THE PORCELAIN OF FRANCE--ST.-CLOUD, CHANTILLY, SÈVRES, ETC.
Hard and Soft Porcelain.--Discovery of Kaolin.--St.-Cloud.--_Pâte
Tendre._--Marks.--Rouen.--Small Manufactories.--Marks of
same.--Chantilly.--Sceaux-Penthièvre.--Niderviller.--Marks.
--Limoges.--Sèvres.--Flower-Work.--Hard Porcelain, _Pâte Dure_.
--The Grand Monarque.--Florid Taste.--Boucher.--Vieux
Sèvres.--Three Vases.--Greek Vases.--Prices at Bernal
Sale.--Chemists.--Colors used.--Collections.--Art Museums.
--Alexandre Brongniart.--Marks and Dates.
The porcelain of Sèvres is probably better known than any other by name,
if not by sight. The production has been steadily under the protection
of the state since 1760, when the crown became sole owner of the works.
Time, thought, skill, talent, ingenuity, and money, have been spent upon
this work unceasingly for more than a century; and some of the most
elaborate, most finished, and most costly pieces of porcelain which the
world has anywhere seen, have come out of the small town of Sèvres.
Kings, nobles, poets, painters, have recognized the beauty and value of
this work, and have given of their strength to help it onward toward
perfection.
The history of the manufactory at Sèvres might fill a book: here we are
limited to a brief space, which may suffice for most readers.
Some experts hold that _true_ porcelain is only what is known as hard
porcelain, called _pâte dure_ by the French. Such is always the
porcelain of China and Japan; such is that of Dresden and the centre of
Europe.
This hard porcelain has always the two qualities of hardness and
translucency. We have elsewhere explained to what these qualities are
due, and how and when they were brought to perfection in Europe, first
at Dresden or Meissen (see Dresden porcelain).
France lacked the peculiar clay necessary for making hard porcelain till
the year 1765, when chance discovered the magic earth at St.-Yrieix;
after which time its manufacture was brought to a high pitch of
excellence at Sèvres.
The soft porcelain, or _pâte tendre_, can be made without the admixture
of the clay called by the Chinese _kaolin_. It has the quality of
translucency, but lacks hardness and strength. It melts at a lower heat,
and, while very delicate and beautiful, it is not so enduring as the
_pâte dure_. Experts can distinguish the two at sight; but there are
some signs which will help the uninitiated. The soft porcelain is likely
to be more creamy, and softer to the eye and touch, than the hard; the
painting blends more into the glaze; the bottoms of the pieces or the
rims are covered with the glaze; while, in the hard porcelain, these
rims, from standing on the sanded floor of the furnaces, show no glaze.
The painting on the hard porcelain is likely to be sharper, and more on
the surface, than that on the soft, into which it seems to melt.
ST.-CLOUD.--Before the discovery of kaolin in Europe, as early as 1695,
soft porcelain, or _pâte tendre_, was made at St.-Cloud in great variety
and of considerable excellence; and the story of French porcelain, begun
there, may be divided into two parts: 1. Soft porcelain, begun at
St.-Cloud in 1695, continued there, and afterward at Chantilly; then at
Vincennes, in 1745; still later at Sèvres, in 1756. The production of
soft porcelain, or _pâte tendre_, continued at Sèvres, in company with
that of the _pâte dure_, until 1804. 2. The hard porcelain, or _pâte
dure_ of the French; which was made after the discovery of the kaolin of
St.-Yrieix, at Sèvres.
Marks used at St.-Cloud:
[Illustration: _The mark of the Sun._]
[Illustration: _Another one._]
[Illustration: _The fleur-de-lis, sometimes impressed._]
[Illustration: _This mark indicated the factory and the name of the
director (Trou) from_ 1730 to 1762.]
The early porcelain made at St.-Cloud is said to have been quite coarse
and unsatisfactory. Examples of it are very scarce. That made later was
better, but a long way behind what was made afterward at Sèvres.
At ROUEN, in France, porcelain appears to have been made, but it never
proceeded so far as to be a business.
At MENECY-VILLEROY, about 1735, soft paste was made; and later there
were various limited efforts at Brancas-Lauraguais, at Arras, at
Vincennes, at Boulogne, at Étoilles, at Bourg-la-Reine, at Clignancourt,
at Orleans, at Luneville, at Bordeaux, at Valenciennes, at Limoges, at
Sarreguemines, at Strasbourg; at Paris, a great number, some of the
products of which are still in existence.
We give the marks of some of the most important.
Marks of Clignancourt:
[Illustration: _A windmill in blue._]
[Illustration: _Another form._]
[Illustration: _This varies a good deal_ (1775).]
[Illustration: _Monograms of Louis Stanislas Xavier, Count de
Provence._]
[Illustration: _Porcelaine de Monsieur_ (1780).]
Marks of Orleans:
[Illustration: _A label_ (_lambel d'Orléans_).]
[Illustration: _A label_ (_lambel d'Orléans_).]
[Illustration: _A label_ (_lambel d'Orléans_).]
[Illustration: _Monogram of Benoist le Brun, the director._]
[Illustration: _Monogram of Benoist le Brun, the director._]
Marks of Valenciennes:
[Illustration:
_The letter V, for Valenciennes, combined with L, the name of the
wife of the director._
]
[Illustration:
_The letter V, for Valenciennes, combined with L, the name of the
wife of the director._
]
[Illustration:
_The letter V, for Valenciennes, combined with L, the name of the
wife of the director._
]
Marks of Strasbourg:
[Illustration: _Either of these marks indicates the name of Hannong, the
founder._]
Mark of Marseilles:
[Illustration: _This letter indicates M. Robert, the founder_ (1766).]
The PARIS marks are so manifold that the student must refer to some
manual of marks, such as are mentioned in the list of books at the end
of the volume.
Besides the smaller factories first mentioned, a few words may be well
upon some factories whose productions are now and then offered for sale.
CHANTILLY.--As early as 1725 this factory produced a great variety of
articles of soft paste, which were and are highly esteemed. A design
used there--a small blue flower upon the white--called _Barbeau_, was
much in fashion.
The workmen at Chantilly were afterward engaged at Vincennes. The mark
is a hunting-horn, sometimes impressed, sometimes painted on.
[Illustration: _Hunting-horn._]
SCEAUX (sometimes Sceaux-Penthièvre) was a small factory near Paris,
begun in 1750, where, for some twenty or thirty years, very delicate
soft-paste porcelain was made. The marks were sometimes the letters S X
or S P, and the anchor.
[Illustration: _Sceaux-Penthièvre_ (_about_ 1750 to 1760).]
[Illustration: _The anchor in blue_ (1751 to 1792).]
At NIDERVILLER, near Strasbourg, in 1760, a factory was established by
Baron de Beyerlé, which afterward (about 1780) went into the possession
of General de Custine, whose head was cut off during the French
Revolution. Both soft and hard porcelain were made here, and some of the
biscuit figures are of great excellence.
The marks most known are these; but the letter _N_ in script is
sometimes found on pieces of this work.
Marks of Niderviller:
[Illustration: _Baron de Beyerlé, the founder_ (1760).]
[Illustration: _General de Custine_ (1786).]
[Illustration: _Another variety._]
[Illustration: _Monogram of F. C. Lanfray, director._]
[Illustration: _Lanfray, director._]
At LIMOGES, in 1773, soft porcelain was made; later, hard paste was
made. The old mark was =C. D.= At the present time a number of factories
are busily at work there, among which is that of Haviland and Company,
whose faience will be mentioned elsewhere.
SÈVRES.--We cannot to-day appreciate the enthusiasm which existed at
this period (1750) in France, as well as in many other states of Europe,
upon the subject of porcelain manufacture. Among royal and noble people
it was peculiarly strong. The kings of France were always open to the
projects of experts, who promised to produce wonderful results; and, in
1745, when the company was formed to produce porcelain at Vincennes, the
king, Louis XV., contributed to the capital the sum of one hundred
thousand livres.
Madame de Pompadour, at this period the most beautiful woman and the
most influential personage in France, was an eager patron of the ceramic
arts, and gave all her influence to promote their development; the
queen, too, was greatly interested; we may be sure that all good
courtiers followed their lead. About this time (1740 to 1750) a
wonderful production of porcelain flowers was in vogue at Vincennes, and
the most elaborate work was done there, so that two bouquets made for
the king and dauphine cost them the great sum of three thousand livres
(francs) each; which was a great deal more than three thousand francs is
now. A single order given by the king amounted to the sum of eight
hundred thousand livres. This attempt to _imitate_ flowers in colored
porcelain we now consider foolish, as well as false art; and very
properly it has passed away as one of the whimsies of the time. Some of
these flowers, such as double ranunculuses, orange-flowers, anemones,
etc., still remain, wonders of fictile work, in the Musée Céramique, at
Sèvres.
But the porcelain-works at St.-Cloud and Vincennes, the _avant couriers_
of Sèvres, produced many other and more legitimate objects of use as
well as art. The dinner and tea services made here were most elaborate
and costly; one made for the Empress of Russia was decorated with
paintings of antique cameos, and the cost was some three hundred and
sixty thousand livres, a vast sum surely.
At certain seasons the courtiers were expected to purchase the work of
the royal factory, and presents were sent hither and thither; so that
for a time the manufactory not only enjoyed the favor of the king, but
also the sunshine of the court.
In 1748 a superb vase was made and presented to the queen. It stood on a
bronze pedestal, and was about three feet high. The marvelous part of it
was the great bouquet it contained, which consisted of four hundred and
eighty porcelain flowers exquisitely modeled and colored after Nature.
The mark used at Vincennes will be given with those of Sèvres.
In 1756 the porcelain-works of Vincennes were removed to Sèvres, and
from that period everything possible was concentrated there; and in 1759
or 1760 the whole came under the control and direction of the king. We
see, therefore, how out of the efforts at St.-Cloud and Chantilly and
Vincennes the works at Sèvres at last grew up. All was now combined at
Sèvres.
The production of hard porcelain at this period had become a matter of
importance; for it was well known that at Dresden most finished work of
this kind had for a long time been made. Soft porcelain, though equally
or more beautiful, was difficult to make, was then expensive, and lacked
the strength and durability of the hard. Hard porcelain or _pâte dure_,
was the one thing desired. But this could not be made without the
peculiar clay called kaolin, which the Saxons had, but which they would
not allow the French to get. This was not obtained, as has been said,
till 1765, and from that time Sèvres entered upon a period of production
which has had no equal in Europe.
The buildings were ample, the gardens were pleasant, and the interest in
the production of the royal works may be appreciated from the fact that
the king, accompanied by Madame de Pompadour, made weekly visits, to see
that all went well. And all did go will. No money was wanting; artists
of the highest rank were enlisted; skilled men of every kind contributed
their knowledge and keenness to bring the delicate work to perfection.
Madame de Pompadour, herself an artist in her way, not only came weekly
to enjoy the work of others, but she often applied her own hands to
making designs, or to touching or perfecting what fine thing might be
going forward. Under such stimulus as this it was inevitable that every
modeler, every artist, every colorist, should be inspired to do his
best. They were patronized by royal hands which disposed of all the
glory and wealth of France.
Painters having a wonderful technical skill were eagerly engaged, and
much of the work done has the merit--not the highest one, certainly--of
being most delicately and elaborately penciled. No work of this kind
ever has surpassed what was done on the vases, teacups, écuelles, etc.,
made at Sèvres. The variety of decoration upon these elaborate pieces
was great, comprising among others, birds, flowers in wreaths and
garlands, and bouquets, landscapes, figures, arabesques, Cupids,
emblems, cameos, masks, miniatures, Watteau pictures, children, pastoral
subjects, Chinese and Japanese imitations, butterflies, medallions,
sea-pieces, insects, etc.: the whole of Nature and art was ransacked for
interesting and attractive material.
Almost or quite all of this may be characterized as most clever
imitation, exquisitely painted. Even the artists who were inspired by
love of Oriental work seem to have imitated or copied that; they did not
learn by it how to express Occidental life and growth, in their own
individual way, and with that piquant fresh touch which marks so much
of the best Oriental work. Nevertheless, it is exquisite, and conveys a
sense of satisfaction and completeness because of that, even to those
who do not approve of it as the best decorative art.
It is safe to say that the Grand Monarque, Louis XIV., was the greatest
affliction which the kingdom of France was ever called upon to endure.
His reign was unfortunately long--1643 to 1715. It was marked by a false
splendor of success, by luxury such as the world had not seen since the
days of the decline and fall of Rome, by the most venal public service
except that which his successor permitted, by the most unblushing
corruption in private life, among men and women both; and by a general
degradation of all the standards of frugality, sincerity, honor, and
nobleness, in public and in private life. Was it possible for art to
escape this contamination? Impossible!
The florid and foolish taste of the perruquier prevails everywhere, in
architecture, in painting, in sculpture, in dress; all is tainted with
the showy and the shallow. The flowing scroll appears in all its
splendor, decoration is piled in meaningless profusion, and talent and
taste, heart, mind, hand, and gold, are lavished in folly and vice,
which finally culminated in the social and political Revolution of Louis
XVI., when king and noble, lord and lady, went under in a sanguinary
flood of anarchy and ruin.
Could the taste and the art which prevailed at Sèvres escape this? It
could not, and it did not.
While, therefore, we cannot but admire the care, the pains, the skill,
of the workmen and the artists, let us not be misled by the false
glamour of that time, so as to learn to love or to imitate their florid
and extravagant tastes in architecture, in furniture, in dress, or in
porcelain.
Chaffers, in his work upon "Pottery and Porcelain," gives the private
marks of some one hundred and twenty-six painters, who were employed at
Sèvres before 1800, and quite a number who have painted there since.
Among these are some who reached a European reputation: of these
_Boucher_ is perhaps most famous; his medallions are sought for, and
highly valued.
[Illustration: FIG. 133.--_Enameled Sèvres Vase, called "Vase
Genicault."_]
A distinction is sometimes made between old Sèvres and modern Sèvres.
The old--_vieux Sèvres_--comes down to the year 1800; after that it is
designated as modern, for convenience. It does not intend to exalt one
and condemn the other, as too many now are apt to think, the truth being
that equally good work has been done since that time as before it.
Indeed, within this year I have seen some pieces of Sèvres painting,
such as I fancy have never been done there before, and which can hardly
be excelled; in which the artist ceases to be a copyist, abandons
himself to the imagination, and produces work which gratifies the
highest faculty. Somebody, then, has broken away from traditions and
academic rules.
Not only were the early painters ranked as artists, but designers and
modelers of vases and other pieces had high rank and high pay, so much
so that their names were and are attached to their productions; as, for
example, vase Clodion, vase Duplessis, vase Falconnet, etc. I may say
here that elaborate and beautiful as many of them certainly are, the
Sèvres vases, inspired as they too often are by that expression of art
so acceptable to Louis XIV. and XV., are so decorated, scrolled, and
worked, that they create a sense of surfeit in many minds.
In Figs. 133, 134, and 135, we have three excellent examples of this
work which may really be called _magnificent_. They have all the
qualities which characterize the elaborate work of Sèvres. The size and
elaborateness of these force them into the collections of emperors and
kings, and here and there into the fine museums of the world, where they
are to be seen of all men.
Fig. 133 is a superb covered vase, enameled most elaborately and
exquisitely, in the best of what may be termed a Renaissance decoration,
which had its birth in Italy. The masks and floating figures suggest a
delicate reminiscence of Pompeii and the luxury and decadence of those
Greek Romans, which there reached a full development, and which remain
to us when all of Rome is in ruin, preserved by the ashes of Vesuvius
through these nineteen centuries.
The vase, Fig. 134, is the largest of all, reaching some forty inches in
height.
Fig. 135 shows us a superb vase, called "_Cuve ovale Ducereau_." In this
vase the artist has closely approximated to the _form_ of some of the
old Greek vases, but the decoration is more striking and elaborate.
[Illustration: FIG. 134.--_Sèvres Vase, called Vase Etrusque Carafe._]
A perception of this excessive ornamentation came to somebody about the
year 1785, for in that year Louis XVI. bought from M. Denon a collection
of Greek vases, "to serve as models of pure and simple forms, and thus
change the exaggerated, exuberant contours given to porcelain in the
preceding reign."
[Illustration: FIG. 135.--_Sèvres Vase, called "Cuve Ovale Ducereau."_]
The wonderful virtue of simplicity which the Greeks at their best fully
valued, seems to have fled from France during the times of Louis XIV.
and XV. This, in a degree, was restored by the purer and better tastes
of the time of Louis XVI., when there was a reaction toward the classic
in both literature and art.
In Fig. 136 we have engraved a vase of the time of Louis XVI., which
indicates the improvements made at that time, both in form and
decoration. It approaches the classic forms of Greece, and is a step
away from that excessive and meretricious decoration which marked the
times of Louis XIV. and XV. It was sold at the Bernal sale, and is thus
described: "A magnificent centre vase and cover, _gros bleu_, with
upright handles of foliage, a festoon of leaves, raised gilt, encircling
the vase and falling over the handles, the lower part fluted with
pendant lines of leaves; in the centre is a most exquisite painting of a
peasant and two girls gathering cherries, a donkey with panniers filled
with cherries at their side, a group of flowers on the reverse--on
square plinth, eighteen inches high. Sold to the Marquis of Hertford for
eight hundred and seventy-one pounds ten shillings sterling (four
thousand three hundred and fifty-five dollars).
[Illustration: FIG. 136.--_Sèvres Vase._]
I have spoken of the many styles of painting applied at Sèvres, and also
of the great carefulness and elaborateness of the modeling. Another
skilled body of men was called upon to contribute toward the perfection
at which they all aimed; these were the _chemists_. To devise, to
combine, and to adapt many and more and more beautiful colors than any
in use, which could be applied to porcelain and would stand supreme
heat, required the aid of science. This the chemists gave; and the
result has been such rich, such subtile, such brilliant colors as no
other manufactory has reached. Some of these colors have become well
and widely known under the following names:
_Bleu de roi_, made from cobalt; a deep lapis lazuli, sometimes veined
and sown with gold. _Gros bleu_, a deeper color of the same.
_Bleu céleste_, a turquoise blue, from copper.
_Rose Pompadour_, improperly called _Rose du Barri_ in England.
_Violet pensée_, a rare and beautiful violet.
_Jonquille_, a rich canary.
_Vert pomme_, a delicious apple-green.
_Vert pré_, a bright grass-green.
_Rouge de fer_, a brilliant red.
These are among the most famous colors used to cover the ground or body
of the finest vases, the reserved spaces being filled with the rarest
paintings. In addition to these perfect colors, gilding of the heaviest
kind was used--often too freely. To glorify the work still more, what
are termed _jewels_ were applied in rows, or singly, of many colors; but
pearls and rubies were most in use.
The _rose Pompadour_, or _rose du Barri_, has, within the last twenty
years, become most in vogue, so that at the Bernal sale, in 1856, a pair
of vases of this color, painted with groups of Cupids in medallions, was
purchased by the Marquis of Bath at eighteen hundred and fifty guineas.
An English collector, of moderate views, told me he proposed to purchase
a pair of vases of this color, some twelve inches high, at a sale at
Christie's, some five years since, if he could do so for, say, one
hundred pounds sterling. The first bid was one thousand pounds, and they
were knocked down at sixteen hundred and fifty guineas.
The variety and splendor of these _vases de luxe_ are great. They are to
be seen in most of the collections of Europe, and, to some extent, in
America; but their great cost, and the fact that they are so rarely
offered for sale here, make them quite uncommon in the United States.
Visitors to Europe should see those in the Kensington Museum, and in
private galleries; such as that of M. Rothschild, whose collection is
worth _millions_.
[Illustration: FIG. 137.--_Sèvres._]
It is a singular thing that during that fearful tempest known as the
French Revolution, when almost everything which had a suspicion of
royalty or luxury was swept away, the works at Sèvres were not
destroyed, but were carefully guarded and supported by the republican
Directory.
Besides these "articles of luxury," the Sèvres works have always made a
large number of services for household use, which, however, must always
be costly. Some of these are in this country; also a good many single
pieces, particularly from the collections of Louis Philippe, which were
large, and which were scattered at the time of the Revolution of 1848.
Quite a goodly number were in the sale of Mr. Lyons's collection, in
1876.
Some of these dinner-services were of course very elaborate and some
intended for royal houses were finished in the rich and heavy colors,
such as the _bleu de roi_, which for myself I would never desire; but
most of them were decorated with edges of very rich gold, and bands or
bouquets of flowers painted on the white.
[Illustration: FIG. 138.--_Sèvres, White and Gold._]
In Fig. 137 we present some pieces from a handsome service belonging to
W. C. Prime, Esq., of New York. The forms as well as the decoration are
perfect; the dark bands are a rich yellow, and the edges are finished
with heavy gold leafage and lines. This is a large and complete set.
The single plate shown in the picture, containing the portrait of
Montaigne, of course does not belong to the service. It is an admirable
piece of the miniature work done at Sèvres, and must find its place as a
picture does on the walls of the house. Plates, however, as valuable as
this should have the protection of a frame.
Fig. 138 is from a part of a tea or breakfast service belonging to the
collection of George W. Wales, Esq., of Boston. It is clear and
brilliant, being wholly of white and gold, and is really surprisingly
attractive, partly from its simplicity, and more from its perfectness.
Some of the finest pieces of Sèvres porcelain in our country are to be
found in the collections I have already mentioned. There are also fine
examples in possession of Mr. Barlow, Mr. Belmont, and Mr. Matthews, of
New York; of Dr. Mitchell, and other connoisseurs, at Philadelphia. Mr.
J. V. L. Pruyn, of Albany, has one large and beautiful dinner-service of
the white and gold Sèvres, and one made for Louis Philippe, having bands
in colors. In his collection are two plates jeweled--one bearing the
portrait of the Princess Lamballe, painted by Le Guay; and the other,
that of Gabrielle d'Estrées--which are of the highest class.
The knowledge of and love for good examples of fine porcelain are on the
increase, and no doubt in a few years we shall be able to see and enjoy
fine work, without the disagreeable experience of crossing the
implacable ocean.
Our art-museums will also give to thousands the opportunity of seeing
and studying these things which no private collections can so well do.
The name of ALEXANDRE BRONGNIART (Fig. 139) is now identified with the
best period of Sèvres porcelain, and its high reputation and great
success are due more to him than to any one man. Not only did he aim for
excellence himself, he also insisted that others should do likewise. He
gave tone and character to what was done there. Nothing having any flaw
or blemish was allowed to go from the works; and in that way the
standard was kept high in the minds of artists and workmen as well as in
those of amateurs. Prices, too, were kept at such a point that more and
more could be attempted and accomplished. To Brongniart is due the
_Musée Céramique_ at Sèvres. In this museum are examples of all or
nearly all the famous work ever done there, as well as a great number of
examples of both porcelain and faience made elsewhere. This museum is
still receiving constant additions.
Before his appointment Brongniart was ranked as a _savant_ in other
branches. He was known among the most eminent of geologists, and in
conjunction with Cuvier he made a careful examination of the geology of
the neighborhood of Paris, and wrote upon it a learned essay. He was
also a student of chemistry, and this knowledge was most valuable after
he became director at Sèvres. For some fifty years after 1800 he held
that post, and during the time he gave his soul to the work he had in
hand; he encouraged the mature and he brought forward the young. His
work "Traité des Arts Céramiques" is most valuable, and is looked upon
as an authority to-day.
[Illustration: FIG. 139.--_Portrait of Alexandre Brongniart._]
Since his day the works have been in careful and competent hands, and
admirable porcelain is still produced in many styles.
MARKS.--The Vincennes mark used from 1745 to 1753 was the interlaced L's
without any inclosed letter, like the first mark of Sèvres.
Beginning at 1753 the Sèvres mark was the interlaced L's inclosing the
letter A. The marks at Sèvres changed many times, so that it is
necessary to give quite a list of them as well as a table showing how
the letters of the alphabet indicate the year when the piece was made.
The following table will help to explain the use of the letters of the
alphabet when placed in the interlaced L's:
A 1753
B 1754
C 1755
D 1756
E 1757
F 1758
G 1759
H 1760
I 1761
J 1762
K 1763
L 1764
M 1765
N 1766
O 1767
P 1768
Q 1769
R 1770
S 1771
T 1772
U 1773
V 1774
X 1775
Y 1776
Z 1777
AA 1778
BB 1779
CC 1780
DD 1781
EE 1782
FF 1783
GG 1784
HH 1785
II 1786
JJ 1787
KK 1788
LL 1789
MM 1790
NN 1791
OO 1792
PP 1793
QQ 1794
RR 1795
T9* 1801
X* 1802
11* 1803
--\\-- 1804
/|\ 1805
==:== 1806
7 1807
8 1808
9 1809
10 1810
o.z. (onze) 1811
d.z. (douze) 1812
t.z. (treize) 1813
q.z. (quatorze) 1814
q.n. (quinze) 1815
s.z. (seize) 1816
d.-s. (dix-sept) 1817
18 1818
19 1819
Etc., etc.
[Illustration: _A comet was sometimes used as a mark in the year
1769._]
Marks used at Sèvres:
[Illustration: _The royal period, sometimes with a crown (1753)._]
[Illustration: _Hard paste first made (1768)._
_Republic (1792 to 1798)._]
[Illustration: _Republic (1792)._]
[Illustration: _Consular period (1803)._]
[Illustration: _Imperial manufactory (1804 to 1809)._]
[Illustration: _Imperial manufactory (1810 to 1814)._]
[Illustration: _Louis XVIII., and the year (1814 to 1824)._]
[Illustration: _Charles X. (1824 to 1829)._]
[Illustration: _On plain ware (1829 and 1830)._]
[Illustration: _On decorated ware (1829 and 1830)._]
[Illustration: _Louis Philippe (August to December, 1830)._]
[Illustration: _Louis Philippe (1831 to November, 1834)._]
[Illustration: _Louis Philippe (November, 1834, to July, 1845)._]
[Illustration: _Louis Philippe (1837)._]
[Illustration: _Louis Philippe (1845 to 1848)._]
[Illustration: _On white porcelain (1833 to present time)._]
[Illustration: _Republic (1848 to 1851)._]
[Illustration: _Napoleon III., emperor (1852)._]
[Illustration: _Napoleon III., emperor (1854 and after)._]
[Illustration:
_Present mark--the cut shows pieces sold in the white (1861)._
]