Vessels intending to trade at Soung should arrive before the Chinese

junks, and remain as long as they stay, or even a few days later. In

trading with the natives, all operations ought to be carried on for

cash, or if by barter, no delivery should be made until the articles

to be taken in exchange are received. In short, it is necessary to

deal with them as though they were undoubted rogues, and this pleases

them much more than to appear unsuspicious. Vessels that trade engage

a bazaar, which they hire of the Ruma Bechara, and it is advisable to

secure the good-will of the leading datus in that council by presents,

and paying them more for their goods than others.

There are various other precautions necessary in dealing with

this people; for they will, if possible, so act as to give rise to

disputes, in which case an appeal is made to their fellows, who are

sure to decide against the strangers. Those who have been engaged

in this trade, advise that the prices of the goods should be fixed

upon before the Sultan, and the scales of the Datu of Soung employed;

for although these are quite faulty, the error is compensated by the

articles received being, weighed in the same. This also secures the

Datu's good-will, by the fee (some fifty dollars) which he receives

for the use of them. Thus it will be perceived that those who desire

to trade with Sulu, must make up their minds to encounter many

impositions, and to be continually watchful of their own interests.

Every possible precaution ought to be taken; and it will be found,

the treatment will depend upon, or be according to the force or

resolution that is displayed. In justice to this people it must be

stated, there have been times when traders received every kindness and

attention at the island of Sulu, and I heard it even said, that many

vessels had gone there to refit; but during the last thirty or forty

years, the reigning sultans and their subjects have become hostile

to Europeans, of whom they plunder and destroy as many as they can,

and this they have hitherto been allowed to do with impunity.

Although I have described the trade with Sulu as limited, yet

it is capable of greater extension; and had it not been for the

piratical habits of the people, the evil report of which has been

so widely spread, Sulu would now have been one of the principal

marts of the East. The most fertile parts of Borneo are subject to

its authority. There all the richest productions of these Eastern

seas grow in immense quantities, but are now left ungarnered in

consequence of there being no buyers. The cost of their cultivation

would be exceedingly low, and I am disposed to believe that these

articles could be produced here at a lower cost than anywhere else.

Besides the trade with China, there is a very considerable one with

Manila in small articles, and I found one of our countrymen engaged

in this traffic, under the Spanish flag. To him I am indebted for

much information that his opportunities of observation had given him.

The materials for the history of Sulu are meagre, and great doubt

seems to exist in some periods of it. That which I have been able to

gather is as follows:

[History.] The island of Sulu is generally believed to have been

originally inhabited by Papuans, some of whom, as I have already

stated, are still supposed to inhabit the mountainous part. The first

intercourse had with them was by the Chinese, who went there in search

of pearls. The Orang Dampuwans were the first of the Malays to form

settlements on the islands; but after building towns, and making other

improvements, they abandoned the islands, in consequence, it is said,

of the inhabitants being a perfidious race, having previously to

their departure destroyed as many of the natives as they could.

The fame of the submarine riches of this archipelago reached Banjar

or Borneo, the people of which were induced to resort there, and

finding it to equal their expectation, they sent a large colony,

and made endeavors to win over the inhabitants, and obtain thereby

the possession of their rich isle. In order to confirm the alliance,

a female of Banjarmassing, of great beauty, was sent, and married to

the principal chief; and from this alliance the sovereigns of Sulu

claim their descent. The treaty of marriage made Sulu tributary to

the Banjarmassing empire.

After the Banjars had thus obtained possession of the archipelago,

the trade in its products attracted settlers from the surrounding

islands, who soon contrived to displace the aborigines, and drive

them to the inaccessible mountains for protection.

When the Chinese took possession of the northern parts of Borneo,

under the Emperor Songtiping, about the year 1375, the daughter of that

prince was married to a celebrated Arabian chief named Sheriff Alli,

who visited the shores of Borneo in quest of commerce. The descendants

of this marriage extended their conquests not only over the Sulu

Archipelago, but over the whole of the Philippines, and rendered

the former tributary to Borneo. In three reigns after this event,

the sultan of Borneo proper married the daughter of a Sulu chief, and

from this union came Mirhome Bongsu, who succeeding to the throne while

yet a minor, his uncle acted as regent. Sulu now wished to throw off

the yoke of Borneo, and through the intrigues of the regent succeeded

in doing so, as well as in retaining possession of the eastern side

of Borneo, from Maludu Bay on the north, to Tulusyan on the south,

which has ever since been a part of the Sulu territory.

This event took place before Islamism became the prevailing religion;

but which form of idolatry, the Sulus pretend, is not now known. It

is, however, believed the people on the coasts were Buddhists, while

those of the interior were Pagans.

The first sultan of Sulu was Kamaludin, and during his reign one Sayed

Alli, a merchant, arrived at Sulu from Mecca. He was a sherif, and soon

converted one-half of the islanders to his own faith. He was elected

sultan on the death of Kamaludin, and reigned seven years, in the

course of which he became celebrated throughout the archipelago. Dying

at Sulu, a tomb was erected to him there, and the island came to be

looked upon by the faithful as the Mecca of the East, and continued

to be resorted to as a pilgrimage until the arrival of the Spaniards.

[Tawi Tawi.] Sayed Alli left a son called Batua, who succeeded him. The

latter had two sons, named Sabudin and Nasarudin, who, on the death

of their father, made war upon each other. Nasarudin, the youngest,

being defeated, sought refuge on Tawi Tawi, where he established

himself, and built a fort for his protection. The difficulties

were finally compromised, and they agreed to reign together over

Sulu. Nasarudin had two sons, called Amir and Bantilan, of whom the

former was named as successor to the two brothers, and on their deaths

ascended the throne. During his reign another sherif arrived from

Mecca, who succeeded in converting the remainder of the population to

Islamism. Bantilan and his brother Amir finally quarrelled, and the

latter was driven from Sulu to seek refuge in the island of Basilan,

where he became sultan.

On the arrival of the Spaniards in 1566, a kind of desultory war was

waged by them upon the various islands, in the hope of conquering

them and extending their religion. In these wars they succeeded in

gaining temporary possession of a part of Sulu, and destroyed the

tomb of Sayed Alli. The Spaniards always looked upon the conversion

of the Moslems to the true Catholic faith with great interest; but in

the year 1646, the sultan of Magindanao succeeded in making peace,

by the terms of which the Spaniards withdrew from Sulu, and were to

receive from the sultan three cargoes of rice annually as a tribute.

In 1608, the small-pox made fearful ravages, and most of the

inhabitants fled from the scourge. Among these was the heir apparent,

during whose absence the throne became vacant, and another was elected

in his stead. This produced contention for a short time, which ended

in the elected maintaining his place.

This tribute continued to be paid until the flight of Amir to Basilan,

about the year 1752, where he entered into a secret correspondence

with the authorities at Zamboanga, and after two years a vessel was

sent from Manila, which carried him to that capital, where he was

treated as a prisoner of state.

[The English treaty.] In June, 1759, an English ship, on board of

which was Dalrymple, then in the service of the East India Company,

arrived at Sulu on a trading voyage. Dalrymple remained at Sulu

for three months, engaged in making sales and purchases. The Sultan

Bantilan treated him with great kindness, and sought the interest of

Dalrymple to obtain the liberation of his brother, who was now held

prisoner by the Spaniards at Manila, by telling him of the distress

of his brother's wife, who had been left behind when Amir quitted the

island, and had been delivered of twins, after he had been kidnapped

by the Spaniards. Dalrymple entered into a pledge to restore Amir,

and at the same time effected a commercial treaty between the East

India Company and the Sulu chiefs. By this it was stipulated that

an annual cargo should be sent to Sulu, and sold at one hundred per

cent. profit, for which a return cargo should be provided for the China

market, which should realize an equal profit there, after deducting all

expenses. The overplus, if any, was to be carried to the credit of the

Sulus. This appears to have been the first attempt made by the English

to secure a regular commercial intercourse with this archipelago.

In the year 1760, a large fleet of Spanish vessels sailed from Manila,

with about two thousand men, having the Sultan Amir on board, to

carry on a war against Sulu.

On their arrival, they began active operations. They were repelled

on all sides, and after seven days' ineffectual attempts, they gave

up their design. They returned to Manila, it is said, with a loss of

half their number, and without having done any injury to the Sulus. Not

discouraged with this failure, the Spaniards, about two years after,

organized a still larger force, which is estimated by some accounts as

high as ten thousand men. Although this failed in its attempts on the

fort at Soung, the Spaniards obtained possession of Tanjong Matonda,

one of the small ports on the island, where they erected a church and

fort. Here they established a colony, and appointed a governor. The

inhabitants upon this deserted their habitations in the neighborhood,

and fled to the mountains, which, it is said, excited the mountaineers,

a host of whom, with their chief, whose name was Sri Kala, determined

to rush upon the Spaniards, and annihilate them. Having to contend

against disciplined troops, it was not an easy task to succeed. But

Sri Kala had a follower, named Sigalo, who offered to lead the host

to battle against the Spaniards, and to exterminate them, or die in

the attempt. The chief accepted his offer, and Sigalo, with a chosen

few, marched towards the fort, leaving the rest of the mountaineers

in readiness to join them at an appointed signal, and rush into the

fort en masse.

[Victory over Spaniards.] Sri Kala and Sigalo, in order to lull

the watchfulness of the Spaniards, took with them a young woman, of

exquisite beauty, named Purmassuri. The lustful Spaniards were thus

thrown off their guard, the signal was given, and the host, rushing

forward, entered the fort, every Spaniard within which was slain. A

few only, who were on the outside, escaped to the vessels, which set

sail, and after encountering various mishaps, returned to Manila.

Some time after this the Sultan Bantilan died, and his son Alim-ud-deen

was proclaimed sultan. Dalrymple did not return until 1762, with a

part of the appointed cargo; but the vessel in which the larger part

had been shipped, failed to arrive, from not being able to find Sulu,

and went to China. Thence she proceeded to Manila, and afterwards

to Sulu. The captain of the latter vessel gave a new credit to the

Sulus, before they had paid for their first cargo; and on the arrival

of Dalrymple the next time, he found that the small-pox had carried

off a large number of the inhabitants, from which circumstance all

his hopes of profit were frustrated. He then obtained for the use of

the East India Company, a grant of the island of Balambangan, which

lies off the north end of Borneo, forming one side of the Straits of

Balabac, the western entrance to the Sulu Sea. Here he proposed to

establish a trading post, and after having visited Madras, he took

possession of this island in 1763.

In October, 1762, the English took Manila, where the Sultan Amir

was found by Dalrymple, who engaged to reinstate him on his throne,

if he would cede to the English the north end of Borneo, as well

as the south end of Palawan. This he readily promised, and he was,

in consequence, carried back to Sulu and reinstated; his nephew,

Alim-ud-deen, readily giving place to him, and confirming the grant

to the East India Company, in which the Ruma Bechara joined.

After various arrangements, the East India Company took possession of

Balambangan, in the year 1773, and formed a settlement there with a

view of making it an emporium of trade for Eastern commodities. Troops

and stores were sent from India, and the population began to increase

by settlers, both Chinese and Malays, who arrived in numbers. In the

year 1775, the fort, notwithstanding all the treaties and engagements

between Dalrymple and the Sultan, was surprised by the Sulus, and many

of the garrison put to death. [Victory over English.] This virtually

put an end to the plans of the English, although another attempt was

made to re-establish the settlement by Colonel Farquhar, in 1803;

but it was thought to be too expensive a post, and was accordingly

abandoned in the next year. This act of the Sulus fairly established

their character for perfidy, and ever since that transaction they

have been looked upon as treacherous in the highest degree, and,

what is singular, have been allowed to carry on their piracies quite

unmolested. The taking of Balambangan has been generally imputed to the

treacherous disposition and innate love of plunder among the Sulus,

as well as to their fear that it would destroy the trade of Sulu by

injuring all that of the archipelago. But there are strong reasons

for believing that this dark deed owed its origin in part to the

influence of the Spaniards and Dutch, who looked with much distrust

upon the growth of the rival establishment. Such was the jealousy

of the Spaniards, that the governor of the Philippines peremptorily

required that Balambangan should be evacuated. The Sulus boast of the

deed, and admit that they received assistance from both Zamboanga and

Ternate, the two nearest Spanish and Dutch ports. These nations had

great reasons to fear the establishment of a power like that of the

East India Company, in a spot so favorably situated to secure the

trade of the surrounding islands, possessing fine harbors, and in

every way adapted to become a great commercial depot. Had it been

held by the East India Company but for a few years, it must have

become what Singapore is now.

The original planner of this settlement is said to have been Lord

Pigot; but the merit of carrying it forward was undoubtedly due to

Dalrymple, whose enterprising mind saw the advantage of the situation,

and whose energy was capable of carrying the project successfully

forward.

Since the capture of Balambangan, there has been no event in the

history of Sulu that has made any of the reigns of the Sultans

memorable, although fifteen have since ascended the throne.

Sulu has from all the accounts very much changed in its character

as well as population since the arrival of the Spaniards, and the

establishment of their authority in the Philippines. Before that

event, some accounts state that the trade with the Chinese was

of great extent, and that from four to five hundred junks arrived

annually from Cambojia, with which Sulu principally traded. At that

time the population is said to have equalled in density that of the

thickly-settled parts of China.

The government has also undergone a change; for the Sultan, who

among other Malay races is usually despotic, is here a mere cipher,

and the government has become an oligarchy. This change has probably

been brought about by the increase of the privileged class of Datus,

all of whom were entitled to a seat in the Ruma Bechara until about

the year 1810, when the great inconvenience of so large a council

was felt, and it became impossible to control it without great

difficulty and trouble on the part of the Sultan. The Ruma Bechara

was then reduced until it contained but six of the principal Datus,

who assumed the power of controlling the state. The Ruma Bechara,

however, in consequence of the complaints of many powerful Datus,

was enlarged; but the more powerful, and those who have the largest

numerical force of slaves, still rule over its deliberations. The whole

power, within the last thirty years, has been usurped by one or two

Datus, who now have monopolized the little foreign trade that comes

to these islands. The Sultan has the right to appoint his successor,

and generally names him while living. In default of this, the choice

devolves upon the Ruma Bechara, who elect by a majority.

[Piracies] From a more frequent intercourse with Europeans and the

discovery of new routes through these seas, the opportunities of

committing depredations have become less frequent, and the fear of

detection greater. By this latter motive they are more swayed than

by any thing else, and if the Sulus have ever been bold and daring

robbers on the high seas, they have very much changed.

Many statements have been made and published relative to the piracies

committed in these seas, which in some cases exceed, and in others

fall short, of the reality. Most of the piratical establishments are

under the rule, or sail under the auspices of the Sultan and Ruma

Bechara of Sulu, who are more or less intimately connected with

them. The share of the booty that belongs to the Sultan and Ruma

Bechara is twenty-five per cent. on all captures, whilst the Datus

receive a high price for the advance they make of guns and powder,

and for the services of their slaves.

The following are the piratical establishments of Sulu, obtained

from the most authentic sources, published as well as verbal. The

first among these is the port of Soung, at which we anchored, in

the island of Sulu; not so much from the number of men available

here for this pursuit, as the facility of disposing of the goods. By

the Spaniards they are denominated Illanun or Lanuns pirates. [273]

There are other rendezvous on Pulo Toolyan, at Bohol, Tonho, Pilas,

Tawi Tawi, Sumlout, Pantutaran, Parodasan, Palawan, and Basilan,

and Tantoli on Celebes. These are the most noted, but there are many

minor places, where half a dozen prahus are fitted out. Those of Sulu,

and those who go under the name of the Lanuns, have prahus of larger

size, and better fitted. They are from twenty to thirty tons burden,

and are propelled by both sails and oars. They draw but little water,

are fast sailers, and well adapted for navigating through these

dangerous seas. These pirates are supposed to possess in the whole

about two hundred prahus, which usually are manned with from forty to

fifty pirates; the number therefore engaged in this business, may be

estimated at ten thousand. They are armed with muskets, blunderbusses,

krises, hatchets, and spears, and at times the vessels have one or two

large guns mounted. They infest the Macassar Strait, the Celebes Sea,

and the Sulu Sea. Soung is the only place where they can dispose of

their plunder to advantage, and obtain the necessary outfits. It may

be called the principal resort of these pirates, where well-directed

measures would result in effectually suppressing the crime.

Besides the pirates of Sulu, the commerce of the eastern islands is

vexed with other piratical establishments. In the neighboring seas,

there are the Malay pirates, who have of late years become exceedingly

troublesome. Their prahus are of much smaller size than those of Sulu,

being from ten to twelve tons burden, but in proportion they are much

better manned, and thus are enabled to ply with more efficiency their

oars or paddles. These prahus frequent the shores of Malacca Straits,

Cape Roumania, the Carimon Isles, and the neighboring straits, and

at times they visit the Rhio Straits. Some of the most noted, I was

informed, were fitted out from Johore, in the very neighborhood of

the English authorities at Singapore; they generally have their haunts

on the small islands on the coast, from which they make short cruises.

They are noted for their arrangements for preventing themselves

from receiving injury, in the desperate defences that are sometimes

made against them. These small prahus have usually swivels mounted,

which, although not of great calibre, are capable of throwing a shot

beyond the range of small-arms. It is said that they seldom attempt

an attack unless the sea is calm, which enables them to approach their

victims with more assurance of success, on account of the facility with

which they are enabled to manage their boats. The frequent calms which

occur in these seas between the land and sea breezes, afford them many

opportunities of putting their villanous plans in operation; and the

many inlets and islets, with which they are well acquainted, afford

places of refuge and ambush, and for concealing their booty. They

are generally found in small flotillas of from six to twenty prahus,

and when they have succeeded in disabling a vessel at long shot, the

sound of the gong is the signal for boarding, which, if successful,

results in a massacre more or less bloody, according to the obstinacy

of the resistance they have met with.

In the winter months, the Malacca Straits are most infested with them;

and during the summer, the neighborhood of Singapore, Point Rumania,

and the channels in the vicinity. In the spring, from February to

May, they are engaged in procuring their supplies, in fishing, and

refitting their prahus for the coming year.

[Suppression of pirates.] I have frequently heard plans proposed

for the suppression of these pirates, particularly of those in the

neighborhood of the settlements under British rule. The European

authorities are much to blame for the quiescent manner in which they

have so long borne these depredations, and many complaints are made

that Englishmen, on being transplanted to India, lose that feeling of

horror for deeds of blood, such as are constantly occurring at their

very doors, which they would experience in England. There are, however,

many difficulties to overcome before operations against the pirates

can be effective. The greatest of these is the desire of the English

to secure the good-will of the chiefs of the tribes by whom they are

surrounded. They thus wink at their piracies on the vessels of other

nations, or take no steps to alleviate the evils of slavery. Indeed

the language that one hears from many intelligent men who have

long resided in that part of the world is, that in no country where

civilization exists does slavery exhibit so debasing a form as in her

Indian possessions. Another difficulty consists in the want of minute

knowledge of the coasts, inlets, and hiding-places of the pirates, and

this must continue to exist until proper surveys are made. This done,

it would be necessary to employ vessels that could pursue the pirates

everywhere, for which purpose steamers naturally suggest themselves.

What will appear most extraordinary is, that the very princes who

are enjoying the stipend for the purchase of the site whereon the

English authority is established, are believed to be the most active

in equipping the prahus for these piratical expeditions; yet no notice

is taken of them, although it would be so easy to control them by

withholding payment until they had cleared themselves from suspicion,

or by establishing residents in their chief towns.

[The Bajows.] Another, and a very different race of natives who

frequent the Sulu Archipelago, must not be passed by without

notice. These are the Bajow divers or fishermen, to whom Sulu is

indebted for procuring the submarine treasures with which her seas

are stored. They are also very frequently employed in the bêche de

mer or trepang fisheries among the islands to the south. The Bajows

generally look upon Macassar as their principal place of resort. They

were at one time believed to be derived from Johore, on the Malayan

peninsula; at another, to be Buguese; but they speak the Sulu dialect,

and are certainly derived from some of the neighboring islands. The

name of Bajows, in their tongue, means fishermen. From all accounts,

they are allowed to pursue their avocations in peace, and are not

unfrequently employed by the piratical datus, and made to labor for

them. They resort to their fishing-grounds in fleets of between one

and two hundred sail, having their wives and children with them,

and in consequence of the tyranny of the Sulus, endeavor to place

themselves under the protection of the flag of Holland, by which

nation this useful class of people is encouraged. The Sulu Seas are

comparatively little frequented by them, as they are unable to dispose

of the produce of their fisheries for want of a market, and fear the

exactions of the Datus. Their prahus are about five tons each. The

Bajows at some islands are stationary, but are for the most part

constantly changing their ground. The Spanish authorities in the

Philippines encourage them, it is said, to frequent their islands,

as without them they would derive little benefit from the banks in

the neighboring seas, where quantities of pearl-oysters are known

to exist, which produce pearls of the finest kind. The Bajows are

inoffensive and very industrious, and in faith Mahomedans.

The climate of Sulu during our short stay, though warm, was

agreeable. The time of our visit was in the dry season, which lasts

from October till April, and alternates with the wet one, from May

till September. June and July are the windy months, when strong

breezes blow from the westward. In the latter part of August and

September, strong gales are felt from the south, while in December

and January the winds are found to come from the northward; but light

winds usually prevail from the southwest during the wet season, and

from the opposite quarter, the dry, following closely the order of the

monsoons in the China seas. As to the temperature, the climate is very

equable, the thermometer seldom rising above 90° or falling below 70°.

Diseases are few, and those that prevail arise from the manner in

which the natives live. They are from that cause an unhealthy-looking

race. The small-pox has at various times raged with great violence

throughout the group, and they speak of it with great dread. Few of

the natives appeared to be marked with it, which may have been owing,

perhaps, to their escaping this disorder for some years. Vaccination

has not yet been introduced among them, nor have they practiced

inoculation.

Notwithstanding Soung was once the Mecca of the East, its people

have but little zeal for the Mahomedan faith. It was thought at once

time that they had almost forgotten its tenets, in consequence of

the neglect of all their religious abservances. The precepts which

they seem to regard most are that of abstaining from swine's flesh,

and that of being circumcised. Although polygamy is not interdicted,

few even of the datus have more than one wife.

Soung Road offers good anchorage; and supplies of all kinds may be

had in abundance. Beef is cheap, and vegetables and fruits at all

seasons plenty.

Our observations placed the town in latitude 6° 01' N., longitude 120°

55' 51'' E.

Having concluded the treaty and other business that had taken me to

Sulu, we took our departure for the Straits of Balabac, the western

entrance into this sea, with a fine breeze to the eastward. By

noon we had reached the group of Pangootaaraang, consisting of five

small islands. All of these are low, covered with trees, and without

lagoons. They presented a great contrast to Sulu, which was seen behind

us in the distance. The absence of the swell of the ocean in sailing

through this sea is striking, and gives the idea of navigating an

extensive bay, on whose luxuriant islands no surf breaks. There are,

however, sources of danger that incite the navigator to watchfulness

and constant anxiety; the hidden shoals and reefs, and the sweep of

the tide, which leave him no control over his vessel.

[Cagayan Sulu.] Through the night, which was exceedingly dark, we

sounded every twenty minutes, but found no bottom; and at daylight

on the 7th, we made the islands of Cagayan Sulu, in latitude 7° 03'

30'' N., longitude 118° 37' E. The tide or current was passing the

islands to the west-southwest, three quarters of a mile per hour;

we had soundings of seventy-five fathoms. Cagayan Sulu has a pleasant

appearance from the sea, and may be termed a high island. It is less

covered with undergrowth and mangrove-bushes than the neighboring

islands, and the reefs are comparatively small. It has fallen off in

importance; and by comparing former accounts with those I received,

and from its present aspect, it would seem that it has decreased

both in population and products. Its caves formerly supplied a large

quantity of edible birds' nests; large numbers of cattle were to be

found upon it; and its cultivation was carried on to some extent. These

articles of commerce are not so much attended to at the present time,

and the bêche de mer and tortoise-shell, formerly brought hither,

are now carried to other places. There is a small anchorage on the

west side, but we did not visit it. There are no dangers near these

small islands that may not be guarded against. Our survey extended

only to their size and situation, as I deemed it my duty to devote

all the remainder of the time I had to spare to the Balabac Straits.

[Balabac straits.] After the night set in, we continued sounding

every ten minutes, and occasionally got bottom in from thirty to

seventy fathoms. At midnight, the water shoaled to twenty fathoms,

when I dropped the anchor until daylight. We shortly afterwards had

a change of wind, and a heavy squall passed over us.

In the morning we had no shoal ground near us, and the bank on which

we had anchored was found to be of small size; it is probable that

we had dropped the anchor on the shoalest place. Vessels have nothing

to fear in this respect.

At 9:00 a.m. of the 8th, we made the Mangsee Islands ahead of us, and

likewise Balabac to the north, and Balambagan to the south. Several

sand-banks and extensive reefs were also seen between them. On seeing

the ground on which we had to operate, of which the published charts

give no idea whatever, I determined to proceed, and take a central

position with the ship under the Mangsee Islands; but in order not to

lose time, I hoisted out and dropped two boats, under Lieutenant Perry,

to survey the first sand-bank we came to, which lies a few miles to

the eastward of these islands, with orders to effect this duty and join

me at the anchorage, or find a shelter under the lee of the islands.

At half-past two p.m. we anchored near the reef, in thirty-six fathoms

water. I thought myself fortunate in getting bottom, as the reefs on

closing with them seemed to indicate but little appearance of it.

The rest of the day was spent in preparing the boats for our

operations. I now felt the want of the tender. Although in the absence

of this vessel, great exposure was necessary to effect this survey,

I found both officers and men cheerful and willing. The parties were

organized,--the first to proceed to the north, towards Balabac Island,

to survey the intermediate shoals and reefs, under Lieutenant Emmons

and Mr. Totten; the second to the south, under Lieutenants Perry and

Budd; and Mr. Hammersly for the survey of the shoals of Balambangan and

Banguey, and their reefs. The examination of the Mangsee Islands, and

the reefs adjacent, with the astronomical and magnetic observations,

etc., devolved on myself and those who remained on board the ship.

The weather was watched with anxiety, and turned out disagreeable,

heavy showers and strong winds prevailing; notwithstanding, the

boats were despatched, after being as well protected against it as

possible. We flattered ourselves that these extensive reefs would

produce a fine harvest of shells; but, although every exertion

was made in the search, we did not add as many to our collections

as we anticipated. Some land-shells, however, were found that we

little expected to meet with, for many of the trees were covered

with them, and on cutting them down, large quantities were easily

obtained. Mr. Peale shot several birds, among which was a Nicobar

pigeon; some interesting plants and corals were also added. On the

island a large quantity of drift-wood was found, which with that

which is growing affords ample supplies of fuel for ships. No fresh

water is to be had, except by digging, the island being but a few

feet above high-water mark.

Although the time was somewhat unfavorable, Lieutenant Emmons and

party executed their orders within the time designated, and met with no

other obstructions than the inclemency of the weather. This was not,

however, the case with Lieutenant Perry, who, near a small beach on

the island of Balambangan, encountered some Sulus, who were disposed

to attack him. The natives, no doubt, were under the impression that

the boats were from some shipwrecked vessel. They were all well armed,

and apparently prepared to take advantage of the party if possible;

but, by the prudence and forbearance of this officer, collision was

avoided, and his party saved from an attack.

[Balambangan.] The island of Balambangan was through the

instrumentality of Mr. Dalrymple, as heretofore stated, obtained

from the Sulus for a settlement and place of deposit, by the East

India Company, who took possession of it in 1773. Its situation off

the northern end of Borneo, near the fertile district of that island,

its central position, and its two fine ports, offered great advantages

for commerce, and for its becoming a great entrepot for the riches

of this archipelago. Troops, and stores of all kinds, were sent

from India; numbers of Chinese and Malays were induced to settle;

and Mr. Herbert, one of the council of Bencoolen, was appointed

governor. It had been supposed to be a healthy place, as the island

was elevated, and therefore probably free from malaria; but in 1775

the native troops from India became much reduced from sickness, and

the post consequently much weakened. This, with the absence of the

cruisers from the harbor, afforded a favorable opportunity for its

capture; and the wealth that it was supposed to contain created an

inducement that proved too great for the hordes of marauding pirates

to resist. Choosing their time, they rushed upon the sentries, put

them to death, took possession of the guns, and turned them against

the garrison, only a few of whom made their escape on board of a small

vessel. The booty in goods and valuables was said to have been very

large, amounting to nearly four hundred thousand pounds sterling.

Although Borneo offers many inducements to commercial enterprise,

the policy of the Dutch Company has shut themselves out, as well

as others, by interdicting communication. In consequence, except

through indirect channels, there has been no information obtained of

the singular and unknown inhabitants of its interior. This, however,

is not long destined to be the case.

Mr. Brooke, an English gentleman of fortune, has, since our passage

through these seas, from philanthropic motives, made an agreement

with the rajah of Sarawack, on the northern and western side of

Borneo, to cede to him the administration of that portion of the

island. This arrangement it is believed the British government will

confirm, in which event Sarawack will at once obtain an importance

among the foreign colonies, in the Eastern seas, second only to that

of Singapore.

The principal inducement that has influenced Mr. Brooke in this

undertaking is the interest he feels in the benighted people of the

interior, who are known under the name of Dyack, and of whom some

extraordinary accounts have been given.

A few of these, which I have procured from reputable sources, I will

now relate, in order that it may be seen among what kind of people

this gentleman has undertaken to introduce the arts of civilization.

[The Dyacks.] The Dyacks are, by all accounts, a fine race, and

much the most numerous of any inhabiting Borneo. They are almost

exclusively confined to the interior, where they enjoy a fine climate,

and all the spontaneous productions of the tropics. They are believed

to be the aborigines of the island. The name of Dyack seems to be

more particularly applied to those who live in the southern section

of Borneo. To the north they are called Idaan or Tirun, and those so

termed are best known to the Sulus, or the inhabitants of that part of

the coast of Borneo over which the Sulus rule. In personal appearance,

the Dyacks are slender, have higher foreheads than the Malays, and are

a finer and much better-looking people. Their hair is long, straight,

and coarse, though it is generally cropped short round the head. The

females are spoken of as being fair and handsome, and many of those

who have been made slaves are to be seen among the Malays.

In manners the Dyacks are described as simple and mild, yet they are

characterized by some of the most uncommon and revolting customs of

barbarians. Their government is very simple; the elders in each village

for the most part rule; but they are said to have chiefs that do not

differ from the Malay rajahs. They wear no clothing except the maro,

and many of them are tattooed, with a variety of figures, over their

body. They live in houses built of wood, that are generally of large

size, and frequently contain as many as one hundred persons. These

houses are usually built on piles, divided into compartments, and

have a kind of veranda in front, which serves as a communication

between the several families. The patriarch, or elder, resides in

the middle. The houses are entered by ladders, and have doors, but

no windows. The villages are protected by a sort of breastwork.

Although this people are to be found throughout all Borneo, and even

within a few miles of the coast, yet they do not occupy any part of

its shores, which are held by Malays, or Chinese settlers. There

is no country more likely to interest the world than Borneo. All

accounts speak of vast ruins of temples and palaces, throughout the

whole extent of its interior, which the ancestors of the present

inhabitants could not have constructed. The great resemblance these

bear to those of China and Cambojia has led to the belief that Borneo

was formerly peopled by those nations; but all traditions of the origin

of these edifices have been lost; and so little is now known of the

northern side of Borneo, that it would be presumption to indulge in any

surmises of what may have been its state during these dark ages. Even

the Bugis priests, who are the best-informed persons in the country,

have no writings or traditions that bear upon the subject; and the

few scattered legends of Eastern origin, can afford no proof of the

occurrence of the events they commemorate in any particular locality.

The accounts of the habits of the Dyacks are discrepant. Some give them

credit for being very industrious, while others again speak of them

as indolent. They are certainly cultivators of the soil, and in order

to obtain the articles they need, will work assiduously. Many of them

are employed in collecting gold-dust, and some in the diamond mines;

and they will at times be found procuring gums, rattans, etc., from

their native forests for barter. They are a people of great energy

of character, and perseverance in the attainment of their object,

particularly when on war-parties, or engaged in hunting.

Their food consists of rice, hogs, rats, snakes, monkeys, and many

kinds of vermin, with which this country abounds.

Their chief weapon is the parang or heavy knife, somewhat like the

kris. It is manufactured of native iron and steel, with which the

coast of the country is said to abound. They have a method of working

it which renders it unnecessary for them to look to a foreign supply;

the only articles of foreign hardware that they are said to desire,

are razors, out of which to make their cockspurs. One thing seems

strange: although asserted upon good authority, that the iron and

steel of the coast are thought to be superior by foreigners, they

are not to be compared with that which is found in the interior,

and manufactured by the Dyacks. All the best krises used by the Malay

rajahs and chiefs, are obtained from the interior. Some of these are

exquisitely manufactured, and so hard that, without turning the edge,

they cut ordinary wrought iron and steel.

Among their other weapons is the sumpit, a hollow tube, through

which they blow poisoned arrows. The latter are of various kinds,

and those used in war are dipped in the sap of what the natives term

the "upo." The effect of this poison is almost instantaneous, and

destroys life in four or five minutes. Those who have seen a wound

given accidentally, describe the changes that the poison occasions

as plainly perceptible in its progress. Before using the arrow, its

poisoned point is dipped in lime-juice to quicken it. The range of

the sumpit is from fifty to sixty yards. Although the arrows are

poisoned, yet it is said they sometimes eat the games they kill

with them, parboiling it before it is roasted, which is thought to

extract the poison. Firearms, respecting which they have much fear,

have not yet been introduced among them; indeed, it is said that so

easily are they intimidated by such weapons, that on hearing a report

of a gun they invariably run away. Each individual in a host would

be impressed with the belief that he was the one that was to be shot.

[The diwatas.] They address their prayers to the maker of the world,

whom they call Dewatta, and this is all the religion they have. There

are many animals and birds held by them in high veneration, and they

are close observers of the flight of birds, from which they draw

prognostics. There is in particular a white-headed eagle or kite, upon

whose flight and cries they put great reliance, and consult them in war

or on any particular expedition. For this purpose they draw numbers

of them together, and feed them by scattering rice about. It is said

their priests consult their entrails also on particular occasions,

to endeavor to look into future events.

In the performance of their engagements and oaths, they are most

scrupulous. They seem to have some idea of a future life, and that

on the road to their elysium they have to pass over a long tree,

which requires the assistance of all those they have slain in this

world. The abode of happy spirits is supposed to be on the top of Kini

Balu, one of their loftiest mountains, and the portals are guarded

by a fiery serpent, who does not suffer any virgin to pass into the

celestial paradise.

Polygamy does not exist among them, but they have as concubines slaves,

who are captured in their wars or rather predatory expeditions. If a

wife proves unfaithful to her husband, he kills several of his slaves,

or inflicts upon her many blows, and a divorce may be effected by

the husband paying her a certain price, and giving up her clothes and

ornaments, after which he is at liberty to marry another. The women,

however, exercise an extraordinary influence over the men.

[Headhunting.] But of all their peculiar traits, there is none more

strange than the passion they seem to indulge for collecting human

heads. These are necessary accompaniments in many transactions of

their lives, particularly in their marriages, and no one can marry

unless he has a certain number of heads; indeed, those who cannot

obtain these are looked upon with disdain by the females. A young man

wishing to wed, and making application to marry her for whom he has

formed an attachment, repairs with the girl's father to the rajah

or chief, who immediately inquires respecting the number of heads

he has procured, and generally decides that he ought to obtain one

or two more, according to his age, and the number the girl's father

may have procured, before he can be accepted. He at once takes his

canoe and some trusty followers, and departs on his bloody errand,

waylaying the unsuspecting or surprising the defenceless, whose head

he immediately cuts off, and then makes a hurried retreat. With this

he repairs to the dwelling of his mistress, or sends intelligence

of his success before him. On his arrival, he is met by a joyous

group of females, who receive him with every demonstration of joy,

and gladly accept his ghastly offering.

Various barbarous ceremonies now take place, among which the heads

undergo inspection to ascertain if they are fresh; and, in order to

prove this, none of the brain must be removed, nor must they have been

submitted to smoke to destroy the smell. After these preliminaries,

the family honor of the bride is supposed to be satisfied, and she is

not allowed to refuse to marry. A feast is now made, and the couple

are seated in the midst naked, holding the bloody heads, when handfuls

of rice are thrown over them, with prayers that they may be happy and

fruitful. After this, the bridegroom repairs in state to the house of

the bride, where he is received at the door by one of her friends,

who sprinkles him with the blood of a cock, and her with that of a

hen. This completes the affair, and they are man and wife.

[Cremation.] Funerals are likewise consecrated by similar offerings,

the corpse remaining in the house until a slave can be procured,

by purchase or otherwise, whom they design to behead at the time the

body is burnt. This is done in order that the defunct may be attended

by a slave on his way to the other world or realms of bliss. After

being burnt, the ashes of the deceased are gathered in an urn, and

the head of the slave preserved and placed near it.

In some parts, a rajah or chief is buried with great pomp in his war

habiliments, and food and his arms are placed at his side. A mound

is erected over him, which is encircled with a bamboo fence, upon

which a number of fresh heads are stuck, all the warriors who have

been attached to him bringing them as the most acceptable offering;

and subsequently these horrid offerings are renewed.

The Dyacks are found also in the Celebes island, but there, as in

Borneo, they are confined to the interior. I have already mentioned

that they were supposed to have been the original inhabitants of the

Sulu Archipelago. The Sulus speak of the country of the Dyacks as

being exceedingly fertile and capable of producing every thing. The

north end of Borneo is particularly valuable, as its produce is easily

transported from the interior, where much of the land is cultivated. I

have obtained much more information in relation to this people, in

a variety of ways, from individuals as well as from the published

accounts, which are to be found at times in the Eastern prints; but

as this digression has already extended to a great length, I trust

that enough has been said to enable the reader to contrast it with

the natives who inhabit the islands that dot the vast Pacific Ocean,

and to make him look forward with interest to the developments that

the philanthropic exertions of Mr. Brooke may bring to light.

Having completed our duties here, the boats were hoisted in, after

despatching one to leave orders for Mr. Knox of the Flying-Fish,

in a bottle tied to a flagstaff.

On the afternoon of the 12th, we got under way to proceed direct to

Singapore, and passed through the channel between the reef off the

Mangsee Islands, and those of Balambangan and Banguey. We found this

channel clear, and all the dangers well defined.

As the principal objects of my visit were to ascertain the disposition

and resources of the Sulus for trade, and to examine the straits

leading into the Sulu seas, in order to facilitate the communication

with China, by avoiding on the one hand the eastern route, and on

the other the dangers of the Palawan Passage, it may be as well to

give the result of the latter inquiry, referring those who may be

more particularly interested to the Hydrographical Atlas and Memoir.

The difficulties in the Palawan Passage arising from heavy seas

and fresh gales do not exist in the Sulu Sea, nor are the shoals so

numerous or so dangerous. In the place of storms and rough water,

smooth seas are found, and for most of the time moderate breezes,

which do not subject a vessel to the wear and tear experienced in

beating up against a monsoon.

The Balabac Straits may be easily reached, either from Singapore,

or by beating up along the western shore of Borneo. When the straits

are reached, a vessel by choosing her time may easily pass through

them by daylight, even by beating when the wind is ahead. Once

through, the way is clear, with the exception of a few coral lumps;

the occasional occurrence of the north wind will enable a vessel to

pass directly to the shores of the island of Panay. A fair wind will

ordinarily prevail along the island, and, as I have already mentioned,

it may be approached closely. The passage through to the eastward of

Mindoro Island may be taken in preference to that on the west side

through the Mindoro Strait, and thus all the reefs and shoals will

be avoided. Thence, the western coast of Luzon will be followed to

the north, as in the old route.

I do not think it necessary to point out any particular route through

the Sulu Sea, as vessels must be guided chiefly as the winds blow,

but I would generally avoid approaching the Sulu Islands, as the

currents are more rapid, and set rather to the southward. Wherever

there is anchorage, it would be advisable to anchor at night, as much

time might thus be saved, and a knowledge of the currents or sets

of the tides obtained. Perhaps it would be as well to caution those

who are venturesome, that it is necessary to keep a good look-out,

and those who are timid, that there does not appear to be much danger

from the piratical prahus, unless a vessel gets on shore; in that

case it will not be long before they will be seen collecting in the

horizon in large numbers.

[Advantages of Sulu treaty.] The treaty that I made with the Sultan, if

strictly enforced on the first infraction, will soon put an end to all

the dangers to be apprehended from them. To conclude, I am satisfied

that under ordinary circumstances, to pass through the Sulu Sea will

shorten by several days the passage to Manila or Canton, and be a

great saving of expense in the wear and tear of a ship and her canvass.

On the 13th, we passed near the location of the Viper Shoal, but saw

nothing of it. It is, therefore, marked doubtful on the chart. As

I had but little time to spare, the look-outs were doubled, and we

pursued our course throughout the night, sounding as we went every

fifteen minutes; but nothing met our view.

On the 14th, although we had the northeast monsoon blowing fresh, we

experienced a current of twenty-two miles setting to the north. This

was an unexpected result, as the currents are usually supposed

to prevail in the direction of the monsoon. On the 15th. we still

experienced it, though not over fifteen miles. On the 16th, we found

it setting west, and as we approached the Malayan Peninsula it was

found to be running southwest.

On the 18th, we made Pulo Aor and Pulo Pedang, and arriving off the

Singapore Straits, I hove-to, to await daylight. In the morning at

dawn, we found ourselves in close company with a Chinese junk. The

19th, until late in the afternoon, we were in the Singapore Straits,

making but slow progress towards this emporium of the East. The number

of native as well as foreign vessels which we passed, proved that we

were approaching some great mart, and at 5:00 p.m. we dropped our

anchor in Singapore Roads. Here we found the Porpoise, Oregon, and

Flying-Fish, all well: the two former had arrived on January 22nd,

nearly a month before, and the latter three days previously. Before

concluding this chapter, I shall revert to their proceedings since

our separation off the Sandwich Islands.

The instructions to the brigs have been heretofore given; but it may

not be amiss to repeat here that the object in detaching them was,

that they might explore the line of reefs and islands known to exist to

the northward and westward of the Hawaiian Group, and thence continue

their course towards the coast of Japan. Had they effected the latter

object, it would have given important results in relation to the force

of the currents, and the temperature of the water. It was desirable,

if possible, to ascertain with certainty the existence on the coast of

Japan of a current similar to the Gulf Stream, to which my attention

had been particularly drawn.

The first land they made was on December 1, 1841, and was Necker

Island. Birds, especially the white tern, had been seen in numbers

prior to its announcement. Necker Island is apparently a mass of

volcanic rocks, about three hundred feet high, and is destitute of

any kind of vegetation, but covered with guano. It is surrounded by

a reef, three miles from which soundings were obtained, in twenty

fathoms water. The furious surf that was beating on all sides of the

island, precluded all possibility of a landing being made. By the

connected observations of the vessels it lies in longitude 164° 37'

W., and latitude 23° 44' N.

The French-Frigate Shoal was seen on the 3rd; the weather proved bad,

and they were unable to execute the work of examining this reef. The

sea was breaking furiously upon it.

On the 7th, the Maro Reef was made in latitude 25° 24' 29'' N.,

longitude 170° 43' 24'' W. Bottom was found at a distance of four

miles from the reef, with forty-five fathoms of line. On the 8th,

they passed over the site of Neva Isle, as laid down by Arrowsmith,

but no indications of land were seen.

[Arrival at Singapore.] On the 11th, Lieutenant-Commandant Ringgold

determined, on account of the condition of the brigs, and the

continuance of bad weather, it was impossible to keep their course to

the northward and westward towards the coast of Japan; he, therefore,

hauled to the southward, which was much to be regretted, and followed

so very nearly in the same track as that pursued by the Vincennes,

towards the China seas, that nothing new was elicited by them.

After a passage of fifty-six days from the Sandwich Islands, they

dropped their anchors in Singapore on January 19, 1842, all well. Here

they found the United States ship Constellation, Commodore Kearney, and

the sloop of war Boston, Captain Long, forming the East India squadron.

PART IV

Manila in 1819 [274]

By An American Naval Officer.

[Coral.] " * * * The fine bay of Manila, thirty leagues in

circumference, is situated near the middle of the west side of the

island, and has good and clear anchorage in all parts of it, excepting

on a coral ledge, called the Shoal of St. Nicholas, which is the only

visible danger in the bay. The dangerous part of it is, however, of

small extent, and with proper attention easily avoided; the least

of water found on it at present is eleven feet, but its summit is

constantly approaching the surface of the sea, as has been ascertained

by surveys made at different periods by orders of government, which

circumstance seems to indicate the presence of Zoophytes, that compound

of animal and vegetable life, whose incessant and rapid labors, and,

as we are told by naturalists, whose polypus-like powers of receiving

perfect form and vitality into numberless dismembered portions of their

bodies, have long excited much curiosity and admiration. These small,

compound animals, commence their operations at the bottom of the sea,

and proceed upwards, towards the surface, spreading themselves in

various ramifications; the older members of the mass become concrete,

petrify, and form dangerous shoals; the superior portion of these

little colonists always being the last produced, in its turn generates

myriads of others, and so on, ad infinitum, till they reach the surface

of the ocean. These coral reefs and shoals are found in most parts of

the world, within the tropics; but the waters of the eastern hemisphere

seem to be peculiarly congenial to their production, and, indeed, there

appear to be certain spaces or regions in these seas, which are their

favorite haunts. Among many others may be mentioned the Mozambique

channel, and that tract of ocean, from the eastern coast of Africa,

quite across to the coast of Malabar, including the Mahé, Chagas,

Maldive and Laccadive archipelagos; the southeastern part of the China

sea; the Red sea; the eastern part of Java; the coasts of all the Sunda

islands; and various places in the Pacific ocean. These shoals, when

they begin to emerge from the sea, are frequented by aquatic fowls,

whose feathers, and other deposits, combined with the fortuitous

landing of drifts of wood, weeds, and various other substances from

the adjacent lands, in the course of time form superaqueous banks,

of considerable elevation; and the broken fragments of coral thrown

up by the waves, slowly, but constantly increase their horizontal

diameter. Coconuts are frequently seen floating upon the sea in these

regions, some of which are no doubt thrown upon the shores of the

new created lands; from which accidental circumstance this fruit is

there propagated. Vagrant birds unconsciously deposit the germs of

various other productions of the vegetable kingdom, which in due

season spring up and clothe their surfaces with verdure; and the

natural accumulation of dead and putrid vegetation serves to assist

in the formation of a rich and productive soil, and to increase the

altitudes of these new creations. As I have been always much amused

and interested by this subject, and had frequent opportunities,

during many years' experience, to observe and examine these shoals in

their various stages of subaqueous progress, and subsequent emersion

I am convinced that not only many considerable islands, but extensive

insular groups, owe their existence to the above origin."

[The people.] [275]"* * * The natives of these islands are generally

well made, and bear strong marks of activity and muscular vigor;

they are in general somewhat larger than the Javanese, and bear some

affinity in the features of their faces to the Malays; their noses

are however more prominent, and their cheek bones not so high, nor are

their skins so dark. Their hair is of a jet black, made glossy by the

constant application of coconut oil, as is the custom in all India,

and drawn together and knotted on top, in the manner of the Malays. The

women display great taste in the arrangement and decorations of their

hair, which they secure with silver or gold bodkins, the heads of

which are frequently composed of precious stones."

[Mixed blood.] [276]"* * * A very considerable proportion of the

population of Manila is composed of the mestizos; they are the

offspring of the intermarriages of the Spaniards with the native

women, and these again forming connexions with the whites, or with

the native Indians (the latter, however, less frequent), combine

in stamping upon their descendants a great variety of features and

shades of color; a general resemblance is, however, to be traced, and

waiving color and manners, a mestizo could not easily be mistaken for

a native. This class of the inhabitants is held in nearly the same

estimation as the whites. They are very cleanly in their persons,

and neat in their dress, which, among the males, consists generally

of a pair of cotton trousers of various colors, as fancy dictates,

and shoes in the European manner, a frock, or tunic, of striped grass

manufacture, worn outside the trousers, in the manner of the Asiatic

Armenians (but without the sash, or girdle), the collars of which are

tastefully embroidered, and thrown back on their shoulders; a European

hat completes their costume, which is light, cool and airy, and after

a stranger has been a short time accustomed to see what he at first

would call a perversion of dress, his prejudices subside, and he has

no hesitation in pronouncing it very proper and graceful. They are

remarkably fine limbed, and well built, the females especially, who

are really models of the most complete symmetry; their hair and eyes,

which unlike their skins, seldom vary from the original jet black of

their native parents, bestow upon them the primary characteristics of

the brunette. This people, unlike the generality of mixed colors in

the human race, have been improved by their intermixture, they are more

industrious and cleanly than the Spaniards, possess more intelligence

and polish than the Indians and are less malicious and revengeful than

either. The men are employed mostly as writers, brokers, agents and

overseers; many of them hold lucrative offices under government, and

they not unfrequently arrive at wealth and consideration. The women

are also industrious, and capable of great intellectual improvement;

they have a natural grace and ease in their manner, and make excellent

wives and mothers. This character must not, however, be taken in an

unlimited sense, for we cannot expect this rule to be without its

exceptions, and it is true that some of these females do degenerate,

and copy after the manners of the creoles, or white natives; but

this is only the case when, by their intercourse with the whites,

their Indian blood is merged and lost in the European. That part

of the population in which is blended the blood of the Chinese and

Tagalogs is named the Chinese mestizos.

The natives are not unapt in acquiring knowledge, neither do they

want industry, when efforts are made, and inducements displayed

to call their powers into action. They are excellent mechanics and

artisans, and, as horticulturists, their superiority over many of the

Asiatics is acknowledged. They are polite and affable to strangers,

but irascible, and when excited are very sanguinary; their natural

bias to this revengeful and cruel character, is strengthened and

rendered more intense by the ... doctrines of the Roman catholic

religion as dictated to them by the designing and interested priests

who reside among them. The culprit always finds a sanctuary in the

nearest church, till by the payment of some pecuniary mulct, he

satisfies the demands of the priests, obtains absolution, appeases

the resentment of the relations of the deceased, and eludes the arm

of justice; he grows hardened by impunity, repeats his offences,

and again escapes as before."

[A Filipino foundry.] "* * * All the necessary works for a garrisoned

city are within its walls; extensive magazines were erected in 1686,

besides which are a hall of arms, or armory, a repository for powder,

with bomb-proof vaults, and commodious quarters and barracks for the

garrison. There is also a furnace and foundry here, which, although

their operations were suppressed in 1805, is the most ancient in

the Spanish monarchy; this establishment was founded in 1584, in

the village of St. Anna, near Manila; to the latter of which places

it was transferred in 1590. The first founder was a Pampango Indian,

named Pandapira. When the Spaniards first arrived at Manila, in 1571,

they found there a large foundry, which was accidentally burnt,

in consequence of the combustibility of the building and effects,

which character applies to all the houses of that period."

[Language.] [277]"* * * Their colloquial language, like that of the

natives of Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and many other islands in these seas,

is a dialect of the peninsular Malay from whence it is thought they

originated; and so striking is its similarity among all these islands,

that the natives of each can, in a greater or less degree, understand

that of all the others. The characters of their written language

differ widely, and great varieties of arrangement exist among them. The

Tagalogs write from top to bottom on palm leaves and strips of bamboo;

and many of the Moros or Mahomedans use the Arabic characters."

[Difference of days.] [278]From the circumstance of the Spaniards

arriving in these seas by Cape Horn, and the general route being by

the Cape of Good Hope, a consequent difference in time of one day

is produced in the different reckoning; the Spaniards losing, and

those who steer eastward gaining, each in the proportion of half a

day in completing the semi-circumference of the globe. Consequently,

the time at Manila, being regulated by their own reckonings, is one

day later than that of those who arrive there by steering eastward

from America or Europe; as for instance, when by the accounts of the

latter it is Sunday, by theirs it is only Saturday.

[English in Manila.] In the year 1762, the city of Manila was taken

by the English, where, and at Cavite, immense quantities of naval and

military stores, brass and iron ordnance, and several fine ships, fell

into their hands. It was, however, soon delivered up to the Spaniards,

on a promise of the payment to the English of four millions of

dollars as a ransom, which, however, never has been paid. This breach

of faith and promise has been loudly complained of by the latter,

and as pertinaciously excused by the Spaniards, who complain that

the British plundered the city, and committed many other excesses,

contrary to the express conditions of their engagements, by which

they were virtually rendered nugatory.

[Galleon trade.] The inhabitants of Manila have long enjoyed the

privilege of sending two annual ships to Acapulco called Galleons,

Navios, or Register-Ships, with the produce of the Philippines, of

China, and other parts of Asia; in return for which, they receive

various articles of the production of South America; the principal

of which are cochineal, merchandise of different descriptions of

European origin, and silver in Spanish dollars and ingots, which

compose the principal part of the value of their return cargoes,

amounting annually to about three million five hundred thousand

Spanish dollars. A large proportion of this property belongs to the

convents in Manila, whose great revenues not only enable them to

engage in extensive mercantile operations, but to lend considerable

sums to the merchants on bottomry. For the indulgence in this trade,

the proprietors pay a large sum of money to the crown.

These ships were of the burden of from twelve to fifteen hundred

tons, and were numerously manned and well appointed for defense; but

of late years, since the revolt of the Spanish colonies, which has

rendered the navigation of the intermediate seas dangerous to these

enterprises, the trade has been greatly interrupted, and instead

of risking it in large bodies, private ships of smaller burden have

been hired for the purpose of dividing the risk; some of these have

been put under foreign colors, though formerly the galleons wore,

by instruction, the royal flag, their officers were commissioned

and uniformed like the officers of the navy, and the ships were

under the same regulations and discipline. The object, however, of

the trade in smaller ships has not been obtained; for so great are

the fears of the owners and agents of their being captured, and so

many restrictions laid upon the commanders that they lie in port the

principal part of the time; so that in September, 1819, the ships of

the preceding year had not arrived at Manila; neither had any been

dispatched from the latter place for Acapulco during that time. These

interruptions, and in fact, the virtual suspension of this commerce,

will undoubtedly, if a liberal and enlightened policy is pursued,

result greatly to the advantage of these islands and the mother

country. Already since the establishment of the cortes, permitting

foreigners to settle permanently at Manila, great improvements have

been made in the productions of the island, and important additions

to the revenue. The failure of the annual remittance of dollars from

South America to defray the expenses of the colonial government, of

which their revenues from the islands were not adequate to meet one

half, has been severely felt, and has stimulated them to make some

very unusual exertions. Foreign commerce has been more countenanced in

consequence of this state of things, and greater encouragement has been

given to the growers and manufacturers of their staple exports; and if

the affairs of these islands should in future be properly conducted,

the revenue arising from the impost on the single article of coffee,

will in a few years be amply sufficient to support the government,

and leave a net income of the revenue arising from the imposts on all

other articles, besides what would accrue from the taxes and numerous

other resources. A free commerce with other nations would create a

competition, and a consequent reduction in the price of imports, and

their articles of export would increase, in proportion to the demand

for them. In short, nothing is wanting in these beautiful islands,

but ability to direct, and energy to execute the most extensive

plans of agriculture and commerce, which the bounties of the soil,

and its excellent climate and situation, would most certainly render

completely successful; and, instead of being, as at present it is,

a burden to Spain, it would become a source of great wealth to her."

[Spirit of independence.] [279]"* * * It is to be hoped that

the narrow and illiberal policy which has heretofore retarded the

prosperity of these fine islands, will necessarily be superseded

by more expanded views, and enable them to maintain the rank and

importance to which their intrinsic worth entitles them. The spirit

of independence which has recently diffused its influence through

the Spanish colonies on the American continent, has also darted its

rays across the Pacific, and beamed with enlivening lustre upon those

remote regions and the sacred flames of liberty which have been kindled

have in the bosom of that country, though for a period concealed from

the view of regal parasites and dependents, burned clear and intense;

and the time is perhaps not very remote, when it shall burst forth,

and shed its joyous light upon the remotest and most inconsiderable

islet of this archipelago.

[Opportunity for a republic.] Perhaps no part of the world offers a

more eligible site for an independent republic than these islands;

their insular posture and distance from any rival power, combined

with the intrinsic strength of a free representative government,

would guarantee their safety and glory; their intermediate situation,

between Asia and the American continent, their proximity to China,

Japan, Borneo, the Molucca and Sunda Islands, the Malay peninsula,

Cochin China, Tonquin, Siam, and the European possessions in the East,

would insure them an unbounded commerce, consequently great wealth and

power; and their happiness would be secured by religious toleration

and liberal views of civil liberty in the government. It must be

confessed, however, that the national character of the Spaniards is

not suitable to produce and enjoy in perfection this most desirable

state of affairs; it is to be feared that their bigotry would preclude

religious toleration, their indolence continue the present system of

slavery, so degrading in a particular manner to a republic, their

want of energy paralyze the operations of enterprising foreigners

among them. No change, however, can be for the worse, and if all

the advantage, cannot be reaped by them, which the citizens of our

republic would secure, it will be better for them to seize and enjoy

such as their genius and talents will enable them to."

[Health.] [280]" * * * The health of the city and suburbs is

proverbial, and the profession of a physician is, perhaps, of all

others the least lucrative. A worthy and intelligent Scotch doctor,

who had come to Manila, while I was there, to exercise his profession,

and who lodged in the same house with me, was greatly annnoyed at

the want of practice which he experienced there, although he had his

full share of patronage, and often jocosely declared that the "dom

climate" would starve him; in fact he did not long remain there;

I afterwards met him in the Isle of France, where he was still in

pursuit of practice."

[A barbarous execution.] [281]" * * * Impelled by a very common and,

perhaps, excusable curiosity, I rode out with some friends one day

to witness the execution of a mestizo soldier for murder. The parade

ground of Bagumbayan was the theater of this tragic comedy, for such

it may be trully called, and never did I experience such a revulsion

of feeling as upon this occasion. The place was crowded with people

of all descriptions, and a strong guard of soldiers, three deep,

surrounded the gallows, forming a circle, the area of which was about

two hundred feet in diameter. The hangman was habited in a red jacket

and trousers, with a cap of the same color upon his head. This fellow

had been formerly condemned to death for parricide, but was pardoned

on condition of turning executioner, and becoming close prisoner for

life, except when the duties of his profession occasionally called him

from his dungeon for an hour. Whether his long confinement, and the

ignominious estimation in which he was held, combined with despair of

pardon for his heinous offense, and a natural ferocity of character,

had rendered him reckless of "weal or woe," or other impulse directed

his movements, I know not, but never did I see such a demoniacal visage

as was presented by this miscreant; and when the trembling culprit

was delivered over to his hand, he pounced eagerly upon his victim,

while his countenance was suffused with a grim and ghastly smile,

which reminded us of Dante's devils. He immediately ascended the

ladder, dragging his prey after him till they had nearly reached the

top; he then placed the rope around the neck of the malefactor with

many antic gestures and grimaces highly gratifying and amusing to the

mob. To signify to the poor fellow under his fangs that he wished to

whisper in his ear, to push him off the ladder, and to jump astride

his neck with his heels drumming with violence upon his stomach, was

but the work of an instant. We could then perceive a rope fast to each

leg of the sufferer, which was pulled with violence by people under

the gallows, and an additional rope, to use a sea term, a preventer,

was round his neck, and secured to the gallows, to act in case of

accident to the one by which the body was suspended. I had witnessed

many executions in different parts of the world, but never had such

a diabolical scene as this passed before my eyes."

* * * * *

PART V

The Peopling of the Philippines

By Dr. Rudolf Virchow

(Translated by O. T. Mason; in Smithsonian Institution 1899 Report.)

Since the days when the first European navigators entered the South

Sea, the dispute over the source and ethnic affiliations of the

inhabitants of that extended and scattered island world has been

unsettled. The most superficial glance points out a contrariety in

external appearances, which leaves little doubt that here peoples of

entirely different blood live near and among one another.

["Negritos and Indios."] And this is so apparent that the pathfinder

in this region, Magellan, gave expression to the contrariety in his

names for tribes and islands. Since dark complexion was observed

on individuals in certain tribes and in defined areas, and light

complexion on others, here abundantly, there quite exceptional,

writers applied Old World names to the new phenomena without further

thought. The Philippines set the decisive example in this. Fernando

Magellan first discovered the islands of this great archipelago in

1521, March 16. After his death the Spaniards completed the circle

of his discoveries. At this time the name of Negros was fixed, which

even now is called Islas de los Pintados. For years the Spaniards

called the entire archipelago Islas de Poniente; gradually, after the

expedition of Don Fray Garcia Jofre de Loaisa (1526), the new title

of the Philippines prevailed, through Salazar.

The people were divided into two groups, the Little Negros or Negritos

and the Indios. It is quite conceivable that involuntarily the opinion

prevailed that the Negritos had close relationship with the African

blacks, and the Indios with the lighter-complexioned inhabitants of

India, or at least of Indonesia.

However, it must be said here that the theory of a truly African

origin of the Negritos has been advanced but seldom, and then in a very

hesitating manner. The idea that with the present configuration of the

eastern island world, especially with their great distances apart, a

variety of mankind that had never manifested any aptitude for maritime

enterprises should have spread themselves over this vast ocean area,

in order to settle down on this island and on that, is so unreasonable

that it has found scarcely a defender worth naming. More and more the

blacks are coming to be considered the original peoples, the "Indios"

to be the intruders. For this there is a quite reasonable ground,

in that on many islands the blacks dwell in the interior, difficult

of access, especially in the dense and unwholesome mountain forests,

while the lighter complexioned tribes have settled the coasts. To

this are added linguistic proofs, which place the lighter races, of

homogeneous speech, in linguistic relations with the higher races,

especially the Malays. Dogmatically it has been said that originally

these islands had been occupied entirely by the primitive black

population, but afterwards, through intrusions from the sea, these

blacks were gradually pressed away from the coast and shoved back

into the interior.

[Complicated Pacific problem.] The problem, though it appears simple

enough, has become complicated more and more through the progress

of discovery, especially since Cook enlarged our knowledge of the

oriental island world. A new and still more pregnant contrast then

thrust itself to the front in the fact that the blacks and the

lighter-colored peoples are each separated into widely differing

groups. While the former hold especially the immense, almost

continental, regions of Australia (New Holland) and New Guinea, and

also the larger archipelagos, such as New Hebrides, Solomon Islands,

Fiji (Viti) Archipelago--that is, the western areas--the north and

east, Micronesia and Polynesia, were occupied by lighter-colored

peoples. So the first division into Melanesia and Polynesia has

in latest times come to be of value, and the dogma once fixed has

remained. For the Polynesians are by many allied to the Malays,

while the blacks are put together as a special ethnological race.

For practical ethnology this division may suffice. But the scientific

man will seek also for the blacks a genetic explanation. The answer

has been furnished by one of the greatest ethnologists, Theodor Waitz,

who, after he had exposed the insufficiency of the accepted formulas,

came to the conclusion that the differentiation of the blacks from

the lighter peoples might be an error. He denied that there had been

a primitive black race in Micronesia and Polynesia; in his opinion

we have here to do with a single race. The color of the Polynesians

may be out and out from natural causes different, "their entire

physical appearance indicates the greatest variability." Herein the

whole question of the domain of variation is sprung with imperfect

satisfaction on the part of those travelers who give their attention

more to transitions than to types. Among these are not a few who have

returned from the South Sea with the conviction that all criteria

for the diagnosis of men and of races are valueless.

Analytical anthropology has led to other and often unexpected

results. It has proved that just that portion of South Sea

population which can apparently lay the strongest claim to be

considered a homogeneous race must be separated into a collection

of subvarieties. Nothing appears more likely than that the Negritos

of the Philippines are the nearest relatives to the Melanesians, the

Australians, the Papuans; and yet it has been proved that all these

are separated one from another by well-marked characters. Whether

these characters place the peoples under the head of varieties,

or whether, indeed, the black tribes of the South Sea, spite of all

differences, are to be traced back to one single primitive stock,

that is a question of prehistory for whose answer the material

is lacking. Were it possible to furnish the proof that the black

populations of the South Sea were already settled in their present

homes when land bridges existed between their territory and Africa,

or when the much-sought Lemuria still existed, it would not be worth

the trouble to hunt for the missing material. In our present knowledge

we can not fill the gaps, so we must yet hold the blacks of the Orient

to be separate races.

[Hair as a race index.] The hair furnished the strongest character

for diagnosis, in which, not alone that of the head is under

consideration; the hair, therefore, occupies the foreground of

interest. Its color is of the least importance, since all peoples of

the South Sea have black hair. It is more the structure and appearance

which furnish the observer convenient starting points for the primary

classification. Generally a two-fold division satisfies. The blacks,

it is said, have crisped hair, the Polynesians and light-colored

peoples have smooth hair. But this declaration is erroneous in its

generality. It is in no way easy to declare absolutely what hair is

to be called crisp, and it is still more difficult to define in what

respects the so-called crisp varieties differ one from another. For

a long time the Australian hair was denominated crisp, until it was

evident that it could be classed neither with that of the Africans

nor with that of the Philippine blacks. Semper, one of the first

travelers to furnish a somewhat complete description of the physical

characters of the Negritos, describes it as an "extremely thick,

brown-black, lack-luster, and crisp-woolly crown of hair." Among

these peculiarities the lack-luster is unimportant, since it is due

to want of care and uncleanliness. On the contrary, the other data

furnish true characters of the hair and among them the crisp-woolly

peculiarity is most valuable.

On the terms "wool" and "woolly" severe controversies, which have not

yet closed, have taken place among ethnologists during the last ten

years. Also the lack of care, especially the absence of the comb,

has here acted as a disturbing cause in the decision. But there is

yet a set of peoples, which were formerly included, that are now

being gradually disassociated, especially the Australians and the

Veddahs, whose hair, by means of special care, appears quite wavy

if not entirely sleek and smooth. Generally it is frowzy and matted,

so that its natural form is difficult to recognize. To it is wanting

the chief peculiarity, which obtrudes itself in the African blacks so

characteristically that the compact spiral form which it assumes from

its root, the so-called "pepper-corn," is selected as the preferable

mark of the race. The peculiar nappy head has it origin in the spiral

"rollchen." As to the Asiatic blacks this has been for a long time

known among the Andamanese; it has lately been noticed upon the Sakai

of Malacca, and it is to be found also among the Negritos of the

Philippines, as I can show by specimens. Therefore, if we seek ethnic

relationships for the Negritos of the Philippines, or as they are

named, the Aetas (Etas, Itas), such connections obtrude themselves

with the stocks named, and the more strongly since they all have

brachycephalic, relatively small (nannocephalic) heads and through

their small size attach themselves to the peculiar dwarf tribes.

I might here comment on the singular fact that the Andaman Islands

are situated near the Nicobars in the Indian Ocean, but that the

populations on both sides of them are entirely different. In my

own detailed descriptions which treat of the skulls and the hair

specially, it is affirmed that the typical skull shape of the

Nicobarese is dolichocephalic and that "their hair stands between

the straight hair of the Mongoloid and the sleek, though slightly

curved or wavy, hair of the Malayan and Indian peoples;" their skin

color is relatively dark, but only so much so as is peculiar to the

tribes of India. With the little blacks of the Andamans there is not

the slightest agreement. In this we have one of the best evidences

against the theory of Waitz-Gerland that the differences in physical

appearance are to be attributed to variation merely. I will, however,

so as not to be misunderstood, expressly emphasize that I am not

willing to declare that the two peoples have been at all times so

constituted; I am now speaking of actual conditions.

In the same sense I wish also my remarks concerning the Negritos to

be taken. Not one fact is in evidence from which we may conclude that

a single neighboring people known to us has been Negritized. We are

therefore justified when we see in the Negritos a truly primitive

people. As they are now, they were more than three hundred and

fifty years ago when the first European navigators visited these

islands. About older relationships nothing is known. All the graves

from which the bones of Negritos now in possession were taken belong

to recent times, and also the oldest descriptions which have been

received, so far as phylogeny is concerned, must be characterized

as modern.

[Negritos a primitive people.] The little change in the mode of life

made known through these descriptions in connection with the low grade

of culture on which these impoverished tribes live amply testify that

we have before us here a primitive race.

* * * * *

(The question whether we have to do with older, independent races

in the Malay Archipelago or with mixtures is everywhere an open

one.--Translator.)

Whoever would picture the present ethnic affiliations of the

light-colored peoples of the Philippines will soon land in confusion

on account of the great number of tribes. One of the ablest observers,

Ferd. Blumentritt, mentions, besides the Negritos, the Chinese and

the whites, not less than 51 such tribes. He classifies them in one

group as Malays, according to the plan now customary. The division

rests primarily on a linguistic foundation. But when it is noted that

the identity of language among all the tribes is not established and

among many not at all proved, it is sufficiently shown that speech is

a character of little constancy, and that a language may be imposed

upon a people to the annihilation of their own by those who belong

to a different linguistic stock. The Malay Sea is filled with islands

on which tarry the remnants of peoples not Malay.

For a long time, especially since the Dutch occupation, these old

populations have received the special name of Alfuros. But this

ambiguous term has been used in such an arbitrary and promiscuous

fashion that latterly it has been well-nigh banished from ethnological

literature. It is not long ago that the Negritos were so called. But

if the black peoples are eliminated, there remains on many islands at

least an element to be differentiated from the Malay, chiefly through

the darker skin color, greater orthocephaly, and more wavy, quite

crimped hair. I have, for the different islands, furnished proof,

and will here only refer to the assertion that "a broad belt of

wavy and curly hair has pressed itself in between the Papuan and the

Malay, a belt which in the north seems to terminate with the Veddah,

in the south with the Australian." One can not read the accounts

of travelers without the increasing conviction of the existence of

several different, if not perhaps related, varieties of peoples thrust

on the same island.

[Theory of Negrito and three Malay invasions.] From this results the

natural and entirely unprejudiced conclusion, which has repeatedly

been stated, that either a primitive people by later intrusions

has been pressed back into the interior or that in course of time

several immigrations have followed one another. At the same time

it is not unreasonable to think that both processes went on at the

same time, and indeed this conception is strongly brought forward. So

Blumentritt assumes that there is there a primitive black people and

that three separate Malay invasions have taken place. The oldest,

whose branches have many traits in accord with the Dayaks of Borneo,

especially the practice of head-hunting; a second, which also took

place before the arrival of the Spaniards, to which the Tagals,

Bisayas, Bicols, Ilocanos, and other tribes belong; the third,

Islamitic, which emigrated from Borneo and might have been interrupted

by the arrival of the Spaniards, and with which a contemporaneous

immigration from the Moluccas went on. It must be said, however, that

Blumentritt admits two periods for the first invasion. In the earliest

he places the immigration of the Igorots, Apayos, Zambales--in short,

all the tribes that dwelt in the interior of the country later and

were pressed away from the coast, therefore, actually, the mountain

tribes. To the second half he assigns the Tinguianes, Catalanganes,

and Irayas, who are not head-hunters, but Semper says they appear to

have a mixture of Chinese and Japanese blood.

Against this scheme many things may be said in detail, especially that,

according to the apparently well-grounded assertions of Mueller-Beeck,

the going of the Chinese to the Philippines was developed about the

end of the fourteenth century, and chiefly after the Spaniards had

gotten a foothold and were using the Mexican silver in trade. At any

rate, the apprehension of Semper, which rests on somewhat superficial

physiognomic ground, is not confirmed by searching investigations. So

the head-hunting of the mountain tribes, so far as it hints at

relations with Borneo, gives no sure chronological result, since

it might have been contemporaneous in them and could have come here

through invasion from other islands.

The chief inquiry is this: Whether there took place other and older

invasions. For this we are not only to draw upon the present tribes,

but if possible upon the remains of earlier and perhaps now extinct

tribes. This possibility has been brought nearer for the Philippines

through certain cave deposits. We have to thank, for the first

information, the traveler Jagor, whose exceptional talent as collector

has placed us in the possession of rich material, especially crania. To

his excellent report of his journey I have already dedicated a special

chapter, in which I have presented and partially illustrated not

only the cave crania, but also a series of other skulls. An extended

conference upon them has been held in the Anthropological Society.

The old Spanish chroniclers describe accurately the mortuary customs

which were in vogue in their time. The dead were laid in coffins

made from excavated tree trunks and covered with a well-fitting

lid. They were then deposited on some elevated place, or mountain,

or river bank, or seashore. Caves in the mountains were also utilized

for this purpose. Jagor describes such caves on the island of Samar,

west of Luzon, whose contents have recently been annihilated.

The few crania from there which have been intrusted to me

bear the marks of recent pedigree, as also do the additional

objects. Unfortunately, Dr. Jagor did not himself visit these

interesting caves, but he has brought crania thence which are of the

highest interest, and which I must now mention.

[Study of a giant skull.] The cave in question lies near Lanang, on

the east coast of Samar, on the bank of a river, it is said. It is,

as the traveler reports, celebrated in the locality "on account of its

depressed gigantic crania, without sutures." The singular statement

is made clear by means of a well-preserved example, which I lay

before you. The entire cranium, including the face, is covered with

a thick layer of sinter, which gives it the appearance of belonging

to the class of skulls with Leontiasis ossea. It is, in fact, of

good size, but through the incrustation it is increased to gigantic

proportions. It is true, likewise, that it has a much flattened,

broad and compressed form. The cleaning of another skull has shown

that artificial deformation has taken place, which obviously was

completed before the incrustation was laid on by the mineral water

of the cave. I will here add that on the testimony of travelers no

Negritos were on Samar. The island lies in the neighborhood of the

Bisayas. Although no description of the position of the skull is at

hand and of the skeleton to which it apparently belonged, it must be

assumed that the dead man was not laid away in a coffin, but placed

on the ground; that, in fact, he belonged to an earlier "period." How

long ago that was can not be known, unfortunately, since no data are

at hand; however, the bones are in a nearly fossilized condition,

which allows the conclusion that they were deposited long ago.

The deformation itself furnishes no clue to a chronological

conclusion. In Thévenot is found the statement that, according to

the account of a priest, probably in the 16th century, the custom

prevails in some of the islands to press the heads of new-born babes

between two boards, also to flatten the forehead, "since they believed

that this form was a special mark of beauty." A similar deformation,

with more pronounced flattening and backward pressure of the forehead,

is shown on the crania which Jagor produced from a cave at Caramuan in

Luzon. There are modes of flattening which remind one of Peru. When

they came into our hands it was indeed an immense surprise, since

no knowledge of such deformation in the South Sea was at hand. First

our information led to more thorough investigations; so we are aware

of several examples of it from Indonesia and, indeed, from the South

Sea (Mallicolo). However, this deformation furnishes no clue to the

antiquity of the graves.

(Chinese and Korean pottery are said to have been found with

the deformed crania. Similar deformations exist in the Celebes,

New Britain, etc. Head-shaping has been universal, cf. A. B. Meyer,

Ueber Kunstliche deformirte Schaedel von Borneo und Mindanao and ueber

die Verbreitung der Sitte der Kunstlichen Schaedeldeformirung, 1881,

36 pp., 4.°--Translator.)

I have sawed one of these skulls in two along the sagittal suture. The

illustration gives a good idea of the amount of compression and of the

violence which this skull endured when quite young. The cranial cavity

is inclined backward and lengthened, and curves out above, while the

occiput is pressed downward and the region of the front fontanelle

is correspondingly lacking. Likewise, a considerable thickness of

the bone is to be noted, especially of the vertex. The upper jaw is

slightly prognathous and the roof of the mouth unusually arched.

For the purpose of the present study, it is unnecessary to go

further into particulars. It might be mentioned that all Lanang

skulls are characterized by their size and the firmness of bone,

so that they depart widely from the characteristics of the other

Philippine examples known to me. Similar skulls have been received

only from caves, which exist in one of the little rocky islands east

from Luzon. They suggest most Kanaka crania from Hawaii, and Moriori

crania from Chatham islands, and they raise the question whether

they do not belong to a migration period long before the time of

the Malays. I have, on various occasions, mentioned this probable

pre-Malayan, or at least proto-Malayan, population which stands in

nearest relation to the settling of Polynesia. Here I will merely

mention that the Polynesian sagas bring the progenitor from the west,

and that the passage between Halmahera (Gilolo) and the Philippines

is pointed out as the course of invasion.

At any rate, it is quite probable that the skulls from Lanang,

Cragaray, and other Philippine Islands are the remains of a very old,

if not autochthonous, prehistoric layer of population. The present

mountain tribes have furnished no close analogies. As to the Igorots,

which Blumentritt attributes to the first invasion, I refer to my

description given on the ground of chronological investigations;

according to the account given by Hans Meyer the disposal of the dead

in log coffins and in caves still goes on. Of the skulls themselves,

none were brachycephalous; on the contrary, they exhibit platyrrhine

and in part decidedly pithecoid noses. On the whole, I came to the

conclusion, as did earlier Quatrefages and Hamy, that [Indications of

pre-Malay invasion.] "they stand next in comparison with the Dayaks

of Borneo," but I hold yet the impression that they belong to a very

old, probably pre-Malay, immigration.

When, on the 18th of March, 1897, I made a communication on the

population of the Philippines, a bloody uprising had broken out

everywhere against the existing Spanish rule. In this uprising a

certain portion of the population, and indeed that which had the

most valid claim to aboriginality, the so-called Negritos, were not

involved. Their isolation, their lack of every sort of political,

often indeed of village organization, also their meager numbers,

render it conceivable that the greatest changes might go on among

their neighbors without their taking such a practical view of them

as to lead to their engaging in them. Thus it can be understood how

they would take no interest in the further development of the affair.

Since then the result of the war between Spain and the Americans has

been the destruction of Spanish power, and the treaty of Paris brought

the entire Philippine Archipelago into the possession of the United

States of America. Henceforth the principal interest is centered

upon the deportment of the insurgents, who have not only outlived

the great war between the powers, but are now determined to assert,

or win, their independence from the conquerors. These insurgents, who

for brevity are called Filipinos, belong, as I have remarked, to the

light-colored race of so-called Indios, who are sharply differentiated

from the Negritos. Their ethnological position is difficult to fix,

since numerous mixtures have taken place with immigrant whites,

especially with Spaniards, but also with people of yellow and of

brown races--that is, with Mongols and Chinese. Perhaps here and

there the importance of this mixture on the composite type of the

Indios has been overestimated; at least in most places positive

proof is not forthcoming that foreign blood has imposed itself upon

the bright-colored population. Both history and tradition teach, on

the contrary, as also the study of the physical peculiarities of the

people that among the various tribes differences exist which suggest

family traits. To this effect is the testimony of several travelers

who have followed one another during a long period of time, as has

been developed especially by Blumentritt.

[All immigrations from the West.] In this connection it must not

be overlooked that all these immigrations, howsoever many they be

supposed to have been, must have come this way from the west. Indeed,

a noteworthy migration from the east is entirely barred out, if we

look no farther back than the Chinese and Japanese. On the contrary,

all signs point to the assumption that from of old, long before the

coming of Portuguese and Spaniards, a strong movement had gone on

from this region to the east, and that the great sea way which exists

between Mindanao and the Sulu islands on the north and Halmahera

and the Moluccas in the south was the entrance road along which

those tribes, or at least those navigators whose arrival peopled

the Polynesian Islands, found their way into the Pacific Ocean. But

also the movement of the Polynesians points to the west, and if their

ancestors may have come from Indonesia there is no doubt that in their

long journeys eastward they must have touched at the coasts of other

islands on their way, especially the Philippines. Polynesian invasions

of the Philippines are not supposed to have closed when a migration of

peoples or of men passing out to the Pacific Ocean laid the foundation

of a large fraction of the population of the archipelago. It is known

that now and then single canoes from the Pelew or the Ladrone Islands

were driven upon the east coast of Luzon, but their importance ought

not to be overestimated. The migration this way from the west must

henceforth remain as the point of departure for all explanations of

this eastern ethnology. (These statements are well enough for working

hypotheses, but actual proofs are not at hand. Ratzel, Berl. Verhandl.,

etc., Phil. Hist. Class, 1898, I., p. 33.--Translator.)

Now, how are the local differences of various tribes to be

explained, when on the whole the place of origin was the same? Is

there here a secondary variation of the type, something brought

about through climate, food, circumstances? It is a large theme,

which, unfortunately, is too often dominated by previously-formed

theories. The importance of "environment" and mode of life upon

the corporeal development of man can not be contested, but the

measure of this importance is very much in doubt. Nowhere is this

measure, at least in the present consideration, less known than in the

Philippines. In spite of wide geological and biological differences on

these islands, there exists a close anthropological agreement of the

Indios in the chief characteristics, and the effort to trace back the

tribal differences that have been marked to climatic and alimentary

causes has not succeeded. The influence of inherited peculiarities

is also more mighty here, as in most parts of the earth, than that of

"milieu."

If we assume, first, that the immigrants brought their peculiarities

with them, which were fixed already when they came, we must also accept

as self-evident that the Negritos of the Philippines do not belong

to the same stock as the more powerful, bright-colored Indios. As

long as these islands have been known, more than three centuries,

the skin of the Negritos has been dark brown, almost black, their

hair short and spirally twisted, and just as long has the skin

of the Indios been brownish, in various shades, relatively clear,

and the hair has been long and arranged in wavy locks. At no time,

so far as known, has it been discovered that among a single family

a pronounced variation from these peculiarities had taken place. On

this point there is entire unanimity. In case of the Negritos there is

not the least doubt; of the Indios a doubt may arise, for, in fact,

the shades of skin color appear greatly varied, since the brown is

at times quite blackish, at times yellowish, almost as varied as is

the color of the sunburnt hair. But even then the practiced eye easily

detects the descent, and if the skin alone is not sufficient the first

glance at the hair completes the diagnosis. The correct explanation

of individual or tribal variations is difficult only with the Indios,

while no such necessity exists in the case of the Negritos. But among

the Indios these individual and tribal variations are so frequent

and so outspoken that one is justified in making the inquiry whether

there has not developed here a new type of inherited peculiarities. If

this were the case, it must still be held that already the immigrant

tribes had possessed them.

[Assistance from history.] Now, history records that different

immigrations have actually taken place. Laying aside the latest

before the arrival of the Spaniards, that of the Islamites, in

the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries, there remains the

older one. If ethnologists and travelers in general come to the

conclusion concerning Borneo--and it is to be taken as certain--that

the differences now existing among the wild tribes of this island are

very old, it ought not be thought so wonderful if, according to the

conditions of the tribes which have immigrated thence, there should

exist on the Philippines near one another dissimilar though related

peoples. This difference is not difficult to recognize in manners and

customs--a side of the discussion which is further on to be treated

more fully. We begin with physical characteristics.

[Hair differences.] Among these the hair occupies the chief

place. To be sure, among all the Indios it is black, but it shows

not the slightest approach to the frizzled condition which is such

a prominent feature in the external appearance of the Negritos and

of all the Papuan tribes of the East. This frizzled condition may be

called woolly, or in somewhat exaggerated refinement in the name may

be attributed to the term "wool," all sorts of meanings akin to wool;

in every case there is wanting to all the Indios the crinkling of the

hair from its exit out of the follicle, whereby would result wide

or narrow spiral tubes and the coarse appearance of the so-called

"peppercorn." The hair of all Indios is smooth and straightened out,

and when it forms curves they are only feeble, and they make the

whole outward appearance wavy or, at most, curled.

But within this wavy or curled condition of the hair there are again

differences. In my former communication I have attended to examinations

which I made upon a large number of islands in the Malay Sea, and in

which it was shown that a certain area exists which begins with the

Moluccas and extends to the Sunda group, in which the hair shows a

strong inclination to form wavy locks, indeed passes gradually into

crinkled, if not into spiral, rolls. Such hair is found specially

in the interior of the islands, where the so-called aboriginal

population is purer and where for a long time the name of Alfuros

has been conferred on them. On most points affinity with Negritos or

Papuans is not to be recognized. Should such at any time have existed,

we are a long way from the period when the direct causes therefor are

to be looked for. In this connection the study of the Philippines is

rich with instruction. In the limits of the almost insular, isolated

Negrito enclave, mixtures between Negritos and Indios very seldom

surprise one, and never the transitions that can have arisen in the

post-generative time of development. (The island of Negros, on the

contrary, is peopled by such crossbreeds.--Translator.)

If there are among the bright-colored islanders of the Indian Ocean

Alfuros and Malays close together there is nothing against coming upon

this contrast in the Philippine population also. Among the more central

peoples the tribal differences are so great that almost every explorer

stumbles on the question of mixture. There not only the Dayaks and the

other Malays obtrude themselves, but also the Chinese and the Mongolian

peoples of Farther India. Indeed, many facts are known, chiefly

in the language, the religion, the domestic arts, the agriculture,

the pastoral life which remind one of known conditions peculiarly

Indian. The results of the ethnologists are so tangled here that one

has to be cautious when one or another of them draws conclusions

concerning immigrations, because of certain local or territorial

specializations. Of course, when a Brahmanic custom occurs anywhere

it is right to conclude that it came here from India. But before

assuming that the tribe in which such a custom prevails itself comes

from Hither or Farther India, the time has to be ascertained to which

the custom is to be traced back. The chronological evidence leads to

the confident belief that the custom and the tribe immigrated together.

[Ancestor worship.] Over the whole Philippine Archipelago

religious customs have changed with the progress of external

relations. Christianity has in many places spread its peculiar customs,

observances, and opinions, and changed entirely the direction of

thought. On closer view are to be detected in the midst of Christian

activities older survivals, as ingredients of belief which, in

spite of that religion, have not vanished. Before Christianity, in

many places, Islam flourished, and it is not surprising to witness,

as on Mindanao, Christian and Mohammedan beliefs side by side. But,

before Islam, ancestor worship, as has long been known, was widely

prevalent. In almost every locality, every hut has its Anito with

its special place, its own dwelling; there are Anito pictures and

images, certain trees and, indeed, certain animals in which some

Anito resides. The ancestor worship is as old as history, for the

discoverers of the Philippines found it in full bloom, and rightly

has Blumentritt characterized Anito worship as the ground form of

Philippine religion. He has also furnished numerous examples of Anito

cult surviving in Christian communities.

Chronology has a good groundwork and it will have to observe every

footprint of vanishing creeds. Only, it must not be overlooked that

the beginning of the chronology of religion has not been reached,

and that the origin of the generally diffused ancestor worship, at

least on the Philippines, is not known. If it is borne in mind that

belief in Anitos is widely diffused in Polynesia and in purely Malay

areas, the drawing of certain conclusions therefrom concerning the

prehistory of the Philippines is to be despaired of.

[Tattooing.] Next to religious customs, among wild tribes fashions

are most enduring. Little of costume is to be seen, indeed, among

them. Therefore, here tattooing asserts its sway. The more it has

been studied in late years the more valuable has been the information

in deciding the kinship relations of tribes. Unfortunately, in the

Philippines the greater part of the early tattoo designs have been

lost and the art itself is also nearly eliminated. But since the

journey of Carl Semper it has been known that not only Malays but

also Negritos tattoo; indeed, this admirable explorer has decided

that the "Negroes of the East Coast" practice a different method of

tattooing from that of the Mariveles in the west, and on that account

they attain different results. In the one case a needle is employed

to make fine holes in the skin in which to introduce the color; in

the other long gashes are made. In the latter case prominent scars

result; in the former a smooth pattern. But these combined patterns

are on the whole the same, instead of rectilinear figures. Schadenburg

has the operations commence with a sharpened bamboo on children 10

years of age. Among the wild tribes of the light-colored population

tattooing is not less diffused, but the patterns are not alike in the

different tribes. Isabelo de los Reyes reports that the Tinguianes,

who inhabit the mountain forests of the northern cordilleras of Luzon,

produce figures of stars, snakes, birds, etc., on children 7 to 9 years

old. Hans Meyer describes the pattern of the Igorots. There appears to

exist a great variety of symbols; for example, on the arms, straight

and crooked lines crossing one another; on the breast, feather-like

patterns. Least frequently he saw the so-called Burik designs, which

extended in parallel bands across the breast, the back, and calves,

and give to the body the appearance of a sailor's striped jacket. It

is very remarkable that the human form never occurs.

What is true concerning tattooing on so many Polynesian islands

holds also completely here. But reliable descriptions are so few,

and especially there is such a meager number of useful drawings,

that it would not repay the trouble to assemble the scattered data. At

least it will suffice to discover whether among them there are genuine

tribal marks or to investigate concerning the distribution of separate

patterns. Those known show conclusively that in the matter of tattooing

the Filipinos are not differentiated from the islanders of the Pacific;

they form, moreover, an important link in the chain of knowledge

which demonstrates the genetic homogeneity of the inhabitants. The

tattooings of the eastern islanders are comparable only to those of

African aborigines, with which last they furnish many family marks,

made out and recognized. It is desirable that a trustworthy collection

of all patterns be collected before the method becomes more altered

or destroyed.

[Teeth alterations.] Next to the skin, among the wild tribes the

teeth are modified in the most numerous artificial alterations. The

preferable custom, common in Africa, of breaking out the front

teeth in greater or less number has not, so far as I remember, been

described among the Filipinos; I only mention that while I was making a

revision of our Philippine crania, two of them turned up in which the

middle upper incisors had evidently been broken out for a long time,

for the alveolar border had shrunk into a small quite smooth ridge,

without a trace of an aveolus. It is otherwise with the pointing of

the incisors, especially the upper ones, which, also is not common. I

must leave it undecided whether the sharpening is done by filing or by

breaking off pieces from the sides. The latter should be in general

far more frequent. In every case the otherwise broad and flat teeth

are brought to such sharp points as to project like those of the

carnivorous animals. I have met with this condition several times

on Negrito skulls and furnished illustrations of them. On a Zambal

skull, excavated by Dr. A. B. Meyer and which I lay before you,

the deformation is easy to be seen. I called attention at the time

to the fact that among the Malays an entirely different method of

modifying the teeth is in vogue, in which a horizontal filing on the

front surface is practiced and the sharp lower edge is straightened

and widened. Already the elder Thévenot has accented this contrast

when he says:

"These cause the teeth to be equal, those file them to points, giving

them the shape of a saw."

This difference appears to have held on till the present; at least

no skull of an Indio is known to me with similar deformation of the

teeth. This custom of the Negritos is so much more remarkable since

the chipping of the corners of the teeth is widely spread among the

African blacks.

[Skill flattening.] The other part of the body used most for

deformation--the skull--is in strong contrast to the last-named

custom. Deformed crania; especially from older times, are quite

numerous in the Philippines; probably they belong exclusively to

the Indios. If they exist among the Negritos, I do not know it; the

only exception comes from the Tinguianes, of whom I. de los Reyes

reports their skulls are flattened behind (por detrás oprimido). Such

flattening is found, however, not seldom among tribes who have the

practice of binding children on hard cradle boards--chiefly among those

families who keep their infants a long time on such contrivances. A

sure mark by which to discriminate accidental pressure of this sort

from one intentionally produced is not at hand; it may be that

in accidental deformation oblique position of the deformed spot

is more frequent; at any rate, the difference in the Philippines

is a very striking one, since there not so much the occiput as the

front and middle portions suffer from the disfigurements, and thereby

deformations are produced that have had their most perfect expression

among the ancient Peruvians and other American tribes.

I have discussed cranial deformation of the Americans in

greater detail, where I exhibit the accidental and the artificial

(intentional) deformation in their principal forms. The result is that

in large sections of America scarcely any ancient skulls are found

having their natural forms, but that the practice of deformation

has not been general; moreover, a number of deformation centers

may be differentiated which stand in no direct association with

one another. The Peruvian center is far removed from that of the

northwest coast, and this again from that of the Gulf States. From

this it must not be said that each center may have had its own, as

it were, autochthonous origin. But the method has not so spread that

its course can be followed immediately. Rather is the supposition

confirmed that the method is to be traced to some other time,

therefore that somewhere there must have been a place of origin for

it. On the Eastern Hemisphere, and especially in the region here

under consideration, the relations are apparently otherwise. Here

exist, so far as known, great areas entirely free from deformation;

small ones, on the other hand, full of it. There are here, also,

deformation centers, but only a few. Among these, with our present

knowledge, the Philippines occupy the first place.