
savings-bank, and everything that can be devised to promote the moral
improvement of its occupants. In the chapel annexed are monuments in
porcelain of the deceased marquises; and in the adjacent parochial
church the high altar, _torchères_, candlesticks, ciborium, etc., are
all in porcelain--an offering of the Ginori family."
Some of the ware made here is stamped _Ginori_; others bear some one of
the following three marks.
[Illustration: _Doccia marks._]
VENICE--HARD AND SOFT PASTE.--Pottery had been made at Venice from an
early day, at least as far back as 1515. But, after the production of
true porcelain at Dresden, it seems that a rich merchant of Venice,
named Vezzi, in company with some others, engaged in the production of
porcelain there, getting his clay from Saxony. Various articles were
made, and their production probably continued till about 1740. But it
was not a success, owing, besides other causes, to the fact that the
clay had to be transported so far. It could not, of course, compete
with the works at Dresden. Some few examples of this exist, but very
few.
The mark of Vezzi's factory was the letters, painted or stamped,
Ven^A, a contraction for Venezia.
Later, about 1753, a German named Hewelcke made some attempts at Venice,
with no practical result.
_Cozzi's_ productions were of more importance.
Chaffers quotes from an official report as follows: "Concerning the
manufactory of Japanese porcelain, it was commenced only in 1765, your
excellencies were eye-witnesses of its rapid progress and therefore
deservedly protected and assisted him. He now works with three furnaces,
and has erected a fourth, a very large one, for the manufacture of
dishes. He has constantly in his employ forty-five workmen, including
the six apprentices whom he has undertaken to educate, and from the date
of his privilege, in August, 1765, down to the middle of December, 1766,
has disposed of sixteen thousand ducats' worth of manufactured goods,
etc., so that it may be fairly inferred that he will yet continue to
make greater progress both in quantity and quality."
At these works, for about fifty years, a great variety was made, such as
vases, statuettes, both white and colored, plates, dishes, services,
etc.
The imitations of Chinese work were so good as to deceive many. The
designs of Dresden, Sèvres, and the English workmen, were also produced
here with great skill.
Some excellent vases made at Venice are to be found in the collections
in Europe. In New York, Mr. Barlow and Mr. Prime have some pieces which
may be of Venice, or they may be of Chelsea, as the paste and the mark
are almost identical. The marks of the Vezzi and the Cozzi wares are as
follows:
[Illustration: _Marks of the Vezzi and the Cozzi wares. The anchor-mark
was used at Chelsea._]
At TURIN and Treviso porcelain was made in the last century; as to the
latter but little is to be said. Some pieces are known, upon which is
the mark G. A. F. F. and the name _Treviso_ in script.
Near Turin, at Vineuf, a manufactory was established about 1770 by a
physician named Gioanetti. "It was noted for its fine grain and the
whiteness of its glaze," says Chaffers; while Marryat says, "The glaze,
however, is wavy and yellowish."
It was sometimes marked with a simple +, at others with a =V= under the
cross, and again as shown here:
[Illustration: _Meaning Vineuf, Dr. Gioanetti._]
NOVE--HARD PASTE.--Porcelain seems to have been attempted at Nove, near
Bassano, in Italy, about 1752, by a man named Antonibon, who with his
son afterward continued it till 1781 or later. Some elaborate pieces
were made here, one of which we have taken from Marryat's book, because
it seems to possess, what so few do, excellence and originality. It is
in the Reynolds collection in England, and is some twenty-seven and a
half inches high--a superb piece of work (Fig. 141). The business passed
into other hands, and after 1800 it gradually went to decay.
In 1825 it was revived by some descendants of the first Antonibon, who
struggled on for ten years, but they could not sustain themselves
against the capital, the clay, the brains, and skill of Saxony and
Sèvres. They still make there, as they always did, maiolica, fine and
common, and _terraglia_ faience, in considerable quantities and of much
excellence, called in France _terre de pipe_. This _terraglia_, it may
be said, is a sort of demi-porcelain, being made of a mixture of the
true porcelain clay and the native potter's clay. It is susceptible of
great precision of modeling and of a high finish, and some beautiful
work has been done in it in Italy.
[Illustration: FIG. 141.--_Nove Porcelain Vase._]
The marks of Nove were usually a star or asterisk, with six rays;
sometimes the letter N, or the word NOVE, was added.
[Illustration: _Marks of Nove._]
CAPO DI MONTE--SOFT PASTE.--This beautiful porcelain was made first at
Naples in 1736, under the direct patronage of the king, Charles IV.,
afterward Charles III. of Spain. The king was an enthusiast, and
sometimes worked in the factory himself, and under this inspiration it
is not surprising that excellent work was done. But, besides this, very
common services and figures were made later, many of which bear the mark
of the _fleur-de-lis_, so that all Capo di Monte is not equally good or
equally valuable. And the same may be said of the productions of any man
or any manufactory.
A letter written to Lord Chatham in 1760 says of this King Charles: "He
is particularly fond of the china-manufacture at Capo di Monte. During a
fair held annually in the square before his palace at Naples, there is a
shop solely for the sale of a part of this china, and a note was daily
brought to the king of what was sold, together with the names of those
who bought; and it is said he looked often favorably upon the persons
who made any purchases."
[Illustration: FIG. 142.--_Capo di Monte._]
The king, being of a Spanish family, succeeded to the crown of Spain in
1759, when he carried with him many of the workmen and his own tastes,
and established there the manufactory of _Buen Retiro_, of which is a
brief account hereafter. After his departure the factory languished,
lacking his interested inspiration.
The marked originality of the Capo di Monte porcelain is the _designs in
relief_ which were impressed upon the plaques, and also upon teacups,
vases, etc. These were very delicately and carefully _stippled_ in
colors, and this distinguishes them from imitations and reproductions
which have been made in great numbers at Florence, and which are sold at
very much smaller prices.
[Illustration: FIG. 143.--_Capo di Monte._]
Not only were these articles in relief and of great beauty made here,
but also very excellent, creamy, soft porcelain painted on the flat, and
exquisitely painted, too. The specimens I have seen have a character of
their own, which has the great merit of being indigenous and not an
imitation. The tea-services, of which we now and then see single pieces,
are lovely.
[Illustration: FIG. 144.--_Capo di Monte._]
Mr. Prime has some excellent pieces, of both styles; as has Mr. Wales,
from whose collection we have engraved our illustrations.
The three pieces marked Fig. 142, 143, and 144, are painted on the
glaze, and are exquisite both for design and color.
The single vase (Fig. 145) has two bands, most delicately modeled and
painted in relief.
[Illustration: FIG. 145.--_Capo di Monte._]
Work was continued with more or less success until 1821, when the moulds
were sold to the Doccia manufactory, at Florence; but after 1780 hard
paste was made at this factory, under the patronage of King Ferdinand.
The marks used are here given; the earliest was a ruder form of
_fleur-de-lis_. This _fleur-de-lis_ mark was also used at Madrid, and,
as the work was almost identical, it is not easy to distinguish them.
Demmin says the marks on the hard porcelain were a crown, under which
were sometimes the locked letters RE or FK.
Marks of Capo di Monte:
[Illustration: _About 1786._]
[Illustration: _About 1759._]
[Illustration: _About 1759._]
[Illustration: _Ferdinandus Rex (1780)._]
[Illustration: FIG. 146.--_Buen Retiro._]
SPANISH PORCELAIN--BUEN RETIRO.--When Charles III. came to the throne of
Spain in 1759, from Naples he brought with him many of the workmen and
much of the skill which had produced the beautiful china at Naples.
These he established near his palace of _El Buen Retiro_, at Madrid, and
here his experiments and the manufacture were carried on with great
secrecy and much care. A letter from Spain, written in 1777, quoted by
Marryat, says: "In the gardens of Buen Retiro the monarch has
established a china manufactory, which strangers have not hitherto been
permitted to examine. It is undoubtedly intended that experiments shall
be secretly made, and the manufacture brought to some perfection before
it be exposed to the eyes of the curious. Its productions are to be seen
nowhere except in the palace of the sovereign, or in some Italian
courts, to which they have been sent as presents," etc. During the
Napoleonic wars, when Spain was overrun with troops, the factory was
destroyed (1812), and it has not been restored.
The single illustration (Fig. 146) is a very beautiful small vase, from
Mr. Wales's collection. It is exquisitely painted, and closely resembles
the porcelain of Capo di Monte.
Marks supposed to have been used at Buen Retiro:
[Illustration: _The same as Ludwigsburg._]
[Illustration: _The same as Capo di Monte._]
[Illustration]
Some porcelain has been, and I believe still is, made at Alcora.
In PORTUGAL, at Oporto, porcelain has been made since 1790, of no
supreme qualities.
It is rather singular that the people who first introduced the fine
porcelains of China and Japan into Europe, who, for some two centuries,
had almost uninterrupted control of the commerce, who brought it by
ship-loads to all the countries of Europe, should apparently have had
less interest in the subject than any other, should have less of it to
show to-day than most others, should have made less effort to produce it
in the past, and should be doing almost nothing to-day.
But countries, like men, have their manhood and their dotage, and then
they pass out of the active life of the world: such seems to be the
condition of Portugal to-day.